MC0076 Sem. IV Management Information Systems Assignment Set -1 Q. 1. What Do You Understand By Information Process data ?

Information as Processed Data Data are generally considered to be raw facts that have undefined uses and application; information is considered to be processed data that influences choices, that is, data that have somehow been formatted, filtered, and summarized; and knowledge is considered to be an understanding derived from information distinctions among data, information, and knowledge may be derived from scientific terminology. The researcher collects data to test hypotheses; thus, data refer to unprocessed and unanalysed numbers. When the data are analysed, scientists talk about the information contained in the data and the knowledge acquired from their analyses. The confusion often extends to the information systems context, and the three terms maybe used interchangeably. Information as the Opposite of Uncertainty A different perspective on information derives from economic theory and defines information as the negative measure of uncertainty; that is, the less information is available, the more uncertainty exists, and conversely, the more information is available, the less uncertainty exists? In microeconomic theory the equilibrium of supply and demand depends on a market known as a perfect market, where all buyers and sellers have complete knowledge about one another and where uncertainty does not exist. Information makes a market perfect by eliminating uncertainties about supply and demand. In macroeconomic theory, firms behave according to how they read the economic climate. Economic signals that measure and predict the direction of the economy provide information about the economic climate. The firm reduces its uncertainty by decoding these signals. Taking an example of Federal Express in USA, each incoming aircraft has a scheduled arrival time. However, its actual arrival depends on unforeseen conditions. Data about when an aircraft departed from its destination is information in the economic sense because it reduces uncertainty about the aircrafts arrival time, thereby increasing Federal Expresss ability to handle arriving packages. Managers also define information in terms of its reducing uncertainty. Because managers must project the outcomes of alternatives in making decisions, the reduction of uncertainty about the outcomes of various alternatives improves the effectiveness of the decisionmaking process and the quality of the decision. Information as a Meaningful Signal Information theory, a branch of statistics concerned with measuring the efficiency of communication between people and/or machines, defines information as the inputs and outputs of communication. Electronic, auditory, visual, or other signals that a sender and receiver interpret similarly convey information. For example, in the recruitment scenario about, the resumes and applications for the open positions are information because they are signals sent by the applicants, and interpreted similarly by both.

The Managers in their roles as communicators both generate and receive information. They receive reports that organize signals or data in a way that conveys their meaning. Reports of sales trends become information; so do reports about hazardous waste sites. Managers derive meaning from the information they see and hear as part of communication and use it to make decisions. This definition of information requires a manager to interpret a given signal as it was intended. For example, a managers incorrect interpretation of body language in a negotiation would not be considered to be information from this perspective, although we know that managers use both correct and incorrect perceptions as information in decision making and other managerial functions. Again, this view of information suggests the complexity of the concept and the value of a multifaceted definition. Q. 2. Discuss the Components of An Organizational Information Systems. Ans. Components of an Organizational Information System The environment in which organizations operate from the informational perspective in terms proposed by George Huber of the University of Texas, who has studied the organizational design required by an information society. His conclusions provide a framework for determining what is required of an organizational information system. These, according to Huber, are the hallmarks of an information society: 1) Dramatic Increase of Available Knowledge Whether measured in terms of the number of scholarly journals, patents and copyrights, or in terms of the volumes of corporate communications, both the production and the distribution of knowledge have undergone a manifold increase. 2) Growth of Complexity Huber characterizes complexity in terms of numerosity, diversity, and interdependence. A growing world population and the industrial revolution combined to produce numerosity, or a growing number of human organizations. To succeed, people and organizations learned to specialize: they do things differently and organize themselves differently to accomplish specialized tasks. These differences lead to diversity. Two principal factors have led to increased interdependence. The first as been the revolution in the infrastructure of transportation and communication. The second factor is specialization in firms that make narrowly defined products, as opposed to the self-sufficiency of companies producing a complex product down to its minute elements. A companys product is typically a part of a larger system, produced with contributions from a number of interdependent firms (consider a car or a computer). Moreover, interdependence has increased on a global scale. Even the most isolated of countries participates in some way in the international division of labor. Organizations operating in the public sector, while rarely in a competitive situation, are still governed by the demands of society. Pressures on the public sector in democratic societies, along with the pressures conveyed from the private sector, also make the environment in which public organizations operate more complex. 3) Increased Turbulence The pace of events in an information society is set by technologies. The speeds of todays computer and communication technologies have resulted in a dramatic increase in the number of events occurring within a given time. Consider the volumes and speed of trades in

the securities and currency markets. Widespread use of telefacsimile, as another example, has removed the "float"-the lag between sending and receiving-in written communications. Equally important, because of the infrastructure discussed earlier, the number of events that actually influence an organizations activities (effective events) has also grown rapidly. The great amount of change and turbulence pressuring organizations today thus calls for rapid innovation in both product and organizational structure. To thrive, an organization must have information systems able to cope with large volumes of information in a selective fashion. Huber concludes that these factors an increase of available knowledge, growth of complexity, and increased turbulence-are not simply ancillary to a transition to the new societal form. Rather, they will be a permanent characteristic of the information society in the future. Moreover, we should expect that these factors would continue to expand at an accelerating rate (a positive feedback exists). Barring some catastrophic event, we expect that the rapidly changing environment will be not only "more so" but also "much more so." To succeed in an information society, organizations must be compatible with this environment. Q. 3. What are the Features Contributing to Success and failure of MIS Models ? Ans. The components of MIS The physical components of MIS comprise the computer and communications hardware, software, database, personnel, and procedures. Almost all organizations employ multiple computer systems, ranging from powerful mainframe machines (sometimes including supercomputers) through minicomputers, to widely spread personal computers (also known as microcomputers). The use of multiple computers, usually interconnected into networks by means of telecommunications, is called distributed processing. The driving forces that have changed the information processing landscape from centralized processing, relying on single powerful mainframes, to distributed processing have been the rapidly increasing power and decreasing costs of smaller computers. Though the packaging of hardware subsystems differs among the three categories of computers (mainframes, minicomputers, and microcomputers), all of them are similarly organized. Thus, a computer system comprises a central processor (though multiprocessors with several central processing units are also used), which controls all other units by executing machine instructions; a hierarchy of memories; and devices for accepting input (for example, a keyboard or a mouse) and producing output (say, a printer or a video display terminal). The memory hierarchy ranges from a fast primary memory from which the central processor can fetch instructions for execution; through secondary memories (such as disks) where on-line databases are maintained; to the ultra high capacity archival memories that are also employed in some cases. COMPONENTDESCRIPTION Hardware Multiple computer systems: mainframes, minicomputers, personal computers Computer system components are: central processor(s),

memory hierarchy, input and output devices Communications: local area networks, metropolitan area networks, and wide area networks Software Systems software and applications software Database Organized collections of data used by applications software Personnel Professional cadre of computer specialists; end users in certain aspects of their work Procedures Specifications for the use and operation of computerized information systems collected in user manuals, operator manuals, and similar documents Multiple computer systems are organized into networks in most cases. Various network configurations are possible, depending upon an organizations need. Fast local area networks join machines, most frequently clusters of personal computers, at a particular organizational site such as a building or a campus. The emerging metropolitan area networks serve large urban communities. Wide area networks connect machines at remote sites, both within the company and in its environment. Through networking, personalcomputer users gain access to the broad computational capabilities of large machines and to the resources maintained there, such as large databases. This connectivity converts personal computers into powerful workstations. Computer software falls into two classes: systems software and applications software. Systems software manages the resources of the system and simplifies programming. Operating systems (UNIX, for example) control all the resources of a computer system and enable multiple users to run their programs on a computer system without being aware of the complexities of resource allocation. Even if you are just using a personal computer, a complex series of actions takes place when, for example, you start the machine, check out its hardware, and call up a desired program. All of these actions fall under the control of an operating system, such as DOS or IBM OS/2. Telecommunications monitors manage computer communications; database management systems make it possible to organize vast collections of data so that they are accessible for fast and simple queries and the production of reports. Software translators-compilers or interpreters, make it possible to program an application in a higher-level language, such as COBOL or C. The translator converts program statements into machine instructions ready for execution by the computers central processor. Many categories of applications software are purchased as ready-to-use packages. Applications software directly assists end users in their functions. Examples include generalpurpose spreadsheet or word processing programs, as well as the so-called vertical applications serving a specific industry segment (for example, manufacturing resource planning systems or accounting packages for small service businesses). The use of purchased application packages is increasing. However, the bulk of applications software used in large organizations are developed to meet a specific need. Large application systems consist of a, number of programs integrated by the database.

To be accessible, data items must be organized so that individual records and their components can be identified and, if needed, related to one another. A simple way to organize data is to create files. A file is a collection of records of the same type. For example, the employee file contains employee records, each containing the same fields (for example, employee name and annual pay), albeit with different values. Multiple files may be organized into a database, or an integrated collection of persistent data that serves a number of applications. The individual files of a database are interrelated. Professional MIS personnel include development and maintenance managers, systems analysts, programmers, and operators, often with highly specialized skills. The hallmark of the present stage in organizational computing is the involvement of end users to a significant degree in the development of information systems. Procedures to be followed in using, operating, and maintaining computerized systems are a part of the system documentation. Q. 4. List down the potential external opportunities, potential internal weaknesses. Ans. Potential External Opportunities Serve additional customer groups Enter new markets or segments Expand product line to meet broader range of customer needs Diversify into related products Vertical integration Falling trade barriers in attractive foreign markets Complacency among rival firms Faster market growth Potential Internal Weaknesses No clear strategic direction Obsolete facilities Lack of managerial depth and talent Missing key skills or competence Poor track record in implementing strategy Plagued with internal operating problems Falling behind in R&D Too narrow a product line Weak market image Weaker distribution network Below-average marketing skills Unable to finance needed changes in strategy Higher overall unit costs relative to key competitors Q.5 What do you Understand by Multinational Corporation, Global Corporation, International Corporation, Transnational Corporation. Ans. Multinational Corporation A multinational corporation has built or acquired a portfolio of national companies that it operates and manages with sensitivity to its subsidiaries local environments. The

subsidiaries operate autonomously, often in different business areas. A company that follows a multinational strategy has little need to share data among its subsidiaries or between the parent and subsidiaries except to consolidate financial positions at years end. Global Corporation A global corporation has rationalized its international operations to achieve greater efficiencies through central control. Although its strategy and marketing are based on the concept of a global market, a headquarters organization makes all major decisions. A company pursuing a global strategy needs to transfer the operational and financial data of its foreign subsidiaries to headquarters in real time or on a frequent basis. A high level of information flows from subsidiary to parent, while limited data move from parent to subsidiary. International Corporation An international corporation exports the expertise and knowledge of the parent company to subsidiaries. Here subsidiaries operate more autonomously than in global corporations. Ideally, information flows from the parent to its subsidiaries. In practice, subsidiaries often rely on the parent to exercise its knowledge for the subsidiaries benefit rather than simply to export it to the subsidiaries. For example, a subsidiary without a great deal of human resources expertise may "pay" its parent to operate its human resources function. Although the information theoretically should stay within the subsidiary, in this case it may flow back and forth between the parents location and the subsidiarys location. Transnational Corporation A transnational corporation incorporates and integrates multinational, global, and international strategies. By linking local operations to one another and to headquarters, a transnational company attempts to retain the flexibility to respond to local needs and opportunities while achieving global integration. Because transnational operate on the premise of teamwork, they demand the ability to share both information and information services. Q-6. What are the limitation of ERP systems ? How ERP Packages help in overcoming these limitations ?. Ans. ERP Selection Since, the market offer a number of ERP packages, the buyer has a choice to make. Each product has its own USP and differs in a number of ways in content, scope, an ease of implementation, etc. The selection can be made on three dimensions, viz, the vendor, the technology, the solution scope, and architecture. Vendor Evaluation Factors 1) Business strength of the vendor. 2) Product share in total business of the vendor. 3) R & D investment in the product. 4) Business philosophy of the vendor. 5) Future plans of the vendor. 6) Market reach and resource strength of the vendor. 7) Ability to execute the ERP solution.

8) Strength in the other technology knowledge and the ability to use them. 9) Perspective plan of the ERP improvement with technology development. 10) Image in the business and in the information technology world. 11) Financial strength of the vendor to sustain and handle the business and technology risk. 12) Organisation for product development and support. 13) The global experience of the vendor and commitment to the product for long term. Technology Evaluation Factor 1) Client server architecture and its implementation-two tier or three tier. 2) Object orientation in development and methodology. 3) Handling of server and client based data and application logic. 4) Application and use of standards in all the phases of development and in the product. 5) Front end tools and back end data based management system tools for the data, process presentation management. 6) Interface mechanism: Data transfer, real time access, OLE/ODBC compliance. 7) Use of case tool, screen generators, report writers, screen painter and batch processor. 8) Support system technologies like bar coding, EDI, imaging, communication, network. 9) Down loading to PC based packages, MS-Office, lotus notes, etc. 10) Operating system and its level of usage in the system. 11) Hardware-software configuration management. ERP Solution Evaluation Factor 1) ERP fit for the business of the organization in terms of the functions, features and processes, 2) business scope versus application scope and so on. 3) The degree of deviation from the standard ERP product. 4) Ease of use: Easy to learn, implement and train. 5) The ability to migrate to the ERP environment from present status. 6) Flexible design. 7) The level of intelligent usage of help , error messages, dictionaries. 8) The ability for a quick start on implementation. 9) Versatility of the solution for implementation on a platform with the project of saving the investment. 10) Rating on performance, response and integration. 11) Product quality in terms of security, reliability, and precision in results. 12) Documentation for system handling and administration. 13) Product rating in its class of products. 14) Solution architecture and technology. The methodology of selection will begin first with the study of organisation in terms of the business focus, critical application, sensitive business process, etc. Since, the ERP solution is a tool to change the style of business management, it requires thorough understanding of the business, the business issues, the management criticalities, and the socio-cultural factors.

Such a study will help find out if the ERP is fit for the organisation. It is a very important to find out that the ERP is fit or not, as it is the most important and critical success factor. The price of the ERP package is difficult to judge and often it is a negotiable point in favour of the buyer in competitive scenario. Since the ERP implementation is a two three years project, the ERP solution will sustain and be adequate for the current and the future business needs for a period of five to seven years. After that, it would become a platform for the future expansions and growth. It is advisable for the organisation to form a committee for selection of the ERP solution. It should have important functional head, a strong Information Technology person and a person from corporate planning function. The committee should be headed by a CEO or his designated authority. This committee should prepare a requirement document spelling out the business goals, and objectives, the futuristic scenario of business, the critical functions, processes, business focus and customer deliverables. A note on the management philosophy, procedures, practices and style will be a valuable input. When such a document is ready, the selected ERP vendors should be called for seeking the ERP offer. The document should be given to the vendors, and they should be allowed to study the organisation and its business. All the vendors should be asked to submit a technical proposal explaining the fit of the ERP to the organisation. The submission of the vendors should be scrutinized by the committee for short-listing. The short-listed vendors then should be asked to give the product presentation to the selected group of decision makers to seek their opinion on the product. When the product presentation is over, product demonstration should be arranged, for a detailed security and evaluation. In this process, the committee should confirm whether the critical requirement of business, in terms of information, process handling facilities, features, etc. are available or not. If some of them are not available then there is a possibility of work around to achieve the same result. A second evaluation note should be made for a comparative analysis of the ERP solutions and then a critical evaluation of this analysis should lead to the choice list. Simultaneously, the committee should gather information on the experience of the other organisation where the ERP is implemented. This information should be on how successful the vendor is, in the implementation of the ERP? The strengths and the weaknesses of the vendor, the product and the post sales processes should be ascertained. The choice list should be weighed by these points. Though such an approach is appropriate, it is not always possible to bring out a clear win in the evaluation, as many factors are intangible in nature. In such an event, the committee should examine the trade off involvement in the selection. It should not happen that organisational issue dominate the choice of the ERP and in the process the best product is rejected. Ideally, the organisation should be carrying out business process engineering and reengineering study, restructure the organisation, modify the processes functionalities before the ERP decision is made. Once the committee makes the decision, the vendor should be asked to resubmit the technical and commercial proposal with price and the terms of offer. The proposal should have the following details:

1) Scope of supply 2) Objectives 3) Modules and deliverables 4) Implementation methodology 5) Plan and schedules of hardware and software implementation 6) Resource allocation 7) Responsibility division between the organisation and the vendor 8) Process of implementation 9) Organisation of implementation 10) Progress monitoring and control of the important events 11) Process of resolving the issue all levels 12) The official product literature 13) Association with the other vendor its purpose 14) Commercial submission: i. Price by module and number of users ii. Payment terms 15) Process of acceptance of the ERP by stages and linking with the payments Once the ERP decision is made, the vendor and organisation enter into a legal contract. Such legal contract should list the obligations, duties, responsibilities, deliverables and the value components. It should also include the clauses on issues arising out of unforeseen circumstances and how to resolve them with the legal remedy available to both the parties. Since, the ERP is a product of several technologies, there should be clauses relating to safeguarding the interests of each other to cover the risk arising out of the technology failure. The ERP is a tool to manage the enterprise resources to achieve the business objective. It is a supporting system and does not solve all the problems of business management. The success of the ERP lies in its implementation with commitment. It requires full participation of the organisation. It is to be appreciated as a managerial tool and not as a labour saving device. Since, potentially the ERP is designed for productivity rise, the management must exploit it to its advantage by adopting the best practices or changing the practices through the business process reengineering.

Assignment Set 2 (60 Marks)

Q.1 Explain with relevant examples the concept of business process. Also mention their elements. [10 Marks] Business process management (BPM) is a holistic management approach to aligning an organization's business processes with the wants and needs of clients. It promotes business effectiveness and efficiency while striving for innovation, flexibility, and integration with technology. BPM attempts to improve processes continuously. It can therefore be described as a "process optimization process." It is argued that BPM enables organizations to be more efficient, more effective and more capable of change than a functionally focused, traditional hierarchical management approahThe components of MIS The physical components of MIS comprise the computer and communications hardware, software, database, personnel, and procedures. Almost all organizations employ multiple computer systems, ranging from powerful mainframe machines (sometimes including supercomputers) through minicomputers, to widely spread personal computers (also known as microcomputers). The use of multiple computers, usually interconnected into networks by means of telecommunications, is called distributed processing. The driving forces that have changed the information processing landscape from centralized processing, relying on single powerful mainframes, to distributed processing have been the rapidly increasing power and decreasing costs of smaller computers. Though the packaging of hardware subsystems differs among the three categories of computers (mainframes, minicomputers, and microcomputers), all of them are similarly organized. Thus, a computer system comprises a central processor (though multiprocessors with several central processing units are also used), which controls all other units by executing machine instructions; a hierarchy of memories; and devices for accepting input (for example, a keyboard or a mouse) and producing output (say, a printer or a video display terminal). The memory hierarchy ranges from a fast primary memory from which the central processor can fetch instructions for execution; through secondary memories (such as disks) where on-line databases are maintained; to the ultra high capacity archival memories that are also employed in some cases. COMPONENT DESCRIPTION Hardware Multiple computer systems: mainframes, minicomputers, personal computers Computer system components are: central processor(s), memory hierarchy, input and output devices Communications: local area networks, metropolitan area networks, and wide area networks Software Systems software and applications software Database Organized collections of data used by applications software Personnel Professional cadre of computer specialists; end users in certain aspects of their work Procedures Specifications for the use and operation of

computerized information systems collected in user manuals, operator manuals, and similar documents Multiple computer systems are organized into networks in most cases. Various network configurations are possible, depending upon an organization's need. Fast local area networks join machines, most frequently clusters of personal computers, at a particular organizational site such as a building or a campus. The emerging metropolitan area networks serve large urban communities. Wide area networks connect machines at remote sites, both within the company and in its environment. Through networking, personalcomputer users gain access to the broad computational capabilities of large machines and to the resources maintained there, such as large databases. This connectivity converts personal computers into powerful workstations. Computer software falls into two classes: systems software and applications software. Systems software manages the resources of the system and simplifies programming. Operating systems (UNIX, for example) control all the resources of a computer system and enable multiple users to run their programs on a computer system without being aware of the complexities of resource allocation. Even if you are just using a personal computer, a complex series of actions takes place when, for example, you start the machine, check out its hardware, and call up a desired program. All of these actions fall under the control of an operating system, such as DOS or IBM OS/2. Telecommunications monitors manage computer communications; database management systems make it possible to organize vast collections of data so that they are accessible for fast and simple queries and the production of reports. Software translators-compilers or interpreters, make it possible to program an application in a higher-level language, such as COBOL or C. The translator converts program statements into machine instructions ready for execution by the computer's central processor. Many categories of applications software are purchased as ready-to-use packages. Applications software directly assists end users in their functions. Examples include generalpurpose spreadsheet or word processing programs, as well as the so-called vertical applications serving a specific industry segment (for example, manufacturing resource planning systems or accounting packages for small service businesses). The use of purchased application packages is increasing. However, the bulk of applications software used in large organizations are developed to meet a specific need. Large application systems consist of a, number of programs integrated by the database. To be accessible, data items must be organized so that individual records and their components can be identified and, if needed, related to one another. A simple way to organize data is to create files. A file is a collection of records of the same type. For example, the employee file contains employee records, each containing the same fields (for example, employee name and annual pay), albeit with different values. Multiple files may be organized into a database, or an integrated collection of persistent data that serves a number of applications. The individual files of a database are interrelated. Professional MIS personnel include development and maintenance managers, systems analysts, programmers, and operators, often with highly specialized skills. The hallmark of

the present stage in organizational computing is the involvement of end users to a significant degree in the development of information systems. Procedures to be followed in using, operating, and maintaining computerized systems are a part of the system documentation. Q.2 Explain the control issues in management information systems. [10 Marks] Potential Internal Strengths A distinctive competence Adequate financial resources Good competitive skill Well thought of by buyers An acknowledged market leader Well-conceived functional area strategies Access to economies of scale Insulated (at least somewhat) from strong competitive pressures Proprietary technology Cost advantages Better advertising campaigns Product innovation skills Proven management Ahead on experience curve Better manufacturing capability Superior technological skills Potential External Opportunities Serve additional customer groups Enter new markets or segments Expand product line to meet broader range of customer needs Diversify into related products Vertical integration Falling trade barriers in attractive foreign markets Complacency among rival firms Faster market growth Potential Internal Weaknesses No clear strategic direction Obsolete facilities Lack of managerial depth and talent Missing key skills or competence Poor track record in implementing strategy Plagued with internal operating problems Falling behind in R&D Too narrow a product line Weak market image Weaker distribution network

 Below-average marketing skills Unable to finance needed changes in strategy Higher overall unit costs relative to key competitors Potential External Threats Entry of lower-cost foreign competitors Rising sales of substitute products Slower market growth Adverse shifts in foreign exchange rates and trade policies of foreign governments Costly regulatory requirements Vulnerability to recession and business cycle Growing bargaining power of customers or suppliers Changing buyer needs and tastes Adverse demographic changes Q.3 Discuss the function for manager. [10 marks]

Planning Managers engage in a variety of planning activities that occur over short- medium and longterm periods. Driven in part by the need to respond to competition, the changing environment, and customer demands, managers develop the organization's mission: goals and the means to accomplish them. Planning usually refers to both the specific of goals and the blueprint for achieving them. It can occur at the individual, group, organizational, or extra-organizational level. Managers may engage in strategic, tactical, or operational planning. They also engage in decision making, in which they allocate resources and act as negotiators, problem solvers, change agents, and disturbance handlers. The top managers at LIC of India, for example, likely decide which insurance products and how to sell them as part of their strategic planning the long-term planning for accomplishing the organization's mission. Information about LICs capabilities, its competitors' competencies, and customer demands is essential for determining the organization's goals and its strategic plan-long-term activities the organization must undertake to accomplish its mission. Knowledge about technological developments and their applicability to the insurance company, as well as about the supply of various types of workers, constitutes additional information incorporated into the strategic plan. In most organizations middle managers more often engage in medium or short-term planning known as tactical planning. Tactical objectives describe what units within an organization must do to accomplish strategic objectives, and tactical plans refer to the steps for attaining the tactical objectives. Tactical plans may focus on decisions about staffing, advertising, and pricing, for example; or they may reflect other financial, marketing, or human resource decisions. What types of information would a manager need to determine the best advertising campaign for his or her products? The manager might need to know what competitive products exist, the nature of advertising for those products, and the cost of various media. Operational planning, or planning for the issues of implementation, often accompanies strategic and tactical planning. The public works director of a small town must plan the monthly work schedules for the road crews she supervises. The shipping supervisor in a

large manufacturing company must determine how often to schedule a third shift of workers. The program chairperson must schedule the particular events that compose the national meeting of the Academy of Management. In each case, these managers require an array of information about their subordinates, their clients, and their jobs to design the operational plan. What information does the public works director need, for example, to meet the objective of rescuing people as the level of water is raising in the river due to continuous rainfall? She needs to know the availability of crews equipment, and the possibility of additional rainfall.

Managers at various levels determine the best way to reduce costs. A manager determines the assignment of people to tasks, the allocation of money materials to individuals, departments, and other work groups, and the scheduling of various organizational members' time. Effective allocation requires the manager to have information about individuals' existing work assignments, capabilities, and vacation schedules. The manager must also know the costs of various projects or products. Consider the situation face, the manager of a product development team for a new shampoo at Procter and Gamble or she must know how much overtime to budget into labor expenses to ensure a timely product launch. Managers frequently negotiate with their subordinates or other managers about the allocation of resources or the best way to accomplish various group or organizational goals. In conjunction with resource allocation and negotiation, the manager as a problem solver defines problems in a situation, analyzes them, and then proposes solutions. When the problems can be handled in a relatively long time frame, the manager acts as a change agent. When problems must be solved in a short time frame, the manager engages in disturbance handling. To plan effectively, managers often need forecasts about likely future conditions. For example, prevailing interest rates may affect whether a company should raise cash through the sale of debt or equity. The timing of a company's plant opening can affect whether the company will purchase a component of its product from a wholesaler or whether it will manufacture the component itself. The forecasted market share of a competitor's produce should influence a company's production levels and possibly affect hiring and capacity decisions. No manager can be correct 100 percent of the time. Part of decision making involves assessing the risks of being wrong versus the rewards of being right. Managers may cushion the impact of incorrect foresight with contingency plans. Nevertheless, managers can increase their chances of correctly assessing future conditions by using quality forecasts. Planning in organizations that function globally may pose special challenges. Managers may need to account for significant currency fluctuations, unpredictable political conditions or an

unknown labor pool; they may need to consider variations in national customs, worker expectations, and product acceptance. Consider the information needs of a manager who must close the company's manufacturing plants in a foreign country. He or she must know, for example, the legal provisions that govern the sale of assets as well as the legal regulations for compensating terminated workers. The information needs of global managers in these circumstances are extensive and particular to the special business problems they must solve. Decision making also involves significant information needs. Managers require information about individuals, groups, and organizations involved in or affected by the problem situation. They need information about the alternatives available and the costs and benefits associated with each. Managers as change agents also need data about workers' and management's attitudes toward change, the resources available for the change, and the consequences of similar changes in other situations. Managers should diagnose each decision situation to identify its unique information needs. Consider the decision that a manufacturer of outdoor clothing must make about whether to purchase a small manufacturing plant in China. What information does the manufacturer require in order to make that decision? What information does this manager need in order to make a quality decision? Managers must diagnose their information needs in each particular situation and then seek ways to obtain the required data. Organizing Managers must structure their organization and coordinate the organization's resources to accomplish its goals. Organizing generally means establishing a formal reporting structure and a system of accountability among workers; it means forming employees into meaningful work groups with appropriate supervision. Defining the hierarchy of authority determining the location of decision making, and providing for coordination all contribute to the organizing process. First-line supervisors and middle managers generally establish a network of contacts within and even outside the organization to gather information. The manager may use interactions with coworkers or colleagues in other organizations to improve their job performance. Managers at all levels attempt to build effective work teams by encouraging cooperation and handling conflict that arises. Managing work groups generally calls for the open exchange of information and ideas. Managers and workers may jointly develop group goals congruent with organizational goals and orchestrate collaborative activities. Increasingly managers must supervise multicultural teams of workers; managing these heterogeneous groups requires special information about the impact of cultural differences on job performance and the techniques for handling them. Managers need to know the status of group activities so that they can modify schedules and resource allocations. Group members must receive and share information about the status of their activities and thought processes. Organizing effectively requires information about the content of jobs, the skills of workers, and the availability of resources in the organization. Managers must also understand the assets and liabilities of various structural forms, such as functional structures, project structures, alliances, or networks. The options for organizing become increasingly complex as managers deal internationally. Securing sufficient and appropriate information to coordinate globally challenges managers to diagnose their

information needs effectively so that they do not obtain too much, too little, or irrelevant information. Leading Leading generally refers to taking actions that direct and motivate employees to accomplish personal and organizational goals. Top executives, middle managers, and first-line supervisor help subordinates develop the skills, knowledge, materials, equipment, and time to perform their jobs. They offer guidance to subordinates about the best way to perform various job related activities. Managers also evaluate their subordinates, and sometimes even peers and superiors, as part of their leadership responsibilities. The manager acquires information about how individuals view the goals the manager has set and seeks information about what would encourage subordinates to accept these goal and work hard to achieve them. What information does a manager need to handle the problem of a poorly performing worker? The manager might need data about the employee's skill level and attitude, the job's requirements, and any job-related goals set. The manager might also need information about unusual factors, such as family illness or defective equipment that might have affected the worker's performance. The manager might also need information about training programs in which the worker has participated. Subordinates also acquire information about how the manager perceives their efforts and adjust their performance and priorities accordingly. In many organizations, formal human resource management systems provide mechanisms for this feedback. What types of information do managers require in order to lead effectively? They first need a clear understanding of the organization's goals and of their responsibilities for accomplishing them. They also benefit by having information about their boss's needs and goals. Managers need data about the skills, abilities, knowledge, needs, and experience of subordinates; they must also regularly secure information about their subordinates' performance. Managers must also have a comprehensive understanding of the situation to select the most appropriate leadership style for influencing workers to perform effectively. Researchers suggest that they need information about workers' needs and maturity, the leader's relationship with the subordinates, the task's structure, the organization's structure, and the organization's environment. What information needs are inherent in the interpersonal roles required for leading? Managers must know the nature of the tasks being performed, the expected standards of performance, and the potential barriers to their accomplishment. They must also have detailed information about the skills, experiences, and expectations of the workers they supervise. In addition, managers must have information about colleagues from whom they might gather information for the organization, listings of professional organizations, and data about colleagues employed by competitors. Effectively motivating and developing subordinates as well as influencing others and building relationships likely require extensive situation specific information that a manager should diagnose. Managers also should diagnose the information required to solve employee-related problems. Effectively leading a multicultural workforce creates both specific and generic information needs for managers functioning in the global arena. Controlling

Managers must also monitor the quality and impact of managerial actions. Controlling means ensuring that performance meets established standards, that workers' activities occur as planned, and that the organization proceeds toward its established goals. Controlling, requires comparative information about the optimal way to implement organizational processes and their actual implementation. In the control process, managers establish standards and methods for measuring performance, assess performance, and then compare performance with the standards. They require information about the organization's functioning to help them anticipate and handle organizational problems and challenges. Managers commonly use information provided in budgets and financial controls to guide and constrain organizational activities. They also use cost information to maintain profitability. Executives at Russell Reynolds Associates, Inc., an executive search firm with offices worldwide, determined that top management required consistent and more detailed information from all offices. The director of international finance there led a design project that resulted in standard accounting procedures that conformed to USA, and international regulations. Q.4 describe business plan Vs MIS plan Business Plan Business goals and objectives. MIS Plan Management information system, objectives, consistent to the business goals and objectives. Business plan and strategy Information strategy for the business plan implementation playing a supportive role. Strategy planning and decisions. Architecture of the Management Information system to support decisions. Management Plan for execution and System development schedule, control. matching the plan execution. Operation plan for the execution. Hardware and software plan for the procurement and the implementation. Q.5 Explain the various cognitive style as identified by James McKinney and Peter Keen. James McKinney and Peter Keen have classified the information related modes of thought along two dimensions: information gathering and information evaluation. The information-gathering dimension focuses on perception, on the way a person organizes the verbal and visual stimuli he or she encounters. Preceptive individuals bring to bear concepts ("precepts") to filter incoming stimuli; from the framework of these concepts, they look for specific conformities with or deviations from the concepts they have already formed. Receptive decision makers focus on details rather than on a pattern and attempt to form a general picture of the situation from these details (a characteristic of inductive thinking). Information evaluation relates to the way an individual brings information to bear in the process of decision making. A systematic (or analytic) decision maker approaches a problem

by structuring it and applying a well-defined method expected to lead to a solution. An intuitive individual applies heuristics (rules of thumb) and shortcuts and uses trial and error to find a solution; these people are more willing to go with their "gut feeling" about the problem. McKinney and Keen stress that all of these modes of thought are appropriate in certain situations, and some combinations of them are particularly fit in certain occupations. Q.6 Bring out the table that indicate the various classes of information Class Organisational Example of information User

The number of employee's. products, Many users at all the levels. services, locations, the type of business, turnover and variety of the details of each one of these entities. Purchases, sales. production, stocks. Functional heads. receivables, payables, outstanding, budgets, statutory information. The trends in sales, production technology. Middle and-the Top The deviations from the budgets, targets, Management. norms etc. Competitor s information, industry and business information plan performance and target; and its analysis. Status information on a particular aspect, Middle Management and such as utilisation, profitability standard, Operations Management. requirement versus availability. Information for problem solving and modelling. Quantitative information on the business status. Non-moving inventory, overdue payments and receivables. Information on the production, sales. Operational and Purchase, despatches consumptions, etc. in Management Supervisor, the form of planned versus actual. The Section officer information for monitoring of execution schedules.

Functional

Knowledge

Decision support

Operational