BIOMATERIALS

BIOMATERIALS A very general definition of biomaterial is: All materials that are used for biological applications are called biomaterials. Some of the more rigorous definitions are;

A biomaterial can be defined as any material used to make devices to replace a part or a function of the body in a safe, reliable, economic, and physiologically acceptable manner. A biomaterial is a synthetic material used to replace part of a living system or to function in intimate contact with living tissue. A systemically and pharmacologically inert substance designed for implantation within or incorporation with living systems. - The Clemson University, Advisory Board for Biomaterials A biomaterial is a nonviable material used in a medical device, intended to interact with biological systems (Williams,
1987). If the word medical is removed, this definition becomes broader and can encompass the wide range of applications suggested above. If the word nonviable is removed, the definition becomes even more general and can address many new tissue-engineering and hybrid artificial organ applications where living cells are used. Biomaterials science is the physical and biological study of materials and their interaction with the biological environment. A biomaterial is different from a medical device in the manner that a medical device is located outside the human body while biomaterials are inside human bodies.. Examples of medical devices are oxygenator, ventilator, ballooning device used to remove blood clots. Some examples of biomaterials used in human bodies are sutures, tooth fillings, needles, catheters, bone plates, etc. Applications of biomaterials are Joint replacements Bone plates Bone cement Artificial ligaments and tendons Dental implants for tooth fixation Blood vessel prostheses Heart valves Skin repair devices Cochlear replacements Contact lenses Some commonly used biomaterials are - 1. Silicone rubber 2. Dacron 3. Cellulose 4. Poly (methyl methacrylate) 5. Polyurethanes 6. Hydrogels 7. Stainless steel 8. Titanium 9. Alumina 10. Hydroxyapatite 11. Collagen (reprocessed)

BIOCOMPATIBILITY Biocompatibility is the most fundamental requirement for successful application of biomaterials in human body to substitute functions of organs, tissues etc. It is defined as Acceptance of an artificial implant by the surrounding tissues and by the body as a whole. The biomaterial must not be

degraded by the body environment, and its presence must not harm tissues, organs, or systems. If the biomaterial is designed to be degraded, then the products of degradation should not harm the tissues and organs. Biocompatibility is the ability of a material to perform with an appropriate host response in a specific application

(Williams, 1987). There are four aspects to biocompatibility which are; Non-toxic (Should not lead to toxic effects such as apoptosis (cell death) etc.) Non-immunogenic (Should not be rejected by bodys immune system by the means of antibody generation) Non-carcinogenic (Should not lead to uncontrolled growth and proliferation of cells leading to cancer) Non-allergenic (Should not trigger allergic reactions in the body) Thus one can revise the definition of biomaterials as - A biomaterial is a synthetic material used to replace

part of a living system or to function in intimate contact with living tissue without causing any toxic, immunogenic, carcinogenic or allergic effects to the body.
Biocompatibility is a surface phenomenon. It is because the surface of the biomaterial is in contact with the tissues. The external properties such as plasticity, rigidity, mechanical strength of the biomaterial determine its interaction with the body tissues. Two main types of tissue replacements in the body are: Hard tissue replacement e.g. bone replacement Soft tissue replacement e.g. Breast implantation after removal in case of breast cancer. Tissue engineering is the use of a combination of cells, engineering and materials methods, and suitable biochemical and physio-chemical factors to improve or replace biological functions. While it was once categorized as a sub-field of bio materials, having grown in scope and importance it can be considered as a field in its own right.

SUPPRESSING IMMUNOGENIC EFFECTS The suppression of immunogenic effects or immune responses is called immunosuppression. It is done by Destroy the conformation of immune response forming surface. Give immunosuppressant /immunosuppressive drugs. In general, deliberately induced immunosuppression is performed to prevent the body from rejecting an organ transplant.

The problem that comes with immunosuppression is that that the immune system of the body gets weakened (Immunocopromised). This makes the person vulnerable to even very common diseases. The person needs to be under constant medication to prevent attack from microbes, bad food, water etc. to prevent infection or rejection of implant.

LEACHING IN BIOMATERIALS Additives are required to be added to the biomaterials/polymers being used, such as thermal stabilizers, plasticizers etc. These are mostly low molecular weight compounds and can leach within the body. The substance can be toxic to the body. Hence we must also consider the biocompatibility of the additives being added to the biomaterials. SUCCESS OF A BIOMATERIAL OR IMPLANT FACTORS The success of a biomaterial or an implant depends on the following factors; Properties and biocompatibility of the biomaterial/implant. This further includes Pharmacological acceptability (nontoxic, nonallergenic, nonimmunogenic, noncarcinogenic, etc.) Chemically inert and stable (no time-dependent degradation) Adequate mechanical strength Adequate fatigue life Sound engineering design Proper weight and density Relatively inexpensive, reproducible, and easy to fabricate and process for large-scale production The health condition of the recipient. The competency of the surgeon who implants and monitors its progress and the hospital conditions and management. CATEGORIES OF BIOMATERIALS METALS Metals and their alloys are commonly used as biomaterials. Some examples are Ti and its alloys, CoCr alloys, Au, Ag stainless steels, etc.) Some applications are joint replacements, dental root implants, pacer and suture wires, bone plates and screws. The advantages of metals are that they are strong, tough and ductile. Disadvantages are Metals are dense and heavy and it is difficult for the patient to move around or carry out other activities with them. Metals can corrode after some time which reduces the longevity of the implant. Metals ions can start leaching in the body after some time, as metals are reactive. This can lead to toxicity problems. They are hard and hence can be used only for hard tissue replacement. Due to the poor biocompatibility of metals as biomaterials they are being phased out and replaced by other materials. CERAMICS Ceramics (A

ceramic is an inorganic, non-metallic solid prepared by the action of heat and subsequent cooling)

are used as

biomaterials. Examples are alumina, zirconia, calcium phosphates including hydroxyapatites, carbon etc. Applications are in dental and orthopaedic implants. The advantage of ceramics is that they are more biocompatible and inert. The disadvantages are that they are brittle, not resilient and weak in tension and of high density. Overall they are not much biocompatible and have limited uses.

POLYMERS Polymers are highly useful as biomaterials. Even the nature suggests so as several of the constituents in our body are polymeric in nature such as proteins (of amino acids), DNA (of nucleotides). Some examples of biomaterials are nylon, silicone, rubber, polyester, PTFE etc. Some applications are in sutures, blood vessels, ear, nose and other soft tissues. Their advantage is that they are resilient and easy to fabricate. The disadvantages are that that they are not strong, may deform due to their elastic nature and also can degrade with time. Polymers have some important advantages over metals and ceramics Hydrophobic and bio stable. Both bio stable and biodegradable polymers can be designed. Can be tailor-made to create desired properties Complex design can be processed at one go Polymers can be processed at low temperatures Mass scale production is easy COMPOSITES Composites are fast gaining importance as biomaterials. Some examples are carbon-carbon wires or fibre, reinforced bone cement. Composite materials, often shortened to composites (also called composition materials), are typtically engineered materials made from two

or more constituent materials with significantly different physical or chemical properties, that when combined, produce a material with

characteristics different from the individual components. The individual components remain separate and distinct within the finished structure or compound. So one can obtain composites by mixing two or more polymers or a polymer and a metal.
Some applications are bone cement, dental resin. They have the advantage that they are very biocompatible, strong and tailormade. Their disadvantage is that they are difficult to make/processing is difficult and they are expensive.

POLYMERS AS BIOMATERIALS POLYMERS A polymer is a chemical compound or mixture of compounds consisting of repeating structural units created through a process of polymerization. The term derives from the ancient Greek word polus, meaning "many, much" and meros, meaning "parts", and refers to a molecule whose structure is composed of multiple repeating units, from which originates a characteristic of high relative molecular mass and attendant properties. DEGREE OF POLYMERISATION The degree of polymerization, or DP, is usually defined as the number of monomeric units in a macromolecule or polymer or oligomer molecule. For a homopolymer, there is only one type of monomeric unit and the number-average degree of polymerization is given by,

where, Mn is the number-average molecular weight and M0 is the molecular weight of the monomer unit. For most industrial purposes, degrees of polymerization in the thousands or tens of thousands are desired. Mainly, there are two types used to measure the degree of polymerization, number average degree of polymerization and weight average degree of polymerization. Number Average degree of polymerization is found by finding the weighted mean of mole fraction o. While the weight average degree of polymerization is found by finding the weighted mean of weight fraction.

MOLECULAR MASSES OF POLYMERS In linear polymers the individual polymer chains rarely have exactly the same degree of polymerization and molar mass, and there is always a distribution around an average value. The molar mass distribution (or molecular weight distribution) in a polymer describes the relationship between the number of moles of each polymer species (Ni) and the molar mass (Mi) of that species. Different average values can be defined depending on the statistical method that is applied. The weighted mean can be taken with the weight fraction, the mole fraction or the volume fraction: Number average molar mass or Mn Weight average molar mass or Mw Viscosity average molar mass or Mv Z average molar mass or Mz

The number average molecular weight is the ordinary arithmetic mean or average of the molecular weights of the individual macromolecules. It is determined by measuring the molecular weight of n polymer molecules, summing the weights, and dividing by n. The weight average molecular weight is a way of describing the molecular weight of a polymer. Polymer molecules, even if of the same type, come in different sizes (chain lengths, for linear polymers), so we have to take an average of some kind. For the weight average molecular weight, this is calculated by

where Ni is the number of molecules of molecular weight Mi . Polymer masses and chain lengths/degree of polymerisation are measured by Size Exclusion Chromatography and gel Permeation Chromatography.

GLASS TRANSITION TEMPERATURE The glass-liquid transition (or glass transition for short) is the reversible transition in amorphous materials (or in amorphous regions within semi crystalline materials) from a hard and relatively brittle state into a molten or rubber-like state. The glass transition temperature Tg is always lower than the melting temperature, Tm, of the crystalline state of the material, if one exists.