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L1003
1. INTRODUCTION
The object of this lecture is to explain the principles and rules for the design of a simply supported, i.e. single span, composite steel-concrete beam with full shear connection. Typical cross-sections of composite beams are shown in Figure 1. For simplicity, only the symmetrical steel sections 1a, 1c and 1d are considered. The relevant symbols are given in Figure 2.
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For full shear connection the total longitudinal shear resistance of the shear connectors (Rq ), distributed between the point of maximum positive bending moment and a simple end support, must be greater than (or equal to) the lesser of the resistance of the steel beam (Rs = Afy /ga) when the plastic neutral axis is in the slab, or the resistance of the concrete flange (Rc = 0,85 beff hc fck/gc) when the plastic neutral axis is in the steel section.
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This lecture concentrates on the resistance of the beam to moment and vertical shear, which have maximum values at crosssections I and II respectively, as shown in Figure 3). Between these critical cross-sections, each cross-section is subjected to a bending moment and a vertical shear. This combination is usually only of importance in the case where the loading includes point or line loads, as shown in Figure 5; here the maximum moment and maximum vertical shear act together at a critical cross-section adjacent to the point load or line load; special attention must be paid to this critical cross-section.
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In the case of statically determinate beams, such as simply supported single span beams, it is easy to determine the distribution of bending moments from the equilibrium conditions. To determine the stress distribution over the cross-section, plastic behaviour is assumed. The advantage of this method is that the calculation of the resistance is based on the "maximum moment at failure" condition; this method is also easy to understand and apply. Steel sections can be classified into 4 classes depending on the local buckling behaviour of the flange and/or web in compression. In the case of a simply supported single span, plastic design methods may be used for Class 1 and 2 sections; sections of Class 2 are only allowed when no rotation capacity is required. These classes are described as follows (see also Figure 6 and Lecture 7.2): Class 1: plastic cross-sections which can form a plastic hinge with sufficient rotation capacity for plastic analysis. Class 2: compact cross-sections which can develop the plastic moment of resistance but have limited rotation capacity.
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The steel compression flange, if properly attached to the concrete flange, may be assumed to be of Class 1. Table 1 (part of Table 4.2 of Eurocode 4 [1]), classifies steel webs in compression according to their width to thickness ratios. In a composite beam the compression part of the web, in positive bending, is always less than half the total depth for a symmetrical section. A width-to-thickness ratio less than 83e will, therefore, always be sufficient for a symmetric steel section in positive bending. Therefore, instability of the web is not critical for the IPE-sections (according to CEN-EN 191986) and the HE-sections (according to CEN-EN 53-1986). Because the part in compression is always laterally restrained when the beam is in positive bending, it is not necessary to check lateral-torsional buckling (see Lecture 10.4.1 and 10.4.2). Other aspects, such as shear buckling are discussed briefly in Section 4. Web crippling, however, is beyond the scope of this lecture - see Eurocode 3 for further information [2].
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system "shear lag" may cause the flange width to be not fully effective in resisting compression [3]. This phenomenon can be explained by reference to a simply supported member, part of whose length is shown on plan in Figure 7(b).
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The maximum axial force in the slab is at midspan, while the force at the ends is zero. The change in longitudinal force is associated with shear in the plane of the slab. The resulting deformation, shown in Figure 7(b), is inconsistent with simple bending theory, in which initially plane sections are assumed to remain plane after bending. The edge regions of the slab are effectively less stiff, and a non-uniform distribution of longitudinal bending stress is obtained across the section. Simple theory gives an effective value for width, beff, such that the area GHJK equals the area ACDEF. The ratio beff/bv depends not only on the relative dimensions of the system, but also on the type of loading, the support conditions and the cross-section considered; Figure 7c shows the effect of the ratio of the beam spacing to span length, bv /L, and the type of loading, on a simply supported span. In most codes of practice very simple formulae are given for the calculation of effective widths, although this may lead to some loss of economy. According to Eurocode 4 [1], for simply supported beams, the effective width on each side of the steel web should be taken as , but not greater than half the distance to the next adjacent web, nor greater than the projection of the cantilever slab for edge beams. The length lo is the approximate distance between points of zero bending moment. It is equal to the span for simply supported beams. A constant effective width may be assumed over the whole of each span. This value may be taken as the midspan value for a beam.
It is possible to avoid these failure modes by providing sufficient transverse reinforcement and choosing the correct distance
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between the connectors. In some cases, satisfying these criteria may lead to an increase in concrete slab thickness or resistance. Longitudinal shear resistances are given in Chapter 6 of Eurocode 4 [1]. If the connectors are welded or shot fired through a continuous profiled steel sheet of a composite slab, the cross-section of the steel sheet can also be considered as transverse reinforcement.
3. DESIGN CALCULATION
There are design performance requirements for both the ultimate and serviceability limit states. Ultimate Limit State In designing a composite beam for the ultimate limit state, it is necessary to check the resistance of the critical crosssections, and the resistance to longitudinal shear between each adjacent pair of critical cross-sections (see Figure 3). The forces and moments due to factored loads are required to be less than the design resistance. This can be expressed by: Sd Rd where Sd is the design value of an internal force or moment Rd is the corresponding design value of the resistance The design value of an internal force or moment, Sd , can be determined when the static system, its geometrical data (when relevant) and the combination of the design values of the loads are known. Characteristic values for loadings are given in Eurocode 1: Basis of Design and Actions in Structures [4]. To determine Sd , for example for criteria I of Figure 3, the characteristic permanent and variable (in this case uniformly distributed) loads must be multiplied by the corresponding g -factors and combined as follows: Sd = (l2/8){gGS Gkj + gQ(Qk1 + S Qki)} (1)
which, using the values recommended in Eurocode 4 gives: Sd = (l2/8){1,35S Gkj + 1,50(Qk1 + S Qki)} where Gk,j is the characteristic value of the permanent load Qk,l is the characteristic value of one of the variable loads Qk,i is the characteristic value of the other variable loads. To determine the design resistance, Rd , of members or cross-sections, the design values of the material strengths and geometrical data (when relevant) are necessary. The design value of a material property represents its lower characteristic value divided by its corresponding partial safety factor; the partial factors for material properties (and strengths) are:
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Combination
Concrete
Fundamental
gc = 1,5
Other gM values, such as that for the shear connection (studs, friction grip bolts etc.) are given in Eurocode 4 [1]. The use of these material factors in determining design resistances is shown in Section 4, Equations (3) to (9), for the case of moment resistance, ie. criterion I of Figure 3. Serviceability Limit State In the design of a composite beam for the serviceability limit state, it must be shown that, under service conditions, the deflections and vibrations do not exceed allowable values and that cracking of the concrete is limited. The design value of the effect of loads Ed shall be less than (or equal to) a nominal value Cd (or a related function Rd ): Ed Cd or, Ed Rd This aspect of design is discussed in greater detail in Lecture 10.5.1.
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f. The relation between the stress sc and the strain e c of concrete is schematically represented by the diagram shown in Figure 9b. Both materials are assumed to behave in a perfectly plastic manner, and therefore, the strains are not limited. This assumption is similar to that made when calculating the plastic moment resistance for Class 1 steel sections used independently. The idealised diagram for steel is shown in Figure 9a. The deviation between the real and the idealised diagram is much smaller than for concrete as shown in Figure 9b. The use of fck for the maximum stress in the concrete will clearly result in an unconservative design although in practice the overestimate does not appear to be very significant. To allow for this overestimate a conservative approximation for concrete strength (kfck) is used in design. Experimental research has proved that the plastic method with k = 0,85, leads to a safe value for the moment of resistance. This is only true if the upper flange cross-section is less than or equal to that of the lower flange, as will usually be the case. Application of these assumptions leads to the stress distributions shown in Figures 10 - 12. Clearly, the calculation of the moment of resistance Mc is dependent on the position of the neutral axis, which is determined by the relationship between the cross-section of the concrete slab and the cross-section of the steel beam. Two cases can be identified as follows: a. the neutral axis is situated in the concrete slab: 1. in the solid part of the composite slab (Rs < Rc; see Figure 10)
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b. the neutral axis is situated in the steel beam: 1. in the flange of the steel section (Rs > Rc > Rw; see Figure 11) 2. in the web of the steel section (Rs > Rc < Rw; see Figure 13)
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The plastic moment resistance, assuming full shear connection and a symmetric steel section, is expressed in terms of the resistance of various elements of the beam as follows: Resistance of concrete flange : Rc = beff hc 0,85 fck /gc Resistance of steel flange : Rf = b tf fy /ga Resistance of shear connection : Rq = N Q Resistance of steel beam : Rs = A fy /ga
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Resistance of clear web depth : Rv = d tw fy /ga Resistance of overall web depth : Rw = Rs - 2 Rf where A is the area of steel beam b is the breadth of steel flange beff is the effective breadth of concrete flange h is the overall depth of the steel beam hp is the depth of profiled steel sheet hc is the depth of concrete flange above upper flange of profiled steel sheet d is the clear depth of web between fillets fck is the characteristic cylinder compressive strength of the concrete Mpl is the plastic moment resistance of steel beam N is the number of shear connectors in shear span length between two critical cross-sections Q is the resistance of one shear connector tf is the thickness of steel flange tw is the thickness of web e is Full shear connection applies when Rq is greater than (or equal to) the lesser of Rc and Rs . The concrete flange is assumed to be a solid concrete slab, or a composite slab with profiled steel sheets running perpendicular to the beam. The Equations are conservative for a composite slab where the profiled steel sheets run parallel to the beam because in the resistance Rc, the concrete in the ribs is neglected. For a composite section with full shear connection, where the steel beam has equal flanges, the plastic moment resistance Mc for positive moments is given by the following: Case a1: If the neutral axis is situated in the concrete flange as shown in Figure 10, Rs < Rc and the positive bending moment of resistance is: Mpl.Rd = Rs z where: z = h/2 + hp + hc - x/2
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x = (Afy /ga) / (beff kfck /gc).hc = (Rs /Rc ).hc Mpl.Rd = Rc (h/2 + hp + hc - Rs .hc/2Rc) Case a2: If the neutral axis is situated in the rib of the composite slab, Rs = Rc and Equation (3) can be rewritten as: Mpl.Rd = Rs (h + 2hp + hc)/2 or, Mpl.Rd = Rs .h/2+ Rc.(hc/2 + hp ) Case b1: If the neutral axis is situated in the steel flange, Rs > Rc > Rw. From equilibrium of normal forces it can be shown that the axial compression force R in the steel flange (see Figure 11) is: Rc + R = Rs - 2 R + R 2 R = Rs - Rc R = (Rs - Rc)/2 This axial force R is located in the middle of the upper part of the flange, with a depth equal to: (Rtf)/Rf = (Rs - Rc).tf/2Rf . Therefore, the moment of resistance is equal to the resistance expressed by the Equation (4) minus (2R)(Rs - Rc).tf/2Rf equal to (Rs -Rc)2.tf/4Rf as illustrated in Figure 11. This can be written as: Mpl.Rd = Rs .h/2+ Rc (hc/2 + hp ) - (Rs - Rc)2.tf/4Rf Case b2: If the neutral axis is in the web of the steel section, Rs > Rc < Rw. In this case, a part of the web is in compression and, as already discussed, this could influence the classification of the web. Webs not fully effective ("non-compact webs") are not treated in this lecture. If the depth to thickness ratio of the web of a steel section is less than or equal to 83e/(1-Rc/Rv ) where e = , it is considered as a compact web and the total depth is effective. The positive bending resistance is as illustrated in Figure 12: (5) (4) (3)
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Mpl.Rd = Rc z + Mpl,N-red.Rd = Rc.(h + 2 hp + hc)/2+ Mpl,N-red.Rd (6) where: Mpl,N-red.Rd = plastic moment resistance of the steel beam reduced by a normal force Rc. According to Eurocode 3 [2] the plastic moment reduced by a normal force for standard rolled I and H steel sections, can be approximated by: Mpl,N-red.Rd = 1,11 Mpl.a.Rd (1 - Rc/Rs ) Mpl.Rd (7)
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So the resistance can be written as: Mpl.Rd = Rc.(h + 2 hp + hc)/2 + 1,11 Mpl.a.Rd (1 - Rc/Rs ) (8) Mpl,N-red.Rd can also be written as Mpl.a.Rd - (Rc2/Rv 2)(d/4) In this case the moment of resistance is: Mpl.Rd = Rc.(h + 2 hp + hc)/2 + Mpl.a.Rd - (Rc2/Rv 2)(d/4) (9) The formulae for the positive moment of resistance values are summarised in Table 2.
The shear area Av , for rolled I, H and channel sections loaded parallel to the web, can be taken as: 1,04 h tw. In addition, the shear buckling resistance of a steel web must be verified when d/tw>69e for an unstiffened (and uncased) web. For a simply-supported beam, without intermediate transverse stiffeners, with full shear connection and subjected to uniformly distributed loading, Eurocode 4 [1] gives the following simplified rules: for
w
3,0 VRd = Vpl,Rd (3/ w + 1/5 w - 1,3) 4,0 VRd = Vpl,Rd 0,9/ w
In practice, an I-section girder has usually a transverse load bearing stiffener at the support, but no intermediate transverse stiffeners. In such a case the elastic critical shear resistance tcr is given by:
tcr =
(15)
If the factored internal force VSd , is less than Vcr = d tw tcr, the shear connectors can be uniformly distributed; if not, more connectors should be placed near the support.
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These rules are shown in Figure 14 in which Mpl.Rd is the plastic moment of resistance when r = 1.
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5. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
Plastic analysis of the cross-section is used to determine the positive bending moment resistance of composite beams (assuming that either Class 1 or 2 sections are used). Eurocode 4 gives simple formulae for the effective width of concrete slab acting compositely with the steel; this "concrete flange" must be detailed to avoid longitudinal shear and splitting. Design of composite beams involves ensuring that the forces and moments due to factored loads are less than the corresponding design resistance. Various expressions for the design positive moment of resistance can be derived; these depend on the position of the neutral axis relative to the concrete slab, steel flanges, etc. Eurocode 4 gives simplified rules governing the design shear resistance of simply supported composite beams, with full shear connection, subject to uniformly distributed loading. Where high shear and moment are coincident part of the steel web is reserved to carry shear, resulting in a decrease in moment resistance.
6. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 4: "Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures": ENV1994-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings, CEN (in press). [2] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings, CEN, 1992. [3] Dowling, P. J., Knowles, Owens, G., "Structural Steel Design", Steel Construction Institute, 1988 (UK). [4] Eurocode 1: "Basis of Design and Actions on Structures", CEN (in preparation). [5] Stark, J.W.B., van Hove, B. W. E., "Composite Steel and Concrete Beams with Partial Shear Connection", HERON,
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7. ADDITIONAL READING
1. Essentials of EC4, prepared by the ECCS-TC 11, "Composite Structures" will be published early 1993 by the European Convention for Constructional Steelwork, Brussels. 2. Bode, "Verbundbau, Konstruktion und Berechnung", Werner Verlag, 1987 (Germany). 3. Stark, J. W. B.; "Introduction of Eurocode 4, General Methods of Design of Composite Construction", IABSE Short Course, Brussels, September 1990, IABSE Report No. 61, ISBN 3-85748-062-2. 4. Verbundtrgen im Hochbau. Theoretische Grundlagen, Beispiele, Bemessungstabellen, Schweinerische Zentralstelle fr Stahlbau, Bericht A3, 1982. 5. Narayanan, R. (ed), Composite Steel Structures. Advances in Design and Construction. Proceedings of the International Conference, Cardiff, UK, July 1987. Elsevier Applied Science, London. Table 1 Maximum width-to-thickness ratios for steel webs
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Rs = Rc Rs > Rc > Rw
Rs > Rc < Rw
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