11 Ismchap11

SECTION 11.1 (PAGE 597) R. A.
ADAMS: CALCULUS
CHAPTER 11. VECTOR FUNCTIONS 9. Position: r = 3 cos ti + 4 cos tj + 5 sin tk

AND CURVES Velocity: v = √−3 sin ti − 4 sin tj + 5 cos tk
Speed: v = 9 sin2 t + 16 sin2 t + 25 cos2 t = 5
Acceleration : a = −3 cos ti − 4 cos tj − 5 sin tk = −r
Path: the circle of intersection of the sphere
Section 11.1 Vector Functions of x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 25 and the plane 4x = 3y.
One Variable (page 597)
10. Position: r = 3 cos ti + 4 sin tj + tk
Velocity: v = √−3 sin ti + 4 cos tj + k √
1. Position: r = i + tj Speed: v = 9 sin2 t + 16 cos2 t + 1 = 10 + 7 cos2 t
Velocity: v = j Acceleration : a = −3 cos ti − 4 sin tj = tk − r
Speed: v = 1 Path: a helix (spiral) wound around the elliptic cylinder
Acceleration : a = 0 (x 2 /9) + (y 2 /16) = 1.
Path: the line x = 1 in the x y-plane.
11. Position: r = aet i + bet j + cet k
Velocity and acceleration:
√ v=a=r
2. Position: r = t 2 i + k
Speed: v = et a 2 + b2 + c2
Velocity: v = 2ti x y z
Speed: v = 2|t| Path: the half-line = = > 0.
a b c
Acceleration : a = 2i
12. Position: r = at cos ωti + at sin ωtj + b ln tk
Path: the line z = 1, y = 0.
Velocity: v = a(cos ωt − ωt sin ωt)i
3. Position: r = t 2 j + tk + a(sin ωt + ωt cos ωt)j + (b/t)k

Velocity: v = Speed: v = a 2 (1 + ω2 t 2 ) + (b2 /t 2 )
√ 2tj + k
Speed: v = 4t 2 + 1 Acceleration: a = −aω(2 sin ωt + ω cos ωt)i
Acceleration : a = 2j + aω(2 cos ωt − ω sin ωt)j − (b/t 2 )k
Path: the parabola y = z2 in the plane x = 0. Path: a spiral on the surface x 2 + y 2 = a 2 e z/b .
4. Position: r = i + tj + tk 13. Position: r = e−tcos(et )i + e−t sin(et )j t

−e k
Velocity: v = Velocity: v = − e−t cos(et ) + sin(et ) i
√j + k
Speed: v = 2
Acceleration : a = 0 − e−t sin(et ) − cos(et ) j − et k
√
Path: the straight line x = 1, y = z. Speed: v = 1 + e−2t + e2t
Acceleration: a = (e−t − et ) cos(et ) + sin(et ) i
5. Position: r = t 2 i − t 2 j + k
Velocity: v =√2ti − 2tj + (e−t − et ) sin(et ) − cos(et ) j − et k
Speed: v = 2 2t
Path: a spiral on the surface z x 2 + y 2 = −1.
Acceleration: a = 2i − 2j
Path: the half-line x = −y ≥ 0, z = 1. 14. Position: r = a cos t sin ti + a sin2 tj + a cos tk
a a
= sin 2ti + 1 − cos 2t j + a cos tk
6. Position: r = ti + t 2 j + t2k 2 2
Velocity: v =√ a cos 2ti + a sin 2tj − a sin tk
Velocity: v =
√ i + 2tj + 2tk Speed: v = a 1 + sin2 t
Speed: v = 1 + 8t 2
Acceleration: a = −2a sin 2ti + 2a cos 2tj − a cos tk
Acceleration: a = 2j + 2k
Path: the path lies on the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = a 2 , on
Path: the parabola y = z = x 2 .
the surface defined in terms of spherical polar coordinates
by φ = θ , on the circular cylinder x 2 + y 2 = ay, and on
7. Position: r = a cos ti + a sin tj + ctk the parabolic cylinder ay + z2 = a 2 . Any two of these
Velocity: v =
√ −a sin ti + a cos tj + ck surfaces serve to pin down the shape of the path.
Speed: v = a 2 + c2
Acceleration: a = −a cos ti − a sin tj 15. The position of the particle is given by
Path: a circular helix. r = 5 cos(ωt)i + 5 sin(ωt)j,
8. Position: r = a cos ωti + bj + a sin ωtk where ω = π to ensure that r has period 2π/ω = 2 s.
Velocity: v = −aω sin ωti + aω cos ωtk Thus
Speed: v = |aω| d 2r
a = 2 = −ω2 r = −π 2 r.
Acceleration: a = −aω2 cos ωti − aω2 sin ωtk dt
Path: the circle x 2 + z 2 = a 2 , y = b. At (3, 4), the acceleration is −3π 2 i − 4π 2 j.
414
INSTRUCTOR’S SOLUTIONS MANUAL SECTION 11.1 (PAGE 597)
16. When its x-coordinate is x, the particle is at position du 2

Thus = , and
r = xi + (3/x)j, and its velocity and speed are dt 1 + 2u 2
dr dx 3 dx d 2u −2 du −16u
v= = i− 2 j = 4u = .
dt dt x dt dt 2 (1 + 2u 2 )2 dt (1 + 2u 2 )3

dx 9
v = 1 + 4 . The particle is at (3, 3, 2) when u = 1. At this point
dt x
du/dt = 2/3 and d 2 u/dt 2 = −16/27, and so
We know that d x/dt > 0 since the particle is moving to
the right. When x = 2
√ 2, we have v= (3i + 6uj + 6u 2 k) = 2i + 4j + 4k
10 = v = (d x/dt) 1 + (9/16) = (5/4)(d x/dt). Thus 3

2
d x/dt = 8. The velocity at that time is v = 8i − 6j. −16 2
a= (3i + 6j + 6k) + (6j + 12k)
27 3
17. The particle moves along the curve z = x 2 , x + y = 2, in 8
the direction of increasing y. Thus its position at time t = (−2i − j + 2k).
9
is
r = (2 − y)i + yj + (2 − y)2 k,
where y is an increasing function of time t. Thus 20. r = xi − x 2 j + +x 2 k

dx
dy v= (i − 2xj + 2xk)
v= −i + j − 2(2 − y)k dt
dt
2
d2x dx
dy a = 2 (i − 2xj + 2xk) + (−2j + 2k).
v= 1 + 1 + 4(2 − y)2 = 3 dt dt
dt
dx √ √ dx
since the speed 3. When y = 1, we have Thus |v| = 1 + 4x 4 + 4x 4 = 1 + 8x 4 ,
√ is √ dt dt
d y/dt = 3/ 6 = 3/2. Thus since x is increasing. At (1, −1, 1), x = 1 and
|v| = 9, so d x/dt = 3, and the velocity at that point
3 is v = 3i − 6j + 6k. Now
v= (−i + j − 2k).
2

2
d d2x 16x 3 dx
|v| = 1 + 8x 4 2 + √ .
dt dt 1 + 8x 4 dt
18. The position of the object when its x-coordinate is x is
The left side is 3 when x = 1, so 3(d 2 x/dt 2 ) + 48 = 3,
2 3
r = xi + x j + x k, and d 2 x/dt 2 = −15 at that point, and the acceleration
there is
dx
so its velocity is v = i + 2xj + 3x 2 k . Since
dt a = −15(i − 2j + 2k) + 9(−2j + 2k) = −15i + 12j − 12k.
dz/dt = 3x 2 d x/dt = 3, when x = 2 we have
12 d x/dt = 3, so d x/dt = 1/4. Thus
d 2 d
1 21. |v| = v • v = 2v • a.
v= i + j + 3k. dt dt
4 If v • a > 0 then the speed v = |v| is increasing.
If v • a < 0 then the speed is decreasing.
19. r = 3ui + 3u 2 j + 2u 3 k 22. If u(t) = u 1 (t)i + u 2 (t)j + u 3 (t)k

du v(t) = v1 (t)i + v2 (t)j + v3 (t)k
v= (3i + 6uj + 6u 2 k) then u • v = u 1 v2 + u 2 v2 + u 3 v3 , so
dt

2
d 2u du
a = 2 (3i + 6uj + 6u 2 k) + (6j + 12uk). d du 1 dv1 du 2 dv2
dt dt u•v= v1 + u 1 + v2 + u 2
dt dt dt dt dt
Since u is increasing and the speed of the particle is 6, du 3 dv3
+ v3 + u 3
dt dt
du du du dv
6 = |v| = 3 1 + 4u 2 + 4u 4 = 3(1 + 2u 2 ) . = •v+u• .
dt dt dt dt
415
SECTION 11.1 (PAGE 597) R. A. ADAMS: CALCULUS

a11 a12 a13 d
23.
d 31. (u + u ) • (u × u )
a21 a22 a23 dt
dt
a31 a32 a33 = (u + u ) • (u × u ) + (u + u ) • (u × u )
d
= a11 a22 a33 + a12 a23 a31 + a13 a21 a32 + (u + u ) • (u × u )
dt = u • (u × u ).
− a11 a23 a32 − a12 a21 a33 − a13 a22 a31
d
= a11
a22 a33 + a11 a22
a33 + a11 a22 a33 32. (u × u ) • (u × u )
dt

+ a12 a23 a31 + a12 a23 a31 + a12 a23 a31 = (u × u ) • (u × u ) + (u × u ) • (u × u )

+ a13 a21 a32 + a13 a21 a32 + a13 a21 a32 + (u × u ) • (u × u ) + (u × u ) • (u × u )

− a11 a23 a32 − a11 a23 a32 − a11 a23 a32 = (u × u ) • (u × u ) + (u × u ) • (u × u ).

− a12 a21 a33 − a12 a21 a33 − a12 a21 a33 dr

− a13 a22 a31 − a13 a22 a31 − a13 a22 a31 33. Since = v(t) = 2r(t) and r(0) = r0 , we have
dt
a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13

= a21 a22 a23 + a21 a22 a23 r(t) = r(0)e2t = r0 e2t ,

a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33 dv dr
a(t) = =2 = 4r0 e2t .
a11 a12 a13
dt dt
+ a21 a22 a23

a31 a32 a33 The path is the half-line from the origin in the direction
d 2 d of r0 .
24. |r| = r • r = 2r • v = 0 implies that |r| is constant. v
dt dt 0
34. r = r0 cos ωt + sin ωt
Thus r(t) lies on a sphere centred at the origin. ω
dr
d d = −ωr0 sin ωt + v0 cos ωt
25. |r − r0 |2 = (r − r0 ) • (r − r0 ) dt
dt dt d 2r
dr = −ω2 r0 cos ωt − ωv0 sin ωt = −ω2 r
= 2(r − r0 ) • =0 dt 2
dt
implies that |r − r0 | is constant. Thus r(t) lies on a dr
r(0) = r0 , = v0 .
sphere centred at the point P0 with position vector r0 . dt t=0
26. If r • v > 0 then |r| is increasing. (See Exercise 16 Observe that r • (r0 × v0 ) = 0 for all t. Therefore the
above.) Thus r is moving farther away from the origin. path lies in a plane through the origin having normal
If r • v < 0 then r is moving closer to the origin. N = r0 × v0 .

Let us choose our coordinate system so that r0 = ai
d du d 2 u d 2 u d 2 u du d 3 u (a > 0) and v0 = ωbi + ωcj (c > 0). Therefore, N is in
27. × 2 = 2 × 2 + × 3
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt the direction of k. The path has parametric equations
du d u 3
= × 3. x = a cos ωt + b sin ωt
dt dt
y = c sin ωt.
d
28. u • (v × w)
dt The curve is a conic section since it has a quadratic
= u • (v × w) + u • (v × w) + u • (v × w ). equation:

d 1 by 2 y 2
29. u × (v × w) x − + 2 = 1.
dt a2 c c
= u × (v × w) + u × (v × w) + u × (v × w ). Since the path is bounded (|r(t)| ≤ |r0 | + (|v0 |/ω)), it

must be an ellipse.
d du d 2 u
30. u× × 2
dt dt dt If r0 is perpendicular to v0 , then b = 0 and the path is

2
the ellipse (x/a)2 + (y/c)2 = 1 having semi-axes a = |r0 |
du du d 2 u d u d 2u
= × × 2 +u× × and c = |v0 |/ω.
dt dt dt dt 2 dt 2

du d u 3 d 2r dr
+u× × 3 35. 2
= −gk − c
dt dt dt dt

dr
du du d 2 u du d 3 u r(0) = r0 , = v0 .
=
dt
×
dt
× 2 +u×
dt dt
× 3 .
dt dt t=0
416
dr 2. Let v(t) be the speed of the tank car at time t seconds.

Let w = ect . Then
dt The mass of the car at time t is m(t) = M − kt kg.
At full power, the force applied to the car is F = Ma
dw dr d 2r (since the motor can accelerate the full car at a m/s2 ).
= cect + ect 2
dt dt dt By Newton’s Law, this force is the rate of change of the
ct dr dr momentum of the car. Thus
= ce − e gk − cect
ct
dt dt
= −ect gk d
(M − kt)v = Ma
ect dt
w(t) = − ect gk dt = − gk + C. dv
c (M − kt) − kv = Ma
dt
g dv dt
Put t = 0 and get v0 = − k + C, so =
c Ma + kv M − kt
1 1 1
dr g ln(Ma + kv) = − ln(M − kt) + ln C
ect = w = v0 + (1 − ect )k k k k
dt c C
dr g Ma + kv = .
= e v0 − (1 − e−ct )k
−ct
M − kt
dt c
e−ct g e−ct
r=− v0 − t+ k+D At t = 0 we have v = 0, so Ma = C/M. Thus
c c c C = M 2 a and
1 g
r0 = r(0) = − v0 − 2 k + D.
c c M2a Makt
kv = − Ma = .
Thus we have M − kt M − kt
1 − e−ct g The speed of the tank car at time t (before it is empty) is

r = r0 + v0 − 2 (ct + e−ct − 1)k.
c c
Mat
The limit of this solution, as c → 0, is calculated via v(t) = m/s.
M − kt
l’Hôpital’s Rule:
te−ct t − te−ct
lim r(t) = r0 + v0 lim − gk lim
c→0 c→0 1 c→0 2c dr
3. Given: = k × r, r(0) = i + k.
t 2 e−ct dt
= r0 + v0 t − gk lim Let r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k. Then x(0) = z(0) = 1
c→0 2
1 2 and y(0) = 0.
= r0 + v0 t − gt k, Since k • (dr/dt) = k • (k × r) = 0, the velocity is always
2
perpendicular to k, so z(t) is constant: z(t) = z(0) = 1
which is the solution obtained in Example 4. for all t. Thus
dx dy dr
Section 11.2 Some Applications of Vector i+ j= = k × r = xj − yi.
Differentiation (page 604) dt dt dt
Separating this equation into components,

1. It was shown in the text that

m(0) dx dy
v(T ) − v(0) = − ln ve . = −y, = x.
m(T ) dt dt
If v(0) = 0 and v(T ) = −ve then ln(m(0)/m(T )) = 1 Therefore,

and m(T ) = (1/e)m(0). The rocket must therefore d2x dy
e−1 =− = −x,
burn fraction of its initial mass to accelerate to dt 2 dt
e
the speed of its exhaust gases. and x = A cos t + B sin t. Since x(0) = 1 and y(0) = 0,
Similarly, if v(T ) = −2ve , then m(T ) = (1/e2 )m(0),
so we have A = 1 and B = 0. Thus x(t) = cos t and
e2 − 1 y(t) = sin t. The path has equation
the rocket must burn fraction of its initial mass to
e2
accelerate to twice the speed of its exhaust gases. r = cos ti + sin tj + k.
417
Remark: This result also follows from comparing which is pointing towards the ground.
the given differential equation with that obtained for cir-
cular motion in the text. This shows that the motion is 6. We use the fixed and rotating frames as described in
a rotation with angular velocity k, that is, rotation about the text. Assume the satellite is in an orbit in the plane
the z-axis with angular speed 1. The initial value given spanned by the fixed basis vectors I and K. When the
for r then forces satellite passes overhead an observer at latitude 45◦ , its
position is
I+K
r = cos ti + sin tj + k. R=R √ ,
2
4. First observe that where R is the radius of the earth, and since it circles the
earth in 2 hours, its velocity at that point is
d dr
|r − b|2 = 2(r − b) • = 2(r − b) • a × (r − b) = 0, I−K
dt dt V = πR √ .
2
so |r − b| is constant; for all t the object lies on the
sphere centred at the point with position vector b having The angular velocity of the earth is Ω = (π/12)K.
radius r0 − b.
Next, observe that The rotating frame with origin at the observer’s position
has, at the instant in question, its basis vectors satisfying
d
(r − r0 ) • a = a × (r − b) • a = 0, 1 1
dt I = −√ j + √ k
2 2
so r − r0 ⊥ a; for all t the object lies on the plane J=i
through r0 having normal a. Hence the path of the ob-
1 1
ject lies on the circle in which this plane intersects the K = √ j + √ k.
sphere described above. The angle between r − b and a 2 2
must therefore also be constant, and so the object’s speed
|dr/dt| is constant. Hence the path must be the whole As shown in the text, the velocity v of the satellite as it
circle. appears to the observer is given by V = v + Ω × R. Thus
5. Use a coordinate system with origin at the observer, i v =V−Ω×R

pointing east, and j pointing north. The angular velocity πR pi R
of the earth is 2π/24 radians per hour northward: = √ (I − K) − K × √ (I + K)
2 12 2
π πR πR
Ω= j. = √ (I − K) − √ J
12 2 12 2
πR
Because the earth is rotating west to east, the true north = −π Rj − √ i.
12 2
to south velocity of the satellite will appear to the ob-
server to be shifted to the west by π R/12 km/h, where R
is the radius of the earth in kilometres. Since the satellite v makes √
circles the earth at a rate of π radians/h, its velocity, as π R/12 2 √
angle tan−1 = tan−1 (1/(12 2) ≈ 3.37◦
observed at the moving origin, is πR
with the southward direction. Thus the satellite appears
πR to the observer to be moving in a direction 3.37◦ west of
v R = −π Rj − i.
12 south.

The apparent Coriolis force is
π R/12
v R makes angle tan−1 = tan−1 (1/12) ≈ 4.76◦
πR π πR πR
with the southward direction. Thus the satellite appears −2Ω × v = −2 K × √ (I − K − √ J
12 2 12 2
to the observer to be moving in a direction 4.76◦ west of
south. π2R 1
=− √ J+ I
6 2 12
The apparent Coriolis force is
π2R 1

= − √ i + √ (−j + k) .
2π πR π2R 6 2 12 2
−2Ω × v R = − j × −π Rj − i =− k,
12 12 72
418
7. The angular velocity of the earth is Ω, pointing due to the east and west of north.
north. For a particle moving with horizontal velocity
v, the tangential and normal components of the Coriolis
force C, and of Ω, are related by
Section 11.3 Curves and Parametrizations
CT = −2Ω N × v, C N = −2ΩT × v. (page 611)
At the north or south pole, ΩT = 0 and Ω N = Ω. Thus

1. On the first quadrant
part of the circle x 2 + y 2 = a 2
C N = 0 and CT = −2Ω × v. The Coriolis force is
we have x = a 2 − y 2 , 0 ≤ y ≤ a. The required
horizontal. It is 90◦ east of v at the north pole and 90◦
parametrization is
west of v at the south pole.
At the equator, ΩN = 0 and ΩT = Ω. Thus CT = 0 and
C N = −2Ω × v. The Coriolis force is vertical. r = r(y) = a 2 − y 2 i + yj, (0 ≤ y ≤ a).
8. We continue with the same notation as in Example 4.

Since j points northward at the observer’s position,
the angle µ between the direction vector of the sun, 2. On the first quadrant part of the circle x 2 + y 2 = a 2
√
S = cos σ I + sin σ J and north satisfies we have y = a 2 − x 2 , 0 ≤ x ≤ a. The required
parametrization is
cos µ = S • j = − cos σ cos φ cos θ + sin σ sin φ.

For the sun, θ = 0 and at sunrise and sunset we have, by r = r(x) = xi + a 2 − x 2 j, (0 ≤ x ≤ a).
Example 4, cos θ = − tan σ/ tan φ, so that
tan σ
cos µ = cos σ cos φ + sin σ sin φ
tan φ 3. From the figure we see that
cos2 φ
= sin σ + sin σ sin φ π π
sin φ φ=θ+ , 0≤θ ≤
sin σ 2 2
= . π
sin φ x = a cos θ = a cos φ − = a sin φ
2
π
y = a sin θ = a sin φ − = −a cos φ.
9. At Vancouver, φ = 90◦ − 49.2◦ = 40.8◦ . On June 2
21st, σ = 23.3◦ . Ignoring the mountains and the rain, by
The required parametrization is
Example 4 there will be

π
24 −1 tan 23.3◦ r = a sin φi − a cos φj, ≤φ≤π .
cos − ≈ 16 2
π tan 40.8◦
hours between sunrise and sunset. By Exercise 8, the sun y

will rise and set at an angle

a
sin 23.3◦
cos−1 ≈ 52.7◦
sin 40.8◦ (x,y)
to the east and west of north.

10. At Umeå, φ = 90◦ − 63.5◦ = 26.5◦ . On June 21st, φ
σ = 23.3◦ . By Example 4 there will be θ
a x

24 −1 tan 23.3◦
cos − ≈ 20
π tan 26.5◦ Fig. 11.3.3
hours between sunrise and sunset. By Exercise 8, the sun
will rise and set at an angle s s s π
4. x = a sin , y = a cos , 0≤ ≤

a a a 2
cos−1
sin 23.3◦
≈ 27.6◦ s s aπ
sin 26.5◦ r = a sin i + a cos j, 0≤s≤ .
a a 2
419
y 2 2 2
√ then z = 1 + t, so 1 + 2t + t = t + y , and
a) If t = x,
y = ± 1 + 2t. Two parametrizations are needed to
a s
get the whole parabola, one for y ≤ 0 and one for
(x,y) y ≥ 0.
b) If t = y, then x 2 + t 2 = z 2 = 1 + 2x + x 2 , so
s 2x + 1 = t 2 , and x = (t 2 − 1)/2. Thus
a
z = 1 + x = (t 2 + 1)/2. The whole parabola is
parametrized by
a x
t2 − 1 t2 + 1
r= i + tj + k.
Fig. 11.3.4 2 2
c) If t = z, then 2 2 2
5. z = x 2 , z = 4y 2 . If t = y, then z = 4t 2 , so x = ±2t. √ x = t − 1 and t = t − 2t + 1 + y ,
The curve passes through (2, −1, 4) when t = −1, so so y = ± 2t − 1. Again two parametrizations are
x = −2t. The parametrization is r = −2ti + tj + 4t 2 k. needed to get the whole parabola.
12. By symmetry, the centre of the circle C of intersection of
6. z = x 2 , x + y + z = 1. If t = x, then the plane x + y + z = 1 and the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1
z = t 2 and y = 1 − t − t 2 . The parametrization is must lie on the plane and must have its three coordinates
r = ti + (1 − t − t 2 )j + t 2 k. equal. Thus the centre has position vector
7. z = x + y, x 2 + y 2 = 9. One possible parametrization is 1
r = 3 cos ti + 3 sin tj + 3(cos t + sin t)k. r0 = (i + j + k).
3

8. x + y = 1, z = 1 − x 2 − y 2 . If x = t, then y = 1 − t Since C passes through the point (0, 0, 1), its radius is
and
z = 1 − t 2 − (1 − t)2 = 2(t − t 2 ). One possible

1 2 1 2 1 2 2
parametrization is 0− + 0− + 1− = .
3 3 3 3

r = ti + (1 − t)j + 2(t − t 2 )k. Any vector v that satisfies v • (i + j + k) = 0 is parallel to
the plane x + y + z = 1 containing C. One such vector is
v1 = i − j. A second one, perpendicular to v1 , is
9. z = x 2 + y 2, 2x − 4y − z − 1 = 0. These surfaces intersect v2 = (i + j + k) × (i − j) = i + j − 2k.

on the vertical cylinder
Two perpendicular unit vectors that are parallel to the
x 2 + y 2 = 2x − 4y − 1, that is plane of C are
(x − 1)2 + (y + 2)2 = 4. i−j i + j − 2k
v̂1 = √ , v̂2 = √ .
2 6
One possible parametrization is
Thus one possible parametrization of C is
x = 1 + 2 cos t
y = −2 + 2 sin t 2
r = r0 + (cos t v̂1 + sin t v̂2 )
z = −1 + 2(1 + 2 cos t) − 4(−2 + 2 sin t) = 9 + 4 cos t − 8 sin t 3
i + j + k cos t sin t
r = (1 + 2 cos t)i − 2(1 − sin t)j + (9 + 4 cos t − 8 sin t)k. = + √ (i − j) + (i + j − 2k).
3 3 3
10. yz + x = 1, x z − x = 1. One possible parametrization is 13. r = t 2 i + t 2 j + t 3 k, (0 ≤ t ≤ 1)

x = t, z = (1 + t)/t, and y = (1 − t)/z = (1 − t)t/(1 + t),
v = (2t)2 + (2t)2 + (3t 2 )2 = t 8 + 9t 2
that is, 1
t − t2 1+t Length = t 8 + 9t 2 dt Let u = 8 + 9t 2
r = ti + j+ k.
1+t t 0
du = 18t dt
17 √ √
1 2 3/2 17 17 − 16 2
= u = units.
11. z 2 = x 2 + y 2 , z = 1 + x. 18 3 8 27
420
14. r = ti + λt 2 j + t 3 k, (0 ≤ t ≤ T ) The curve is called a conical helix because it is a spiral

lying on the cone x 2 + y 2 = z 2 .
v = 1 + (2λt)2 + 9t 4 = (1 + 3t 2 )2
√
if 4λ2 = 6, that is, if λ = ± 3/2. In this case, the 18. One-eighth of the curve C lies in the first octant. That
length of the curve is part can be parametrized
T 1
s(T ) = (1 + 3t 2 ) dt = T + T 3 . x = cos t, z = √ sin t, (0 ≤ t ≤ π/2)
2
0
1 1
y= 1 − cos2 t − sin2 t = √ sin t.
2 2
T dr
15. Length = dt
dt
1
Since the first octant part of C lies in the plane y = z, it
must be a quarter of a circle of radius 1. Thus the length
T c2
= 4a 2 t 2 + b2 + 2 dt units. of all of C is 8 × (π/2) = 4π units.
1 t If you wish to use an integral, the length is
If b2
= 4ac then

T c 2 π/2 1 1
Length = 2at + dt 8 sin2 t + cos2 t + cos2 t dt
1 t 0 2 2
T
c π/2
= 2at + dt =8 dt = 4π units.
1 t 0
= a(T 2 − 1) + c ln T units.
a z
16. x = a cos t sin t = sin 2t,
2 x 2 + y2 + z2 = 1
a
y = a sin2 t = (1 − cos 2t),
2
z = bt.
x 2 + 2z 2 = 1
The curve is a circular helix lying on the cylinder
a 2 a2
x2 + y − = . C
2 4
Its length, from t = 0 to t = T , is
y
T x
L= a 2 cos2 2t + a 2 sin2 2t + b2 dt
0

= T a 2 + b2 units. Fig. 11.3.18
19. If C is the curve

17. r = t cos ti + t sin tj + tk, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π
v = (cos t − t sin t)i + (sin t + t cos t)j + k x = et cos t, y = et sin t, z = t, (0 ≤ t ≤ 2π ),

v = |v| = (1 + t 2 ) + 1 = 2 + t 2 . then the length of C is
The length of the curve is

2π
2
2
2
2π √ dx dy dz
L= 2 + t 2 dt Let t = 2 tan θ L= + + dt
√ 0 dt dt dt
0
dt = 2 sec2 θ dθ 2π
t=2π = e2t (cos t − sin t)2 + e2t (sin t + cos t)2 + 1 dt
=2 sec3 θ dθ 0
t=0 2π
t=2π = Let 2e2t + 1 = v 2
2e2t + 1 dt
= sec θ tan θ + ln | sec θ + tan θ | 0
2e2t dt = v dv
√ √ t=0 t=2π 2 t=2π
2π v dv 1
t 2+t 2 2+t 2 t = = 1+ 2 dv
= + ln √ + √ t=0 v2 − 1 t=0 v −1
2 2 2 0
t=2π
√ 1 v − 1
= π 2 + 4π 2 + ln 1 + 2π 2 + 2π units. = v + ln
2 v + 1 t=0
421
√ 2π
√ 1 2e2t + 1 − 1 The centreline of the cable is wound around a cylinder of
4π
= 2e + 1 − 3 + ln √
2 2a
2e2t + 1 + 1 0 radius a +b and must rise a vertical distance in one
√ 2π cos θ
√ 2e2t + 1 − 1 revolution. The figure below shows the cable unwound
= 2e4π + 1 − 3 + ln √
2et 0
from the spool and inclined at angle θ . The total length
√ of spool required is the total height H of the cable as
= 2e4π + 1 − 3 + ln 2e4π + 1 − 1 shown in that figure.
√
− 2π − ln( 3 − 1) units.
2a cos θ
Remark: This answer appears somewhat different
from that given in the answers section of the text. The
two are, however, equal. Somewhat different simplifica- L
tions were used in the two. L sin θ
20. 3
r= t i+t j 2 a 2a
cos θ
a θ
v = 3t 2 i + 2tj
2π(a + b)
v = |v| = 9t 4 + 4t 2 = |t| 9t 2 + 4 one revolution
The length L between t = −1 and t = 2 is Fig. 11.3.22
0 2 2a 1
Observe that tan θ = × . Therefore
L= (−t) 9t 2 + 4 dt + t 9t 2 + 4 dt. cos θ 2π(a + b)
−1 0
a
Making the substitution u = 9t 2+ 4 in each integral, we sin θ =
obtain π(a + b)

13 40 a2 π 2 (a + b)2 − a 2
1 cos θ = 1− 2 = .
L= u 1/2 du + u 1/2 du π (a + b)2 π(a + b)
18 4 4
1 3/2 3/2

= 13 + 40 − 16 units. The total length of spool required is
27
H = L sin θ + 2a cos θ
21. r1 = ti + tj, (0 ≤ t ≤ 1) represents the straight line a
segment from the origin to (1, 1) in the x y-plane. = L + 2 π 2 (a + b)2 − a 2 units.
π(a + b)
r2 = (1 − t)i + (1 + t)j, (0 ≤ t ≤ 1) represents the straight
line segment from (1, 1) to (0, 2).
23. r = Ati + Btj + Ctk.
Thus C = C1 + C2 is the 2-segment polygonal line from
The arc length from the point where t = 0 to the point
the origin to (1, 1) and then to (0, 2).
corresponding to arbitrary t is
22. (Solution due to Roland Urbanek, a student at Okanagan
t
College.) Suppose the spool is vertical and the cable
windings make angle θ with the horizontal at each point. s = s(t) = A2 + B 2 + C 2 du = A2 + B 2 + C 2 t.
0
√
Thus t = s/ A2 + B 2 + C 2 . The required parametriza-
tion is
Asi + Bsj + Csk
r= √ .
A2 + B 2 + C 2
√
H 24. r = e t i + √2tj − e−t k
v = et i + √2j + e−t k
θ
v = |v| = e2t + 2 + e−2t = et + e−t .
2a The arc length from the point where t = 0 to the point
corresponding to arbitrary t is
b a t
s = s(t) = (eu + e−u ) du = et − e−t = 2 sinh t.
Fig. 11.3.22 0
422
√
s+ s2 + 4
Thus t = sinh−1 (s/2)
= ln ,
2
√ 28. If r = r(t) has nonvanishing velocity v = dr/dt on
s + s2 + 4 [a, b], then for any t0 in [a, b], the function
and et = . The required parametrization is
2
t
√ √
s + s2 + 4 √ s + s2 + 4 2k s = g(t) = |v(u)| du,
r= i+ 2 ln j− √ . t0
2 2 s + s2 + 4
which gives the (signed) arc length s measured from r(t0 )
3 3 π along the curve, is an increasing function:
25. r = a cos ti + a sin tj + b cos 2tk, 0 ≤ t ≤
2
v = −3a cos2 t sin ti + 3a sin2 t cos tj − 4b sin t cos tk ds
= g (t) = |v(t)| > 0
dt
v = 9a 2 + 16b2 sin t cos t
t
s= 9a 2 + 16b2 sin u cos u du on [a, b], by the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
0 Hence g is invertible, and defines t as a function of arc
1 2 length s:
= 9a + 16b2 sin2 t = K sin2 t
2 t = g −1 (s) ⇔ s = g(t).
1 2
where K = 9a + 16b2 Then
2
r = r2 (s) = r g −1 (s)
s s
Therefore sin t = , cos t = 1 − ,
K K is a parametrization of the curve r = r(t) in terms of arc
2s length.
cos 2t = 1 − 2 sin2 t = 1 − .
K
The required parametrization is

Section 11.4 Curvature, Torsion, and the
s 3/2 s 3/2 2s Frenet Frame (page 619)
r=a 1− i+a +b 1− k
K K K
1 2 1. r = ti − 2t 2 j + 3t 3 k
for 0 ≤ s ≤ K , where K = 9a + 16b2 .
2 v = i − 4tj + 9t 2 k
√
26. r = 3t cos ti + 3t sin tj + 2 2t 3/2 k, (t ≥ 0) v = 1 + 16t 2 + 81t 4
√ √
v = 3(cos t − t sin t)i + 3(sin t + t cos t)j + 3 2 tk v i − 4tj + 9t 2 k
T̂ = = √ .
v = |v| = 3 1 + t 2 + 2t = 3(1 + t) v 1 + 16t 2 + 81t 4
t
t2 2. r = a sin ωti + a cos ωtk

s= 3(1 + u) du = 3 t +
0 2 v = aω cos ωti − aω sin ωtk, v = |aω|

2s 2s T̂ = sgn(aω) cos ωti − sin ωtk .
Thus t 2 +2t = , so t = −1+ 1 + since t ≥ 0. The
3 3
required parametrization
√ is the given one with t replaced
3. r = cos t sin ti + sin2 t + cos tk
by −1 + 1 + (2s)/3.
1 1
27. As claimedin the = sin 2ti + (1 − cos 2t)j + cos tk
statement of the problem, 2 2
r1 (t) = r2 u(t) , where u is a function from [a, b] to v = cos 2ti + sin 2tj − sin tk

[c, d], having u(a) = c and u(b) = d. We assume u v = |v| = 1 + sin2 t
is differentiable. Since u is one-to-one and orientation-
1
preserving, du/dt ≥ 0 on [a, b]. By the Chain Rule: T̂ = √ cos 2ti + sin 2tj − sin tk .
2
1 + sin t
d d du
r1 (t) = r2 (u) , 4. r = a cos ti + b sin tj + tk
dt du dt
v = −a sin ti + b cos tj + k
and so
v = a 2 sin2 t + b2 cos2 t + 1
b
d b d d d v −a sin ti + b cos tj + k
r1 (t) dt = r2 u(t) du dt = r2 (u) du. T̂ = = √ .
dt du dt du v
a a c a 2 sin2 t + b2 cos2 t + 1
423
d T̂ Section 11.5 Curvature and Torsion for

5. If κ(s) = 0 for all s, then = κ N̂ = 0, so
ds General Parametrizations (page 625)
dr
T̂(s) = T̂(0) is constant. This says that = T̂(0), so
ds
r = T̂(0)s + r(0), which is the vector parametric equation 1. For y = x 2 we have
of a straight line.
6. If τ (s) = 0 for all s, then |d 2 y/d x 2| 2
κ(x) = = .
d B̂ (1 + (d y/d x)2 )3/2 (1 + 4x 2 )3/2
= −τ N̂ = 0, so B̂(s) = B̂(0) is constant. Therefore,
ds √
Hence κ(0) = 2 and κ( 2)√ = 2/27. The radii of cur-
d dr vature at x = 0 and x = 2 are 1/2 and 27/2, respec-
r(s) − r(0) • B̂(s) = • B̂(s) = T̂(s) • B̂(s) = 0.
ds ds tively.
It follows that
2. For y = cos we have

r(s) − r(0) • B̂(0) = r(s) − r(0) • B̂(s) = 0
|d 2 y/d x 2 | | cos x|
κ(x) = = .
(1 + (d y/d x)2 )3/2 (1 + sin2 x)3/2
for all s. This says that r(s) lies in the plane through
r(0) having normal B̂(0).
Hence κ(0) = 1 and κ(π/2) = 0. The radius of curvature
7. The circle C1 given by at x = 0 is 1. The radius of curvature at x = π/2 is
infinite.
1 1
r= cos Csi + sin Csj
C C 3. r = 2ti + (1/t)j − 2tk
is parametrized in terms of arc length, and has curvature v = 2i − (1/t 2 )j − 2k
C and torsion 0. (See Examples 2 and 3.) a = (2/t 3 )j
If curve C has constant curvature κ(s) = C and constant
v × a = (4/t 3 )i + (4/t 3 )k
torsion τ (s) = 0, then C is congruent to C1 by Theorem
At (2, 1, −2), that is, at t = 1, we have
3. Thus C must itself be a circle (with radius 1/C).
√
8. The circular helix C1 given by |v × a| 4 2
κ = κ(1) = = .
v3 27
r = a cos ti + a sin tj + btk
√
Thus the radius of curvature is 27/(4 2).
has curvature and torsion given by
a b 4. r = t 3 i + t 2 j + tk
κ(s) = 2 , τ (s) = 2 ,
a + b2 a + b2 v = 3t 2 i + 2tj + k
a = 6ti + 2j
by Example 3.
v(1) = 3i + 2j + k, a(1) = 6i + 2j
if a curve C has constant curvature κ(s) = C > 0, and
constant torsion τ (s) = T
= 0, then we can choose a and v(1) × a(1) = −2i + 6j − 6k
√ √
b so that 4 + 36 + 36 2 19
κ(1) = = 3/2
(9 + 4 + 1)3/2 14 √
a b
= C, = T. At t = 1 the radius of curvature is 143/2 /(2 19).
a 2 + b2 a 2 + b2
C T 5. r = ti + t 2 j + 2k
(Specifically, a = , and b = 2 .) By v = i + 2tj
C2 + T 2 C + T2
Theorem 3, C is itself a circular helix, congruent to C1 . a = 2j
v × a = 2k
At (1, 1, 2), where t = 1, we have
√
T̂ = v/|v| = (i + 2j)/ 5
B̂ = (v × a)/|v × a| = k
√
N̂ = B̂ × T̂ = (−2i + j)/ 5.
424
6. r = ti + t 2 j + tk 8. r = e t cos ti + et sin tj + et k
v = i + 2tj + k v = et (cos t − sin t)i + et (sin t + cos t)j + et k
a = 2j a = −2et sin ti + 2et cos tj + et k
v × a = −2i + 2k da
= −2et (cos t + sin t)i + 2et (cos t − sin t)j + et k
At (1, 1, 1), where t = 1, we have dt
√
T̂ = v/|v| = (i + 2j + k)/ 6 v × a = e2t (sin t − cos t)i − e2t (cos t + sin t)j + 2e2t k
√ √ √
B̂ = (v × a)/|v × a| = −(i − k)/ 2 v = |v| = 3et , |v × a| = 6e2t
√ da
N̂ = B̂ × T̂ = −(i − j + k)/ 3. (v × a) • = 2e3t
dt
v (cos t − sin t)i + (cos t + sin t)j + k
T̂ = = √
v 3
v×a (sin t − cos t)i − (cos t + sin t)j + 2k
B̂ = = √
|v × a| 6
(cos t + sin t)i − (cos t − sin t)j
N̂ = B̂ × T̂ = − √
2
√
|v × a| 2
κ= = t
v3 3e
da
(v × a) •
τ= dt = 1 .
|v × a|2 3et
√
9. r = (2 + 2 cos t)i + (1 − sin t)j + (3 + sin t)k
√
t2 t3 v = − 2 sin ti − cos tj + cos tk
7. r = ti + j+ k √
2 3 v = 2 sin2 t + cos2 t + cos2 t = 2
v = i + tj + t 2 k √
a = − 2 cos ti + sin tj − sin tk
da
a = j + 2tk, = 2k da √
dt = 2 sin ti + cos tj − cos tk
dt
v × a = t 2 i − 2tj + k √ √
v × a = − 2j − 2k
v = |v| = 1 + t 2 + t 4 , |v × a| = 1 + 4t 2 + t 4 |v × a| 2 1
da κ= = √ =√
(v × a) • =2 v3 2 2 2
dt da √ √
(v × a) • = − 2 cos t + 2 cos t = 0
dt
τ = 0.
√
v i + tj + t 2 k Since κ = 1/ 2 is constant, and τ = 0, the √ curve is a
T̂ = = √ circle. Its centre is (2, 1, 3) and its√radius is 2. It lies
v 1 + t2 + t4
in a plane with normal j + k(= − 2B̂).
v×a t 2 i − 2tj + k
B̂ = =√
|v × a| 1 + 4t 2 + t 4
−(2t 3 + t)i + (1 − t 4 )j + (t 3 + 2t)k
N̂ = B̂ × T̂ =
(1 + t 2 + t 4 )(1 + 4t 2 + t 4 ) 10. r = xi + sin xj
√ dx dx
|v × a| 1 + 4t 2 + t 4 v= i + cos x j = k(i + cos xj)
κ= 3
= dt dt
v (1 + t 2 + t 4 )3/2
da v = k 1 + cos2 x
(v × a) • 2 dx
τ = dt = . a = −k sin x j = −k 2 sin xj
|v × a|2 1 + 4t 2 + t 4 dt
v × a = −k 3 sin xk
|v × a| | sin x|
κ= 3
= .
v (1 + cos2 x)3/2
425
The tangential and normal components of acceleration are 13. The ellipse is the same one considered in Exercise 16, so
its curvature is
dv k dx k 2 cos x sin x
= √ 2 cos x)(− sin x) = −√ ab
dt 2 1 + cos2 x dt 1 + cos2 x κ=
(a 2 sin2 t + b2 cos2 t)3/2
k 2 | sin x|
v2 κ = √ . ab
= 3/2 .
1 + cos2 x
(a 2 − b2 ) sin2 t + b2
11. r = sin t cos ti + sin2 tj + cos tk If a > b > 0, then the maximum curvature occurs when
sin t = 0, and is a/b2 . The minimum curvature occurs
v = cos 2ti + sin 2tj − sin tk
when sin t = ±1, and is b/a2 .
a = −2 sin 2ti + 2 cos 2tj − cos tk
da 14. By Example 2, the curvature of y = x 2 at (1, 1) is
= −4 cos 2ti − 4 sin 2tj + sin tk.
dt 2 2
da κ= = √ .
At t = 0 we have v = i, a = 2j − k, = −4i, (1 + 4x 2 )3/2 x=1 5 5
dt
da Thus the magnitude of the normal √ acceleration of the
v × a = j + 2k, (v × a) • = 0.
dt
√ √ bead at that point is v2 κ = 2v 2 /(5 5).
Thus√T̂ = i, B̂ = (j + 2k)/ 5, N̂ = (2j − k)/ 5,
κ = 5, and τ = 0. The rate of change of the speed, dv/dt, is the tan-
gential component of the acceleration, and is due entirely
1 1
At t = π/4 we have v = j − √ k, a = −2i − √ k, to the tangential component of the gravitational force
2 2 since there is no friction:
da 1 1 √
= −4j + √ k, v × a = − √ i + 2j + 2k,
dt 2 2 dv
da √ = g cos θ = g(−j) • T̂,
(v × a) • = −3 2. dt
dt
Thus where θ is the angle between T̂ and −j. (See the fig-
1 √
T̂ = √ ( 2j − k) slope of y = x 2 at (1, 1) is 2, √
ure.) Since the √ we have
3 T̂ = −(i + 2j)/ 5, and therefore dv/dt = 2g/ 5.
1 √ y
B̂ = √ (−i + 2j + 2 2k)
13
1 √
N̂ = − √ (6i + j + 2k)
39 v 2 κ N̂ y = x2
√ √
2 39 6 2
κ= , τ =− .
9 13 (1, 1)
θ
12. r = a cos ti + b sin tj
−gj
v = −a sin ti + b cos tj
a = −a cos ti − b sin tj dv
T̂
v × a = abk dt
x
v = a 2 sin2 t + b2 cos2 t.
Fig. 11.5.14
The tangential component of acceleration is
15. Curve: r = xi + e x j. √
dv (a 2 − b2 ) sin t
cos t Velocity: v = i + e x j. Speed: v = 1 + e2x .
= √ ,
dt a 2 sin2 t + b2 cos2 t Acceleration: a = e x j. We have
which is zero if t is an integer multiple of π/2, that is, at v × a = e x k, |v × a| = e x .

the ends of the major and minor axes of the ellipse.
The normal component of acceleration is ex
The curvature is κ = . Therefore, the radius
(1 + e2x )3/2
|v × a| ab (1 + e2x )3/2
v2 κ = v2 = √ . of curvature is ρ = .
v3 a sin t + b2 cos2 t
2 2 ex
426
The unit normal is for some right-handed basis {i1 , j1 , k1 }, and some con-
stant vector r0 . Example 3 of Section 2.4 provides values
(v × a) × v −e x i + j
N̂ = B̂ × T̂ = = √ . for T̂(0), N̂(0), and B̂(0), which we can equate to the
|(v × a) × v| 1 + e2x given values of these vectors:
The centre of curvature is 1 1

i = T̂(0) = √ j1 + √ k1
rc = r + ρ N̂ 2 2

x 2x 1 j = N̂(0) = −i1
= xi + e j + (1 + e ) −i + x j 1 1
e k = B̂(0) = − √ j1 + √ k1 .
2x x −x 2 2
= (x − 1 − e )i + (2e + e )j.
This is the equation of the evolute. Solving these equations for i1 , j1 , and k1 in terms of the
16. The curve with polar equation r = f (θ ) is given para- given basis vectors, we obtain
metrically by
i1 = −j
r = f (θ ) cos θ i + f (θ ) sin θ j. 1 1
j1 = √ i − √ k
Thus we have 2 2
1 1
k1 = √ i + √ k.
v = f (θ ) cos θ − f (θ ) sin θ i 2 2

+ f (θ ) sin θ + f (θ ) cos θ j Therefore

a = f (θ ) cos θ − 2 f (θ ) sin θ − f (θ ) cos θ i t + sin t cos t t − sin t
r(t) = √ i− j+ √ k + r0 .
+ f (θ ) sin θ + 2 f (θ ) cos θ − f (θ ) sin θ j 2 2 2 2 2

2 2
v = |v| = f (θ ) + f (θ ) 1
We also require that r(0) = i, so r0 = i + j. The
2 2 2
required equation is, therefore,
v × a = 2 f (θ ) + f (θ ) − f (θ ) f (θ ) k.

t + sin t 1 − cos t t − sin t

The curvature is, therefore, r(t) = √ +1 i+ j+ √ k.
2 2 2 2 2
2 2
|2 f (θ ) + f (θ ) − f (θ ) f (θ )|
2 2 3/2 .
f (θ ) + f (θ ) dr
19. Given that = c × r(t), we have
dt
17. If r = a(1 − cos θ ), then r = a sin θ , and r = a cos θ .
By the result of Exercise 20, the curvature of this car- d 2 d
|r| = r • r = 2r • (c × r) = 0
dioid is dt dt
d dr
1 2 2 r(t) − r(0) • c = • c = (c × r) • c = 0.
κ= 3/2 × 2a sin θ dt dt
a 2 sin2 θ + a 2 (1 − cos θ )2

Thus |r(t)| = |r(0)| is constant, and r(t) − r(0) • c = 0
+ a 2 (1 − cos θ )2 − a 2 (cos θ − cos2 θ )
is constant. Thus r(t) lies on the sphere centred at the
3a 2 (1 − cos θ ) 3 origin with radius |r(0)|, and also on the plane through
= 3/2 = √ .
2 2 2ar r(0) with normal c. The curve is the circle of intersec-
2a (1 − cos θ )
tion of this sphere and this plane.
18. By Exercise 8 of Section 2.4, the required curve must be

a circular helix with parameters a = 1/2 (radius), and 20. For r = a cos ti + a sin tj + btk, we have, by Example 3
b = 1/2. Its equation will be of Section 2.4,
1 1 1 a
r= cos ti1 + sin tj1 + tk1 + r0 N̂ = − cos ti − sin tj, κ= .
2 2 2 a 2 + b2
427
The centre of curvature rc is given by Therefore the evolute has equation
1 3 sin2 t + 1
rc = r + ρ N̂ = r + N̂. r = 2 cos ti + sin tj − (cos ti + 2 sin tj)
κ 2
3
= cos3 i − 3 sin3 tj.
Thus the evolute has equation 2
r = a cos ti + a sin tj + btk 23. We require that

a 2 + b2
− (cos ti + sin tj) f (1) = 1, f (1) = 0, f (1) = 0,
a
b 2 b2 f (−1) = −1, f (−1) = 0, f (−1) = 0.
= − cos ti − sin tj + btk.
a a As in Example 5, we try a polynomial of degree 5. How-
ever, here it is clear that an odd function will do, and we
The evolute is also a circular helix.
need only impose the conditions at x = 1. Thus we try
21. The parabola y = x 2 has curvature f (x) = Ax + Bx 3 + C x 5
2 f (x) = A + 3Bx 2 + 5C x 4
κ= , f (x) = 6Bx + 20C x 3 .
(1 + 4x 2 )3/2
The conditions at x = 1 become
by Exercise 18. The normal at (x, x 2 ) is perpendicular to
the tangent, so has slope −1/(2x). Since the unit normal A + B + C = 1
points upward (the concave side of the parabola), we A + 3B + 5C = 0
have 6B + 20C = 0.
−2xi + j
N̂ = √ .
1 + 4x 2 This system has solution A = 15/8, B = −5/4, and
C = 3/8. Thus
Thus the evolute of the parabola has equation
15 5 3

f (x) = x − x3 + x5
(1 + 4x 2 )3/2 −2xi + j 8 4 8
r = xi + x 2 j + √
2 1 + 4x 2 is one possible solution.
1 + 4x 2 y
= xi + x 2 j − (1 + 4x 2 )xi + j

2
1
= −4x 3 i + 3x 2 + j. (1,1) y=1
2
y= f (x)
22. For the ellipse r = 2 cos ti + sin tj, we have x
v = −2 sin ti + cos tj y=−1

a = −2 cos ti − sin tj (−1,−1)
v × a = 2k

v = 4 sin2 t + cos2 t = 3 sin2 t + 1.
Fig. 11.5.23
2
The curvature is κ = , so the radius of 24. We require
(3 sin2 t + 1)3/2
2
(3 sin t + 1) 3/2
curvature is ρ = . We have f (0) = 1, f (0) = 0, f (0) = −1,
2 f (−1) = 1,
f (−1) = 0,
f (−1) = 0.
−2 sin ti + cos tj The condition f (0) = −1 follows from the fact that
T̂ = √ , B̂ = k
3 sin2 t + 1
cos ti + 2 sin tj d2
N̂ = − √ . 1 − x
2 = −1.
3 sin2 t + 1 dx2 x=0
428
As in Example 5, we try 26. After loading the LinearAlgebra and VectorCalculus pack-
ages, issue the following commands:
f (x) = A + Bx + C x 2 + Dx 3 + E x 4 + F x 5
> R := t -> <cos(t), 2*sin(t),
f (x) = B + 2C x + 3Dx 2 + 4E x 3 + 5F x 4 cos(t)>;
f = 2C + 6Dx + 12E x 2 + 20F x 3 . > assume(t::real):
> interface(showassumed=0):
The required conditions force the coefficients to satisfy > V := t -> diff(R(t),t):
the system of equations > A := t -> diff(V(t),t):
> v := t -> Norm(V(t),2):
A− B+C − D+E − F =1 > VxA := t -> V(t) &x A(t):
B − 2C + 3D − 4E + 5F = 0 > vxa := t -> Norm(VxA(t),2):
2C − 6D + 12E − 20F = 0 > Ap := t -> diff(A(t),t):
> Curv := t ->
A=1
> simplify(vxa(t)/(v(t))ˆ3):
B=0 > Tors := t -> simplify(
2C = −1 > (VxA(t).Ap(t))/(vxa(t))ˆ2):
> Curv(t); Tors(t);
which has solution A = 1, B = 0, C = −1/2, D = −3/2,
E = −3/2, F = −1/2. Thus we can use a track section
in the shape of the graph of This leads to the values
√
1 3 3 1 1 2
f (x) = 1 − x 2 − x 3 − x 4 − x 5 = 1 − x 2 (1 + x)3 . and 0
2 2 2 2 2 (cos(t)2 + 1) 2 cos(t)2 + 2
y
for the curvature and torsion, respectively. Maple
(−1,1)
doesn’t seem to recognize that the curvature simplifies
y=1 y= f (x) to 1/(cos2 t + 1)3/2 . The torsion is zero because the curve
is lies in the plane z = x. It is the ellipse in which this
plane intersects the ellipsoid 2x 2 + y 2 + 2z 2 = 4. The
maximum and minimum values of the curvature are 1
x and 1/23/2 , respectively, at the ends of the major and
minor axes of the ellipse.
27. After loading the LinearAlgebra and VectorCalculus pack-

x 2 +y 2 =1 ages, issue the following commands:
> R := t -> <t-sin(t), 1-cos(t), t>;
Fig. 11.5.24 > assume(t::real):
25. Given: a(t) = λ(t)r(t) + µ(t)v(t), v × a
= 0. We have > V := t -> diff(R(t),t):
> A := t -> diff(V(t),t):
v × a = λv × r + µv × v = λv × r > v := t -> Norm(V(t),2):
da > VxA := t -> V(t) &x A(t):
= λ r + λv + µ v + µa
dt > vxa := t -> Norm(VxA(t),2):
= λ r + (λ + µ )v + µ(λr + µv) > Ap := t -> diff(A(t),t):
= (λ + µλ)r + (λ + µ + µ2 )v. > Curv := t ->
> simplify(vxa(t)/(v(t))ˆ3):
Since v × r is perpendicular to both v and r, we have > Tors := t -> simplify(
> (VxA(t).Ap(t))/(vxa(t))ˆ2):
da > Curv(t); Tors(t);
(v × a) • = 0.
dt
Thus the torsion τ (t) of the curve is identically zero. This leads to the values
It remains zero when expressed in terms of arc length:
τ (s) = 0. By Exercise 6 of Section 2.4, r(t) must be a cos(t)2 + 2 − 2 cos(t)
plane curve. (3 − 2 cos(t))3/2
429
and 29. After loading the LinearAlgebra and VectorCalculus pack-

1 ages, issue the following commands:
−
2 cos(t)2 + sin(t)2 − 2 cos(t) + 1
> R := t -> <t+cos(t), t+sin(t), 1+t-
for the curvature and torsion, respectively. Each of these cos(t)>;
formulas can be simplified somewhat: > assume(t::real):
√ > interface(showassumed=0):
2 − 2 cos t + cos2 t > V := t -> diff(R(t),t):
Curv(t) = > A := t -> diff(V(t),t):
(3 − 2 cos t)3/2
−1 > v := t -> Norm(V(t),2):
Tors(t) = . > VxA := t -> V(t) &x A(t):
2 − 2 cos t + cos2 t
> vxa := t -> Norm(VxA(t),2):
Since 3 − 2 cos t > 0 > Ap := t -> diff(A(t),t):
and 2 − 2 cos t + cos2 t = 1 + (1 − cos t)2 > 0 for > Curv := t ->
all t, the curvature and torsion are both continuous for all > simplify(vxa(t)/(v(t))ˆ3):
t. The curve appears to be some sort of helix (but not > Tors := t -> simplify(
a circular one) with central axis along the line x = z, > (VxA(t).Ap(t))/(vxa(t))ˆ2):
y = 1. > Curv(t); Tors(t);
28. After loading the LinearAlgebra and VectorCalculus pack-
ages, issue the following commands: This leads to the values
> R := t -> <cos(t)*cos(2*t),
cos(t)*sin(2*t), sin(t)>; 2 cos(t)2 + cos t + 1
Curv(t) = 3/2
> assume(t::real): 5 − cos(t)2 + 2 cos t
1
> V := t -> diff(R(t),t): Tors(t) =
> A := t -> diff(V(t),t): 2(cos(t)2 ) + cos t + 1
> v := t -> Norm(V(t),2):
> VxA := t -> V(t) &x A(t): This appears to be an elliptical helix with central axis
> vxa := t -> Norm(VxA(t),2): along the line x = y = z − 1.
> Ap := t -> diff(A(t),t):
> Curv := t -> 30. evolute := R -> (t ->
> simplify(vxa(t)/(v(t))ˆ3): R(t)+TNBFrame(R)[2](t)
> Tors := t -> simplify( *(1/Curvature(R)(t)));
> (VxA(t).Ap(t))/(vxa(t))ˆ2):
> Curv(t); Tors(t); 31. tanline := R ->
> simplify(%,trig); ((t,u) ->
R(t)+TNBFrame(R)[1](t)*u);
The last line simplifies the rather complicated expression
that Tors(t) returns by applying some trigonometric Section 11.6 Kepler’s Laws of
identities. The values for the curvature and torsion are Planetary Motion (page 634)

17 + 60 cos(t)2 + 48 cos(t)4
Curv(t) = 3/2
4 cos(t)2 + 1 1. r= ⇒ r + x =
1 + cos θ
12 cos t (2 cos(t)2
+ 3) r =
− x
Tors(t) = .
17 + 60 cos(t)2 + 48 cos(t)4
x 2 + y 2 = r 2 =
2 − 2
x + 2 x 2
Plotting the curvature as a function of t, (1 − 2 )x 2 + 2
x + y 2 =
2
(plot(Curv(t),t=-2*Pi..2*Pi)), shows
2

2 2
2
that the minimum curvature occurs at t = 0 (and (1 − 2 ) x + 2
+ y 2 =
2 + 2
=
1− 1− 1 − 2
any
√ integer multiple of π ). The minimum curvature is
2
125/53/2 = 1.

x+
1 − 2 y2
The command simplify(Norm(R(t),2));
2 +
2 = 1.
gives output 1, indicating that the curve lies on the

√
sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1. 1 − 2 1 − 2
430
2. Position: r = r r̂ = kr̂. 6. Let the period and the semi-major axis of the orbit of
Velocity: v = kr̂˙ = k θ̇ θ̂; speed: v = k θ̇ . Halley’s comet be TH = 76 years and a H km respec-
˙ tively. Similar parameters for the earth’s orbit are TE = 1
Acceleration: kθ̈ θ̂ + k θ̇ θ̂ = −k θ̇ 2 r̂ + k θ̈ θ̂.
Radial component of acceleration: −kθ̇ 2 . year and a E = 150 × 106 km. By Kepler’s third law
Transverse component of acceleration: kθ¨ = v̇ (the rate TH2 TE2
of change of the speed). = .
a 3H a 3E
3. Position: on the curve r = eθ . Thus
Radial velocity: ṙ = eθ θ̇. a H = 150 × 106 × 762/3 ≈ 2.69 × 109 .
Transverse √ velocity: r θ̇ = eθ θ̇. √ The major axis of Halley’s comet’s orbit is
Speed v = 2e√ θ θ̇ = 1 ⇒ θ̇ = (1/ 2)e−θ . 2a H ≈ 5.38 × 109 km.
Thus θ̈ = −(1/ 2)e−θ θ̇ = −e−2θ /2. √
Radial velocity = transverse velocity = 1/ 2. 7. The period and semi-major axis of the moon’s orbit
Radial acceleration: around the earth are
r̈ − r θ̇ 2 = eθ θ̇ 2 + eθ θ̈ − eθ θ̇ 2 = eθ θ̈ = −e−θ /2. TM ≈ 27 days, a M ≈ 385, 000 km.
Transverse acceleration:
r θ̈ + 2ṙ θ̇ = −(e−θ )/2 + e−θ = e−θ /2. The satellite has a circular orbit of radius aS and period
TS = 1 day. (If the orbit is in the plane of the equa-
tor, the satellite will remain above the same point on the
4. Path: r = θ .Thus ṙ = θ̇ , r̈ = θ̈.
√ earth.) By Kepler’s third law,
Speed: v = (ṙ )2 + (r θ̇)2 = θ̇ 1 + r 2 .
Transverse acceleration = 0 (central force). Thus TS2 TM2
= .
r θ̈ + 2ṙ θ̇ = 0, or θ̈ = −2θ̇ 2 /r . a 3S a 3M
Radial acceleration:
Thus a S = 385, 000 × (1/27)2/3 ≈ 42, 788. The satellite’s
orbit should have radius about 42,788 km, and should lie
r̈ − r θ̇ 2 = θ̈ − r θ̇ 2

in the equatorial plane.
2 (2 + r 2 )v 2
=− + r θ̇ 2 = − . 8. The period T (in years) and radius R (in km) of the as-
r r (1 + r 2 )
teroid’s orbit satisfies
2
The magnitude of the acceleration is, therefore, T2 Tearth 12
= = .
(2 + r 2 )v 2 R3 3
Rearth (150 × 106 )3
.
r (1 + r 2 ) Thus the radius of the asteroid’s orbit is
R ≈ 150 × 106 T 2/3 km.
5. For a central force, r 2 θ̇ = h (constant), and the accelera-
tion is wholly radial, so 9. If R is the radius and T is the period of the asteroid’s
circular orbit, then almost stopping the asteroid causes
it to drop into a very eccentric elliptical orbit with major
|a| = |r̈ − r θ̇ 2 |. axis approximately R. (Thus, a = R/2.) The period Te
of the new elliptical orbit satisfies
For r = θ −2 , we have
Te2 (R/2)3 1
2
= 3
= .
h T R 8
ṙ = −2θ −3 θ̇ = −2θ −3 = −2hθ. √
r2 Thus Te = T /(2 2). The time the asteroid will √ take to
fall into the sun is half of Te . Thus it is T /(4 2).
Thus r̈ = −2h θ̇ = −2h 2 /r 2 . The speed v is given by
v 2 = ṙ 2 + r 2 θ̇ 2 = 4h 2 θ 2 + (h 2 /r 2 ).
R
Since the speed is v0 when θ√= 1 (and so r = 1), we
have v02 = 5h 2 , and h = v0 / 5. Hence the magnitude of
the acceleration at any point on the path is

h2 h 2 v02 2 1

|a| = −2 2 − r 4 = + 3 .
r r 5 r2 r
Fig. 11.6.9
431
10. At perihelion, r = a − c = (1 − )a. It follows that 1 = 4 − 4, so = 3/4. The new elliptical

At aphelion r = a + c = (1 + )a. orbit has eccentricity = 3/4.
Since ṙ = 0 at perihelion and aphelion, the speed is
v = r θ̇ at each point. Since r 2 θ̇ = h is constant over the
orbit, v = h/r . Therefore
h h R
vperihelion = , vaphelion = .
a(1 − ) a(1 + )
c a
If vperihelion = 2vaphelion then
S
h 2h
= .
a(1 − ) a(1 + )
Hence 1 + = 2(1 − ), and = 1/3. The eccentricity of
the orbit is 1/3.
11. The orbital speed v of a planet satisfies (by conservation
Fig. 11.6.13
of energy)
v2 k 14. As in Exercise 12, r P v P = r A v A , where r A =

/(1 − )
− =K (total energy).
2 r and r P =
/(1 + ), being the eccentricity of the orbit.
Thus
If v is constant so must be r , and the orbit will therefore vP rA 1+
be circular. = = .
vA rP 1−
12. Since r 2 θ̇ = h = constant for the planet’s orbit, and since Solving this equation for in terms of vP and v A , we
the speed is v = r θ̇ at perihelion and at aphelion (the
get
radial velocity is zero at these points), we have vP − vA
= .
r p v p = ra va , vP + vA
By conservation of energy the speed v at the ends of the
where the subscripts p and a refer to perihelion and minor axis of the orbit (where r = a) satisfies
aphelion, respectively. Since r p /ra = 8/10, we must
have v p /va = 10/8 = 1.25. Also, v2 v2
v2 k k k
− = P − = A − .

2 a 2 rP 2 rA
rp = = , ra = = .
1 + cos 0 1+ 1 + cos π 1−
The latter equality shows that
Thus
/(1+) = (8/10)
/(1−), and so 10−10 = 8+8.

Hence 2 = 18. The eccentricity of the orbit is 1 1 4k

= 1/9. v 2P − v 2A = 2k − = .
rP rA
13. Let the radius of the circular orbit be R, and let the pa-
rameters of the new elliptical orbit be a and c, as shown Using this result and the parameters of the orbit given in
in the figure. Then R = a + c. At the moment of the the text, we obtain
collision, r does not change (r = R), but the speed r θ̇
is cut in half. Therefore θ̇ is cut in half, and so h = r 2 θ̇ 1 1

v 2 = v 2P + 2k −
is cut in half. Let H be the value of r 2 θ̇ for the circular a rP
orbit, and let h be the value for the new elliptical orbit. 2k
Thus h = H/2. We have = v 2P + 1 − 2 − (1 + )

2 2k
H2 h2 H2 R = vP − (1 + )
R= , a= = = .
k 2
k(1 − ) 4k(1 − 2 ) 4(1 − 2 )
2 v P − v 2A
2
vP − vA
= vP − 1+
R 2 vP + vA
Similarly, c = a = , so v − v
4(1 − 2 ) = v 2P −
P A
(2v P ) = v P v A .
2
(1 + )R R
R =c+a = = . √
2
4(1 − ) 4(1 − ) Thus v = vP vA.
432
15. Since the radial line from the sun to the planet sweeps k
Thus a = . By Kepler’s third law,
out equal areas in equal times, the fraction of the planet’s −2K
period spend on the same side of the minor axis as the

3
sun is equal to the shaded area in the figure to the total 4π 2 3 4π 2 k
area of the ellipse, that is, T2 = a = .
k k −2K
1
− 12 (2bc)
2 π ab
1
π ab − ab 1
= 2 = − , −3/2
π ab π ab 2 π 2π 2 v2
Thus T = √ − 0 .
where = c/a is the eccentricity of the orbit. k r0 k
y
a a
b b
A
a c S P
c x
Fig. 11.6.16
Fig. 11.6.15
16. By conservation of energy, we have 17. Let r 1 (s) and r2 (s) be the distances from the point

P = r(s) on the ellipse E to the two foci. (Here s de-
k 1 2 h2
− ṙ + 2 = −K notes arc length on E, measured from any convenient
r 2 r
point.) By symmetry
where K is a constant for the orbit (the total energy).
The term in the parentheses is v2 , the square of the
speed. Thus r1 (s) ds = r2 (s) ds.
E E
k 1 k 1
− v 2 = −K = − v02 ,
r 2 r0 2 But r1 (s) + r 2 (s) = 2a for any s. Therefore,
where r0 and v0 are the given distance and speed. We
evaluate −K at perihelion.
r1 (s) ds + r2 (s) ds = 2a ds = 2ac(E).
The parameters of the orbit are E E E
h2 h2 h2

= , a= , b= √ , c = a. Hence E r1 (s) ds = ac(E), and
k k(1 − 2 ) k 1 − 2
At perihelion P we have
1
r1 (s) ds = a.
h2 c(E) E
r = a − c = (1 − )a = .
k(1 + )
Since ṙ = 0 at perihelion, the speed there is v = r θ̇. By y
P
Kepler’s second law, r 2 θ̇ = h, so v = h/r = k(1 + )/ h.
Thus r2 r1
k v2
−K = −
r 2
k2 1 k2 F2 F1 x
= 2 (1 + ) − (1 + )2
h 2 h2
k2
E
= 2 (1 + ) 2 − (1 + )
2h
k2 k
= 2 (1 − 2 ) = .
2h 2a Fig. 11.6.17
433
π
18. Start with Note that r → ∞ as θ → θ0 + . There are no bounded
h2 k 2ω
r̈ − 3 = − 2 . orbits in this case.
r r
d2u
1 CASE II. If k > h 2 the DE is − ω2 u = 0, where
Let r (t) = , where θ = θ (t). Since r 2 θ̇ = h dθ 2
u(θ ) ω2 = (k − h 2 )/ h 2 . This has solution u = Aeωθ + Be −ωθ .
(constant), we have Since u → 0 or ∞ as θ → ∞, the corresponding solu-
tion r = 1/u cannot be both bounded and bounded away
1 du du h du from zero. (Note that θ̇ = h/r 2 ≥ K > 0 for any or-
ṙ = − θ̇ = −r 2 = −h
u 2 dθ dθ r 2 dθ bit which is bounded away from zero, so we can be sure
d 2u h2 d 2u d 2u θ → ∞ on such an orbit.)
r̈ = −h 2 θ̇ = − 2 2 = −h 2 u 2 2 .
dθ r dθ dθ d 2u
CASE III. If k = h 2 the DE is = 0, which has
d 2u dθ 2
Thus −h 2 u 2 − h 2 u 3 = −ku 2 , or solutions u = Aθ + B, corresponding to
dθ 2
1
r= .
d 2u k Aθ + B
+u = 2.
dθ 2 h
Such orbits are bounded away from zero and infinity only
This is the DE for simple harmonic motion with a con- if A = 0, in which case they are circular.
stant forcing term (nonhomogeneous term) on the right- Thus, the only possible orbits which are bounded
hand side. It is easily verified that away from zero and infinity (i.e., which do not escape
to infinity or plunge into the sun) in a universe with an
k
inverse cube gravitational attraction are some circular or-
u= 1 + cos(θ − θ 0 )
h2 bits for which h 2 = k. Such orbits cannot be considered
“stable” since even slight loss of energy would result in
is a solution for any choice of the constants and θ0 . decreased h and the condition h 2 = k would no longer
Expressing the solution in terms of r , we have be satisfied. Now aren’t you glad you live in an inverse
square universe?
h 2 /k
r= , k 1
1 + cos(θ − θ0 ) 20. Since = v 2 − K by conservation of energy, if K < 0,
r 2
then
which is an ellipse if || < 1. k
≥ −K > 0,
r
19. For inverse cube attraction, the equation of motion is
k
so r ≤ − . The orbit is, therefore, bounded.
h2 k K
r̈ − 3
= − 3,
r r 21. r= , ( > 1).

1 + cos θ
where r 2 θ̇ = h is constant, since the force is central. See the following figure.
Making the same change of variables used in Exercise Vertices: At V1 , θ = 0 and r =
/(1 + ).
18, we obtain At V2 , θ = π and r =
/(1 − ) = −
/( − 1).
Semi-focal separation:
d2u
−h 2 u 2 − h 2 u 3 = −ku 3 , 1

dθ 2 c= + = 2 .
2 1+ 1− −1
or
d 2u k − h2 The centre is (c, 0).
2
− u = 0.
dθ h2 Semi-transverse axis:
There are three cases to consider.

d 2u a= − = 2 .
CASE I. If k < h2
the DE is + ω2 u = 0, where 2 − 1 + 1 −1
dθ 2
ω2 = (h 2 − k)/ h 2 . This has solution u = A cos ω(θ − θ0 ). Semi-conjugate axis:
Thus
1
r= . b= c2 − a 2 = √ .
A cos ω(θ − θ0 ) 2
−1
434
INSTRUCTOR’S SOLUTIONS MANUAL REVIEW EXERCISES 11 (PAGE 636)
Direction of asymptotes (see figure): for all points on the orbit. At perihelion,

b a 1 r = r p = c − a = ( − 1)a = ,
θ = tan−1 = cos−1 = cos−1 . +1
a c
h h( + 1)
v = v p = r p θ̇ = = .
rp
Since h 2 = k
, we have
2 2k
v∞ = v 2p −
rp
c h2 2k
b = ( + 1)2 − ( + 1)
F2
2
k
θ θ
a 2
F1 V1
C V2 x = ( + 1) − 2( + 1)

k 2 k
= ( − 1) = .

a
2 = k.
Thus av∞
If D is the perpendicular distance from the sun S to

Fig. 11.6.21 an asymptote of the orbit (see the figure) then
sin θ
D = c sin θ = a sin θ = a
cos θ
22. By Exercise 17, the asymptotes make angle cos(δ/2) δ
θ = cos−1 (1/) with the transverse axis, as shown in the =a = a cot .
sin(δ/2) 2
figure. The angle of deviation δ satisfies 2θ + δ = π , so
π δ Therefore
θ = − , and 2
2 2 Dv∞ v2 a δ δ
= ∞ cot = cot .
k k 2 2
δ δ
cos θ = sin , sin θ = cos .
2 2
Review Exercises 11 (page 636)
y
1. Given that a • r = 0 and a • v = 0, we have
d
|r(t) − tv(t)|2
(c,0)
dt
= 2 r(t) − tv(t) • v(t) − v(t) − ta(t)
D
θ 2θ = 2 r(t) − tv(t) • a(t) = 0 − 0 = 0.
S rp a x
δ
2. r = t cos ti + t sin tj + (2π − t)k, (0 ≤ t ≤
2π ) is a conical
helix wound around the cone z = 2π − x 2 + y 2 starting
at the vertex (0, 0, 2π ), and completing one revolution to
end up at (2π, 0, 0). Since
v = (cos t − t sin t)i + (sin t + t cos t)j − k,

Fig. 11.6.22 the length of the curve is
√
By conservation of energy, 2π 2π + 2 + 4π 2
L= 2 2
2 + t dt = π 2 + 4π +ln √
0 2
v2 k 2
v∞
− = constant = units.
2 r 2
435
REVIEW EXERCISES 11 (PAGE 636) R. A. ADAMS: CALCULUS
3. The position of the particle at time t is Hence the acceleration is

√
r = xi + x 2 j + 23 x 3 k, 3−4 2 √
a= (i + 2 2j) + 2j.
9
where x is an increasing function of t. Thie velocity is
If the particle is moving to the left, so that d x/dt < 0, a
dx
v= i + 2xj + 2x 2 k . similar calculation shows that at t = 3 its acceleration is
dt
√
Since the speed is 6, we have 3+4 2 √
a=− (i + 2 2j) + 2j.
9
dx dx
6= 1 + 4x 2 + 4x 4 = (2x 2 + 1) ,
dt dt √
2 5. r = et i + 2tj + e−t k
so that d x/dt = 6/(2x 2
+ 1). The particle is at (1, 1, 3) √
when x = 1. At this time its velocity is v = et i + 2j − e−t k
a = et i + e−t k
v(1) = 2(i + 2j + 2k). da
= et i − e−t k
dt √ √
Also
v × a = 2e−t i − 2j − 2et k

d2x 6 dx 144x v = e2t + 2 + e−2t = et + e−t
=− (4x) =− √
dt 2 (2x 2 + 1)2 dt (2x 2 + 1)3
|v × a| = 2(et + e−t )
d2x √
a = 2 (i + 2xj + 2x 2 k) |v × a| 2
dt
κ= = t
dx dx dx v3 (e + e−t )2
+ 2 j + 4x k . da
dt dt dt (v × a) • √
dt = 2
τ = = κ.
At x = 1, we have |v × a|2 (et + e−t )2
6. Tangential acceleration: dv/dt t −t
a(1) = −
16
(i + 2j + 2k) + 2(4j + 8k) √= e −e .
3 Normal acceleration: v2 κ = 2.
8 Since v = 2 cosh t, the minimum speed is 2 at time
= (−2i − j + 2k). t = 0.
3
s s
kt 2 kt 2
4. The position, velocity, speed, and acceleration of the par- 7. For x(s) = cos dt, y(s) = sin dt, we have
0 2 0 2
ticle are given by
dx ks 2 dy ks 2
r = xi + x 2 j = cos , = sin ,
ds 2 ds 2
dx dx
v= (i + 2xj),v = 1 + 4x 2
dt dt so that the speed is unity:

2
d2x dx
a = 2 (i + 2xj) + 2 j.
2
2
dt dt dx dy
v= + = 1.
ds ds
Let us assume that the particle is moving to the right, so
that d x/dt > 0. Since the speed is t, we have
Since x(0) = y(0) = 0, the arc length along the curve,
dx t measured from the origin, is s. Also,
=√
dt 1 + 4x 2
√ 4t x dx ks 2 ks 2
1 + 4x 2 − √ v = cos i + sin j
d2x 1 + 4x dt .
2 2 2
= ks 2 ks 2
dt 2 1 + 4x 2 a = −ks sin i + ks cos j
√ 2 2
If the particle is at ( 2, 2) at t = 3, then d x/dt = 1 at v × a = ksk.
that time, and √
d2x 3−4 2 Therefore the curvature at position s is
= .
dt 2 9 κ = |v × a|/v 3 = ks.
436
INSTRUCTOR’S SOLUTIONS MANUAL REVIEW EXERCISES 11 (PAGE 636)
8. If r = e−θ , and θ̇ = k, then ṙ = −e−θ θ̇ = −kr , and This is the same cycloid as given by r(t) but translated
r̈ = k 2 r . Since r = r r̂, we have π a units to the right and 2a units downward.
12. Let P be the point with position vector r(t)
v = ṙ r̂ + r θ̇ θ̂ = −kr r̂ + kr θ̂
on the cycloid. By Exercise 9, the arc O P has
a = (r̈ − r θ̇ 2 )r̂ + (r θ̈ + 2ṙ θ̇)θ̂ length 4a − 4a cos(t/2), and so P Q has length
= (k 2 r − k 2 r )r̂ + (0 − 2k 2 r )θ̂ = −2k 2 r θ̂. 4a - arc O P = 4a cos(t/2) units. Thus
−→ t
P Q = 4a cos T̂(t)
9. r = a(t − sin t)i + a(1 − cos t)j 2
t t t
v = a(1 − cos t)i + a sin tj = 4a cos sin i + cos j
2 2 2
v = a 1 − 2 cos t + cos2 t + sin2 t = 2a sin ti + 2a(1 + cos t)j.
√ √ t
= a 2 1 − cos t = 2a sin if 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π .
2 It follows that Q has position vector
The length of the cycloid from t = 0 to t = T ≤ 2π is

−→
T rQ = r + P Q
t T
s(T ) = 2a sin dt = 4a 1 − cos units. = a(t − sin t)i + a(1 − cos t)j + 2a sin ti + 2a(1 + cos t)j
0 2 2
= a(t + sin t)i + a(1 + cos t + 2)j (let t = u + π )
= a(u − sin u + π )i + a(1 − cos u + 2)j.

t s
10. s = 4a 1 − cos ⇒ t = 2cos−1 1 − = t (s). Thus r Q (t) represents the same cycloid as r(t), but trans-
2 4a
lated π a units to the left and 2a units upward. From
The required arc length parametrization of the cycloid is Exercise 11, the given cycloid is the evolute of its invo-
lute.
r = a t (s) − sin t (s) i + a 1 − cos t (s) j. y
Q
A
11. From Exercise 9 we have
v (1 − cos t)i + sin tj P
T̂(t) = =
v 2 sin(t/2) O x
t t
= sin i + cos j Fig. R-11.12
2 2
1 t 1 t
d T̂ 1 d T̂ cos i − sin j 13. The position vector of P is given by
= = 2 2 2 2
ds v dt t
2a sin r = ρ sin φ cos θ i + ρ sin φ sin θ j + ρ cos φk.

2
1 t
= cot i − j Mutually perpendicular unit vectors in the directions of
4a 2
increasing ρ, φ and θ can be found by differentiating r
d T̂ 1
with respect to each of these coordinates and dividing the
κ(t) = =
ds 4a sin(t/2) resulting vectors by their lengths. They are
1 d T̂
rC (t) = r(t) + ρ(t)N̂(t) = r(t) + dr
(κ(t))2 ds ρ̂ = = sin φ cos θ i + sin φ sin θ j + cos φk
2 2
dρ
16a sin (t/2) t 1 dr
= r(t) + cot i − j φ̂ = = cos φ cos θ i + cos φ sin θ j − sin φk
4a 2 ρ dφ
t t t
= r(t) + 4a cos sin i − 4a sin2 j 1 dr
2 2 2 θ̂ = = − sin θ i + cos θ j.
ρ sin φ dθ
= a(t − sin t)i + a(1 − cos t)j
+ 2a sin ti − 2a(1 − cos t)j
The triad{ρ̂, φ̂, θ̂} is right-handed. This is the reason for
= a(t + sin t)i − a(1 − cos t)j (let t = u − π ) ordering the spherical polar coordinates (ρ, φ, θ ) rather
= a(u − sin u − π )i + a(1 − cos u − 2)j. than (ρ, θ, φ).
437
REVIEW EXERCISES 11 (PAGE 636) R. A. ADAMS: CALCULUS
14. By Kepler’s Second Law the position vector r from the Challenging Problems 11 (page 636)
origin (the sun) to the planet sweeps out area at a con-
stant rate, say h/2: 1. a) The angular velocity Ω of the earth points north-
dA h ward in the direction of the earth’s axis; in terms of
= .
dt 2 the basis vectors defined at a point P at 45◦ north
As observed in the text, d A/dt = r 2 θ̇/2, so r 2 θ̇ = h, and latitude, it points in the direction of j + k:
r × v = (r r̂) × (ṙ r̂ + r θ̇ θ̂) = r 2 θ̇ r̂ × θ̂ = hk = h j+k 2π

Ω= √ , = rad/s.
2 24 × 3,600
is a constant vector.
15. By Exercise 14, r × ṙ = r × v = h is constant, so, by b) If v = −vk, then
Newton’s second law of motion,
2 v √
d aC = 2Ω × v = − √ (j + k) × k = − 2 vi.
r × F(r) = mr × r̈ = m (r × ṙ) = 0. 2
dt
Thus F(r) is parallel to r, and therefore has zero trans- c) If r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k is the position of the
verse component: falling object at time t, then r(t) satisfies the DE
F(r) = − f (r)r̂ d 2r dr
= −gk + 2Ω ×
for some scalar function f (r). dt 2 dt
16. By Exercise 15, F(r) = m(r̈ − r θ̇ 2 )r̂ = − f (r)r̂. We are and the initial conditions r(0) = 100k, r (0) = 0. If
given that r =
/(1 + cos θ ). Thus we use the approximation

dr dz
ṙ = − (− sin θ )θ̇ ≈ k,
(1 + cos θ )2 dt dt

sin θ
= θ̇
(1 + cos θ )2 which is appropriate since is much smaller than g,
sin θ 2 h then
= r θ̇ = sin θ dr √ dz

2Ω × ≈ 2 i.
dt dt
h h 2 cos θ
r̈ = (cos θ )θ̇ = . Breaking the DE into its components, we get

r 2
It follows that d2x √ dz d2 y d2z
2
= 2 , = 0, = −g.
h 2 cos θ h2 dt dt dt 2 dt 2
r̈ − r θ̇ 2 = 2
− 3

r r Solving these equations (beginning with the last

h2
h2 one), using the initial conditions, we get
= 2 cos θ − = − 2,

r r
r
gt 2 gt 3
(because (
/r ) = 1 + cos θ ). Hence z(t) = 100 − , y(t) = 0, x(t) = − √ .
2 3 2
mh 2
f (r) = . Since g ≈ 9.8 m/s2 , the time of fall is

r 2
This says that the magnitude of the force on the planet is
200
inversely proportional to the square of its distance from t= ≈ 4.52,
the sun. Thus Newton’s law of gravitation follows from g
Kepler’s laws and the second law of motion.
at which time we have
2π 9.8
x ≈− √ (4.52)3 ≈ −0.0155 m.
24 × 3,600 3 2
The object strikes the ground about 15.5 cm west of

P.
438
INSTRUCTOR’S SOLUTIONS MANUAL CHALLENGING PROBLEMS 11 (PAGE 636)
⎧
⎨ dv = k × v − 32k Also,
d 2
|v| = 2
dv
• v = 2ω(v × k) • v = 0,
2. dt dt dt
⎩ so |v| = constant = |v0 | for all t.
v(0) = 70i
a) If v = v1 i+v2 j+v3 k, then k×v = v1 j−v2 i. Thus the b) If w(t) = v(t) − (v0 • k)k, then w • k = 0 by part (a).
initial-value problem breaks down into component Also, using the result of Exercise 23 of Section 1.3,
equations as we have
⎧ ⎧ ⎧ d 2w d2v dv
⎨ dv1 = −v ⎨ dv2 = v ⎨ dv3 = −32 2
= 2 =ω × k = ω2 (v × k) × k
dt
2
dt
1
dt dt dt dt
⎩ ⎩ ⎩ = −ω2 (k • k)v − (k • v)k
v1 (0) = 70 v2 (0) = 0 v3 (0) = 0.

= −ω2 v − (v0 • k)k = −ω2 w,
b) If r = xi+yj+zk denotes the position of the baseball
t s after it is thrown, then x(0) = y(0) = z(0) = 0
the equation of simple harmonic motion. Also,
and we have
dz w(0) = v0 − (v0 • k)k

= v3 = −32t ⇒ z = −16t 2 . w (0) = ωv0 × k.
dt
d 2 v1 dv2 c) Solving the above initial-value problem for w, we

Also, =− = −v1 (the equation of simple
dt 2 dt get
harmonic motion), so
w = A cos(ωt) + B sin(ωt), where
v1 (t) = A cos t + B sin t, v2 (t) = A sin t − B cos t.
A = w(0) = v0 − (v0 • k)k, and
Since v1 (0) = 70, v2 (0) = 0, x(0) = 0, and ωB = w (0) = ω × k.
y(0) = 0, we have
Therefore,
dx dy
= v1 = 70 cos t = v2 = 70 sin t v(t) = w(t) + (v0 • k)k
dt dt
x(t) = 70 sin t y(t) = 70(1 − cos t). = v0 − (v0 • k)k cos(ωt) + (v0 × k) sin(ωt)
At time t seconds after it is thrown, the ball is at + (v0 • k)k.

position
d) If dr/dt = v and r(0) = 0, then
r = 70 sin ti + 70(1 − cos t)j − 16t 2 k.
v0 − (v0 • k)k
r(t) = sin(ωt)
ω
c) At t = 1/5 s, the ball is at about (13.9, 1.40, −0.64). v0 × k
If it had been thrown without the vertical spin, its + 1 − cos(ωt) + (v0 • k)tk.
ω
position at time t would have been
Since the three constant vectors
r = 70ti − 16t 2 k,
v0 − (v0 • k)k v0 × k
, , and (v0 • k)k
so its position at t = 1/5 s would have been ω ω
(14, 0, −0.64). Thus the spin has deflected the ball
approximately 1.4 ft to the left (as seen from above) are mutually perpendicular, and the first two have the
of what would have been its parabolic path had it same length because
not been given the spin.
⎧ |v0 − (v0 • k)k| = |v0 | sin θ = |v0 × k|,
⎨ dv = ωv × k, ω=
qB
3. dt m where θ is the angle between v0 and k, the curve
⎩
v(0) = v0 r(t) is generally a circular helix with axis in the z
d dv direction. However, it will be a circle if v0 • k = 0,
a) (v • k) = • k = ω(v × k) • k = 0. that is, if v0 is horizontal, and it will be a straight
dt dt
Thus v • k = constant = v0 • k. line if v0 × k = 0, that is, if v0 is vertical.
439
CHALLENGING PROBLEMS 11 (PAGE 636) R. A. ADAMS: CALCULUS
4. The arc length element on x = a(θ − sin θ ), 5. a) The curve BC D is the graph of an even function; a
y = a(cos θ − 1) is (for θ ≤ π ) fourth degree polynomial with terms of even degree
only will enable us to match the height, slope, and
curvature at D, and therefore also at C. We have
ds = a (1 − cos θ )2 + sin2 θ dθ

= a 2(1 − cos θ ) dθ = 2a sin(θ/2) dθ. f (x) = ax 4 + bx 2 + c
f (x) = 4ax 3 + 2bx
If the bead slides downward from rest at height y(θ0 ) f (x) = 12ax 2 + 2b.
to height y(θ ), its gravitational potential energy has de-
At D we have x = 2, so we need
creased by
2 = f (2) = 16a + 4b + c

mg y(θ0 ) − y(θ ) = mga(cos θ0 − cos θ ). 1 = f (2) = 32a + 4b
0 = f (2) = 48a + 2b.
Since there is no friction, all this potential energy is con- These equations yield a = −1/64, b = 3/8, c = 3/4,
verted to kinetic energy, so its speed v at height y(θ ) is so the curved track BC D is the graph of
given by 1
y = f (x) = (−x 4 + 24x 2 + 48).
64
1 2
mv = mga(cos θ0 − cos θ ),
2 √ v of the
b) Since we are ignoring friction, the speed
car during its drop is given by v = 2gs, where s
√ is the vertical distance dropped. (See the previous
and so v = 2ga(cos θ0 − cos θ ). The time required for
the bead to travel distance ds at speed v is dt = ds/v, so solution.) At B the car√has dropped about 7.2 m, so
the time T required for the bead to slide from its starting its speed there is v ≈ 2(9.8)(7.2)
√ ≈ 11.9 m/s. At
position at θ = θ0 to the lowest point on the wire, θ = π , C the car has dropped 10 − (c/ 2) ≈ 9.47 m, so
is its speed there is v = 13.6 m/s. At D the car has
dropped 10 m, so its speed is v = 14.0 m/s.
θ =π π c) At C we have x = 0, f (0) = 0, and
ds 1 ds
T = = dθ f (0) = 2b = 3/4. Thus the curvature of the track
θ =θ0 v θ0 v dθ
at C is
2a π sin(θ/2) | f (0)| 3
= √ dθ κ= = .
g θ0 cos θ0 − cos θ (1 + ( f (0))2 )3/2 4

2a π sin(θ/2) The normal acceleration√is v2 κ ≈ 138.7 m/s2 (or
= dθ about 14g). Since v = 2gs, we have
g
θ0 2 cos2 (θ0 /2) − 2 cos2 (θ/2)
√ √ √
Let u = cos(θ/2) dv 2g ds 2g 19.6
= √ = √ v≈ √ (13.6) ≈ 9.78 m/s2 ,
du = − 21 sin(θ/2) dθ dt 2 s dt 2 s 2 9.47
cos(θ0 /2)
a du so the total acceleration has magnitude approxi-
=2
g 0 cos2 (θ0 /2) − u 2 mately

cos(θ0 /2)
a −1 u (138.7)2 + (9.78)2 ≈ 139 m/s2 ,
=2 sin
g cos(θ0 /2) 0
√ which is again about 14g.
= π ag A E
y
vertical section horizontal section
which is independent of θ0 . √
y g = (g/ 2)(i − j)
x
θ = θ0 starting point
B D
θ =π (−2, 2) (2, 2)
C
x
Fig. C-11.4 Fig. C-11.5
440
INSTRUCTOR’S SOLUTIONS MANUAL CHALLENGING PROBLEMS 11 (PAGE 636)
6. a) At time t, the hareis at P = (0, vt) and the fox is Since y = 0 when x = a, we have
a a
at Q = x(t), y(t) , where x and y are such that the C1 = − + ln a, so
4 2
slope d y/d x of the fox’s path is the slope of the line
P Q:
dy y − vt x 2 − a2 a x
= . y= − ln
dx x 4 2 a
d dy d2 y d x is the path of the fox.

b) Since = , we have
dt d x d x 2 dt

d x d2 y d y − vt
=
dt d x 2 dt x

dy dx 7. √ at speed v,
a) Since you are always travelling northeast
x − v − (y − vt) you are always moving north at rate v/ 2. There-
dt dt
= 2 fore you will reach the north pole in finite time
x
1 dy dx 1 dx
= − v − 2 (y − vt)
x d x dt x dt π a/2 πa
T = √ =√ .
1 dx v 1 dx v/ 2 2v
= 2 (y − vt) − − 2 (y − vt)
x dt x x dt
v
=− .
x b) Since your velocity at any point has a northward
√
component v/ 2, and progress northward is mea-
d2 y v sured along a circle of radius a (a meridian), your
Thus x =− .
dx2 d x/dt colatitude φ(t) satisfies
Since the fox’s speed is also v, we have

2
2 dφ v
dx dy a = −√ .
+ = v2 . dt 2
dt dt
Also, the fox is always running to the left (towards Since φ(0) = π/2, it follows that
the y-axis from points where x > 0), so d x/dt < 0.
Hence π vt
φ(t) = − √ .
2 a 2

2
v (d y/dt)2 dy

= 1+ = 1+ ,
dx (d x/dt)2 dx Since
− √ your velocity also has an eastward component
dt v/ 2 measured along a parallel of latitude that is a
circle of radius a sin φ, your longitude coordinate θ
and so the fox’s path y = y(x) satisfies the DE satisfies

2 dθ v
d2 y dy
x = 1+ . (a sin φ) = √
dx2 dx dt 2

vt dθ v
cos √ = √
c) If u = d y/d x, then u = 0 and y = 0 when x = a, a 2 dt a
2

and v vt
θ= √ sec √ dt
a 2 a 2
du
x = 1 + u2 vt vt
= ln sec √ + tan √ + C.
dx a 2 a 2
du dx
√ = Let u = tan θ
1+u 2 x
du = sec2 θ dθ As θ = 0 at t = 0, we have C = 0, and so
sec θ dθ = ln x + ln C
vt vt
ln(tan θ + sec θ ) = ln(C x) θ (t) = ln sec √ + tan √ .
a 2 a 2
u + 1 + u 2 = C x.
Since u = 0 when x = a, we have C = 1/a. √

c) As t → T = π a/( 2v), the expression for 441
x θ (t) → ∞, so your path spirals around the north
1 + u2 = − u pole, crossing any meridian infinitely often.
a
x2 2xu
1 + u2 = 2 − + u2
a a
2xu x2
= 2 −1
a a
dy x a
=u= −
dx 2a 2x
x2 a
y= − ln x + C1 .
4a 2

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SECTION 11.1 (PAGE 597) R. A.

CHAPTER 11. VECTOR FUNCTIONS 9. Position: r = 3 cos ti + 4 cos tj + 5 sin tk

4. Position: r = i + tj + tk 13. Position: r = e−tcos(et )i + e−t sin(et )j t

16. When its x-coordinate is x, the particle is at position du 2

where y is an increasing function of time t. Thus 20. r = xi − x 2 j + +x 2 k

19. r = 3ui + 3u 2 j + 2u 3 k 22. If u(t) = u 1 (t)i + u 2 (t)j + u 3 (t)k

dr 2. Let v(t) be the speed of the tank car at time t seconds.

1 − e−ct g The speed of the tank car at time t (before it is empty) is

Separating this equation into components,

If v(0) = 0 and v(T ) = −ve then ln(m(0)/m(T )) = 1 Therefore,

5. Use a coordinate system with origin at the observer, i v =V−Ω×R

At the north or south pole, ΩT = 0 and Ω N = Ω. Thus

8. We continue with the same notation as in Example 4.

hours between sunrise and sunset. By Exercise 8, the sun y

to the east and west of north.

9. z = x 2 + y 2, 2x − 4y − z − 1 = 0. These surfaces intersect v2 = (i + j + k) × (i − j) = i + j − 2k.

10. yz + x = 1, x z − x = 1. One possible parametrization is 13. r = t 2 i + t 2 j + t 3 k, (0 ≤ t ≤ 1)

14. r = ti + λt 2 j + t 3 k, (0 ≤ t ≤ T ) The curve is called a conical helix because it is a spiral

19. If C is the curve

t2 2. r = a sin ωti + a cos ωtk

d T̂ Section 11.5 Curvature and Torsion for

which is zero if t is an integer multiple of π/2, that is, at v × a = e x k, |v × a| = e x .

The centre of curvature is 1 1

t + sin t 1 − cos t t − sin t

18. By Exercise 8 of Section 2.4, the required curve must be

The centre of curvature rc is given by Therefore the evolute has equation

r = a cos ti + a sin tj + btk 23. We require that

22. For the ellipse r = 2 cos ti + sin tj, we have x

v = −2 sin ti + cos tj y=−1

27. After loading the LinearAlgebra and VectorCalculus pack-

and 29. After loading the LinearAlgebra and VectorCalculus pack-

10. At perihelion, r = a − c = (1 − )a. It follows that 1 = 4 − 4 , so = 3/4. The new elliptical

v2 k 14. As in Exercise 12, r P v P = r A v A , where r A =

Hence 2 = 18 . The eccentricity of the orbit is 1 1 4k

is cut in half. Therefore θ̇ is cut in half, and so h = r 2 θ̇ 1 1

r r 21. r= , ( > 1).

If D is the perpendicular distance from the sun S to

v = (cos t − t sin t)i + (sin t + t cos t)j − k,

3. The position of the particle at time t is Hence the acceleration is

r × v = (r r̂) × (ṙ r̂ + r θ̇ θ̂) = r 2 θ̇ r̂ × θ̂ = hk = h j+k 2π

The object strikes the ground about 15.5 cm west of

dz w(0) = v0 − (v0 • k)k

d 2 v1 dv2 c) Solving the above initial-value problem for w, we

At time t seconds after it is thrown, the ball is at + (v0 • k)k.

d dy d2 y d x is the path of the fox.

Since u = 0 when x = a, we have C = 1/a. √

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10. At perihelion, r = a − c = (1 − )a. It follows that 1 = 4 − 4, so = 3/4. The new elliptical

Hence 2 = 18. The eccentricity of the orbit is 1 1 4k