CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview

There are two basic types of seismic sensors: inertial seismometers which measureg r o u n d m o t i o n r e l a t i v e t o a n i n e r t i a l r e f e r e n c e ( a s u s p e n d e d m a s s ) , a n d strainmeters or extensometers which measure the m o t i o n o f o n e p o i n t o f t h e ground relative to another. Since the motion of the ground relative to an inertial reference is in most cases much larger than the differential motion within a vault of r e a s o n a b l e d i m e n s i o n s , i n e r t i a l s e i s m o m e t e r s a r e g e n e r a l l y m o r e s e n s i t i v e t o earthquake signals. However, at very low frequencies it becomes increasinglydifficult to maintain an inertial reference, and for the observation of low-order freeoscillations of the Earth, tidal motions, and quasi-static deformations, strainmetersmay outperform inertial seismometers. Strainmeters are conceptually simpler thaninertial seismometers although their technical realization and installation may be more difficult.

A n i ne r ti a l s ei s mo me te r co nv er ts g r o u n d mo t i o n i n to a n el e ctr i c s i g na l b ut i ts properties cannot be described by a single scale factor, such as output volts permillimeter of ground motion. The response of a seismometer to ground motiondepends not only on the amplitude of the ground motion (how large it is) but alsoon its time scale (how sudden it is). This is because the seismic mass has to be keptin place by a mechanical or electromagnetic restoring force. When the groundmotion is slow, the mass will move with the rest of the instrument, and the outputsignal for a given ground motion will therefore be smaller. The system is thus ahigh-pass filter for the ground displacement. This must be taken into account whenthe ground motion is reconstructed from the recorded signal, and is the reason whyw e ha v e t o g o t o s o m e l en g t h i n di s c us s i ng t he d y n a m i c t r a ns f er pr o per ti e s o f seismometers. The dynamic behavior of a seismograph system within its linear range can, likethat of any linear time-invariant (LTI) system, be described with the same degreeo f co mp l et e nes s i n f o ur d i f f er e n t w a y s : b y a l i ne a r d i f f er en ti a l e q ua t i o n, theL a p l a c e t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n , t h e c o m p l e x f r e q u e n c y r e s p o n s e , o r t h e i m p u l s e r es po ns e o f t h e s y s t em. T h e f i r s t tw o a r e u s ua l l y o bt a i ne d b y a ma t he ma ti ca l analysis of the physical system (the hardware). The latter two are directly related tocertain calibration procedures and can therefore be determined from calibrationexperiments where the system is considered as a black box (this is sometimescalled an identification procedure). However, since all four are mathematically

equivalent, we can derive each of them either from knowledge of the physical components of the system or from a calibration experiment. The mutual relations between the time-domain and frequency-domain. Practically, the mathematical description of a seismometer is limited to a certain bandwidth of frequencies that should at least include the bandwidth of seismic signals. Within this limit then anyof the four representations describe the system's response to arbitrary input signals c o m pl e t el y a n d u na m bi g u o us l y . T h e v i ew po i nt f r o m w hi c h t he y d i f f e r i s ho w efficiently and accurately they can be implemented in different signal-processing procedures.

I n d i g i ta l s i g n a l p r o ce s s i ng , s e i s m i c s e ns o r s a r e o f te n r e pr es e nt e d w i t h o t h er me t ho d s th a t a r e ef f i ci e n t a n d a c c ur a te b u t no t ma t he ma t i ca l l y ex a ct , s uch a s recursive (IIR) filters. Digital signal processing is however beyond the scope of this section. A wealth of textbooks is available both on analog and digital signal processing, for example Oppenheim and Willsky (1983) for analog processing,Oppenheim and Schafer (1975) for digital processing, and Scherbaum (1996) for seismological applications.

1.2 Literature Review

As indicated earlier on, the most commonly used description of a seismographresponse in the classical observatory practice has been the magnification curve ,i.e. the frequency-dependent magnification of the ground motion. Mathematicallythis is the modulus (absolute value) of the complex frequency response, usuallycalled the amplitude response . It specifies the steady-state harmonic responsivity(amplification, magnification, conversion factor) of the seismograph as a functionof frequency. However, for the correct interpretation of seismograms, also the p h a s e r e s p o n s e o f the recording system must be known. It can in principle be calculated from the amplitude response, but is normally specified separately, or d e r i v e d t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e a m p l i t u d e r e s p o n s e f r o m t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l l y m o r e elegant description of the system by its complex transfer function or its complex frequency response

.While for a purely electrical filter it is usually clear what the amplitude response is- a dimensionless factor by which the amplitude of a sinusoidal input signal must be multiplied to obtain the associated output signal - the situation is not always asclear for seismometers because different authors may prefer to measure the inputsignal (the ground motion) in different ways: as a displacement, a velocity, or ana c c e l e r a t i o n . B o t h t h e p h y s i c a l d i m e n s i o n a n d the mathematical form of the transfer function depend on the d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e i n p u t s i g n a l o n e m u s t s o me ti mes g u es s f r o m t h e ph y s i ca l d i me ns i o n t o w ha t s o r t o f i n pu t s i g na l i t applies. The output signal, traditionally a needle deflection, is now normally avoltage, a current, or a number of counts.Calibrating a seismograph means measuring (and sometimes adjusting) its transfer pr o pe r ti es a n d ex pr es s i ng t he m a s a co m pl ex f r eq u e n cy r es po n s e o r o ne o f i ts mathematical equivalents. For most applications the result must be available as parameters of a mathematical formula, not as raw data; so determining parameters by f i t ti n g a t heo r e ti ca l c u r v e o f k no w n s h a p e t o t h e d a ta i s us ua l l y pa r t o f th e procedure. Practically, seismometers are calibrated in two steps.The first step is an electrical calibration in which the seismic mass is excited withan electromagnetic force. Most seismometers have a built-in calibration coil thatc a n b e co nn e ct e d t o a n ex t er na l s i g na l g e n er a to r f o r t hi s pu r po s e. U s u a l l y t he response of the system to different sinusoidal signals at frequencies across thesystem's passband, to impulses, or to arbitrary broadband signals is observed whilethe absolute magnification or gain remains unknown. For the exact calibration of s e n s o r s w i t h a l a r g e d y n a m i c r a n g e s u c h a s t h o s e e m p l o y e d i n m o d e r n seismograph systems, the latter method is most appropriate. 1.3 Project Organization This project work presented the design and implementation of seismic sensors for industrial and domestic purpose using the piezo element and a piezo buzzer with itsu n d e r l i n i n g p r i n c i p l e o f p i e z o e l e c t r i c i t y . T h e c i r c u i t u s e s r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e components and the design is straight forward. A standard piezo sensor is used todetect vibrations/sounds due to pressure changes. The piezo element acts as a smallcapacitor having a capacitance of a few nanofarads. Like a capacitor, it can storecharge when a potential is applied to its terminals. It discharges through VR1,when it is disturbed.

The project work is organized as follows: chapter two will c o n c e n t r a t e o n t h e hardware description which is most importantly the TL071 JFET op-amp and the NE555 timer ICs while chapter three looks at piezoelectricity in details. Chapter f o u r f o c u s e s o n t h e d e s i g n a n d i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e s e i s m i c s e n s o r f o r b o t h industrial and domestic application with piezoelectricity with detailed explanationof the project topic in general as chapter five concludes the project work. CHAPTER TWO HARDWARE DESCRIPTION 2.1 Introduction T hi s c ha p te r w i l l f o c us o n t he f ea t u r es o f t he T L 071 Lo w no i s e JFET s i n g l eo p e r a ti o na l a m pl i f i e r s uc h a s i ts d es cr i pt i o n, el e ctr i ca l c ha r a c t er i s ti cs a n d i t s operations, and further look also at the NE555 Timer IC such as its overview, pinouts, pin descriptions, operating overview, electrical/environmental characteristicsand monostable and astable operations. 2.2 TL071Low Noise JFET Single Operational Amplifier2.2.1Description The TL071 is a high-speed JFET input single operational amplifier. This JFETinput operational amplifier incorporates well matched, high -voltage JFET and bipolar transistors in a monolithic integrated circuit. The device features high slewr a t e s , l ow i n p u t b i a s a n d o f f s e t c u r r e n t s , a n d l o w o f f s e t v o l t a g e t e mp e r a t u r e coefficient. The diagrams below show the pin out configuration and can package of the IC

coefficient. The diagrams below show the pin out configuration and can package of the IC ( a ) ( b ) Fig 2.1 (a) can package of TL071 IC, (b) pin connection of Tl071 IC The following are the description of the individual pin connections of the above ICas shown in figure 2.1.

1 - Offset null 1 2 - Inverting input 3 - Non-inverting input 4 - VCC-5 - Offset null 2 6 - Output7 - VCC+8 - N.C. 2.2.2Features of TL071 IC Tl071 IC is a slightly for powerful JFET single input operational amplifier whichhas the following features; Wide common-mode (up to VCC+) and differential voltage range Low input bias and offset current Low noise en = 15nV/ Hz Output short-circuit protection

 High input impedance JFET input stage Low harmonic distortion: 0.01% Internal frequency compensation Latch-up free operation High slew rate: 16V /s All voltage values, except differential voltage, are with res p e c t t o t h e z e r o reference level (ground) of the supply voltages where the zero reference level is themidpoint between VCC+ and VCC. The magnitude of the input voltage must never e x c e e d t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e s u p p l y v o l t a g e o r 1 5 v o l t s , w h i c h e v e r i s l e s s . D i f f er ent i a l v o l t a g es a r e th e no n - i nv er ti ng i n p ut te r m i n a l w i t h r es p e ct t o t he inverting input terminal. Short-circuits can cause excessive heating. Destructivedissipation can result from simultaneous short-circuits on all amplifiers. Rth aret y p i c a l v a l u e s . T h e o u t p u t m a y b e s h o r t e d t o ground or to either supply. Temperature and/or supply voltages must be limited to ensure that the dissipationrating is not exceeded. Human body model: 100pF discharged through a 1.5kresistor between two pins of the device, done for all couples of pin combinationswith other pins floating. Machine model: a 200pF cap is charged to the specifiedvoltage, then discharged directly between two pins of the device with no externalseries resistor (internal resistor < 5 ), done for all couples of pin combinationswith other pins floating. Charged device model: all pins plus package are chargedtogether to the specified voltage and then discharged directly to the ground. Theinput bias currents are junction leakage currents which approximately double for every 10C increase in the junction temperature. 2.3 NE555 Timer IC 2.3.1Overview

The 5 5 5 T i m e r I C i s a n integrated circuit( c h i p ) i m p l e m e n t i n g a v a r i e t y of timer andmultivibrator a p p l i c a t i o n s . T h e I C w a s d e s i g n e d b y H a n s R . Camenzindin1970a n d b r o u g h t t o m a r k e t i n 1971bySignetics(later acquired byPhilips). The original name was the SE555 (metal can)/ NE555 (plasticDIP) andthe part was described as "The IC Time Machine". It has been claimed that the 555gets its name from the three 5 kresistors used in typical early implementations, [2] but Hans Camenzind has stated that the number was arbitrary. The part is still inwide use, thanks to its ease of use, low price and good stability. As of 2003, it isestimated that1 billionunits are manufactured every year. Depending on the manufacturer, the standard 555 pac k a g e i n c l u d e s o v e r 20transistors, 2diodesand 15resistorson a silicon chip installed in an 8-pin minidual-in-line package (DIP-8) . Va r i a n ts a v a i l a bl e i nc l u d e t h e 5 5 6 ( a 1 4- pi n D I Pc o m bi ni n g tw o 5 5 5s o n o ne c hi p ), a nd t he 5 58 (a 1 6- pi n D I P co m bi ni n g f o ur slightly modified 555s with DIS & THR connected internally, and TR falling edgesensitive instead of level sensitive). U l tr a - l o w po w e r v er s i o ns o f t he 55 5 a r e a l s o a v a i l a bl e , s u c h a s t h e 7 5 55 andT L C 5 5 5 . T h e 7 5 5 5 r e q u i r e s s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t w i r i n g

using fewer operating modes:

e x t e r n a l components and less

power.The 555 has three