CONTENT

LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF PLATES

CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION

INTRODCUTION INTENT NEED AIM OBJECTIVE METHODOLOGY RESULTANT ISSUES RESEARCH IDEAS AND ANALYSIS

CHAPTER 2- URBAN HEAT ISLAND BASICS

2.1 SURFACE URBAN HEAT ISLANDS 2.2 ATMOSPHERIC URBAN HEAT ISLANDS 2.3 RELATION OF SURFACE AND AIR TEMPERATURES 2.4 FORMATION OFURBAN HEAT ISLANDS 2.4.1 REDUCED VEGETATION IN URBAN AREAS

2.4.2 PROPERTIES OF URBAN MATERIALS 2.4.3 URBAN GEOMETRY 2.5 EMERGENT ISSUES OF URBAN HEAT ISLANDS 2.5.1 ENERGY CONSUMPTION 2.5.2 AIR QUALITY AND GREENHOUSE GASES 2.5.3 HUMAN HEALTH AND COMFORT 2.5.4 WATER QUALITY

CHAPTER 3- PRIMARY CASE STUDY- URBAN HEAT OF A RESIDENTIAL AREA CHAPTER 4- OPTIMISING HEAT GAIN BY BUILDING MATERIALS THROUGH LANDSCAPE ELEMENTS 4.1 INTRODUCTION 4.2 MANAGEMENT OF UHI THROUGH LANDSCAPE 4.2.1 REGIONAL LEVEL MANAGEMENT OF URBAN HEAT ISLAND 4.2.2 SITE LEVEL MANAGEMENT OF URBAN HEAT ISLAND 4.3 SUMMARY CHAPTER 5- OPTIMISING HEAT GAIN BY BUILDING MATERIALS THROUGH LANDSCAPE ELEMENTS 5.1 ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS OF TREES 5.2 ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF URBAN TREES 5.3 HEALTH BENEFITS OF URBAN TREES 5.4 SOCIAL BENEFITS OF URBAN TREES

CHAPTER 6- CONCLUSION

EFFECT OF URBANIZATION AND IMPORTANCE OF OPEN SPACES IN A CITY

DISSERTATION FINAL ROUGH DRAFT MBS SCHOOL OF PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE

DISSERTATION GUIDE

DISSERTATION CO-ORDINATOR OF THE STUDENT

NAME

AR. NEHA JHARIA

PROF. ASHOK GROVER

AYUSH AHUJA

CHAPTER 1
1.1 Introduction
As more and more people leave villages and farms to live in cities, urban growth results. The rapid growth of cities like, Chicago in the late 19th century, Tokyo in the mid twentieth, and Mumbai in the 21st century, can be attributed largely to rural-urban migration. This physical growth of urban areas as a result of rural migration and even sub-urban concentration into cities is known as Urbanization.
1

The rapid urbanization of cities has led to the replacement of landscapes and vegetation with roads, buildings and other types of infrastructure. Surfaces that were once permeable and moist become impermeable and dry.2 This development leads to the formation of urban heat islands---the phenomenon whereby urban areas experience warmer temperatures than their rural surroundings. 1.2 Intent As there is rapid urbanization in different cities of the world, the open areas and vegetation is decreasing and there is rise in temperatures of urban areas than their surrounding rural areas. Trees and other plants help cool the environment, making vegetation a simple and effective way to reduce urban heat islands. Trees and vegetation lower surface and air temperatures by providing shade and through evapotranspiration.
3

To

decrease the temperatures and also, to reduce the urban heat island effect in an urbanized city, the need of open spaces is felt. In a rapidly urbanizing area stress should be laid on increasing the percentage of open areas to that off built up area, also keeping in count of the percentage of vegetation that plays the major role in decreasing the temperatures of that particular urbanized area. 1.3 Need The study of the quantity of open spaces as compared to the quantity of built up of an urbanized area helps in providing the amount of heat that the particular area generates, as compared to its rural surroundings. As a result it will provide the amount of open space required to bring
1 2 3

www.wikipedia.org www.epa.gov/hiri/resources/pdf/BasicsCompendium.pdf www.epa.gov/hiri/mitigation/trees.htm

the temperature down of the urbanized city. The vegetation required to bring the temperature down not only decreases the temperature, but also: Improves urban soil conditions Improves the functioning of hydrological cycle in cities Increases the diversity and quantity of wildlife in cities Reduces the levels of atmospheric pollution in urban climates. 1.4 Aim To study the impact of heat islands with the help of secondary case studies and analyse measures to counter the effect. 1.5 Objective To study the impact of urbanization over the microclimate of an urbanized space. To study the formation and causes of urban heat islands. To study, with the help of secondary case studies, the impacts of UHI effect. To provide key strategies to mitigate urban heat island effect.
4

www.wikipedia.org

1.6 Methodology

Need for Study

Study effect of urbanization on an urbanized area.

Analyzing the urban heat island effect of a city, with help of existing information.

Identifying the issues

Providing key strategies to counter UHI effect.

1.7 Resultant Issues The size or number of open spaces cannot be increased in a developed city area. Since trees and plants cannot grow in all climates, the specie of the tree or plant will have be kept in mind.

The maintenance of the open areas and plants or trees will also be an issue. 1.8 Research Ideas Due the rapid urbanization of cities the built up area has increased as compared to the open areas, as a result the microclimates of the urbanized areas have gone up. The incorporation of more and more open areas in the citys master plan, also providing open spaces with a suitable amount of vegetation in them will help in lowering the temperatures of the urbanized city area. The incorporation of vegetation in open spaces has many advantages which are: Reduced energy use: Trees and vegetation that directly shade buildings decrease demand for air conditioning. Improved air quality and lowering greenhouse gas emissions: By reducing energy demand, trees and vegetation decrease the production of associated air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. They also remove air pollutants and store and sequester carbon dioxide. Enhanced storm-water management and water quality: Vegetation reduces runoff and improves water quality by absorbing and filtering rainwater. Reduced pavement maintenance: Tree shade can slow deterioration of street pavement, decreasing the amount of maintenance needed. Shading in parking lot medians can provide extensive shading coverage. Improved quality of life: Trees and vegetation provide aesthetic value, habitat for many species, and can reduce noise.5
5

www.epa.gov/hiri/mitigation/trees.htm

CHAPTER 2 Urban Heat Islands

Introduction Many urban and suburban areas experience rise in temperatures compared to their surrounding rural areas; this difference in temperature is what constitutes an Urban Heat Island. The annual mean air temperature of a city with one million or more people can be 1 to 3C warmer than its surroundings, and on a clear, calm night, this temperature difference can be as much as 12C.6 All cities and towns, irrespective of their size, produce heat islands, though the effect often decreases as city size decreases. 2.1 Surface Urban Heat Islands On a hot, sunny summer day, the sun can heat up, exposed urban surfaces, like roofs and pavement, to temperatures 27 to 50C hotter than the air, while shaded or moist surfacesoften in more rural surroundingsremain close to air temperatures.7 Surface urban heat islands are typically present day and night, but are always strongest during the day when the sun is shining. On average, the difference in daytime surface temperatures between developed and rural areas is 10 to 15C whereas the difference in night time surface temperatures is typically smaller, at 5 to 10C. The magnitude of surface urban heat islands varies with seasons, due to changes in the suns intensity as well as ground cover and weather. As a result of such variation, surface urban heat islands are typically largest in the summer.8 2.2 Atmospheric Urban Heat Islands Warmer air in urban areas compared to cooler air in nearby rural surroundings is a phenomenon defined as atmospheric urban heat islands. These heat islands are divided into two different types:

6 7 8

Canopy Layer Urban Heat Islands are the ones which exist in the layer of air where people live, i.e., from the ground to below the tops of trees and roofs. (Figure 1) Boundary Layer Urban Heat Islands start from the rooftop and treetop level and extend up to the point where urban landscapes have no influence on the atmosphere. (Figure 1) Atmospheric urban heat islands are often weak during the late morning and throughout the day and become more intense after sunset due to the slow release of heat from urban infrastructure. The timing of this peak, however, depends on the properties of urban and rural surfaces, the season, and prevailing weather conditions. Atmospheric heat islands vary much less in intensity than surface heat islands. On an annual mean basis, air temperatures in large cities might be 1 to 3C warmer than those of their rural surroundings.9 Figure 1

Source: www.epa.gov/hiri/resources/pdf/EPA_How_to_measure_a_UHI
9

Above : Factors contributing to formation of Urban Heat Islands. Mesoscale : Shows the effect of UHI in the entire city and its surrounding rural areas; also the formation of Urban Boundary Layer (UBL). Microscale : Shows the effect of UHI at micro level in a city, also the formation of Urban Canopy Layer (UCL). 2.3 Relation of Surface and Air Temperatures Surface temperatures have no direct, but significant, influence on air temperatures, especially that are close to the surface called the urban canopy layer. For example, open areas like; parks and vegetated areas, which typically have cooler surface temperatures (because of evapotranspiration occurring in such areas), contribute to cooler air temperatures. Dense, built-up areas, on the other hand, typically lead to warmer air temperatures, because air mixes within the atmosphere, though, the relationship between surface and air temperatures is not constant, and air temperatures typically vary less than surface temperatures across an area.

2.4 Formation of Urban Heat Islands 2.4.1 Reduced Vegetation in Urban Areas In rural areas, vegetation and open land typically dominate the landscape. Trees and vegetation provide shade, which helps lower surface temperatures. They also help reduce air temperatures through a process called evapotranspiration, in which plants release water to the surrounding air, dissipating ambient heat. Whereas in urban areas the surface is characterized by dry, impervious surfaces, such as conventional roofs, sidewalks, roads, and parking lots. As cities develop, more vegetation is lost, and more surfaces are paved or covered with buildings. The change in ground cover results in less shade and moisture to keep urban areas cool. Built up areas evaporate less water, which contributes to elevated surface and air temperatures.10

10

Figure 2: Impervious Surfaces and Reduced Evapotranspiration

Source: (Reducing Urban Heat Islands: Compendium of Strategies Urban Heat Island Basics) Highly developed urban areas (left), which have more percentage of impervious surfaces, have less surface moisture available for evapotranspiration than natural ground cover, which has lesser impervious cover (right). This characteristic contributes to higher surface and air temperatures in urban areas, resulting in the formation of Urban Heat Islands. 2.4.2 Properties of Urban Materials Properties of urban materials, in particular solar reflectance (the ability of a material to reflect light), thermal emissivity (the ability of the surface of a material to emit energy in the form of radiation), and heat capacity, also have an effect on urban heat island development, as they determine how the suns energy is reflected, emitted, and absorbed. Solar energy is composed of ultra-violet (UV) rays, visible light, and infrared energy, each reaching the Earth in different percentages: five percent of solar energy is in the UV spectrum, including the type of rays responsible for sunburn; 43 percent of solar energy is visible light, in colours ranging from violet to red; and the remaining 52 percent of solar energy is infrared, felt as heat. Energy in all of these wavelengths contributes to urban heat island formation.11
11

Solar reflectance, or albedo, is the percentage of solar energy reflected by a surface. It has been found that much of the suns energy is found in the visible wavelengths, so, solar reflectance has a mutual connection with a materials colour. Darker the surface, it will tend to have lower solar reflectance values than that of surfaces with lighter colour. Urban areas have surface materials for roofing and paving which have a lower albedo than those in rural areas. As a result, built up areas generally reflect less and instead absorb more of the suns energy. This absorbed heat increases surface temperatures and contributes to the formation of surface and atmospheric urban heat islands. But, solar reflectance is the main factor that determines a materials surface temperature, thermal emittance, also plays a role in determining a materials surface temperature. Thermal emittance is a measure of a surfaces ability to release energy in the form of heat. But the most important thing is that, surfaces with high emittance values stay cooler, because they release heat more readily. Most construction materials, with metal being an exception, have high thermal emittance values, as a result, this property makes metal it of great interest to those installing cool roofs. Another important property that affects heat island development is a materials heat capacity, which means the ability of a material to store heat. For eg: Many building materials, such as steel and stone, have higher heat capacities than rural materials, such as dry soil and sand. So, it has been found that, cities are typically more effective at storing the suns energy as heat within their infrastructure. City centres of metropolitan areas can absorb and store twice the amount of heat compared to their surrounding rural areas during the daytime.

Image showing varying temperatures in a city and its surroundings as a result, making cities an Urban Heat Island.

Source: www.Ecofinroofgarden.co.uk

2.4.3 Urban Geometry An additional factor that has an effect on urban heat island development, particularly at night, is urban geometry, which refers to the dimensions and spacing of buildings within an urbanised area. Urban geometry has effects on wind flow, energy absorption, and a surfaces ability to return long-wave radiation back to space. In developed areas, surfaces and structures are often at least partially obstructed by objects, such as neighbouring buildings, and become large thermal masses that cannot release their heat very effortlessly because of these obstructions, making the air above urbanised areas typically warmer than air over rural areas, especially at night (because, urban materials release most of

their absorbed heat at night). As a result, the night time atmospheric heat islands can have serious health problems for urban residents during summers. Urban canyons are narrow streets formed by lined tall buildings. During the day, urban canyons can have tremendous effects. On one hand, tall buildings create shade, reduce surface and air temperatures whereas on the other, when sunlight reaches surfaces in the canyon, the suns energy is reflected and absorbed by building walls, which further lowers the citys overall albedo, i.e., the net reflectance from surface albedo plus urban geometryand can increase temperatures. At night, urban canyons generally hinder cooling, as these buildings and structures obstruct and trap the heat that is being released from urban infrastructure. Urban Canyons also alter air quality, where locally stagnant air concentrates pollutants near ground level creating health discomforts.

2.4.4 Weather
Winds and clouds have a major influence on the formation of heat islands. Under the calm and clear sky weather conditions the intensities of heat islands are high. During the period of winds blowing the hot air on the surface mixes up with the wind and gets lowered and in the presence of clouds (when the clouds are increasing), they reduce the radiative cooling at night, reducing the heat island magnitudes. So, as there is variations in the patterns of season there is change in the frequency and magnitude of heat islands.

2.4.5 Geographic Location

The factors like climate and topography of an area and its rural

surroundings affect the formation of heat islands. For example: When there are water bodies, of cooler temperatures, close to an area they, generate winds that help in transporting the heat away from that area, thus affecting the intensity of heat island. Also, in case of cities closer to mountains, the wind is either blocked by the mountains in the city

or wind patterns are created that pass through that city, thus, local terrain of a city has a major influence in the formation of heat islands.

2.4.6 Time of Day or Season

Seasons play a role too in affecting the intensity of heat islands. In case of cities located in tropical climates, the dry season favours large multiple seasons have higher heat heat island magnitudes. Cities with

island intensities during summer and lower during the monsoon seasons.

CHAPTER 3 Impacts of Heat Islands

3.1 Impacts of Urban Heat Islands The increase in temperatures by urban heat islands, particularly during the summer, results in majorly affecting a citys environment and quality of life. It has been noted that some heat island impacts are positive, i.e., such as increasing the plant-growing season, but, most of the impacts are negative that include the following: Increased energy consumption (negative during summers) (positive during winters). Increased emissions of air pollutants. Compromised human health and comfort. Impaired water quality.

3.1.1 Increased Energy Consumption

Increased summertime temperatures in cities increase energy demand for during peak periods of demand, which generally occur on hot, summer

weekday systems, increases

afternoons, when lights, 1.5 to and 2

offices

and This

homes peak 0.6C

are

running electric

cooling demand

appliances. percent

urban

for every

increase

in summertime

temperature.12 The increasing temperatures over the last several decades, means that the increased demand for electricity by the urban population, is used to make up for the urban heat island effect. The increase in energy consumption also has resulted in burning of more fossil fuels, thus resulting in more carbon emissions.

3.1.2 Air Quality and Greenhouse Gases

As discussed in Section 2.5.1, higher temperatures can increase energy demand, fossil which generally thus, most causes power higher plants levels of air pollution like and greenhouse gas emissions. As, most electricity is produced from burning fuels, release pollutants sulphur dioxide (SO2), various nitrogen oxides, etc, so these pollutants have been proven to be harmful to human health and contribute to major air quality problems such as acid rain. Also, fossil fuel powered plants emit greenhouse gases, for example: carbon dioxide (CO2), which is a major contributor towards global warming.

3.1.3 Human Health and Comfort

Increase in daytime surface temperatures, reduction in night time

cooling, and higher air pollution levels due to the formation of urban heat islands can affect human health as they cause general discomfort, respiratory diseases, heat cramps and exhaustion, non-fatal heat stroke, and heat-related mortality (Chicago, 1995). The impact of heat waves can be worsened by these urban heat

islands. Heat waves are periods of abnormally hot, and often humid,

12

weather. Sensitive populations, such as children, older adults, and those with existing health conditions, are at particular risk from these events.

3.1.4 Water Quality

Surface urban heat islands result in degradation of water quality, mainly by thermal pollution. Pavement and rooftop surfaces that reach temperatures 27C to 50C higher than air temperatures transfer this excess heat to storm water. When the rain comes before the pavement has a chance to heat up, runoff temperatures from the rural and urban areas are differed by less than 2C When this heated storm water generally drains into storm sewers, it raises water temperatures as it is released into big water bodies like, streams, rivers, ponds and lakes. Change in water temperature affects all types of aquatic life, especially the metabolism and reproduction of many aquatic species. Rapid temperature changes in aquatic ecosystems resulting from warm storm water runoff causes imbalance in the ecological system, which also is a major worry to the earths inhabitants.

CHAPTER 4 Case Study- DELHI

Source: Manju Mohan, Yukihiro Kikegawa, B. R. Gurjar, Shweta Bhati1, Anurag Kandya, Koichi Ogawa, Delhi Experiments to Learn Heat Island Intensity, May 2008.

Table : Urban Heat Island (UHI) intensities during specific hours of various places in Delhi:

Day of S.no Time May 2008 1. 3:00 am 25

Max. UHI (C)

Wind Speed

Warm pockets in decreasing order with Name of station Bhikaji Cama Sitaram Bazar Janak Puri Sitaram Bazar Bhikaji Cama Adarsh Nagar Sitaram Bazar Janak Puri Sitaram Bazar Bhikaji Cama Adarsh Nagar Janak Puri Noida Lajpat Nagar Rohini CP CP Noida Badarpur Sitaram Bazar Chirag Delhi CP Noida CP Noida CP Bhikaji Cama Loni Permanaud Dwarka Majnu ka Tila Bhikaji Cama CP Bhikaji Cama CP Loni Dwarka Dwarka Bhikaji Cama Sitaram Bazar Sitaram Bazar Bhikaji Cama Badarpur CP Bhikaji Cama

4.1

Calm

2. 3.

3:00 am 3:00 am

26 27

4.2 4.6

Calm Calm- 0.6

4.

3:00 am

28

5.6

Calm

5.

9:00 am

25

4.6

Calm- 1.8

6.

9:00 am

26

6.4

0.4- 1.3

7. 8. 9.

9:00 am 9:00 am 3:00 pm

27 28 25

5.1 5.3 6.3

Calm- 0.8 Calm Calm- 0.4

10. 11. 12. 13.

3:00 pm 3:00 pm 3:00 pm 9:00 pm

26 27 28 25

3.8 7.6 6.7 2.8

0.5- 1.3 0.5- 1.5 Calm- 1.1 0.5- 1.8

14. 15.

9:00 pm 9:00 pm

26 27

5.1 4.2

Calm Calm- 1.4

16.

9:00 pm 8:00 am (pre rain) 10:00 am (rain) 12:00 pm

28

8.3

Calm

CP Bhikaji Cama Badarpur Dwarka Noida CP Moti Nagar Sitaram Bazar Sanjay Van Adarsh Nagar Dwarka Rohini

17.

26

3.7

0.3- 2.7

18.

26

2.2

0.9- 3.8

19.

(post rain)

26

2.5

0.5- 2.7

Source: Urban Heat Island Assessment for a Tropical Urban Airshed in India, by, Manju Mohan1, Yukihiro Kikegawa, B.R. Gurjar, Shweta Bhati, Anurag
Kandya, Koichi Ogawa.

CHAPTER 4 OPTIMISING HEAT GAIN BY BUILDING MATERIALS THROUGH LANDSCAPE ELEMENTS

4.1 Introduction Urban areas present distinctive micro climates. The total transformation of natural landscape into houses, streets, squares, big public buildings, skyscrapers, and industrial installations has brought about changes in climate of large cities. Temperature is one of the most important characteristics of urban areas. It is known urban temperatures differ from those of sub-urban and rural areas and the phenomenon commonly known as the Urban Heat Islands. Mitigation and control of this Urban Heat Island effect is so important for the environmental sustainability of urban areas. The materials used in the urban matrix play key role in causing this distinctive heat gain. The aim of this paper is to relate the thermal conductivity of building materials to the urban heat gain and to find solutions to optimize the heat gain by materials through landscape elements.

4.2 Management Of UHI through Landscape Landscape comprises the visible features of an area of land, including physical elements such as landforms, living elements of flora and fauna, abstract elements like lighting and weather conditions, and human elements like human activity and the built environment. UHI mitigation is possible by irrigated landscape treatmentsturf grasses and humid- region trees and shrubs. Evaporation from irrigated surfaces cools the scorching daytime desert temperatures and thus prevents the buildup of stored heat, a critical factor in the UHI. The challenge, however, in a desert city with limited water supplies lies in the tradeoffs between the temperature-reduction properties of irrigated surfaces and the water required to maintain them. The management strategies can be categorized under:

Management at regional level Management at site level

4.2.1 Regional level management of urban heat island is possible through the following methods: Increase in open spaceregulation, as this would provide the following benefits : To meet positive Human needs recreation (physically and psychologically). To enhance and protect resource base air, water, soil, plants and fauna. To meet social and cultural needs social gathering, cultural exchange. Urban green pockets to be developed & existing greenery to be preserved. Encouraging urban forestry. Road landscaping can be encouraged as this would enable the reduction in heat reflectance by the road surface. Regulations to be framed on paved areas at the regional level (advising on the nature of material). More community parks to be developed. Water bodies in the regional scale to be preserved and landscaping can be done to preserve their existence. Industrial Zones of a city can be buffered with vegetation as this would reduce the UHI effect. Possible reduction of concrete usage. Encouraging community participation in reduction of UHI effect.

4.2.2 Site level management of urban heat island Ground level Vertical Surface

Roof level

4.2.2.1 Ground Level PAVERS (materials construction techniques used in driveways, lots, sidewalks, pedestrian and other surfaces): Cool Pavements which act to reduce the absorption, retention and emittance of solar heat. Landscape shading of paved and hardscape surfaces and use of high reflective and porous materials, can significantly reduce the heat gain. Pervious and open grid materials such as pavers, stone, blocks and interlocking concrete pavements with high- Albedo reflective materials reduce heat absorption. ways hard that are roads, parking and

Figure : Standard Pavement reflect sunlight and absorb and emit more heat than cool pavements Source: (Brochure on the Use of Cool Pavements to Reduce the Urban Heat Island Effect) Cool Pavements mean materials and construction techniques that are used in roads, driveways, parking lots, sidewalks, pedestrian ways and other hard surfaces, which act to reduce the absorption, retention and emittance of solar heat, a factor contributing to the urban heat island. Cool pavements utilize coloration, materials, porosity and processes that increase solar reflectivity to reduce surface heating and also to promote cooling through increased air filtration and evaporation. The landscape shading of paved and hardscape surfaces and use of high reflective and porous materials can significantly reduce the heat gain of pavements by the sun. Light colored surfaces are more reflective than darker. Pervious and open grid materials such as pavers, stone, blocks and interlocking concrete pavements with high-albedo reflective material reduce heat absorption from the sun and result in lower emitted heat. The use of cool paving materials helps to reduce the heating of roads, sidewalks and parking lots as a result of reduced heat absorption. Cool pavement can help to limit the impact of the heat island by reducing absorption, retention and emitting of heat. The combination of high albedo and pervious pavements are especially well suited for relatively light traffic flow areas such as driveways and parking lots while helping to mitigating the heat island effect and allowing storm water to pass through and permeate into the sub-base and ground. Research has found heat that air cool pavements sufficiently and can to help result to in reduce lower of life the air of

summertime temperatures, large the paved summer.

island effect

improved areas Cool and are

quality

improved quality for cool

residents. Large parking areas, terminals, air fields, urban roadways and especially suitable pavement. Solar paving rainfall, reflecants and permeable materials result in cooler pavement surfaces in pavements evaporation containing porous/permeable and due to infiltration of promotes cooling

reducing runoff and the need for storm water retention.

Figure : Cool Pavements reflect sunlight and absorb and emit less heat than standard pavements Source: (Brochure on the Use of Cool Pavements to Reduce the Urban Heat Island Effect)

Use of Cool Pavements and White Roofs to reduce the Urban Heat Island Effect

An effort to decrease the urban heat island effect can help to produce the benefits of improving air quality, reducing air-conditioning costs and promoting the health and comfort of city residents. Pavements, roads, driveways, parking lots, sidewalks and other hard surfaces may comprise 33-35% of the land area of large urban centers. Efforts to reduce the urban heat island effect primarily involve: Use of urban landscape and vegetation to reduce direct sunlight on buildings and hard-scape surfaces to provide shading and reduce heating, Use of white roofs for commercial, industrial, institutional and some residential buildings, where the use of a white surface on primarily flat or low-sloped roofs reflects light and reduces heat gain, and Use of cool pavements which also act to increase surface reflectants and promote porosity to reduce absorption and retention of heat.

Promoting greater reflectance of pavement can be achieved by: a. Roller compacted concrete b. Concrete over asphalt (white topping and ultra thin white topping) c. Use of light colored aggregate in asphalt d. Asphalt, concrete and pavers with modified colors e. Porous and open grade pavements permitting water and air to pass through to permit cooling by the air movement and evaporation. f. Use of set in place material such as brick, stone, pavers, interlocking concrete pavement, compacted decomposed granite and grass-crete and gravel-crete or alternate high density high-polyethylene base grid for grass and gravel. Cool pavements have lower heating levels and emit their stored heat more quickly during evening and early nighttime hours than standard pavement. The rapid cooling helps to reduce the nighttime heat island effect. Cool pavements can be achieved with placement of a layer of rubberized asphalt over the concrete road surface. Rubberized pavements have been found to be cooler at night than adjacent concrete surfaces. Rubberized pavement is both cooler in the day and at night than standard asphalt. This type of cool pavement and water retention system utilizes porous concrete or asphalt pavements with a stone recharge bed. During storms, water drains through the open graded asphalt or concrete mix surface into the sub-grade stone infiltration bed, providing stormwater storage volumes similar to retention basins. These paved surfaces are designed to have infiltration rates of about inch of water per hour and can reduce total peak volume of runoff and stormwater retention needs. Water passes through the porous pavement surface, and is temporarily stored in the stormwater recharge bed that acts as a retention basin until it is absorbed into the sub-soil. Puddles, surface ponding and runoff from storms on paved surfaces are also reduced or eliminated. A porous asphalt pavement consists of 2-4 inch open graded (uniform size of aggregate) surface and an underlying deep stone recharge bed with a bottom filter fabric placed over natural un-compacted soil. The recharged bed contains 1 to 2 uniform graded, clean washed,

crushed stone, which acts like an underground retention basin during a storm event. The 40 percent void spaces between stones provides area for the stormwater storage volume with the stormwater storage designed to drain away within 24-72 hours allowing underlying soils to dry completely between storms. The natural underlying soil base must be level or terraced and provides for water infiltration while helping to eliminate pollution by removing suspended solids from stormwater. The non-woven geo-textile fabric liner maintains a separation between the stone recharge bed and natural soils base.

Pervious Pavement. Source: (Town of Gilbert, Cool Pavements Brochure).

Pervious Pavement showing evaporation. Source: (Town of Gilbert, Cool Pavements Brochure).

Permeable Interlocking Concrete Pavers Permeable pavement Interlocking that Concrete Pavers (PICP) cooling are a type of cool of

reduces runoff,

promotes

through

reflection

sunlight and the movement of air permitting evaporation to occur around paver materials. This occurs through the use individual 3 1/8th" thick concrete paver blocks with openings and joints between individual pavers that are wide enough to allow air and water infiltration. These openings are maintained by filling with sand or small sized, open graded crushed stone and built on an open graded stone base and sub-base. PICP can achieve infiltration rates of up to 3 of rainfall per hour and when combined with stone recharge beds, can also be used for stormwater retention. These are well suited for walkways and parking lots. 4.2.2.2 Vertical Surface Green Walls Green wall is wall, either free-standing or part of a building that is partially or completely covered with vegetation and, in some cases, soil or an inorganic growing medium. There are two main categories of green walls: green faades and living walls. Green faades are made up of climbing plants either growing directly on a wall or, more recently, specially designed supporting structures. The plant shoot system grows up the side of the building while being rooted to the ground. In a living wall the modular panels are often comprised of polypropylene plastic containers, geo textiles, irrigation systems, a growing medium and vegetation. Living walls can be further broken down into passive and active systems. Active living walls' are a new, concept in which the living wall is integrated into a building's air circulation system.

Figure: Section showing the details of the Green Walls, Source: (www.GSky.com) 4.2.2.3 Roof Level The roofs gain direct heat. Surface area and thermal property of the roofing material play key role in heat retention. There are strategies like green roofing help in reducing the heat retention and reduce the contribution of roofs to the urban heat island effect. Green roofs have been around for thousands of years. One of the first notable appearances of green roofs occurred in the Hanging Gardens of Babylon around 500 BC. There are two types of green roofs, namely, Intensive and xtensive. Intensive green roofs can accommodate large trees, shrubs, and well maintained gardens.

The extensive green roof accommodates many kinds of vegetative ground cover and grasses.

Benefits of Green Roof: Reduce sewage system loads by assimilating large amounts of rainwater. Reduce urban heat island effects Absorb air pollution, airborne particulates, and store carbon. Protect underlying roof material by eliminating exposure to the suns ultraviolet (UV) radiation and extreme daily temperature fluctuations. Serve as living environments that provide habitats for birds and other small animals. Offer an attractive alternative to traditional roofs, addressing growing concerns about urban quality of life. Reduce noise transfer from the outdoors.

Insulate a building from extreme temperatures.

Figure: roof

Green layers.

Source: (American Wick Drain Corp.)

Framework for identifying information needed to assess the benefits of materials used to mitigate urban heat island effect:

Source: (Optimising heat gain by building materials through landscape elements, Vol. 2 Issue 5, ISSN: 22490558) 4.3 Summary: The severity of the UHI threat to human health is considerable, and is likely to intensify as the climate continues to change. This issue deserves serious attention. While international cooperation on climate change is stagnating, local levels of government should take the lead in reducing anthropogenic contributions to climate change and take steps to adapt to new climatic conditions. In addition to global warming, physical factors of urban settlements, such as the mineralization of surfaces, low vegetation cover, and the production of waste heat contribute to UHI. Since anthropometric contribution needs a serious concern, as architects one must employ the correct usage of material in areas so that the material does contribute less to the urban heat gain. Along with the proper usage of building materials the impact of heat generated by them can also be reduced by involving landscape elements like water and vegetation in the design.

CHAPTER 5 BENEFITS OF TREES

5.1 Introduction More than half of the worlds population live in urbanized environments and the urbanization process is increasing through time. With increasing urbanization, several environmental problems arise as a result of different human activities. Among several humaninduced environmental problems, urban thermal problems are reported to be negatively affecting urban residents in many ways. The builtup structures in urbanized areas considerably alter land cover thereby affecting thermal energy flow which leads to development of elevated surface and air temperature, the phenomenon termed as Urban Heat Island (UHI) which implies island of high temperature in cities, surrounded by relatively lower temperature in rural areas. Vegetations are reported to be among the cheapest and sustainable alternatives of moderating UHI effects. Trees and other plants help cool the environment, making vegetation a simple and effective way to reduce urban heat islands. Trees and vegetation lower surface and air temperatures by providing shade and through evapotranspiration. Shaded surfaces, for example, may be 1125C cooler than the peak temperatures of unshaded materials. Evapotranspiration alone or in combination with shading, can help reduce peak summer temperatures by 15C. Trees and vegetation are most useful as a mitigation strategy when planted in strategic locations around buildings or to shade pavement in parking lots and on streets. Researchers have found that planting deciduous trees or vines to the west is typically most effective for cooling a building, especially if they shade windows and part of the buildings roof.

5.2 Environmental Benefits of Trees Half a hectare of trees produce enough oxygen for 18 people every day and keeps pollutants in check.

Trees absorb and deflect sunlight which cools the air and alters rainfall patterns. Trees act as natural water filters and help reduce runoff, soil erosion and flooding. Trees absorb sound waves, reducing noise pollution. Trees create natural environments which attract and provide habitats for birds and other wildlife. 5.3 Economic Benefits of Urban Trees Trees planted around a home reduce cooling and heating costs by as much as 30 percent. Healthy trees can add up to 15 percent to residential property values. Greenspace encourages outdoor activity. Community trees affect storm water control, transportation and air quality. Streets with little or no shade need to be repaved twice as often as those with tree cover.

5.4 Health Benefits of Urban Trees Greener surroundings encourage outdoor physical activity. Children who spend more time outside pay better attention inside. Trees filter airborne pollutants and reduce the conditions causing asthma. Asthma incidents increase in urban communities where trees are eliminated in favour of new roads, homes or commercial developments. Post-operative hospital stays are shortened when patients have a view of trees and open spaces.

5.4 Social Benefits of Urban Trees

Common community spaces foster social interaction between neighbours. Urban forests, parks, and open spaces offer places to walk, run, bike, and hike. Less violence occurs in shaded urban public housing. Trees provide privacy, reduce glare and direct pedestrian traffic.13

Figure: Shows the benefits of trees. Source: (Akbari, 1992) The presence of plants can reduce not only the ambient air

temperature, but also temperatures inside buildings, thus cooling energy load. Plants can cool a building, by shading windows from direct solar gain, by providing additional thermal resistance to the fabric and through their latent heat. The relative importance of those methods depends on the vegetation The being used, the of climate, vegetation the building depends on structure its and orientation. effectiveness intensity,

shape, dimensions and placement. But generally, as he concludes, any tree, even one bereft of leaves, can have a noticeable impact on energy use.
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www.saveourplanet.org Accessed on

Figure: Showing application of trees in the neighborhood and their respective benefits. Source: (www.treesaregood.com).

Table: Factors that Create Urban Heat Islands Source: (Reducing Urban Heat Islands: Compendium of Strategies Urban Heat Island Basics)