Lecture 3

Applications of de Moivres theorem

Curves in the complex plane

Complex functions as mappings

Uses of de Moivre and complex exponentials (cos + i sin ) = cos n + i sin n

n

We saw application to trigonometric identities, functional relations for trig. and hyperb. fctns. We next see examples of two more kinds of applications:
solution of dierential equations summation of series

Uses of de Moivre and complex exponentials

Ex. 2

Solving differential equations

d2z d! 2

The solution to

+ z = 0 is simply given by

z = Ce i!
z = x + iy

where C = A + B is a complex constant.

y = Im(z) = Im(( A + B)(cos! + sin ! )) = Asin ! + Bcos!

c.f.
d2 y d!
2

+ y " Im( d 2 + z) = 0, v = A cos ! + B sin !

!

d2z

Uses of de Moivre and complex exponentials

Ex. 3 Summing series
"

e.g. Show

$r
n =0

sin(2n + 1)! =

(1 + r ) sin ! , 1 # 2r cos 2! + r 2

0 < r <1

"r
n=0

sin(2n + 1)# = Im " r n (e(2n+1)# ) = Im(e# " (re 2# ) n )

n n

= Im(e!

1 ) 2! 1 " re

e! (1 " re "2! ) = Im( ) (1 " re 2! )(1 " re "2! ) = sin ! + r sin ! 1 " 2r cos 2! + r 2

Homework
(Question from Maths Collection Paper 2006)

Find Re and Im of 1/(1 z), where z = rei , and hence sum the series n=0 r n cos(n) for r < 1.
1 r sin 1 z 1 r cos Answ. : +i = = 1z |1 z|2 1 + r2 2r cos 1 + r2 2r cos
Re Im

r cos(n) =
n=0 n=0

r Re e

in

= Re

(rei )n
n=0

= Re

1 1 r cos = 1 rei 1 + r2 2r cos

cos 2 4

Show that 1 +

cos 2

cos 3 8

+ ... =

42 cos 54 cos

Answ. :
n=0

1 cos(n) = Re ein = Re 2n 2n n=0 n=0 = Re

ei 2

1 cos /2 4 2 cos 1 = = 1 ei /2 1 + 1/4 cos 5 4 cos

CURVES IN THE COMPLEX PLANE

locus of points satisfying constraint in complex variable z Examples
Im z |z| = 1 1 Re z Im z z z* = i i/2 Re z Im z arg z = / 3 Re z

Curves in the complex plane

Ex 1

| z |= 1
i!

z = re
or

" r = 1, any !
z = a + ib

(a)2 + (b)2 = 1,

Circle centre (0,0), radius 1

| z ! z0 |= 1
Circle centre z0, radius 1

(a ! a0 ) 2 + (b ! b0 ) 2 = 1

Curves in the complex plane

Ex 2

z ! z +

|= 1
Real axis

| z ! i |=| z + i |
Distance from (0,1) = distance from (0,-1)

or (a) 2 + (b ! 1) 2 = (a) 2 + (b + 1) 2

z = a + ib

b = 0, a arbitrary

Another way to dene a curve: : [a, b] C : t z = (t) = x(t) + iy(t)

Im z x(t) = x 0 + R cos t Re z Im z x(t) = x 0 + R cos t 1 y(t) = y0 + R sin t 2 Im z x(t) = t cos t y(t) = t sin t i.e., z = t e i t Re z Re z y(t) = y + R sin t 0 0<t<2

Homework (Maths Paper 2007) Sketch the curve in the complex plane z = at eibt , 6 t 6

where a and b are real constants given by a = 1.1, b = /3.

Im z

1.1 1 6 1.1

6
Re z

Curves in the complex plane

Ex 3
z arg( z +1 ) = ! 4

i.e. arg(z) ! arg(z + 1) =

" 4

Take tan of both sides :

tan( A ! B) =
b a

tan A ! tan B 1 + tan Atan B

b(a + 1) ! ba ! ab 1 + =1 = b b a (a + 1) + b 2 1 + a . a +1
b = a (a + 1) + b 2

z = a + ib

(a + 1 ) 2 + (b ! 1 ) 2 = 2 2

1 2

but BEWAREnot all of circle satisfies equation

z arg( z +1 ) = ! 4

z z z * +1 z(z * + 1) (a + ib)(a + 1 ! ib) a(a + 1) + b2 + ib = . * = = = 2 2 2 z +1 z +1 z +1 z +1 z +1 z +1

" z % positive ! b > 0 since arg $ & # z + 1'

(a + 1 )2 + (b ! 1 )2 = 1 , b > 0 2 2 2

(b < 0 solution introduced by tangent ambiguity )

Alternative solution
z arg( z +1 ) = ! 4

i.e. arg(z) ! arg(z + 1) =

" 4

Solution : portion of circle through (0,0) and (-1,0)

Circle centre (-1/2,1/2) and radius 1/ 2

The lower portion of the circle is given by :

! z arg( z +1 ) = " 34

Homework
(Question from Maths Collection Paper 2009)

Sketch the locus of points in the complex plane for (a) Im(z 2 + i) = 1 , (b) arg(z 2 + i) = /2

Answ. :
2 2 2 z=x+iy;z =x y +2ixy (a) 1+2xy=1= xy=1 y=1/x
Im z 1 Re z

2 = arctg [(1 + 2 x y) / (x y )] = / 2 (b) = 2 2 x =y = x=y 2 x=y,12x >0

Im z Re z

Summary on Curves in the Complex Plane

locus of points satisfying constraint in complex variable z Curves can be dened either directly by constraint in complex variable z
ex. : |z| = R

or by parametric form (t) = x(t) + iy(t)

ex. : x(t) = R cos t y(t) = R sin t , 0 t < 2

intersection of algebraic and geometric approaches

COMPLEX FUNCTIONS AS MAPPINGS

f : z w = f (z) Complex functions can be viewed as mapping sets of points in C (e.g. curves, regions) into other sets of points in C. Example: w = f (z) = ez . Set z = x + iy ;
Im z
f

w = ei . Then = ex ; = y .
Im w b 2 b 1

lines x = a circles = ea lines y = b rays = b

f

b2 b1

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a 1 a2 Re z

Re w

For any subset A of C, the image of A through f is the set of points w such that w = f (z) for some z belonging to A, and is denoted f (A). f maps A on to f (A)

Examples Let f (z) = 1/z. What does f do to the interior and exterior of the unit circle |z| = 1? What does f do to points on the unit circle?
Answ. : w = f (z) =
Im z

1 ; z
f

z = rei w =
Im w

1 i e r

Re z

Re w

f maps the interior of the unit circle on to the exterior, and viceversa. Unit circle is mapped on to itself.

Let f (z) = (z 1)/(z + 1). What is the image through f of the imaginary axis? [Answ.: unit circle] And of the right and left half planes? [Answ.: interior and exterior of
unit circle]

Let f (z) = ln z (principal branch). What is the image through f of the upper half plane? [Answ.: horizontal strip between 0 and i]