2/27/13

Paper presentation: Optical computing

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PAPER PRESENTATION
S A T UR D A Y, A P R I L 2 4 , 2 0 1 0 FO LLO W ER S

Optical computing
ABST RACT We liv e in interesting times . By ex ceeding good fortune , we happen to liv e in an era where computing is taking new meanings and is manifesting itself in new spheres of activ ity by the day . In these circumstances, the need for processing power will not be denied. By the limitations of nature, silicon can aid us in our quest for dominion only to such an ex tent. Ov ercoming maudlin sentimentality will be our biggest challenge in this coming generation, for the future, belongs elsewhere. Nanotechnology , Molecular technology and quantum computing all hav e shown tremendous promise in being the nex t big wav e of the future. Howev er, while the former two are further branches down the same dead end road, the latter is unable to break the shackles of science fiction in a conv incing way . An intermediate step down this road, we believ e lies in the direction of optical computing. With the ex citing new discov eries that hav e captured the attention of the whole world in the last y ear, no longer can we afford to let optical computing remain a term in the dictionary . If we are to remain competent, the future lies that way . INT RODUCT ION Squeezed light, holograms, and lasers sound like things y ou'd find in a science-fiction nov el, but they can also -be found in the labs around the world where they are used in the "thinking" machines of tomorrow-optical computers. Since they are based on lightwav e technology , optical computers can process Information a million or more times faster than electronic computers. They are inherently parallel processors and almost completely immune to interference. Optical computers use laser beams in place of wires. Unlike wires, laser beams can cross and intersect without affecting one another. Furthermore, multiple beams can conv erge on a single switching point with any combination of one or more beams triggering the switch. An electronic equiv alent of such a multiple Input switch is much more complex . Optical computers hav e all these adv antages
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201 0 (1 00) April (1 00) NANOPARTICLES IN THE DRUG DELIV ERY NEW DISTRIBUTED QUERY OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUES PALLADIUM A REV OLUTIONARY BREAK THROUGH role of grid computing in internet STEGANOGRAPHY AND DIGITAL WATERMARKING nanoelectronics single electron transistor molecular nanotechnology information security and adv antages
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Paper presentation: Optical computing

because of the fundamental nature of light. Photons: Quantum theory tells us that light has the properties of both wav es and particles. When discussing its particle nature, we call the particles "photons," Howev er, because of light's wav e-like properties, photons can do things that are impossible for ty pical particles-such as electrons. For ex ample, thousands of photons can pass through a single point simultaneously without interfering with one another. Photons can also trav el faster than electrons, which makes faster computational speeds possible. As we'll discuss later on, light can also be used to represent information in many different way s. For ex ample, one could modulate the brightness (photons per second) of a beam of light, which would produce an amplitude-modulated signal (AM) for analog computing. AM signals can also be used to transmit binary data--y ou just need to define a brightness threshold to represent a one and another to represent a zero. Furthermore, we can frequency -modulate (FM) light. Changing the frequency is equiv alent to changing its color. More adv anced methods of light manipulation--like "spatial modulation" and holograms. All these Intriguing possibilities hav e been tempting scientists since the 1 950s, but the technology to support them only began to appear during breakthrough research dating back to the eighties. T he Early Day s: The early optical-computer research In the 1 950s was performed using mercury -arc lamps and sunlight. The method prov ed less than effectiv e. Today , the laser (inv ented in 1 960) is the key to optical computing. A laser produces a single coherent beam of light (all the light has the same frequency , energy phase, and direction) that is used to transmit optical information in a concise, coherent, and controlled manner. V arious attempts at building optical computers ov er the sev enties and the eighties had some small successes, but the real adv ances had to wait for optical switches and semiconductor lasers. The problem with most lasers is that they are somewhat large. An optical computer may need thousands or ev en millions of controlled laser beams. We can create them by splitting a single beam into as many beams as necessary , but that is a messy approach. A better solution is prov ided by the semiconductor laser. The first semiconductor lasers worked by apply ing a current through the alternating lay ers of gallium arsenide (GaAs) semiconductor material, the steadily mov ing electrons generate in-phase photons, which emerge from the edge of the lay ered semiconductor material as a coherent laser beam.
azhar-paperpresentation.blogspot.in/2010/04/optical-computing.html

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Paper presentation: Optical computing

CURRENT OPT ICAL T ECHNOLOGY : Recent semiconductor lasers take adv antage of quantum effects that result from the phy sical lay out of chip lay ers. This technology has giv en us "quantum-well" lasers. Although these laser chips put out only a few milliwatts of power, they are useful in CD play ers, laser-based "tape measures," and optical telephone circuits. Quantum wire laser: One step bey ond the quantum well laser is the quantum-wire laser. Quantum-wire lasers are composed of alternating lay ers of GaAs and aluminum gallium arsenide (AlGaAs). These efficient diode lasers are smaller and more powerful than their predecessor-- producing about 1 0 milliwatts of output power. Optical computing requires this greater power because the beam must be sufficiently strong ev en after it is split. The problem with quantum-wire lasers is the ex pensiv e cost of growing the zero-dimensional wires found in the AlGaAs lasers. The price should fall dramatically in the near future with improv ed manufacturing techniques and larger quantities. Scientists in Japan 's Basic Research Labs hav e predicted that quantum-wire lasers should be able to switch on and off at rates up to 1 00 GHz. As mentioned earlier, there are many basic methods of sending signals by light. The simplest technique is to simply turn it on and off, like Morse code. As prev iously stated, the presence of a beam could denote a one and its absence a zero. That is the binary method used in the most widely known optical computer, built at AT&T Bell Labs by Alan Huang. Huang has been working in the optical computer field for ov er thirty y ears. When he started thinking about optical computers, lasers and semiconductor chips were both relativ ely new dev elopments. In the beginning, he had to work with crude technology . Then, he needed to wait for many new dev elopments to occur such as better lasers, ICs, and the optical switch. SEEDs: The switches, known as Self Electroptic-Effect Dev ices (SEEDs), are key to the computer's operation. A control laser beam turns each switch on or off. The switch controls the passage of a second laser beam--the signal beam-- based on the presence or absence of the control beam. There are two classes of optical switch: transmissiv e and reflectiv e. A transmissiv e switch either blocks the signal beam or allows it to pass to its destination. A reflectiv e switch reflects the signal beam to a destination or prev ents it from getting there, either absorbing it or permitting it to pass through to somewhere else. Regardless of its ty pe, when a switch is on, the signal beam can continue to trav el. When it's off, the signal beam is stopped, so a
azhar-paperpresentation.blogspot.in/2010/04/optical-computing.html

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Paper presentation: Optical computing

SEED acts ex actly like a transistor in an electronic computer. In fact, an optical computer works like any other computer; it just uses the optical switches and laser beams in place of transistors and electric currents, respectiv ely . Although Dav id Miller (also of Bell Labs) dev eloped the switches in 1 986, it still took fiv e y ears to build an optical computer. Alan Huang and twelv e colleagues built an optical computer at Bell Labs early in the nineties. It had 8000 optical switches--each one only ten micrometers (.00004 inch) wide. Huang's optical computer used only a small percentage of its thousands of switches. It only counted, but ev en that was significant for a completely optical computer. It prov ed the theory behind optical computing. Huang's computer used the SEED switches, connected as NOR gates, to form two eight-bit counters. Each NOR gate has a switching time of one nanosecond. That compares fav orably to electronic NOR gates that switch at between 5 to 50 nanoseconds. The computer also uses two ten-milliwatt lasers and v arious lenses, beam splitters, and pattern masks. Optical computers hav e one problem that electronic computers do not--alignment. Y ou can't do much computing if a beam misses a switch, and it takes considerable work to line up all the beams precisely . Alignment difficulties are among the reasons Huang's computer only uses a part of its capability . That isn't a problem in a standard computer since the electrons trav el within conductors--mask registration difficulties during IC wafer fabrication not-withstanding. Once an IC chip is built and tested, it will alway s work without worry of further alignment adjustments. As we said earlier, the AT&T computer was a straightforward reproduction of ex isting computer architecture on a different medium--light. There are other way s of using light to compute; let's look at some of the alternativ es. Spatial Light Modulators: Spatial Light Modulators (SLMs) take adv antage of light's unique properties, They direct multiple beams in multiple directions to permit parallel-processing operation. SLMs are like a cross between a piece of photographic film and a Liquid-Cry stal Display (LCD). They are made up of many tiny squares, and electronics or light controls each square. A square allows some, none, or the entire signal beam to pass. One of their primary uses is pattern matching. An input signal controls one SLM. The result comes from comparing its output to a second SLM controlled by the computer. This method can determine ex act matches or near misses. It also giv es the answer, literally , at the speed of light, allowing for easier and faster "fuzzy logic" matching than today 's computers.
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Paper presentation: Optical computing

Like other optical switches, SLMs can be either transmissiv e or reflectiv e. The transmissiv e ty pe either passes or stops the light. The reflectiv e ty pe either reflects or absorbs (redlrects) the light. The reflectiv e ty pe requires beam splitters to direct the reflected light. As mentioned, SLMs can store reference patterns. These patterns might be actual images, numbers, or any other encoded Information. They can hold binary numbers by encoding them positionally along the squares. With proper encoding and positioning, they perform ex tremely fast mathematical calculations. Using two SLMs and passing light through their associated squares allows them to add, subtract, multiply , or div ide. The nice thing is that the calculation takes place immediately regardless of the length of the number. In a digital computer, calculations usually take a considerable amount of digit shifting and manipulation. An optical computer calculates the entire number simultaneously . It's only limited by the number of squares and the complex ity of the SLM. Holograms: Holographic computers work similarly to SLMs, but with greater accuracy . Such computers can compare a holographic image with a reference hologram. The reference hologram must be created specifically for the task and can be either computer generated or created from real-world input, such as an image or other signal. To use a holographic computer, y ou apply a holographic input signal to the reference hologram, which is used as a filter. The resulting light pattern is usually monitored by a charged-coupled dev ice (CCD) array . The CCD is a digital-imaging unit, like a telev ision camera, that is used for optical imaging in camcorders, telescopes, and other dev ices. A CCD produces a digital output representing any image focused on its surface. This combination of holographic filtering and CCD matching and monitoring can identify faces, fingerprints, or parts on an assembly line. Holograms are also being used to aid in data transfer and storage, Smart-Pix el-Array (SPA) modules use hologram array s to help direct light sent by tiny V ertical-Cav ity Surface-Emitting Lasers (V CSEL), Researchers at the Univ ersity of Colorado at Boulder are currently working with SPA-modules for their ongoing opticalcomputer research. Quantum Limits: According to the Helsenberg Uncertainty Principle, the more y ou know about the position of a photon in time and space, the less y ou'll know about its mass and energy . Since a laser beam consists of photons that hav e approx imately the same energy and frequency , we know the energy of the photons pretty well. That limits the certainty with which we can
azhar-paperpresentation.blogspot.in/2010/04/optical-computing.html

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A B O UT M E A ZHA R V I EW M Y C O M P LET E P R O FI LE

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Paper presentation: Optical computing

know where a particular photon is in space. Because the most we can say about a photon's location is that it will be within a giv en area, we must allow for detection of photons ov er the entire area. That limits the minimum size and the applications of optical dev ices. Ev en so, the limit is so small that it is usually not a problem. By the time we reach the point where we must deal with the positions of single photons, we may hav e completely new computing methods or hav e learned enough that the uncertainty doesn't matter. Scientists are using "squeezed light" to reduce some of the uncertainty . They do this by controlling a laser beam to create areas of greater uncertainty at certain points along the beam. Since the ov erall uncertainty is conserv ed, this process results in areas with lower uncertainty elsewhere in the beam. In other words, there are points along the beam where the photons are restricted to a smaller area than av erage; we are more certain where they are. By increasing most of the uncertainty in a particular area, we can work more precisely with the remaining areas. Researchers in Colorado hav e managed to steer rubidium atoms through fibers as narrow as 1 0 microns. Adv ances in particle control may lead to the "painting" of circuits on an atomic scale-something far more practical than IBM's demonstration of writing the letters "IBM" with indiv idual gold atoms. ADVANT AGES OF OPT ICS FAST ER T RANSMISSION: Coherent light, which permits a whole range of processing capabilities, may be generated inex pensiv ely by laser diodes, as these hav e dropped rapidly in price in the last few y ears due to mass production. A cheap CD play er in the home contains sev eral of them. Laser diodes can be modulated at 30 GHZ. The adv antage of optics ov er electronics is the higher bandwidth that enables more information to be carried. This is because electronic communication along copper requires charging a capacitance that caries with length. In contrast, optical signals in optical fibers, optical ICs and free space don't hav e to charge a capacitor and are therefore, faster. This faster transmission with optics is important because transmission time between units is often the limiting factor for performance on high-speed machines. Faster transmission permits faster computational elements to be used. V ery high-speed machines use additional power to prov ide speed and hav e elements located close to one another to limit transmission time. LESS INT ERFERENCE: Another adv antage of optics comes because of photonic
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Paper presentation: Optical computing

properties-they don't interact like electrons. Consequently , light beams may pass through one another without distorting the information carried. This suggests that optical memory may be able to av oid the difficulties of memory contention, at least during reads. Loops of connections are difficult to av oid in massiv ely parallel sy stems. In the case of electrons, loops will generate noise v oltage spikes whenev er the electromagnetic fields through the loops changes. Further, high frequency or fast switching pulses will cause interference in neighboring wires. Signals in adjacent fibers or in optical integrated channels do not interfere with each other nor do they pick up noise due to loops. PARALLELISM: Y et another adv antage of optics is that images are array s of pix els that may be handled in parallel. Thus, it is conceiv able to process a million elements or more in parallel by formulating a problem as a sequence of steps on a 2-D array . In the past, the lack of interference between photons made it difficult to use a small signal to control a large signal for producing gain, as in a transistor. Howev er, recently , v ery high-speed, lowswitching-energy dev ices hav e been demonstrated by increasing the non-linearity using GaAs quantum well and other structures. Consequently optical switches hav e comparable performance to electronic ones. The mov ement from silicon to GaAs for high sped electronics encourages the use of optics for on-chip and betweenchip interconnection and switches to av oid the need and energy cost to transform optical signals on fibers to electronics for phone switching. SUPERIORST ORAGE CAPABILIT Y : A further adv antage of optics for computers results from the superior storage and accessibility of optical material ov er magnetic materials. Magnetic disks require the floating of pick up coils within one micron of the surface. Optical disks use focused laser beams to read the information so that the light source does not hav e to be as close to the storage material. In short, optics is: * Immune to electromagnetic interference * Free from short electrical circuits * Able to hav e low-loss transmission * Able to prov ide large bandwidth (capable of communicating sev eral channels in parallel without interference) * Capable of propagating signals within the same or adjacent fibers
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Paper presentation: Optical computing

with no interference * Compact, lightweight, and inex pensiv e to manufacture WHY T HE NEED FOR SPEED? Present-day computers are lacking in efficiency due to their natural limitations. They just aren't fast enough to keep up with the demands of the modern Internet world. Currently , the information in a computer is passed through copper wires. In an optical computer, information would pass through light beams--at the speed of light, which is 1 86,000 miles per second. That's pretty fast. Manjari Mehta of Information Sy stems Research Center (ISRC) at the Univ ersity of Houston ex plains the "inefficiency " of electronic computers best, through the following comparison. "Take, for ex ample, e-mail. Today a message is first conv erted from electronic to photonic form and then transmitted ov er fiberoptic cables. The light signal at the other end must then be conv erted back into electronic form for processing by the receiv ing computer. These conv ersions are inefficient and limit the instantaneous nature of computing. If we can find way s of storing the optical message in photonic format and then processing those light encoded signals, there would be no need to conv ert from electronic to photonic form. In simplified terms, this describes an optical computer--performing computations, operating, storing, and transmitting data--using only light." So again, why do we need computers to be so darn fast? According to Dr. Hossin Abdelday em from NASA, Terabit speeds, or one trillion bits, are needed to accommodate the growth rate of the Internet and increasing demand for bandwidth-intensiv e data streams. FACT OR FANT ASY : Optical Computers, long a dream of computer scientists, hav e mov ed a step closer to reality . Researchers at AT&T Bell Labs dev eloped a 2-kbit photonic integrated circuit that they say could be used to build basic optical computing sy stems. "Optical computers hav e been mostly on paper. Now real ex perimental prototy pes can be built," say s Leo Chirov sky , the AT&T researcher who designed the new photonic IC. "This dev ice prov ides the first v iable building blocks for optical computers,' he adds. SEEDS OF T ECHNOLOGY : The 2 mm x 2 mm dev ice is made up of an array of galliumarsenide and aluminum-gallium-arsenide multiple well structures. The chip has 2,048 elements, and subnanosecond switching
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Paper presentation: Optical computing

speeds requiring only 2.5 pj of energy hav e been measured. Each element on the chip is a sy mmetric self electro-optic effect dev ice (S-SEED), a technology first dev eloped at Bell Labs in 1 987 . Each element can operate as a logic gate, memory cell, or a switch. The chip has all optical inputs and outputs. The most sophisticated photonic chip prior to AT&T's was a 1 -kbit chip dev eloped by NEC. It does not hav e optical inputs and functions only as a memory dev ice. The optical 1 /0 capabilities of the AT&T dev ice mean data can be mov ed in and out simultaneously , greatly increasing its processing speed. Speed is optical computing's greatest asset. But the speed of any computer is determined by the speed of the input and output of data. Similar to a large city that has only one-lane highway s to get into and out of it, a chip's processing efficiency is reduced when its 1 /0 ports form data gridlocks. We are try ing to bring 1 /0 up to speed with processing capability . The faster 1 /0 speeds allow the chip to achiev e massiv e connectiv ity , and thus a high degree of parallel processing. Until now parallel processing at the chip lev el just has not been possible in photonics or electronics. A key to the new dev ice is that it ov ercomes some of the stumbling blocks encountered with photonic ICs. Problems with bistability and cascadability of the dev ice hav e held back dev elopment of photonic ICs. But the Bell researchers say they hav e ov ercome these problems and made a more robust chip. The dev ice acts just like a transistor, operating as a three-terminal dev ice, not just as a bistable dev ice. It makes it much easier to operate because the dev ice is tolerant of non uniformities and the biases which are applied to it. Scientists at Intel hav e created another dev ice made of silicon that can encode data onto beams of light at v ery fast speeds. The dev ice, called an optical modulator, will lead to dramatically faster and more powerful microchips that shuffle data around the Internet using light instead of electricity . The optical modulator transmits data by turning on and off, just like electronic pulses create the ones and zeroes that compose the binary language of computers. But instead of electrons, the modulator creates flickers in light beams that can operate at a speed of roughly 1 gigahertz -- meaning it can cy cle about 1 billion times a second. Other optical modulators work at ev en higher rates -- in the tens of gigahertz -- but they are not based on silicon. Till this point, ev ery one has been building optical dev ices out of ex otic materials -- lithium niobate, gallium arsenide -- that are hard to manufacture and v ery ex pensiv e. At Intel they 're doing it all on silicon. This can get made alongside other products and in
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Paper presentation: Optical computing

the long term hav e electronics put on it. Y ou don't need a dedicated facility for it. The ability to use ex isting manufacturing processes and techniques and apply personal computing economics to the dev ices will dramatically reduce costs and sizes. Prev iously , the best silicon optical modulators operated at the comparativ ely slow speed of 20 megahertz, or 20 million cy cles per second. The new dev ice is about 50 times (faster than) the prev ious world record in silicon. This also makes it plausible for inv entors to consider replacing ex isting optical modulators with ones made of silicon. An optical modulator works by directing laser beams into two wav eguides -- the equiv alent of wires for light. By also feeding electric current into the modulator, the researchers altered the phy sical properties of one of the two wav eguides, causing light to pass through the altered guide more slowly . The peaks and troughs of the slowed-down wav es interfere with those in the untouched wav eguide. This results in a canceled light signal -- the digital equiv alent of a zero. After all these quotations in the last two pages, if y ou are still in disbelief about the practicality of this technology , then this info has to make y ou a believ er. -Optical digital signal processors (the size of an IC) hav e been dev eloped, which outstrip their electronic competition by far. -Carbon nanotubes hav e been prov en to act as optical antennas which will make optical transmission work like a cinch. -Optical modulators which till recently were the size of big shoebox es are now as small as their electronic counterparts. So as y ou can see, optical computing is well out of the fiction books and into y our homes. CONCLUSION: Although no single person has the correct or official perspectiv e on such a dy namic field as optical computing, it may be useful to consider the ruminations of two green thumbs still struggling to think through its implications. In that spirit, we hav e offered this purely personal perspectiv e. As we hav e made abundantly clear in the last few pages, we hope, optical computing can no longer be relegated to the shoe closet that it was stagnating in since the end of the prev ious decade. With the adv ent of ground breaking technology , the stuff of dreams is coming true. Last y ear was a particularly successful y ear for the optical computing community . There were a number of amazing breakthroughs in a number of aspects of optics. Intel, Lumera, Lenslet, Boulder Non-Linear Sy stems all came forward with new innov ations that could radically change the innards, if not the
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Paper presentation: Optical computing

face, of computing as we know it. In this contex t, ignorance of this topic would be tantamount to a sin. This paper is basically an attempt to bring this subject out into the spotlight to take its rightful place along with all the hotly pursued topics of today such as Bluetooth, Nanotechnology and the like. We hope our small, stuttering baby steps hav e accomplished something worthwhile. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Poptronics Computing with Light - HighBeam Research. R & D Microprocessor timeline encompasses multiple technologies Poptronics Optical computing the wav e of the futureHighBeam Research. Perspectiv es On OpticalComputing - H. John Caulfield Northeast Photo sciences Inc.
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