ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

THE BLOOD FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD Blood-a liquid connective tissue and has three general functions: 1. Transportationblood transport oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body and CO2 from the cells to the lungs. It also carries nutrients from the gastrointestinal tract to body cells, heat and waste products away from cells, and hormones from endocrine glands to other body cells. 2. Regulationblood helps regulate the pH of body fluids. The heat-absorbing and coolant properties of the water in blood plasma and its variable rate of flow through the ski8n help adjust body temperature. Blood osmotic pressure also influences the water content of cells. 3. ProtectionBlood clots in response to an injury which protects against its excessive loss from the cardiovascular system. White blood cells protect against disease be carrying on phagocytosis and producing proteins called antibodies. Blood contains additional proteins, called interferons and complement, that also help protect against disease. COMPONENTS OF WHOLE BLOOD 1. 55% Blood Plasmaa straw-colored liquid that contains dissolved substances. -contains 7% plasma proteins (albumins, globulins, fibrinogen, all others); 91.5% water and 1.5% other solutes (electrolytes, nutrients, gases, regulatory substances, waste products) 2. 45% Formed Elementswhich are cells and fragments A. Red Blood cells --- are biconcave discs without nuclei that contain hemoglobin ---the function of the hemoglobin in the RBC is to transport oxygen and part of the CO2. ---RBC cells live about 120 days. A healthy male has about 5.4 M RBCs/ul of blood and a healthy female has 4.8 M RBCs/uL ---After phagocytosis aged RBC by macrophages, hemoglobin is recycled ---RBC formation called erythropoiesis occurs in adult red bone marrow. It is stimulated by hypoxia, which stimulates the release of erythropoietin by the kidneys. B. White blood cells ---are nucleated cells ---functions to combat inflammation and infection. Granular leukocytes a. Neutrophils- phagocytosis b. Eosinophils- combat inflammation in allergic reactions, phagocytize antigen-antibody complexes, and combat parasitic worms c. Basophils- liberate heparin, histamine, and serotonin in allergic reactions that intensify the inflammatory response

Agranular Leukocytes a. T lymphocytes (effective against viruses, fungi, and cancer cells); B lymphocytes (effective against bacteria and other toxins); Natural killer cells (attacks microbes and tumor cells. b. Monocytes-develop to macrophage which combat inflammation and infection through phagocytosis. 4. Platelets ---disk shaped cell fragments without nuclei ---formed from megakaryocytes and take part in hemostasis by forming a platelet plug; release chemicals that promote vascular spasms and blood clotting ---normal blood contains 150,000-400,000 platelets/uL FORMATION OF BLOOD CELLS Red blood cells, most white blood cells, and platelets are produced in the bone marrow, the soft fatty tissue inside bone cavities. Two types of white blood cells, T and B lymphocytes, are also produced in the lymph nodes and spleen, and T lymphocytes are produced and mature in the thymus gland. Within the bone marrow, all blood cells originate from a single type of unspecialized cell called a stem cell. When a stem cell divides, it first becomes an immature red blood cell, white blood cell, or platelet-producing cell. The immature cell then divides, matures further, and ultimately becomes a mature red blood cell, white blood cell, or platelet. The rate of blood cell production is controlled by the body's needs. Normal blood cells last for a limited time (ranging from a few hours to a few days for white blood cells, to about 10 days for platelets, to about 120 days for red blood cells) and must be replaced constantly. Certain conditions may trigger additional production of blood cells. When the oxygen content of body tissues is low or the number of red blood cells decreases, the kidneys produce and release erythropoietin , a hormone that stimulates the bone marrow to produce more red blood cells. The bone marrow produces and releases more white blood cells in response to infections. It produces and releases more platelets in response to bleeding. HEMOSTASIS ---stoppage of bleeding involves: 1. Vascular Spasmsthe smooth muscle of a blood vessel wall contracts. 2. Platelet Plug formationThe aggregation of platelets to stop bleeding 3. Blood clottinginvolves a series of reactions that may be divided into three stages: formation of prothrombinase by either the extrinsic or intrinsic pathway, conversion of prothrombin into thrombin and conversion of soluble fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin. THE GASTROINTESTINAL SYSTEM Six basic processes 1. Ingestion process involves taking foods and liquids into the mouth (eating). 2. Secretion cell within the walls of the GI tract and accessory organs secrete a total of about 7 liters of water, acid, buffers, and enzymes into the lumen of the tract.

3. Mixing and propulsion Alternating contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle in the walls of the GI tract mix food and secretions and propel them toward the anus. 4. Digestion Mechanical and chemical processes break down ingested food into small molecules. 5. Absorption the entrance of ingested and secreted fluid, ions and the small molecules that are products of digestion into the epithelial cells lining the lumen of the GI tract. 6. Defecation Wastes, indigestible substances, bacteria, cells shed form the lining of the GI tract, and digested materials that were not absorbed leave the body through the anus. The GI tract - An open-ended tube where food passes through. The Oral Cavity / Mouth - The place where food gets chewed by the teeth. The process is called mastication. - When food gets masticated and mixed with saliva, the food is reduced to a soft, flexible, easily swallowed mass called a bolus (= lump). - Tongue, teeth and salivary glands are digestive accessory organs responsible for bolus formation. - Salivary gland is very important in the early stages of digestion. It secretes saliva via small ducts to moisten food. - Saliva is responsible for initial digestion of carbohydrates Six Regions of the Oral Cavity Pharynx Esophagus Stomach Small intestine Large intestine The Pharynx - A funnel-shaped tube that is composed of skeletal muscle and lined by mucous membrane. - It propels food downward towards the esophagus. Bacteria contained in the bolus can be destroyed by the tonsils. The Esophagus - A muscular tube lined with stratified squamous epithelium that lies posterior to the trachea. - It transports the bolus into the stomach and drops the bolus into the gastro esophageal sphincter which is the passageway into the stomach. The Stomach - A J-shaped enlargement of the GI tract directly below the diaphragm. - It begins the chemical breakdown of protein by the enzyme pepsin and turns the bolus into a thick liquid called chyme. The Liver

Located at the right of the stomach. It produces a substance that will help in digestion called bile. Bile is not an enzyme but rather a salt solution that breaks down fat into small fat droplets then the enzyme in the small intestine can work on the fats.

The Gallbladder - stores bile until it is needed by the small intestine. The Pancreas - Located between the stomach and small intestine. - It produces pancreatic juice that contains many enzymes which will act on the chyme. - Also produces sodium bicarbonate which will neutralize the acidity of the chyme as it come from the stomach into the small intestine. The Small Intestine - Walls of the small intestine are covered with millions of finger-like structures called villi. - Villi contains small blood vessel that absorbs nutrients. The Large Intestine - last part of the GI tract Function of the Large intestine a.) completion of absorption b.) production of vitamin K and B c.) formation of feces d.) expulsion of feces in the body Summary of Digestive Enzymes Substrate Starches Starches Maltose Sucrose Lactose

Enzyme Carbohydrate Digesting Salivary amylase Pancreatic amylase Maltase Sucrase Lactase Protein Digesting

Source

Product Maltose, maltotriose, and dextrins Maltose, maltotriose, and dextrins Glucose Glucose and fructose Glucose and galactose

Salivary glands Pancreas Small intestine Small intestine Small intestine

Pepsin Trypsin Chymotrypsin Carboxypeptidase Peptidases Lipid Digesting Pancreatic lipase

Stomach(chief cells) Pancreas Pancreas Pancreas Small intestine

Proteins Proteins Proteins Amino acid at carboxyl end of peptides Amino acid at amino end of peptides and dipeptides Triglycerides that have been emulsified by bile salts

Peptides Peptides Peptides Peptides and amino acids Peptides and amino acids Fatty acids monoglycerides and

Pancreas

Nucleases Ribonuclease Dexoyribonuclease

Pancreas Pancreas

Ribonucleic acid Deoxyribonucleic acid

Nucleotides Nucleotides