Out of The Boardroom and Into The Classroom: Servant Leadership in Youth Leadership Development

Out of the Boardroom and into the Classroom:
Servant Leadership in Youth Leadership Development
Nathan Eva 20294492
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Business (Honours) MGX 4400 Department of Management Faculty of Business and Economics Monash University October, 2009
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr. Sen Sendjaya, whose guidance and wisdom throughout my thesis has been everything I could have hoped for and more. I would also like to thank Dr. Ross Donohue and Dr. Brian Cooper who throughout the year have encouraged and guided me towards this end product. My gratitude goes to the secondary colleges involved, the teachers and leadership facilitators who graciously gave up their time and the students, who this study is for. Lastly, I would like to thank my family for their help and support throughout this year and the kind staff in the Victorian Health System who have put my shoulder back in not once, but twice this year.
Out of the Boardroom and into the Classroom: Servant Leadership in Youth Leadership Development
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STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP
Except where reference is made in the text, this thesis contains no material published elsewhere or extracted in whole or part from a thesis or report presented by me for another degree of diploma. No other persons work as been used without due acknowledgement in the main text of the thesis. The thesis has not been submitted for the award of any other degree or diploma in this or any other tertiary institution.
........................................................................ Nathan Mark Eva 23 October, 2009
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements.................................................................................................................................. i Statement of Authorship ........................................................................................................................ ii Table of Contents ................................................................................................................................... iii List of Tables ........................................................................................................................................... v List of Figures ......................................................................................................................................... vi Abstract ................................................................................................................................................. vii Chapter One - Introduction..................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Purpose of the Study..................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................................ 2 1.3 Defining Servant Leadership ......................................................................................................... 5 1.4 Significance of the Research ......................................................................................................... 5 1.5 Thesis Overview ............................................................................................................................ 6 Chapter Two Literature Review ........................................................................................................... 9 2.1 Leadership ..................................................................................................................................... 9 2.2 Youth Leadership Development.................................................................................................. 10 2.3 Servant Leadership...................................................................................................................... 15 2.4 Servant Leadership in Youth Leadership Development .............................................................. 24 Chapter Three - Methodology .............................................................................................................. 27 3.1 Research Design .......................................................................................................................... 27 3.2 Sources of Evidence .................................................................................................................... 29 3.3 Instrumentation .......................................................................................................................... 32 3.4 Procedures .................................................................................................................................. 33 3.5 Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 39 Chapter Four - Results........................................................................................................................... 41 4.1 Document Analysis...................................................................................................................... 41 4.2 Interviews.................................................................................................................................... 43 4.3 Survey.......................................................................................................................................... 48 Chapter Five - Discussion ...................................................................................................................... 51 5.1 Research Question 1 ................................................................................................................... 51 5.2 Research Question 2 ................................................................................................................... 59 Out of the Boardroom and into the Classroom: Servant Leadership in Youth Leadership Development Page iii
5.3 Research Question 3 ................................................................................................................... 64 5.4 Combining Servant Leadership with Youth Leadership Development ....................................... 67 Chapter Six - Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 74 6.1 Key Findings ................................................................................................................................ 74 6.2 Significance and Limitations of the Study ................................................................................... 76 6.3 Implications for Future Research ................................................................................................ 77 6.4 Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 78 References ............................................................................................................................................ 79 Appendix 1 Servant Leadership Behavioural Scale ............................................................................ 90 Appendix 2 Ethics Approval ............................................................................................................... 91 Appendix 3 Participant Consent Form ............................................................................................... 92 Appendix 4 Letter of Invitation .......................................................................................................... 93 Appendix 5 Interview Questions ........................................................................................................ 94
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Themes in servant leadership ................................................................................................. 33 Table 2 Secondary college sample breakdown (N=100) ...................................................................... 41 Table 3 Frequency of servant leadership dimensions in leadership programs (N=199) ..................... 42 Table 4 List of interviewees ................................................................................................................. 44 Table 5 Interview responses to servant leadership dimensions .......................................................... 45 Table 6 Frequency and percentage frequency distributions of the interview data ........................... 46 Table 7 Servant leadership dimensions emerging in structured interviews........................................ 48 Table 8 Survey results arising from the Servant Leadership Behavioural Scale .................................. 49
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Conceptual framework: Directionality of effect .................................................................... 13 Figure 2 The relationship between self sacrifice, followers emotions and motivation ...................... 19 Figure 3 Application of the servant leadership framework in secondary college youth leadership development programs ........................................................................................................................ 72
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ABSTRACT
In light of the research-practice gap in youth leadership development with research in many aspects lagging behind the youth leadership development practice, this study seeks to examine youth leadership development in Australia. The needs and challenges associated with youth leadership development in secondary colleges are analysed on the basis of a multidimensional and holistic framework to leadership called servant leadership. A mixed methods research design incorporating multiple sources of data (five secondary college youth leadership development programs, ten semistructured interviews with secondary college teachers and youth leadership facilitators, thirty-three structured interviews with university student leaders, and ninety-seven survey responses of recent secondary college graduates) was used in this study. Key study findings include identification of servant leadership dimensions which are prevalent (i.e., Transforming Influence and Covenantal Relationship) and required (i.e., Responsible Morality and Voluntary Subordination) in leadership development programs across Australia. Given the focus on the youth voice in this study, the findings will significantly contribute to the youth leadership development programs which help foster a new generation of global and ethical leaders.
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Chapter One: Introduction
Introduction
CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents an overview of the thesis and introduces the rationale behind the research. The purpose of the study and the methods utilised are outlined, followed by a discussion on the justification of the study. The chapter concludes by addressing the practical and theoretical significance of the current study.
1.1 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The purpose of this study is to examine the application of the servant leadership approach to Australian secondary college youth leadership development programs. Specifically this study analyses secondary colleges youth leadership development programs and the perceptions of secondary college teachers and youth leadership facilitators on youth leadership development on the basis of Sendjaya, Sarros and Santoras (2008) servant leadership framework. Leadership studies involving corporate (Turner & Mavin, 2008), governmental (Albrecht, 2005), educational (Goddard & Hart, 2007; Leeman, 2007) and not-for-profit leaders (Peterson & Van Fleet, 2008) are abound. Researchers have used a variety of leadership styles to characterise the phenomena observed in these studies, including transformational (Bass, 1999; Hinkin & Schriesheim, 2008), distributed (Gronn, 2009; Mehra, Smith, Dixon, & Robertson, 2006), authentic (Avolio & Gardner, 2005) and charismatic leadership (Robinson & Kerr, 2009). However, little empirical evidence on leaders leadership development in secondary college exists in the literature. In particular, the important role educational institutions played in their leadership development is severely understudied (Dempster & Lizzio, 2007). Further, in comparison to the above mentioned theories, research into servant leadership in Australia is relatively sparse. With these two research gaps in mind, this study will undertake a two-fold approach. On the one hand, it will extend the body of knowledge in youth leadership development literature by Out of the Boardroom and into the Classroom: Servant Leadership in Youth Leadership Development Page 1
Introduction understanding the phenomenon from the youth leadership development programs and the perceptions of secondary college teachers, youth leadership facilitators, university student leaders and recent secondary college graduates. On the other hand, it looks at Australia as the research setting, thereby adding to the body of knowledge of servant leadership within the culture.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The phrase the youth of today are the leaders of tomorrow is common in society, yet youth leadership development has been largely neglected in academic research (Osberg Conner & Strobel, 2007; Ricketts & Rudd, 2002). Although there is a plethora of organisational leadership research, leadership scholars have noted that society is experiencing a moral leadership crisis (Elmuti, Minnis, & Abebe, 2005; George, 2008b; Rhodes, Brundrett, & Nevill, 2008; Schwab, 2007). This comes 30 years after Greenleaf (1977) first argued that the lack of moral leadership in society demands the establishment of a new style of leadership, namely servant leadership. There has been evidence which suggests that the leadership crisis is rooted in schools, thus highlighting the need to investigate the role that educational facilities play in leadership development (Astin & Astin, 2000; Elmuti et al., 2005; Richards, 1999; Ricketts & Rudd, 2002).
1.2.1 WHY YOUTH LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

Leadership development is one of the most important outcomes in a students educational experience and has become big business for leadership facilitators and secondary colleges alike (Eich, 2008). To add to the numerous secondary college youth leadership development programs, private youth leadership development agencies have proliferating in the past decade (Osberg Conner & Strobel, 2007). Even with the numerous students enrolled in these programs, youth leadership development research trails behind the practice (Osberg Conner & Strobel, 2007; Ricketts & Rudd, 2002). Youth leadership development programs have increased whilst research in this area has arguably decreased. Before the 1980s, many studies of leadership amongst children had been Out of the Boardroom and into the Classroom: Servant Leadership in Youth Leadership Development Page 2
Introduction conducted, with the 1930s to 1950s looking at personality characteristics and the 1960s to the early 1980s addressing behaviours and styles (Goethals, Sorenson, & Burns, 2004). The shortcoming of the pre 1980s research was that it focused on why certain children were leaders based upon popularity and physical dominance, not on leadership development. Since the 1980s there have been very few studies on youth leadership (Goethals et al., 2004). Kirshner (2007) observed that although youth leadership facilitators document what they administer and achieve, these documents take on a promotional tone, focusing on the achievements of the programs, not on the material being taught. Further, there are no established guidelines for youth leadership development within the education system as there are with traditional curricula such as English, mathematics and science (Department of Education, 2008; Ministerial Council on Education, 2009). This leaves a substantial gap of knowledge about how secondary colleges are developing societys next leaders. There are no definitive answers as to why there is limited research in youth leadership development although, there is a strong support for research in this area. Dempster and Lizzio (2007) stated there are two main reasons why research is needed into youth leadership development. First, there is currently a lack of talented business leaders who are able and willing to undertake leadership roles within organisations. Second, there is a scarcity of community leaders resulting in a decrease of civic participation amongst communities. As current research methods into leadership development are yet to resolve these problems, Dempster and Lizzio (2007) argued that looking at youth leadership development offers a new entry point for leadership research that may result in new insights into the subject.
1.2.2 WHY SERVANT LEADERSHIP

Numerous scholars have agreed that servant leadership is the most effective style of leadership (Dennis & Winston, 2003; Greenleaf, 1977; Page & Wong, 2000; Sendjaya et al., 2008). Servant
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Introduction leaders have been attributed to high levels of employee motivation (De Cremer, 2006), a strong moral base (Graham, 1991), a vision and values based organisation (Hamilton, 2008) and superior profitable returns (Collins, 2005) (see Chapter Two for an elaborate discussion on these areas). More importantly, servant leadership has emerged as a leadership style that can transcend the boundaries between financial gains and the increased ethical expectations on modern day managers (Crane, 2004; Elkington, 1998; Page & Wong, 2000). Questionable ethical standards of leadership have surfaced during this time of economic uncertainty (George, 2008b; Plettinx, 2009) with multinational corporations and national banks being bailed out by governments (Cooksey, 2008; Enrich & Eckblad, 2009; Guerrera & Guha, 2009) and consumers losing faith in the corporate sector (George, 2008a; Liden, Wayne, Zhao, & Henderson, 2008; Zogby, 2009). Leaders have tended to act in an unethical manner due to focusing on short term benefits and not taking into account the broader implications of their actions (George, 2008a). In order to rectify this problem, Eich (2008), argued that the standards of leadership must be improved within society. To this end, the current study proposes the servant leadership approach by which leaderfollower interactions are thoughtfully reasoned, morally legitimised and justified ethically in both the ends they seek and the means they employ (Sendjaya et al., 2008). Servant leaders are focused on the broader long term sustainable goals of the organisation and have the ability to use moral reasoning to address ethically questionable decisions that are presented to them (Sendjaya et al., 2008). Although there are several servant leadership frameworks identified in the literature, only the Sendjaya et al. (2008) framework incorporates the essential elements of servant leadership such as service, humility, vision and empowerment, and moral behaviour and reasoning. Therefore Sendjaya et al.s (2008) servant leadership framework will be used in this study and will be further discussed in Chapter Two and Chapter Three.
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Introduction
1.3 DEFINING SERVANT LEADERSHIP

Servant leadership offers a holistic and altruistic approach to leadership with a central focus on the needs and aspirations of those served by the leader (Sendjaya et al., 2008). The servant leadership dimensions derived by Sendjaya et al. (2008) will be used in addressing the research questions in this study. These dimensions are: Voluntary Subordination The leaders willingness to serve others in any given situation, when there is a legitimate for the service; Authentic Self The leaders consistent display of integrity, accountability, humility, vulnerability and security; Covenantal Relationship The leaders attempt to foster genuine, profound and lasting relationships with others; Responsible Morality The leaders leadership interactions are thoughtfully reasoned, morally legitimised and ethically justified in both the ends sought and the means employed; Transcendental Spirituality The leaders attempt to fuse a sense of calling, meaning and direction in their own and others lives; and Transforming Influence The leaders desire to produce contagious effects in others in multiple dimensions and turn them into servant leaders themselves.
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESEARCH

Youth leadership development research using existing leadership theories is limited, so is empirical research using servant leadership in relation to non-business settings, non-executive leadership and in Australia. In this light, the current study has the following significance: 1. It reveals the extent to which Australian secondary college youth leadership development programs foster the cultivation of servant leaders. The research findings will be fed back to
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Introduction secondary colleges to assist in building youth leadership development programs that develop leaders holistically and foster a new generation of servant leaders. 2. It identifies key characteristics of the next generation of leaders on the bases of survey findings. 3. It extends previous research on youth leadership development by examining the linkages between servant leadership and youth leadership development. 4. It contributes to the overall body of research on Generation Y.
1.5 THESIS OVERVIEW

The thesis consists of the following chapters: Chapter Two provides a review of both the empirical and theoretical literature. Leadership and leadership development are outlined as an introduction to the central aspects of this study. Youth leadership is then assessed in relation to development, process and retention. The literature review then turns to servant leadership, where the ideas on servant leadership posed by Sendjaya et al. (2008) are explored using both supporting and contrasting literature. Finally, the notion of servant leadership is then related back to youth leadership development. Chapter Three outlines the methodological research design of this study, both in its description and justification. The mixed methods design of this study allows the researcher to use document analysis, surveys, structured and semi-structured interviews to apply servant leadership to youth leadership development. Chapter Four presents the results from both the qualitative and quantitative methods undertaken. There are three sections: document analysis, interviews and surveys. The data is presented in a series of tables outlining the responses.
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Introduction Chapter Five reveals an understanding of the results in relation to the research questions derived from the literature. The discussion takes form around what dimensions of servant leadership are prevalent in secondary college youth leadership development programs. Chapter Six provides a summary of the thesis and explores the limitations of the study whilst suggesting avenues for future research.
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Chapter Two: Literature Review
Literature Review
CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter presents the findings of the literature review underpinning the two research areas, youth leadership development and servant leadership. Specifically, it was the aim of the review to analyse the findings, rationale, methodology, limitations and gaps of past research. The literature review begins by broadly defining leadership and leadership development before discussing youth leadership development. The research gaps identified in the literature lead to the formulation of the research questions for the study. Servant leadership will then be defined and justified by demonstrating the advantages it has over opposing leadership styles.
2.1 LEADERSHIP
2.1.1 LEADERSHIP
Definitions of leadership are often created by researchers based upon their own individual perspectives, incorporating the phenomena of leadership of most interest to them (Nirenberg, 2003; Yukl, 1989). This was proven by Stogdills (1974) study which critically analysed 4,725 published articles on leadership. He concluded that the endless accumulation of empirical data has not produced an integrated understanding of leadership (Stogdill, 1974, p. vii). Researchers concur that there is no universal definition of leadership and what makes the best leaders (Lussier & Achua, 2009). Scholars have progressed from defining leadership to studying leadership approaches such as distributive leadership, servant leadership, authentic leadership and e-leadership (Avolio, Walumbwa, & Weber, 2009).
2.1.2 LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

There has been a substantial interest in leadership development in the last decade, especially amongst academics and leadership facilitators (Day, 2000; Dixon, 2009). This is fuelled by Out of the Boardroom and into the Classroom: Servant Leadership in Youth Leadership Development Page 9
Literature Review organisations who see leadership as the greatest competitive advantage and have invested heavily accordingly (Dixon, 2009; Gilmore, 2009). The literature on leadership development reveals a number of patterns as follows. First, there is a distinct difference between leadership development and managerial development. Managerial development is centred on developing the individual for a formal management role, whereas leadership development develops the individuals capacity to lead without bestowed formal authority (Day, 2000). Managerial development programs focus on acquiring skills and knowledge to enhance performance in a management role; this training is position and organisation specific (Day, 2000; Keys & Wolfe, 1988). On the other hand, leadership development training seeks to equip individuals with the skills to lead groups of people to work together in a meaningful way and expand the individuals ability to adapt to a changing business environment (Dixon, 1993; Gilmore, 2009). Second, leadership development is a continuous learning process that can happen anywhere, not just within a classroom in a specially designed program. Individuals should be encouraged to work on their leadership development outside of the traditional classroom setting (Fulmer, 1997). The most state of the art leadership development programs are those which create a hybrid system of learning, combining classroom training with leadership initiatives tied to organisational goals (Day, 2000; Dotlich & Noel, 1998).
2.2 YOUTH LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

Youth leadership development is masked in numerous manifestations including youth leadership, youth voice, youth civic engagement, youth empowerment and youth participation (O'Donoghue, Kirshner, & McLaughlin, 2006). With no consensus on what youth leadership development is (Osberg Conner & Strobel, 2007), for the purpose of this thesis youth leadership development is defined as any program in which young people undergo an enhancement of their leadership competencies and Out of the Boardroom and into the Classroom: Servant Leadership in Youth Leadership Development Page 10
Literature Review characteristics. This section briefly outlines the existing literature on youth leadership development including the process of and the need for youth leadership development and the retention of knowledge from obtained from such programs. This study therefore addresses the call for focused research into youth leadership development (Dempster & Lizzio, 2007).
2.2.1 FOSTERING LEADERSHIP IN SECONDARY COLLEGE

Researchers have concluded that leadership development has roots in childhood, secondary college and university studies (Cress, Astin, Zimmerman-Oster, & Burkhardt, 2001; Eich, 2008; Elmuti et al., 2005; McCauley & Velsor, 2004; Roberts, 1997). Research has revealed that involvement in interpersonal leadership activities relates positively to the development of educational attainment, leadership development and an increase in personal values (Astin, 1993; Kezar & Moriarty, 2000). However, when assessing the benefits of youth leadership development programs, one must take into account that students who are involved in these programs are usually highly motivated and have high educational standards (Cress et al., 2001). Further, studies have shown that a transfer of knowledge occurs from students who have completed a leadership development program to others in their community (Daugherty & Williams, 1997). Although not every student is able to engage in a leadership program, they still can reap some of the benefits through interaction with their peers who do. Cress et al. (2001) believed that many educational institutions claim that they have a focus on creating the next generation of leaders. However, most offer students a generic, untailored leadership program. Examples of such programs are extremely broad including tutoring, peer support, alternative holiday options and volunteer service (Cress et al., 2001). There is further evidence to suggest that youth leadership development is merely a marketing ploy, with many secondary colleges taking the easier option of student voice or representation (Frost, 2008). This lack
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Literature Review of real, meaningful opportunities has resulted in a lack of confidence in the quality and standard of youth leadership development programs (Elmuti et al., 2005). On the other hand, when meaningful programs and opportunities are created for youth, positive leadership qualities flourish. This is shown empirically by Cassell, Huffaker, Tversky and Ferriman (2006) who revealed that students aged 9 to 16 are more likely to engage in cooperative and empowered leadership styles (e.g. anticipating the needs and goals of the group ahead of using powerful, coercive language). By fostering these natural positive leadership skills in youths leadership development, this may offset negative leadership styles acquired in executive leadership. In contrast to the ever expanding youth leadership development programs and opportunities, students surveyed by MacBeath (1998) felt there were less quality leadership opportunities for them relative to those given to their teachers. In fact, many leadership development opportunities are granted to school principals (Coupland, Currie, & Boyett, 2008; Johnson, 2009; Moos, Krejsler, & Kofod, 2008). Although the students cry for more leadership opportunities has been heard, what has been delivered is generic, untailored youth leadership development programs which researchers believe are not adequate (Cress et al., 2001; Frost, 2008). In order to establish proper youth leadership development programs, we must understand what leadership opportunities mean from students perspectives, and use this evidence to explore youth leadership development (Dempster & Lizzio, 2007).
2.2.2 THE PROCESS OF YOUTH LEADERHIP DEVELOPMENT

The existing literature surrounding youth leadership development (Davis, 1997; Eich, 2008; Foster, 2000; Osberg Conner & Strobel, 2007; Ricketts & Rudd, 2002) tends to focus on the processes and outcomes of youth leadership development and neglect the content. An example of this process based approach is Osberg Conner & Strobels (2007) model (see Figure 1). Osberg Conner & Strobel (2007) studied the effects of a conceptual framework in relation to directionality. They argued that
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Literature Review as youth develop into leaders their experiences affect how the program progresses but they did not address what students were learning. Figure 1 Conceptual framework: Directionality of effect Will affect change in Will affect change in
Program structures & supports
Youth as empowered leaders
Problems or issues in school & community
Source: Osberg Conner and Strobel (2007) At the conclusion of the study, it was believed that youth leadership development encompasses three dimensions, communication and interpersonal skills, analytical and critical reflection and positive community involvement (Osberg Conner & Strobel, 2007, p. 295). By generalising the programs into these three facets, this study only offers the process and the outcomes of youth leadership development, not that material the programs teach. Another process based interpretation of youth leadership development is delivered by Azzam and Riggio (2003) who found youth leadership development is delivered in one of two ways. The first method is through an instructional approach, having structured lessons with a leadership facilitator. This traditional classroom format has merit in secondary college as it can be used as part of a curriculum. However, these leadership facilitators are not teachers. They often do not possess the skills to execute lesson plans, assess students knowledge and develop a meaningful curriculum (Kirshner, 2008). Second, an orientation approach can be used which introduces individuals to different leaders so they can learn from their experiences. This is a form of mentoring which is very popular amongst youth leadership development (Hewlett, Sherbin, & Sumberg, 2009). Although each of these methods is explained thoroughly, there is very little description of the content Out of the Boardroom and into the Classroom: Servant Leadership in Youth Leadership Development Page 13
Literature Review delivered through these approaches. This establishes the first major gap of youth leadership development literature, there is no indication of what is being taught to young leaders.
2.2.3 DEVELOPING YOUNG LEADERS

The focus on youth leadership development needs to increase in the face of greater consensus that the traditional leadership curriculum has failed to produce leaders for the business environment (Elmuti et al., 2005). Given the absence of highly competent leaders filtering through into the business system, developing leaders is becoming more critical and a strategic part of the business plan (Leskiw & Singh, 2007). Similarly, local communities are also acknowledging the need to develop the leadership characteristics and competencies of young people with increased numbers of community based leadership programs appearing (Azzam & Riggio, 2003). There is evidence to suggest that by implementing leadership programs, communities enjoy lower crime rates and better schools (Azzam & Riggio, 2003; Rossing, 1998). However, missing from these programs is student input about how the program should run. When designing youth leadership development programs, student voice should be the main focus. There is strong support for student input in the design of youth leadership development programs, for example, what is needed in leadership programs and who should be involved (Dempster & Lizzio, 2007). Dempster and Lizzio (2007) called for leadership to be defined by young people and have youth leadership development programs based around these definitions.
2.2.4 RETENTION OF KNOWLEDGE

Cress et al. (2001) studied 875 college students and found that through youth leadership development programs students reported growth in their organisational skills, goal setting, conflict resolution skills, commitment to social causes and their willingness to take risks. Further, students Out of the Boardroom and into the Classroom: Servant Leadership in Youth Leadership Development Page 14
Literature Review who were exposed to these programs were more likely to hold an elected leadership position. This research is confirmed by Daugherty and Williams (1997) who revealed that graduates of community based leadership programs are still involved in their respective communities three years after the programs conclude. Cress et al. (2001) found that involvement in youth leadership development programs positively effects the following three areas: (1) Skills, e.g. the ability to make decisions; (2) Values, e.g. an understanding of person ethics; and (3) Cognitive Understanding, e.g. understanding of leadership theory. At the end of their college experience, students who participated in youth leadership development programs had a deeper understanding of civic responsibility, multicultural awareness and their own leadership ability. Within the program, students who spent time participating in volunteer positions showed a further increase in their leadership development (Cress et al., 2001). Therefore, in this study analyses of students leadership characteristics using an existing measure were conducted in order to see the impact of youth leadership development programs.
2.3 SERVANT LEADERSHIP
2.3.1 JUSTIFICATION FOR SERVANT LEADERSHIP

A scan of recent leadership literature reveals numerous studies on servant leadership (Andersen, 2009; Dennis & Bocarnea, 2005; Hamilton, 2008; Joseph & Winston, 2005; Liden et al., 2008; Robert & Mihai, 2005; Sendjaya et al., 2008; Washington, 2007). Proponents of this leadership approach concur that servant leadership is the most effective form of leadership (Dennis & Winston, 2003; Page & Wong, 2000; Sendjaya et al., 2008). Given the emphasis on empowerment (Daft, 1999; Patterson, 2003; Sendjaya et al., 2008; Spears, 1998), integrity (Page & Wong, 2000; Russell & Stone, 2002; Washington, Sutton, & Feild, 2006) and ethics (Sendjaya & Sarros, 2002; Sendjaya et al., 2008), servant leadership is a key leadership
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Literature Review paradigm for young leaders to follow. The following sections outline why servant leadership fits youth leadership development better than other leadership approaches such as authentic leadership and transformational leadership. AUTHENTIC LEADERSHIP Authentic leadership perspectives revolve around many definitions including crucible events (Bennis, 2003; Bennis & Thomas, 2002), life experiences (George, Sims, McLean, & Mayer, 2007; Shamir, Dayan-Horesh, & Adler, 2005; Shamir & Eilam, 2005) and self-awareness (Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Avolio, Gardner, Walumbwa, Luthans, & May, 2004; Gardner, Avolio, Luthans, May, & Walumbwa, 2005; May, Chan, Hodges, & Avolio, 2003; Walumbwa, Avolio, Gardner, Wernsing, & Peterson, 2008). The main difference between authentic and servant leadership is their origins. Servant leadership scholars (Dennis & Bocarnea, 2005; Greenleaf, 1977; Page & Wong, 2000; Patterson, 2003; Russell, 2001; Sendjaya & Sarros, 2002) state that the root of servant leadership is in a value system (e.g. ethics, altruism), whereas authentic leadership has its roots in life experiences (George et al., 2007; Shamir et al., 2005; Shamir & Eilam, 2005) and self-awareness (Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Walumbwa et al., 2008). With the nature of authentic leadership being true to ones self (Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Harter, 2002), there is a possibility that the leader will not act in an ethical or moral manner and in some cases could display authoritarian or negative leadership (Avolio et al., 2004). This is in contrast with servant leadership which focuses on serving others (Sendjaya et al., 2008). There are scholars who question if authenticity of leaders is a positive thing if the individual is inherently narcissistic or has questionable ethical standards (Sparrowe, 2005).
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Literature Review TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP Transformational leadership has become a mainstream leadership style taught in business schools ever since the publication of Burns influential book on transformational leadership (Bass, 1999; Burns, 1978). Bass (1999, p. 9) defined transformational leadership as uplifting the morale, motivation and morals of their followers by empowering the employees and giving them the opportunity to develop through their involvement within the organisation. Transformational leadership, like servant leadership encourages both leaders and followers to raise each other up to new levels of morality and motivation. However, servant leaders are more natural inclined to serve marginalised people than transformational leaders (Sendjaya et al., 2008). Graham (1991) argues that servant leadership adds a moral dimension to the transformational leadership framework, which is vital given that the fundamental flaw of transformational leadership is the lack of an overarching moral compass. Within the transformational leadership framework there is no indication that leaders should serve followers with the good of the followers in mind. Instead, Graham (1991) sees transformational leaders defining what is imperative and morally right for the company and forcing the growth of the individual. It is due to these factors that Graham (1991) sees a limit to the transformational leaders capacity to act in an inspirational manner while adhering to a moral compass to the extent of the servant leader. In summary, this section briefly outlines how the servant leadership framework extends laudable leadership theories of transformational and authentic leadership. Given the ethical, moral and service dimensions present in servant leadership, this thesis will use the servant leadership framework in relation to youth leadership development.
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Literature Review
2.3.2 DIMENSIONS OF SERVANT LEADERSHIP

In this section the six dimensions of servant leadership as used in this thesis will be described, namely Voluntary Subordination, Authentic Self, Covenantal Relationship, Responsible Morality, Transcendental Spirituality and Transforming Influence (Sendjaya et al., 2008). VOLUNTARY SUBORDINATION Voluntary Subordination is defined as the leaders willingness to serve others in any given situation, when there is a legitimate for the service. The core element of servant leadership is service, both in the acts of a leader (acts of service) and their motives behind the service (being a servant) (Sendjaya et al., 2008). Service is discussed in the literature in many forms including stewardship (Nix, 1997), self-sacrifice (De Cremer, 2006; Yorges, Weiss, & Strickland, 1999) and desire to serve others (Baggett, 1997; Block, 1993; Fairholm, 1997; Greenleaf, 1977; Russell & Stone, 2002). When an individual undertakes a leadership position their motivation should be to serve others regardless of their background, race, religion or any mitigating factors (Baggett, 1997; Block, 1993; Fairholm, 1997; Greenleaf, 1977; Russell & Stone, 2002). This motivation is not just merely doing acts of service for their employees, a leader must dismiss the superior status of being a leader and embrace servanthood (Sendjaya et al., 2008). A self-interested leader can still engage in acts of service for their employees in order to gain short term benefits of servant leadership. This is shown through De Cremers (2006) self-sacrifice model (see Figure 2). De Cremer (2006) found that when a leader displaying self-sacrificing behaviours, employees experience positive emotions towards the leader, producing strong motivations to work for the leader.
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Literature Review Figure 2 The relationship between self sacrifice, followers emotions and m otivation
Leader Behavior: High self-sacrifice interacting with low autocratic behavior Motivation to maintain or develop a positive interaction
Followers experience positive emotions
Display of motivation to work with the leader
Source: De Cremer (2006) Yeo (2006) believed serving employees helps create meaningful relationships and strong connections which shows the employees that the leader is willing to look beyond their job to help others (Yeo, 2006). This is a win-win situation for both parties as the employees growth and needs are nurtured by the leader, and the leader is rewarded with strong motivation and willingness to work from their employees (Sendjaya et al., 2008; Yeo, 2006). AUTHENTIC SELF Authentic leadership has been deeply explored by Avolio and his colleagues (Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Avolio et al., 2004; Avolio et al., 2009; Gardner et al., 2005; Hannah, Avolio, Luthans, & Harms, 2008; May et al., 2003; Walumbwa et al., 2008; Walumbwa, Lawler, & Avolio, 2007; Zhu, May, & Avolio, 2004) with Walumbwa et al. (2008) calling for the integration of servant leadership and authentic leadership to see what effect this may have on organisational behaviour. Sendjaya et al. (2008) have integrated themes of authentic leadership into servant leadership arguing that servant leaders lead because it is a reflection of who they are. Authentic Self is the leaders consistent display of integrity, accountability, humility, vulnerability and security (Sendjaya et al., 2008). By showing integrity in the workplace, which is adhering to professional standards and high moral principles, leaders can foster a culture of trust within their organisation (Bennis & Nanus, 1997; De Pree, 1997; Russell & Stone, 2002; Washington et al., 2006). Combining the moral principles displayed through the leaders integrity, servant leaders can lead the organisation to vastly improve
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Literature Review their ethical conduct and create a higher overall moral code (Giampetro-Meyer, Brown, Browne, & Kubasek, 1998; Russell & Stone, 2002). Linking integrity with humility can oppress the spread of egotism within an organisation (Rowsell & Berry, 1993). The humility aspect of servant leadership protects the leader from acting in a selfcentred, self-interested way and reduces the egotistical nature of the leader (Buchen, 2002). By not giving into an egotistical state, the leader can focus on the current business strategy rather than their prior successes. Collinss (2005) study of 1,435 Fortune 500 companies since 1965 established the strongest argument of the benefits of humility within the organisation. Collins (2005) found only 11 organisations from that list stood out as companies that moved from good to great achieving stock returns of 4.1 times the general market. During this period of transition, Collins partly attributed the success to the leader of the organisation whom he believed displayed two distinct characteristics, professional will and personal humility. The profit margins gained from having a leader displaying humility at the helm are made clear through this research. COVENANTAL RELATIONSHIP Covenantal Relationship is the leaders attempt to foster genuine, profound and lasting relationships with others (Sendjaya et al., 2008). This dimension draws inference from transformational leadership, which creates an empowered relationship between leader and follower (Bass, 1999), servant leadership where the use of teamwork and acceptance makes followers feel significant in the organisation (Dennis & Bocarnea, 2005) and distributed leadership where the followers and leaders have an equal and collaborative relationship (Gronn, 2009). In order for these relationships to evolve, the leader must be willing to serve the followers and foster their leadership development (Ciulla, 1998). Previous servant leadership literature refers to leader-follower interactions in terms of empowerment with qualities such as making followers feel significant and appreciating followers contributions seen as the core elements of a servant leaders relations with others (Dennis & Out of the Boardroom and into the Classroom: Servant Leadership in Youth Leadership Development Page 20
Literature Review Bocarnea, 2005; Russell & Stone, 2002). In the Covenantal Relationship form of servant leaderfollower relations, empowerment is manifested through servant leaders by shaping the nature of their relationships and accepting people for who they are, not how they make the leader feel. By implementing this form of servant leadership, employees learning, autonomy and growth will be fostered (Sendjaya et al., 2008). Servant leaders believe in an equitable and collaborative approach but by shaping their relationships with others, they can position themselves to use empowerment to transform others away from a passive environment (Smith, Montagno, & Kuzmenko, 2004). RESPONSIBLE MORALITY In order to encompass the dimension of Responsible Morality, a leaders leadership interactions must be thoughtfully reasoned, morally legitimised and justified ethically in both the ends sought and the means employed (Sendjaya et al., 2008). Responsible Morality encompasses the moral and ethical actions resonating from the leader. The individuals leadership transactions are thoughtfully reasoned, morally legitimised and ethically justified in both the ends that they seek and the means the employ (Sendjaya et al., 2008). In the wake of a global economic crisis and an ethical meltdown by leaders of a host of Fortune 500 companies, the call for moral and ethical leadership has never been louder (Gardner et al., 2005, p. 344; George, 2008a; Plettinx, 2009). Society has lost faith in their corporate leaders, questioning the moral grounds of their decisions (George, 2008b; Zogby, 2009). The lack of ethics among the business leaders reflects negatively on business schools (Richards, 1999). All too often scholars note that the root of ethical business problems lie deep within our business schools (Elmuti et al., 2005). In order to develop moral and ethical leaders, business schools must be at the forefront providing effective and thorough ethical training to all students (Adler, 2002; Crane & Matten, 2004; Elmuti et al., 2005).
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Literature Review Previous servant leadership literature has not dealt with morality and ethics to the standard the corporate sector requires. Self-regulation and self-awareness were two factors raised by Avolio and Gardner (2005) that have been largely missing. In light of this criticism, Sendjaya et al. (2008) have incorporated morality and ethics in the dimension of Responsible Morality. TRANSCENDENTAL SPIRITUALITY Spirituality in leadership deals with many missing elements that are unable to be addressed in existing leadership literature (Avolio et al., 2009). These elements include a sense of higher calling, care and compassion for followers and workplace spirituality (Dent, Higgins, & Wharff, 2005; Fry, 2003). In servant leadership, Transcendental Spirituality is the leaders attempt to fuse a sense of calling, meaning and direction in their own and others lives (Sendjaya et al., 2008). The dimension of Transcendental Spirituality is conceptually related to spirituality in leadership (Sendjaya et al., 2008). Both theoretical frameworks have a strong linkage with religious views, with numerous example of Jesus Christ being used throughout servant and spiritual leadership literature. The Sendjaya et al. (2008) servant leadership framework enhances spiritual leaderships elements of wholeness, sense of mission, interconnectedness and spiritual belief by combining it with service, giving the individual reasons for becoming a servant leader. A servant leader is propelled by a higher calling provided through either religion or a sense of mission and their life calling. This purpose creates a different dimension for an individual to lead an organisation than those provided by transformational or authentic leadership (Sendjaya et al., 2008). In an organisational setting, Transcendental Spirituality is seen through the culmination of employees and organisational goals. A servant leaders sense of mission allows them to see past the day-to-day structure of business as usual. They are able to see a connection from past events, present decisions and future outcomes to set goals for a better future for the organisation (Stone, Russell, & Patterson, 2004). The servant leader can see past the tangible qualities of employees as a means to an ends and see employees as the end themselves. Through this realisation the servant Out of the Boardroom and into the Classroom: Servant Leadership in Youth Leadership Development Page 22
Literature Review leader becomes committed to enhancing the professional, personal and spiritual growth of the employees, empowering them to take on the mission. TRANSFORMING INFLUENCE Transforming Influence is the leaders desire to produce contagious effects in others in multiple dimensions and turn them into servant leaders themselves (Sendjaya et al., 2008). Transforming Influence reflects Burns (1978) transformational leadership as it focuses on empowering and uplifting the employees. When servant leadership is being applied to an individual they are likely to undergo a Transforming Influence. This influence alters the individual in multiple dimensions such as emotionally, spiritually and socially (Sendjaya et al., 2008). Transforming Influence is comprised of vision, empowerment, mentoring, modelling and trust (Sendjaya et al., 2008). In servant leadership literature, vision is referred to in many lights including foresight (Page & Wong, 2000), pioneering (Russell & Stone, 2002) and conceptualisation (Greenleaf, 1977). Regardless of the label, vision is instrumental in any form of high-quality leadership (Dennis & Bocarnea, 2005). Vision in servant leadership is the ability to envision the future, conceptualise the required actions, and implement the changes (Greenleaf, 1977). The vision of the servant leader becomes the building block of the organisations future (Fairholm, 1997). Laub (1999) believed that vision is intrinsically linked with empowerment, and that through a shared vision employees are served. A clear, compelling vision combined with trust and the other dimensions of servant leadership, allow servant leaders to not only empower an employee, but transform their lives, making them servant leaders themselves (Sendjaya et al., 2008). In order for an individual to undergo a transformation they first need to trust the servant leader. Trust has been identified as a key element of leader-follower relations (Bennis & Nanus, 1997; De Pree, 1997; Fairholm, 1997; Russell & Stone, 2002), the absence of which creates a culture of fear and hampers productivity in organisations (Davis, Schoorman, Mayer, & Hoon, 2000; Washington et al., 2006). Trust in most leadership situations can be gained from behaviours such as communicating Out of the Boardroom and into the Classroom: Servant Leadership in Youth Leadership Development Page 23
Literature Review effectively and supporting employees, however this is not where trust originates from in servant leadership (Joseph & Winston, 2005). Trust is bestowed upon a servant leader because they lead by example, show high levels of integrity and fully accept employees for who they are (Joseph & Winston, 2005).
2.4 SERVANT LEADERSHIP IN YOUTH LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

The literature revealed that there is no fully developed theory concerning servant leadership and youth leadership development. However, it is clear that there exists many similarities between servant leadership at an executive level and servant leadership at a secondary college level. For example, in relation to Voluntary Subordination, for an executive leader this can mean performing tasks with their employees (Yeo, 2006), whereas a student leader will be serving their community in an altruistic manner (Cress et al., 2001). In terms of Covenantal Relationship, the executive leader will be shaping the nature of their relationship with others by empowerment and shared vision as well as accepting them for who they are, where as a student leaders focus would be solely on accepting others for who they are, not how they make them feel (Sendjaya et al., 2008). Through these similarities, it can be seen that servant leadership is applicable in youth leadership development. Therefore, the servant leadership framework will be used in addressing youth leadership development. From the literature three research questions emerged: 1. What are students currently learning to become servant leaders? 2. How should students be taught servant leadership? 3. What dimensions of servant leadership are prevalent in recent secondary college graduates? These research questions coincide with Azzam & Riggios (2003) call for three areas of leadership development to be researched: (a) Completing a standardised evaluation of multiple leadership programs to establish a best practice method in order to maximise their effectiveness; (b) Out of the Boardroom and into the Classroom: Servant Leadership in Youth Leadership Development Page 24
Literature Review Completing a standardised evaluation of multiple leadership programs to establish a best practice style of teaching the material; and (c) An evaluation of alumni of leadership programs to see how the leadership programs have affected their lives. These areas are addressed in the current study. Component a and b will be answered through the document analysis of youth leadership development programs and interviews with key informants in research question one and two. Component c will be answered through structured interviews with university student leaders who have recently graduated secondary college. Dial (2006) notes that quantitative studies researching variable relationships have become the sole focus of leadership program studies and there is regrettably a lack of scholars addressing the issues of the development of leadership ability. Without a sound base of knowledge about what is being taught in youth leadership development programs, quantitative studies can only reveal a surface understanding of students leadership ability, for a deeper understanding of the phenomena a qualitative study is needed to add richness and context for the quantitative studies (Dial, 2006). As stated by Cress et al. (2001) each leadership development program impacts students differently. Cress et al. (2001) believe that using qualitative studies will identify the components that make leadership programs successful as well as identify why students choose certain leadership programs and their motivations to do so. The sample used to evaluate and comment on youth leadership development programs in previous studies have only taken into account adult opinions and their views on youth leadership development programs, not the students (Dempster & Lizzio, 2007). In order to be a more reflective study, youth opinion should be at the forefront of the sample and their ideas and needs of a leadership program should be addressed. Therefore this study will have a strong focus on youth opinion in relation to youth leadership development programs.
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Chapter Three: Methodology
Methodology
CHAPTER THREE - METHODOLOGY

This chapter discusses the research methodology employed in this study. The chapter is broken up into the rationale for adopting a mixed methods approach, the four methods of data collection used in the study and the instruments utilised to analyse the data. Finally, the sample selection, data collection and data analysis concludes the chapter.
3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN

Research has been defined as the process of investigation for knowledge which can be carried out on any subject in any given situation (Graziano & Raulin, 1993). The research design is the blueprint for the study creating a logical sequence that connects the empirical data to a studys initial research questions and, ultimately, to its conclusions (Yin, 2009, p. 26). Consideration must be taken in selecting the right research design in order to answer the studys research questions (Tharenou, Donohue, & Cooper, 2007). As was discussed in Chapter Two, the study of leadership has been explored both quantitatively and qualitatively. Given that leadership is a complex and broad phenomenon it is necessary to address it using quantitative and qualitative methods. Quantitative research assesses truth from observed behaviours and quantifies these observations (Friedman, 1999; Holland & Skinner, 1961; Pernice, 1996). Quantitative research is employed to test theories or hypotheses by examining the relationships between different variables. As quantitative research is centralised around numerical data, the variables are typically measured on instruments so the results can be analysed using statistical procedures (Creswell, 2009). Quantitative research has two distinct advantages over qualitative research. First, as quantitative research is traditionally taken from a random sample, the results are generalisable to the greater population. Second, if sound measures are employed, the results are statistically reliable, that is, they can reliably establish if one variable is better than the alternative. However, only the variables that are known prior to the
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Methodology research can be tested for in the measure (Nykiel, 2006). Therefore, quantitative research is employed to test and evaluate a phenomenon, not to discover it. In behavioural science research such as leadership, reservations have been made in regards to using solely quantitative methods, therefore qualitative research was also addressed and included in this study (Dial, 2006; Yukl, 1989). Qualitative research is philosophically underpinned by humanistic, phenomenological and existential paradigms (Pernice, 1996, p. 339). It is the process of understanding the unique humanistic perspective of a given phenomena and interpreting this understanding to create a holistic picture within the naturalistic setting (Creswell, 2009; Denzin & Lincoln, 2005). Zikmund (1997) argues that qualitative research is used to: provide a detailed study of how, what, when and where; identify the relationship amongst individuals or entities; and assist in the development of future research questions surrounding the phenomena. Qualitative research has been criticised as it is subjective in nature, as the researcher needs to interpret the data presented to them, their personal bias from previous understandings will play a part in their interpretation (Creswell, 2007). However, as argued by May (2001) this is true of all social science research as personal experiences determine how we interpret a phenomena. Traditionally, a gulf has existed between quantitative and qualitative research (Brannen, 1995). However, as both paradigms of research have been heavily utilised in leadership studies there is a strong argument for the use of a mixed methods approach. A mixed methods design combines both qualitative and quantitative methods into a single study (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004). As explained by Creswell and Plano Clark (2007, p. 5), Mixed methods research is a research design with philosophical assumptions as well as methods of inquiry. As a methodology, it involves philosophical assumptions that guide the direction of the collection and the analysis of data and the mixture of qualitative and quantitative data. As a method, it focuses on collecting, analysing, and mixing both quantitative and qualitative data in a single study or series of studies.
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Methodology Combining qualitative and quantitative methods allows a researcher to collect a richer and stronger array of evidence than can be accomplished by any single method alone (Yin, 2009, p. 63).
3.2 SOURCES OF EVIDENCE

There were four sources of evidence utilised in this study, document analysis, semi-structured interviews, structured interviews and surveys. By employing these four sources of evidence within the study the research achieved triangulation. Triangulation has origins in multiple operationism, which suggests that by utilising more than one data collection method, the validity and reliability of the study will be enhanced (Bryman, 1995). This concept was originally formulated on the basis that research has higher validity with multiple imperfect methods than a solitary imperfect method, as the strengths of one method help counteract the weaknesses of another (Campbell & Overman, 1988). The sources used in this study are described below.
3.2.1 DOCUMENT ANALYSIS

Document analysis can be used in most qualitative research and can incorporate private and public documents such as written reports, programs, personal notes, proposals and curriculums (Tharenou et al., 2007; Yin, 2009). It can provide unobtrusive, stable and broad information, giving the researcher insight into the subjects culture without being submerged in the subjects environment (Yin, 2009). Further, document analysis needs very little transcription and unlocks a wealth of qualitative and quantitative information on the subject (Lee, 1999; Tharenou et al., 2007). However, there has been substantial criticism over the use of document analysis in research. First, the availability of private documents needed for the research are not always readily available (Tharenou et al., 2007). The reverse can also occur, in that the internet provides a saturation of available documents therefore discovering relevant documents becomes time-consuming and tedious (Yin, 2009). Finally, problems in the authenticity and reliability of the documents may result in a false representation of the subject in question (Cooper & Schindler, 2003; Forster, 1994). Due to these Out of the Boardroom and into the Classroom: Servant Leadership in Youth Leadership Development Page 29
Methodology limitations, there is much criticism of over-relying on document analysis as the primary source of evidence in research (Yin, 2009). In order to counteract these limitations, document analysis must be used in conjunction with other sources of evidence (Alves, 1984).
3.2.2. INTERVIEWS
Interviews are used to understand an individuals perspective of the measured phenomena (Yin, 2009). There were two types of interviews conducted in the research, semi-structured and structured. STRUCTURED Structured interviews were undertaken in the form of questionnaires. This is consistent with Lees (1999) interpretation that they are essentially similar, as one is administered verbally and the other is self-administered. A questionnaire is comprised of a self-administered set of standardised questions, in which each participant is asked the same set of questions in the absence of the researcher (Mitchell & Jolley, 2004; Seidman, 2006). Questionnaires are readily used as they allow the researcher to measure preferences, attitudes and values in an unobtrusive environment which is inexpensive and easy to use (Moorman & Podsakoff, 1992). However, questionnaires have been criticised due to respondents answering in a socially desirable way, the questionnaires lack of flexibility and the questionnaires inability to understand the context in which the answer is given (Tharenou et al., 2007). As the questionnaires are self-administered they usually have a low response rate (Mitchell & Jolley, 2004). Further, without the researcher present, questions may be misinterpreted or false responses given (Foddy, 1993). In order to counteract the limitations of questionnaires, they must be used in conjunction with other sources of evidence (Yin, 2009). SEMI-STRUCTURED Semi-structured interviews lie at the midpoint of the structured/unstructured continuum allowing the researcher more flexibility than the structured interview, but more direction than the Out of the Boardroom and into the Classroom: Servant Leadership in Youth Leadership Development Page 30
Methodology unstructured interview (Lee, 1999; Tharenou et al., 2007). Using a semi-structured design allows the researcher to pursue a particular line of questioning or uncover further information based upon the participants responses (Lee, 1999). Within this study it is necessary to understand the participants feelings and perceptions on each question and have the flexibility to further explore the answers, therefore it was essential to use semi-structured interviews (Bryman & Bell, 2007; Lee, 1999). There are considerations that must be taken into account when interpreting the data obtained in semi-structured interviews. First, the interview participants may be subject to poor recall of information, poor articulation of their responses and biased towards a particular side of the phenomena (Yin, 2009). Second, the time constraints imposed by using semi-structured interviews, i.e. transcribing and face-to-face meetings with participants, may influence the sample size used within the study (Sutcliffe, 1991; Zyzanski, McWhinney, Blake, Crabtree, & Miller, 1992). As with document analysis, to minimise these limitations interviews must be used in conjunction with other sources of evidence (Yin, 2009).
3.2.3 SURVEYS
Through the use of a survey, a study aims to measure the thoughts, feelings and behaviours of a sample population (Mitchell & Jolley, 2004). A survey can be used under certain circumstances including testing a theoretical framework, hypothesis or research questions, sampling large populations, understanding the effect of independent variables on dependant variables, and examining the relationship between two or more variables (Tharenou et al., 2007). It is advantageous to use survey research as it is conducted in a naturalistic setting, is unobtrusive and involves little bias from the researcher (Mitchell, 1985). Further, data from large samples of the population can be collected in a short period of time and be rather inexpensive (Mitchell & Jolley, 2004). However, the survey may be limited if it uses unreliable measures, poor sampling, data collected at one single point of time and if it uses an inadequate sample size (Mitchell, 1985). This
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Methodology results in problems with construct, external and internal validity (Mitchell & Jolley, 2004). However, when used in conjunction with qualitative sources of evidence it provides vital numeric evidence for the research (Yin, 2009).
3.3 INSTRUMENTATION
To gain a holistic view of servant leadership and its application within youth leadership development, both qualitative and quantitative measures must be undertaken. Sendjaya et al.s (2008) model of servant leadership is used in both its quantitative form, through the SLBS, and its qualitative form of servant leadership themes.
3.3.1 SERVANT LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOURAL SCALE

Sendjaya et al.s (2008) SLBS is used in the current study as the measure to examine the servant leadership behaviours of recent secondary college graduates (a copy of which can be located in Appendix 1). The SLBS was designed by Sendjaya et al. (2008) as a multidimensional scale which reflects the underlying human dimensions of servant leadership. The measure incorporates moralistic and spiritual dimensions that are absent in other servant leadership measures, whilst still having a strong base in service. It has 35 items measured on a 5-point Likert scale. The original measure was created for employees to rate their direct supervisor on the servant leadership behaviours they exhibit. The survey was adapted in this study to become a self-reporting scale based upon an individuals typical interaction with others. The internal consistency reliability from the original study ranged from 0.72 to 0.93, exceeding the recommended level of 0.70 (Nunnally, 1967; Sendjaya et al., 2008).
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Methodology
3.3.2 SERVANT LEADERSHIP THEMES

The themes that underpin the dimensions of Sendjaya et al.s (2008) servant leadership framework is used as a template to code the data obtained from youth leadership development programs and interviews. The 22 themes were confirmed in the original study using a comprehensive review of the literature and interviews (see Table 1). Table 1 Themes in servant leadership Theme Being a servant Acts of service Authentic Self Humility Integrity Accountability Security Vulnerability Covenantal Relationship Acceptance Availability Equality Collaboration Responsible Morality Moral actions Moral reasoning Transcendental Spirituality Religiousness Interconnectedness Sense of mission Wholeness Transforming Influence Vision Modelling Mentoring Trust Empowerment Source: Sendjaya et al. (2008) Dimension Voluntary Subordination
3.4 PROCEDURES
The procedure for this study can be divided into four steps: sampling, data collection, data analysis and ethical considerations.
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Methodology
3.4.1 SAMPLING
There were two distinct methods of sampling used within this study, namely probability sampling and non-probability sampling. Probability sampling is conducted when each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected to be part of the study. Using a probability method of sampling gives the results greater external validity than non-probability sampling (Tharenou et al., 2007). There are three main types of probability sampling: simple random sampling, where each member of the population is selected by chance; systematic sampling, where the researcher selects every nth case in the sampling frame; and stratified sampling, where the population is separated into subgroups (e.g. gender or organisational type) and are then selected randomly from each subgroup (Tharenou et al., 2007). For the purposes of the document analysis, stratified sampling was chosen. The population in question, Australian secondary colleges, were divided using two factors, location (state) and secondary college type (government or non-government). Secondary colleges were selected at random using the ratios of secondary colleges per state provided by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (2006). Non-probability sampling is conducted when a researcher is unaware of the probability of any particular case being selected as part of the study. Non-probability sampling allows the researcher the ability to select respondents on their ability to give unique insight into the phenomena (Crabtree & Miller, 1999). There are four main methods of non-probability sampling: convenience sampling, where participants are selected on their availability; quota sampling, where sampling continues until a pre-judged quota is achieved; judgement (purposeful) sampling, where participants are selected due to their desired characteristics; and snowball sampling, where the initial participants identify other people who fit within the scope of the study (Tharenou et al., 2007).
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Methodology For the purposes of interviews and surveys, judgement (purposeful) sampling was chosen. Using judgement (purposeful) sampling is preferred to ensure the population sampled is able to provide meaningful data relating to the phenomena (Cooper & Schindler, 2003; Mays & Pope, 1995). The characteristics desired for the survey population are recent secondary college graduates aged 18-21 who are enrolled in university and reside at a residential university college. The population was chosen as they have recent experiences in secondary college youth leadership development programs. The questionnaire population is taken from the same sample as the survey, but select individuals who currently hold a leadership position within their university or college were chosen. These university student leaders were chosen as they had more experience with leadership development than the other participants. Finally, the interviews require participants to be familiar with youth leadership development programs so a selection of youth leadership practitioners and secondary college teachers was undertaken. These individuals were selected as they are considered to have sufficient, in-depth knowledge of the process of youth leadership development, the benefits associated, and relationships with students who are part of youth leadership development programs.
3.4.2 DATA COLLECTION

There are two major approaches to collecting data, primary and secondary data collection. Secondary data collection is information gained from secondary sources, such as government documents or publications (Yin, 2009). There are certain limitations regarding the quality and availability of secondary data. For example, the validity and reliability of the data may vary between sources, with government reports providing a more reliable source of information than personal journals. The advantage of using the secondary method of data collection in research is that it tends to be easier and quicker to collect than primary data collection (Kumar, 2005).
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Methodology The other method of data collection is from primary sources, which include observation, interviewing and questionnaires (Tharenou et al., 2007). Primary data collection involves a researcher collecting the data first hand through one or more of the above mentioned techniques (Kumar, 2005). Each technique used to collect primary data has its own limitations, however, using primary methods of data collection allows access to unique data relevant to the study (Kumar, 2005). As mentioned previously, not one single method provides perfectly accurate results therefore a mixture of the two must be used (Yin, 2009). ISSUES IN DATA COLLECTION To improve and overcome issues regarding to reliability, internal, external and construct validity which occur from using single methods, data sources or theories, methodological triangulation was used (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2007; Denzin, 1970; Webb, Campbell, Schwartz, & Sechrest, 1966). Denzin (1970) states that external and internal validity can be overcome with one of two forms of methodological triangulation, within-method and between-method triangulation. Within-method triangulation is achieved when researchers use the same method to measure the phenomena but at different points of time. Between-method triangulation, which is favoured by Denzin (1970), is achieved using different methods to measure the same phenomena, this is preferred as the flaws of one method are counteracted by the strengths of the others (Campbell & Overman, 1988). This study gained methodological triangulation by gathering information from five different sources: (1) A comprehensive review of the literature; (2) Document analysis of youth leadership development programs using the servant leadership framework; (3) A survey involving recent secondary college graduates using the SLBS; (4) A questionnaire involving university student leaders; and (5) Interviews with secondary college teachers and youth leadership facilitators. Internal and external validity were further strengthened by the inclusion of two techniques in the research. Internal validity was strengthened using a pattern matching technique by applying the servant leadership framework to youth leadership development programs. Pattern matching Out of the Boardroom and into the Classroom: Servant Leadership in Youth Leadership Development Page 36
Methodology compares a theoretical based pattern, such as the servant leadership framework, with the observed one (Trochim, 1989). If the patterns match it can be concluded that the study contains internal validity (Yin, 2009). External validity is gained using multiple cases within the research design. This is shown by a numerous secondary colleges being involved as well as over 100 participants from all states and territories across Australia. If a study is externally valid, the findings can be generalised beyond the current study (Campbell & Stanley, 1963; Cook & Campbell, 1976). Finally, in reference to the issue of reliability in data collection, a study is reliable if further studies following the same procedures on a similar sample produce similar results (Yin, 2009). In order to ensure the current study was reliable, a check of inter-rater reliability was conducted (Tharenou et al., 2007). As the study was undertaken by a solitary researcher, the test of inter-rater reliability was completed by coding the data blindly twice, separated by a two week gap. Using Goodwin and Goodwins (1985) inter-rater reliability scale the inter-rater reliability recoded a 0.93 agreement, above the recommended .90.
3.4.3 DATA ANALYSIS

As this study incorporated a mixed methods design, two forms of data analysis was used, qualitative and quantitative. QUANTITATIVE Survey responses from the SLBS were analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). The quantitative data was used to assess each of the servant leadership dimensions using the descriptive statistics of the responses. QUALITATIVE The interviews within the study were subject to digital recording. Digital recording (tape recording) is argued to be the optimal method in which to record interviews (Crabtree & Miller, 1999). The
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Methodology interviews were then verbatim transcribed by the researcher as suggested by Sommer and Sommer (1991). The interviews varied from 20 to 40 minutes in length and were completed over a two month period. The interviews, like the questionnaire and document analysis, were subject to content analysis. Content analysis is defined as any technique for making inferences by objectively and systematically identifying specified characteristics of messages (Holsti, 1969, p. 14). As Sendjaya et al.s (2008) servant leadership themes are used in examining the qualitative data, a template approach to content analysis is applied (Crabtree & Miller, 1999). In the template approach, the data is categorised using pre-determined themes or factors derived from the literature. Template coding is often used when there is a sound literature base in which to draw themes from (Tharenou et al., 2007). The qualitative data will have the servant leadership themes applied to the text in order to identify meaningful phrases or sections. The themes are then tabulated to provide frequencies in which inferences can be made to answer the research questions (Crabtree & Miller, 1999; Tharenou et al., 2007). Tables of these frequencies can be found in Chapter Four.
3.4.4 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

As with any study that involves human participants, there are many potential ethical issues that may arise during the research process. Therefore great lengths were taken during this thesis to nullify the risks on the participants. First, the current study and supporting documents, such as the surveys and interview questions, were submitted to the Monash University Standing Committee on Ethics in Research Involving Humans (SCERH). The research was promptly approved before the commencement of data collection. The ethics approval letter is located in Appendix 2. Participation in any of the four data collection methods was entirely voluntary and informed consent was given by each of the participants (a sample of the consent form can be found in Appendix 3). Each of the participants was given a copy of the explanatory statement (Appendix 4) and was aware
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Methodology they could withdraw from the research at anytime. Throughout Chapter Four and Five, all participants are de-indentified to maintain confidentiality.
3.5 SUMMARY
This chapter outlines the use of a mixed method research design to obtain rich insights into the phenomena that would not be possible from a solitary method. Multiple sources of evidence were employed to increase the validity of the research findings including interviews, document analysis and surveys. The sample consists of Australian secondary colleges, recent secondary college graduates, university student leaders, secondary college teachers and youth leadership facilitators. These multiple perspectives provide a holistic overview of servant leadership within youth leadership development in Australia.
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Chapter Four: Results
Results
CHAPTER FOUR - RESULTS

This chapter presents the findings of the study. First, content analysis of the five youth leadership development programs obtained from secondary colleges is presented. Second, the semi-structured interviews with six leadership facilitators and four secondary college teachers are analysed using the servant leadership framework. Third, 33 structured interviews with university student leaders are reported. Finally, survey findings using the SLBS conducted among 97 recent secondary college graduates conclude the chapter.
4.1 DOCUMENT ANALYSIS

Document analysis was used to gain insights into what is being taught in youth leadership development programs across Australia in an unobtrusive and timely fashion (Yin, 2004). One hundred secondary colleges were invited to participate in the research by sending in their youth leadership development program documents to the researcher. As discussed in the Chapter Three, stratified sampling was used to select the secondary colleges involved. Statistics provided by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (2006) allowed the researcher to select schools based on state and school type. Table 2 depicts the breakdown of state and school type selected in this study. Table 2 Secondary college sample breakdown (N=100) State New South Wales Victoria Queensland Western Australia South Australia Tasmania Northern Territory Australian Capital Territory Government Secondary Colleges 24 18 12 6 4 2 2 2 Non-Government Secondary Colleges 10 8 6 2 2 2 0 0
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Results In keeping with Dillmans (1991) recommendations, the following steps were undertaken to increase the response rate. Prior to sending out a letter of invitation, secondary colleges received an introductory email outlining the study; the invitation letter and a reply-paid envelope were enclosed within special postage envelopes sent to the secondary colleges; two follow up emails were sent at fortnightly intervals after the letters had been received; and all correspondence was personalised to the relevant figure within each secondary college. The study yielded a 5% response rate, which comprised of five secondary colleges from across Australia (i.e. private, public, selective, Catholic and Anglican). The low response rate can be explained due to two reasons. First, studies performed by Cycyota and Harrison (2006) found that response rates have declined overtime. Second, as youth leadership development programs are unique to the secondary college some may be unwilling to divulge their private documents (Tharenou et al., 2007). The youth leadership development documents were subjected to content analysis to determine if the six dimensions of servant leadership are being taught. The breakdown of the six dimensions mentioned in each document can be found in Table 3. Table 3 Frequency of servant leadership dimensions in leadership programs (N=199) Servant Leadership Theme School A School B School C School D School E Total % Covenantal Relationship 3 34 14 3 1 55 28 Transforming Influence 10 8 19 3 12 52 26 Authentic Self 0 25 7 4 5 41 20 Voluntary Subordination 6 6 10 3 8 33 17 Transcendental Spirituality 0 7 4 0 0 11 6 Responsible Morality 0 3 0 4 0 7 3 Notes: Percentages have been rounded
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Results The analysis of the youth leadership development programs found two dimensions of servant leadership heavily prevalent in secondary college youth leadership development programs, namely Covenantal Relationship (28%) and Transforming Influence (26%). These two dimensions accounted for over 50% of the leadership content taught to young leaders. The programs are weighted towards these dimensions as many youth leadership activities focused around collaboration (a theme of Covenantal Relationship) and empowerment (a theme of Transforming Influence). Transcendental Spirituality (6%) was addressed by two of the five schools with one secondary college teaching it through the theme of religion and the other addressing the themes of interconnectedness, sense of mission and wholeness. Responsible Morality (3%) was also only addressed by two schools but both schools put equal weighting on the two themes. These areas will be further analysed in Chapter Five.
4.2 INTERVIEWS
4.2.1 SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS

Semi-structured interviews with secondary college teachers and youth leadership facilitators were conducted to understand their perceptions of youth leadership development training, servant leadership and students retention of their leadership training. The semi-structured interview approach was undertaken as they allow flexibility to explore respondents answers in more depth and uncover further information (Lee, 1999). The questions revolved around the six dimensions of servant leadership asking if they should be taught to young leaders and why. Further questions looked at the retention of information from youth leadership development programs, what other areas of leadership should be taught in youth leadership development programs and the current level of training and opportunities available for students in youth leadership. A copy of the interview questions can be found in Appendix 5.
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Results The interviews continued until there was a saturation of similar data which occurred at the 10th interview, in line with Lee et al.s (1999) recommendation that the collection of qualitative data should stop once the researcher believes that little or no additional findings will occur. The list of interviewees is provided in Table 4 and exemplary data regarding servant leadership is reported in Table 5. Table 6 provides the frequency of themes present in the interviews. Table 4 List of interviewees Sex Female Male Female Male Male Male Female Female Male Female Occupation Leadership Facilitator Leadership Facilitator Leadership Facilitator Leadership Facilitator Leadership Facilitator Leadership Facilitator Principal Principal Teacher Teacher Sector Government Corporate Corporate Not-for-Profit Freelance Not-for-Profit Public Private Public Private Location Rationale for Sampling VIC NSW NSW VIC VIC VIC VIC VIC VIC NSW
Facilitate Youth Leadership Development Programs
Benefit from Youth Leadership Development Programs
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Results Table 5 Interview responses to servant leadership dimensions

Servant Leadership Dimension Exemplary Quotes Number of Respondents showing strong evidence 4 Teachers 5 Leadership Facilitators
Voluntary Subordination
Covenantal Relationships
Transforming Influence
Authentic Self
Transcendental Spirituality
Responsible Morality
Serving is the fundamental of living. Unless you have an opportunity to practice and see altruism working, for young people it is largely invisible. If it is not done in schools where else do they get the opportunity. The most valuable thing young people can learn in schools is the practical application of involvement in the community. If you are doing acts of service by yourself that is good but you are not really leading. That is what 99% of life is, dealing with people. As there are committees students need to work collaboratively with the students. It is the importance of relationships mentoring and investing in others, with the view of not getting anything back in return but helping them grow. Mentoring is something that Is hard to get right. It is massively valuable when it is done well. It is important to teach people the influence that they can have on others, especially in Secondary College. This is the benefit of leadership. A leaders character will grow, develop and change through serving others. You cannot build relationships without integrity. If you dont you are building a relationship based on lies. People believe in you, people trust you. If you are a leader its not doing what I say its doing what I do. As it tends to be a religious discussion it is hard in a secular framework to address why someone should be good. You remove that religious dimension and youre saying what are the premises on which we can even argue for someone to be good, truthful or kind. I dont think it is linked to religion as such; it is Ive been linked to this cosmos and Ive been given this opportunity at this point in time to make a difference. Jesus was a servant and he was the most humble in the community and he is the one we follow. We lack a language and a vocabulary in public education so its just not done. I am convinced there is a way to develop a discourse or conversation about it. I think ethics has been sorely lacking in business for a long time. There is not going to be someone holding their hand for the rest of their lives and they are not going to be able to go look up the answer in a text book. Few leadership programs available to high school students focus on ethics or values. Most focus on soft skills but do not empower young people to navigate through the tough moments of leadership or understand that harassing qualities such as humility, generosity, courage etc. is more important than having a badge.
4 Teachers 6 Leadership Facilitators
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Results Table 6 Frequency and percentage frequency distributions of the interview data Theme Responsible Morality Moral action Moral reasoning Theme total Voluntary Subordination Being a servant Acts of service Theme total Transforming Influence Vision Modelling Mentoring Trust Empowerment Theme total Authentic Self Humility Integrity Accountability Security Vulnerability Theme total Transcendental Spirituality Religiousness Interconnectedness Sense of mission Wholeness Theme total Covenantal Relationship Acceptance Availability Equality Collaboration Theme total Notes: Percentages have been rounded Frequency % of % of dimension framework 45 55 100 45 55 100 15 21 21 7 36 100 10 37 37 10 6 100 42 25 25 8 100 20 10 20 50 100
17 21 38 13 16 29 4 6 6 2 10 28 2 7 7 2 1 19 5 3 3 1 12 2 1 2 5 10
28
21
21
14
The interviews revealed that Responsible Morality (28%), Voluntary Subordination (21%) and Transforming Influence (21%) were the dimensions most required in youth leadership development programs. Responsible Morality was identified by respondents as the most prevalent dimension of servant leadership which is currently lacking in youth leadership development programs, hence Out of the Boardroom and into the Classroom: Servant Leadership in Youth Leadership Development Page 46
Results greater focus is needed in this area. The identification of Voluntary Subordination was a culmination of exemplary current practice and greater application needed within youth leadership development programs. Transforming Influence was identified by respondents as the most exemplary dimension of servant leadership currently being taught to students in youth leadership development programs. Respondents tended to converse more about the dimensions that were missing in youth leadership development programs, therefore dimensions such as Covenantal Relationships and Authentic Self were not addressed to their full extent. Respondents tended to address these dimensions as a whole, stating they were important but not as important as Voluntary Subordination, Responsible Morality and Transforming Influence. Transcendental Spirituality was only explored by those with a religious background. Non-secular respondents only addressed the themes of Transcendental Spirituality when they were questioned directly by the researcher but then dismissed it due to its theoretical religious framework.
4.2.2 STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS

A self-administered questionnaire was distributed to 33 university student leaders at a leadership conference in Sydney, New South Wales in order to easily measure their attitudes and preferences towards youth leadership development programs in an unobtrusive environment (Moorman & Podsakoff, 1992). These university student leaders were office bearers within their respective student clubs and had recently graduated from secondary college. The interviews asked the participants to comment on their youth leadership development programs throughout secondary college. The participants were asked to identify what areas of their youth leadership development programs were the most and least beneficial. Further, participants were asked if there were any areas they would have liked to be trained in. A breakdown of the themes of the interviews can be found in Table 7.
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Results Table 7 Servant leadership dimensions emerging in structured interviews Most Beneficial Least Beneficial Areas Liked Covered N=58 N=8 N=21 Voluntary Subordination 17 29.3% 1 12.5% 5 23.8% Authentic Self 1 1.7% 1 12.5% 0 0% Covenantal Relationship 13 22.4% 1 12.5% 9 42.9% Responsible Morality 4 6.9% 0 0% 0 0% Transcendental Spirituality 1 1.7% 3 37.5% 0 0% Transforming Influence 22 37.9% 2 25% 7 33.3%
The questionnaire found that the most beneficial dimensions were all practical elements of youth leadership development programs. Transforming Influences (37.9%), Voluntary Subordinations (29.3%), and Covenantal Relationships (22.4%) all emerged beneficial. Further, it is these three dimensions that university student leaders defined as areas they most liked covered. Transcendental Spirituality (37.5%) was found to be the least required aspect of youth leadership development from university student leaders. The question regarding the least beneficial area of youth leadership development only yielded eight responses with many university student leaders stating that every part of youth leadership development is important in some way. The questionnaire also provided insight into what is currently being taught in secondary college youth leadership development programs to triangulate the findings from the document analysis.
4.3 SURVEY
Sendjaya et al.s (2008) SLBS was used to measure the thoughts, feelings and behaviours of recent secondary college graduates towards servant leadership (Mitchell & Jolley, 2004). The survey was distributed at a leadership conference for college students in Sydney, New South Wales to 200 recent secondary college graduates. The response rate from the survey was 20% accounting for 40 respondents, heavily skewed towards Queensland, Western Australian and South Australian respondents. In order to achieve Stevens (1996) recommendation of 15 participants per dimension,
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Results 57 additional recent secondary college graduates were sampled from New South Wales and Victoria. The second sample was chosen as the populations from sample two mirrored the population from sample one as they all attended university, lived at a university residential college and had undertaken youth leadership development programs. Further, as the survey purported to measure recent secondary college graduates from across Australia, more respondents were needed from New South Wales and Victoria to balance the sample. This accounted for a total sample of 97. The data was collected and entered into SPSS. The data was screened and outliers were checked using box plots and 5% trimmed means. As the outliers had minimal effect they were retained (Pallant, 2007). The means, minimums, maximums and standard deviations are presented in Table 8. Table 8 Survey results arising from the Servant Leadership Behavioural Scale Voluntary Subordination Transforming Influence Responsible Morality Covenantal Relationships Authentic Self Transcendental Spirituality Mean 3.97 3.88 3.86 3.81 3.79 3.55 Minimum 2.57 2.43 2.60 2.50 2.33 2.25 Maximum 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 4.83 5.00 Std. Deviation 0.44 0.47 0.51 0.47 0.48 0.63
The results indicate recent secondary college graduates exhibit the following patterns of servant leadership characteristics. Voluntary Subordination (M = 3.97) and Transforming Influence (M = 3.88) were the highest rating items, both of which had been identified by university student leaders as the most beneficial aspects of youth leadership development programs. Transcendental Spirituality (M = 3.55), although receiving a mean above 3, once again recorded the lowest score of the dimensions. Responsible Morality (M = 3.86) which wasnt being taught in youth leadership development programs unexpectedly received one of the highest scores. Interpretations of these results will be examined in Chapter Five.
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Chapter Five: Discussion
Discussion
CHAPTER FIVE - DISCUSSION
This chapter discusses the findings of the study in light of the relevant literature. Each research question is addressed in relation to the findings obtained through the document analysis, surveys and interviews.
5.1 RESEARCH QUESTION 1
What are students currently learning to become servant leaders?
To understand what students are currently learning to become servant leaders, the current study examined youth leadership development programs to identify which dimensions of servant leadership are present. This will reveal the leadership characteristics students will embody after involvement in these programs. This research question answers the call from Azzam and Riggio (2003) for research into youth leadership development focusing around the material which is being taught to students. Analyses of the secondary college programs and the questionnaire revealed two prevalent dimensions of servant leadership taught in secondary college youth leadership programs, namely Transforming Influence and Covenantal Relationship. Although these two dimensions emerged strongly in each program there was little consistency among the programs on the other dimensions and the themes within the dimensions. This was expected as there is no consensus on what a youth leadership development program should look like (Osberg Conner & Strobel, 2007).
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Discussion
5.1.1 TRANSFORMING INFLUENCE

The first dimension to be analysed is Transforming Influence. Transforming Influence comprises of five different identifiable themes within the programs, vision, modelling, mentoring, trust and empowerment. The theme of empowerment was the most common amongst the programs as secondary colleges offer a variety of student participation opportunities (Frost, 2008). Vision materialised in the programs as a consequence of students in empowered roles. Finally, modelling and mentoring were both heavily present within the programs albeit used interchangeably to describe the relationship between students and their mentors as well as the younger students the students mentor. EMPOWERMENT Empowerment emerged from the data primarily in the form of student participation such as student representative positions. The majority of leadership positions for students are selected by the secondary college administration, based around academic merit, past behavioural discrepancies and leadership potential. These positions ranged from school captains to a member of various committees including social, environmental, liturgy, music, sport and extra-curricular activities. Each of these committees offers students a unique way to be empowered within their chosen field. In response to what students found most beneficial in their youth leadership development programs, university student leaders described undertaking leadership roles within their secondary college as one of the most beneficial and rewarding experiences, learning more from this experience than leadership seminars. Giving students the opportunity to be involved in youth leadership committees helps strengthen their leadership capacity. These finding are reflected by Kezar and Moriartys (2000) research who also found that student involvement in youth leadership committees related positively to students leadership development. The following comments attend to the above discussion:
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Discussion Nothing beats learning from experience. (University Student Leader) I found that when I was put in a situation where I needed to be the leader and make important decisions I excel, whereas if Im a bystander I tend to become lazy and unmotivated. (University Student Leader)
As discussed, there are numerous committees students can become involved in relation to their interests. Although they differ in ideology, these catch-all committees offer the same experiences for each student year after year. This supports Cress et al.s (2001) ideas that although secondary colleges do offer opportunities for students, they are often generic, untailored programs. To holistically develop their students, secondary colleges need to adopt a flexible structure that allows each student to grow and have their own special leadership journey as generic leadership opportunities do not replace true empowerment opportunities. In order to offer students unique programs, they must have a voice in how the programs are structured (Dempster & Lizzio, 2007). Frost (2008) argued that student participation in these committees does not engender empowerment, it simply acts as a mechanism for secondary colleges to pretend they are investing in their students leadership development. This theme also emerged in interviews with teachers. Teachers acknowledged that students need meaningful opportunities to harness their leadership skills as attested to in the following comment: Youth leadership has to be genuine. Schools need to promote, find, allow, very genuine opportunities to experience leadership which isnt token. (Female, Principal, Public, VIC)
VISION The development of visionary skills in students, as with empowerment, is a by-product of being in a leadership position. Upon inception into a leadership position, students are encouraged to envision, create and implement events for their peers. Servant leaders need to have the ability to envisage the future and conceptualise the required actions which is mirrored by these programs (Greenleaf, Out of the Boardroom and into the Classroom: Servant Leadership in Youth Leadership Development Page 53
Discussion 1977). By undertaking projects, students envisage an event, conceptualise what is needed to achieve this event and implement those plans. One of the secondary colleges provides the students with ample opportunities to create events to hone their visionary skills with students requiring to run at least two major events for their peers. Using this method to develop students visionary skills provides a semi-customised leadership program for each student. However, students who do not want to run events are marginalised in this scenario. Vision is most utilised as students approach year 12 where the vision activities change to focus around the individuals academic and life goals as opposed to creating events for their peers. This allows the students to have a greater perspective of their studies and understand why they are working towards their chosen goals. Throughout the year, students are involved in activities that teach them how to use vision to create goals in year 12 and then harness these skills to create vision for their life outside secondary college. Utilising vision earlier on in students leadership development can result in students taking control of their own leadership development (Osberg Conner & Strobel, 2007), creating a leadership program that is more tailored to students wants and needs (Cress et al., 2001; Frost, 2008) and allows the facilitators to understand what students want in youth leadership development programs (Dempster & Lizzio, 2007). MENTORING AND MODELLING Mentoring in secondary college takes on two forms, mentoring younger students and being mentored by teachers, the later described in servant leadership theory as modelling. As discussed previously, the two will be used interchangeably as they appear in the youth leadership development programs in that format. Mentoring was introduced in Chapter Two as an orientation approach to leadership development. The orientation approach was described as learning from others experiences (Azzam & Riggio, 2003).
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Discussion As learning from others experiences was not defined in the literature, this research will attempt to identify it based upon the findings from the programs. There has been evidence to suggest that the most critical element of youth leadership development is the youth/adult partnership (Ricketts & Rudd, 2002). Three examples of youth/adult partnerships were illustrated in the school documents; (1) Mentoring from teachers; (2) Mentoring from ex-students; and (3) Mentoring from the community. The first form of mentoring that will be discussed is mentoring by teachers. One secondary college recently changed the nature of the relationships between teachers and students, moving it from a teacher-student relationship to a mentor-student relationship. This reflects interpretations by Paolo Freire (1970) that the relationship between students and teachers must be one that can provide freedom to explore, yet offer directionality as a mentor (Gadotti, 1994; O'Donoghue & Strobel, 2007). This relationship was described by one of the teachers as follows: Sometimes we have to be a little uncomfortable, a little nervous, but leadership is about taking risks, about not having all the answers in advance and its about the ability to make a decision and stick by it and move forward. (Female, Principal, Public, VIC)
This form of mentoring may blur the lines of teacher authority in the classroom if students do not respect the teacher within a mentor role. One secondary college combats this by keeping teachers in their educational role and instead utilise ex-students as mentors. These ex-students are matched with current students based on their tertiary course or field of interest. However, it is a students choice to be paired with a mentor as shown by this secondary college; as shown in the following comments: This year 50 boys were matched with the Old Boys who gave them personalised mentoring programme relevant to their tertiary studies and/or adult occupations to which they aspired. (Taken from one of the Secondary College Youth Leadership Development Programs)
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Discussion The final example of mentoring is offered by secondary colleges is where mentors are chosen from the wider community. Upon applying for a leadership position students must have a personal mentor willing to mentor them for the entire year. These mentors are responsible for assisting the students throughout their leadership duties offering advice and support. The students are also provided with a supervising teacher during their leadership journey, as articulated through an excerpt of one of the programs: Students need to find a mentor who is readily accessible and will be available to offer advice and wisdom throughout the duration of the program. A mentors experience assists students in foreseeing problems and overcoming challenges. (Taken from one of the Secondary College Youth Leadership Development Programs)
The three forms of mentoring discussed relate to students being mentored by others. More commonly students are involved in mentoring younger students in a peer support program. This is offered by most secondary colleges with students who undertake these positions often finding this as one of the most beneficial aspects of the program. This experience, Cress et al. (2001) believes, also positively benefits the younger student as the knowledge gained by the senior students in their leadership program is then passed on as shown by a university student leader: [The most beneficial aspect of leadership training was] peer support training and being role models that exhibit the behaviour we want to see. (University Student Leader)
University student leaders identified being mentored as the most beneficial part of their leadership development. Responses focused around the inspirational nature of learning from other peoples experiences. When asked the areas university student leaders have found most beneficial in youth leadership development programs, the following responses were common: Learning about what other people have found beneficial and what hasnt worked for them. (University Student Leader)
Inspiring speakers that talk about goal setting. (University Student Leader) Out of the Boardroom and into the Classroom: Servant Leadership in Youth Leadership Development Page 56
Discussion Using individual mentors allows secondary colleges the ability to tailor their youth leadership development programs for each individual student, which was found to be lacking in empowerment activities (Cress et al., 2001).
5.1.2 COVENANTAL RELATIONSHIP

Covenantal Relationship is comprised of five themes: vulnerability, acceptance, availability, equality and collaboration, the most prevalent theme in youth leadership development programs is collaboration. This is not surprising as the traditional model of secondary college education is group learning (Frost, 2008). The other prevalent theme that will be discussed is the theme of acceptance which is centred around other cultures. COLLABORATION Most of the leadership opportunities provided to students involved working closely with others. Learning the advantages of shared leadership at a young age assists students in building positive collaborative relationships with their work colleagues. By collaborating to achieve similar goals each member of the student body becomes empowered (Laub, 1999). Collaboration starts in secondary colleges with student representative councils. These representative councils are established from year seven and run throughout a students time at school. These experiences help train students in effective collaboration with others. As with most aspects of youth leadership development there is a training base and a process base (Azzam & Riggio, 2003). Most of the collaboration comes from process based opportunities where students are forced to work in teams within their respective committees. The training base is about learning the advantages of collaborating and how to work effectively with others. Secondary colleges have traditionally been strong in this area as shown by one of the youth leadership development programs: ...developing skills to be able to learn from each other [and] ways of developing understanding and acceptance of individuals points of view (Taken from one of the Secondary College Youth Leadership Development Programs) Out of the Boardroom and into the Classroom: Servant Leadership in Youth Leadership Development Page 57
Discussion ACCEPTANCE In relation to acceptance, two areas surfaced in the analysis, acceptance of other cultures and accepting each other. Leaders are required to lead people from all races and background given the rise in cross-cultural work teams within organisations. Anticipating this future leadership capacity, youth leadership development should focus beyond programs that merely teach young leaders to respect other cultures, students need to understand how their actions, body language and contexts are perceived across cultural barriers (Cress et al., 2001). The following is an outline of one of the secondary colleges cultural training for their year 12 students highlighting the need to teach young leaders about culture: Skills to analyse, gaining understanding and acceptance of different cultures, experiences in new cultures, importance of different cultures (Taken from one of the Secondary College Youth Leadership Development Programs)
The other theme that emerged in acceptance was accepting each other. This was identified in the secondary college youth leadership development programs and by the university student leaders. Some university student leaders believed that the skills they acquired in conflict resolution were the most important aspects of their leadership development. The youth leadership development programs took a different approach. Upon inspection, they tried to teach students steps so conflict resolution shouldnt need to happen, enhancing their natural skills to engage in cooperation (Cassell et al., 2006): The most important aspects of the school spirit are the way staff treat each other, how the staff treat the students and how the students treat each other. (Taken from one of the Secondary College Youth Leadership Development Programs) Understanding other peoples values and how to work with them. (Taken from one of the Secondary College Youth Leadership Development Programs)
To summarise, through youth leadership development programs students are currently learning to become servant leaders by learning the dimension of Transforming Influence,
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Discussion through mentoring, empowerment and vision, and the dimension of Covenantal Relationship through acceptance and collaboration.
How should students be taught servant leadership?
The second research question sought to determine what dimensions of servant leadership should be taught in youth leadership development programs in secondary colleges in order to develop servant leaders. Secondary college teachers and youth leadership facilitators provided their inputs regarding how students should become servant leaders. Five of the six dimensions of servant leadership were identified by nearly all respondents as essential. The interview transcripts revealed that Responsible Morality and Voluntary Subordination were the two major dimensions that should be taught in youth leadership development programs.
5.2.1 RESPONSIBLE MORALITY
I think ethics has been sorely lacking in business for a long time. (Female, Principal, Private, VIC)
Responsible Morality is comprised of two elements, moral actions and moral reasoning. Within the interview transcripts, respondents used morals and ethics interchangeably therefore they will be discussed together. There was strong support shown by the respondents for the inclusion of Responsible Morality as part youth leadership development programs. This is consistent with the findings from the literature review (Elmuti et al., 2005; Richards, 1999). However, there were two
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Discussion major barriers currently present in secondary colleges which limit the teaching of Responsible Morality. ARGUMENTS FOR RESPONSIBLE MORALITY During Chapter One and Chapter Two, reasons for the adoption of servant leadership centred around the moral superiority of servant leadership in a time where society is experiencing a shortage. The knowledge of what is ethically right is now more present in society due to the consumer backlash of the global financial crisis (Marcus & Fremeth, 2009; Moore, 2004; Spratt & Sutton, 2008). As such, youth leadership development programs need to follow this movement and ensure students are taught ethical values, as outlined by one of the respondents: Ethics is on the boom in the world like fair-trade coffee. Ethical choices are affecting people a lot more. (Male, Leadership Facilitator, Freelance, VIC)
Some respondents believed that secondary colleges have a responsibility to teach ethics and morality to students as part of their values training (Cress et al., 2001). They felt that this responsibility arose due to a poor ethical background from the students parents: Yes - We have a real lack of that [ethics and morality being taught in the home in the Australian culture. (Male, Teacher, Public, VIC)
The final argument justifying the inclusion of Responsible Morality in youth leadership development programs is that ethical decision making is the fundamental element of leadership development. Conflict resolution, team management and other soft skills were constantly taught throughout the programs and respondents believed that within these soft skills the underlying framework must be grounded in the key concepts of Responsible Morality (Cress et al., 2001). Without the understanding of their own ethical and moral boundaries, students will not be equipped with the right skills to make a choice when tough ethical decisions are presented to them. The following statements highlight this sentiment:
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Discussion Morality and ethics [needs to be taught] how does a leader make the tough decisions and navigate competing values or interests? (Female, Leadership Facilitator, Corporate, NSW) There is not going to be someone holding their hand for the rest of their lives and they are not going to be able to go look up the answer in a text book. (Male, Leadership Facilitator, Freelance, VIC) ARGUMENTS AGAINST RESPONSIBLE MORALITY As discussed, there was strong support for Responsible Morality to be a major dimension in youth leadership development. However, upon inspection there are two major barriers hindering its implementation. First, youth leadership facilitators identified that many of their colleagues feel that the teaching of Responsible Morality is too hard and the concepts are too complex for students to understand. None of the respondents felt this was a shortcoming on behalf of the students cognitive abilities. Instead they believed the shortcoming was solely on the facilitator not willing to try and engage students in ethical discussions. Consequently some of them think it is too hard so they will not even try and I think it is a big mistake. (Male, Leadership Facilitator, Corporate, NSW)
...and for people who say it is too complex, high school students wont get it are wrong. It is not that complex. Some of the biggest ethical choices are really simple. (Male, Leadership Facilitator, Freelance, VIC)
The second barrier to teaching Responsible Morality was contributed by secondary colleges. Due to secondary colleges focus on academic achievement and tangible skill training, respondents felt that students are not exposed to Responsible Morality. As Responsible Morality does not fit into a soft skill such as conflict resolution or have academic merit, secondary colleges are inclined to ignore the concept all together. There was a strong belief from many of the respondents arguing that training in Responsible Morality was more important than many of the other concepts and competencies youth leadership development programs offer. This is demonstrated in the following responses:
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Discussion I think there has been too much time focused on academic results. On the completion of academic results there is very little for them to fall back on and they are not emotionally prepared to deal with the world. (Male, Teacher, Public, VIC)
Few leadership programs available to high school students focus on ethics or values. Most focus on soft skills but do not empower young people to navigate through the tough moments of leadership or understand that harassing qualities such as humility, generosity, courage etc. is more important than having a badge. (Female, Leadership Facilitator, Corporate, NSW)
As a side note, secondary colleges that did invest in Responsible Morality training for their students were from a religious denomination. The teaching of ethics and morality focused around upholding their religious values and was commonly taught as part of the secondary college curriculum under religious education.
5.2.2 VOLUNTARY SUBORDINATION

Voluntary Subordination is comprised of two elements, acts of service and being a servant, the major area seen within secondary colleges is acts of service. This can come in many different forms including serving their peers on a student representative council or serving the community through community strengthening activities. Unlike Responsible Morality, Voluntary Subordination was prevalent in the leadership curriculums and did not experience barriers in its implementation. Teachers, facilitators and the literature all agreed that Voluntary Subordination is one of the most essential elements of leadership development (Baggett, 1997; Block, 1993; Fairholm, 1997; Greenleaf, 1977; Russell & Stone, 2002; Sendjaya et al., 2008). Furthermore, many agreed that doing acts of service is what youth leadership training and life should be about: The crux of servant leadership is actually acts of service. (Male, Leadership Facilitator, Freelance, VIC)
Serving is the fundamental of living (Male, Teacher, Public, VIC)
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Discussion In order to develop students Voluntary Subordination skills, many respondents agreed that a practical approach to learning is the best way. Although classroom study may explain the concepts of Voluntary Subordination, students need to have the opportunities to engage in meaningful acts of service within their secondary college and wider community to develop their leadership skills. If students are able to serve and build their community, they are likely to continue to be involved once they finish schooling (Daugherty & Williams, 1997). The importance of hands on leadership development is shown through the following statements: Most good leaders start by being active leaders. (Female, Leadership Facilitator, Government, VIC)
Learning through doing is really important, have to go out there and actually do it. (Male, Leadership Facilitator, Freelance, VIC)
There were distinctions made between practical service opportunities, like running events for their peers and altruistically serving the community, for example volunteering for a charity. Some respondents addressed the issue that altruism is very rarely seen in mainstream society and is very rarely publicised as explained by one of the secondary college teachers: Unless you have an opportunity to practice and see altruism working, for young people it is largely invisible. If it is not done in schools where else do they get the opportunity. (Female, Principal, Public, VIC)
One respondent who agreed with students doing acts of service disagreed with being a servant leader. They saw the concept of servant leadership as a nice idea, but they believed there still had to be a gap between the leaders and the followers as shown below: I think servant leadership has a nice ring to it but it isnt about the washing of the feet at all. I think leaders need to have a presence and I think you can be humble and you can be in your role as service to others than that washing of the feet business. (Female, Principal, Private, VIC)
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Discussion In summary, respondents believed that youth leadership development programs needed to cover Responsible Morality and Voluntary Subordination in more detail in order to develop into more holistic leaders. It was discovered that students were being exposed to Voluntary Subordination through community service activities, however due to the implementation barriers of Responsible Morality it was not currently taught in youth leadership development programs.
What dimensions of servant leadership are prevalent in recent secondary college graduates?
The final research question sought to determine which dimensions of servant leadership were prevalent in recent secondary college graduates. Upon inspection of the survey data collected using the SLBS, the means of the six dimensions were all towards the positive end of the scale, in particular Voluntary Subordination (M=3.97), Transforming Influence (M=3.88) and Responsible Morality (M=3.86). This is in stark contrast to other interpretations of Generation Y (recent secondary college graduates) as they are often referred to as selfish and unmotivated (O'Donoghue & Strobel, 2007; Tulgan & Martin, 2001). To create an understanding of the survey results, research conducted by Hewlett et al. (2009) in relation to Generation Y characteristics will be used. This section will look at the three most prevalent dimensions identified by the survey, Voluntary Subordination, Transforming Influence, and Responsible Morality.
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Discussion
5.3.1 VOLUNTARY SUBORDINATION

Voluntary Subordination reported the highest mean score (M=3.97), yet only accounted for 17% of what students learnt in their secondary college youth leadership development programs. Two possible explanations for why recent secondary college graduates responded in favour of Voluntary Subordination will be discussed. The first possible explanation of why recent secondary college graduates scored so highly on the Voluntary Subordination dimension is due to involvement in the community. There are now many opportunities for students to be involved in serving their community including youth councils, youth ambassadors or youth activities committees (Eva, 2008; O'Donoghue & Strobel, 2007). 86% of Generation Y respondents in Hewlett et al.s (2009) study stated that they wanted their work to positively affect the community and the environment. This willingness to serve the community is shown through these results. The second explanation relates to the sample. As the sample was collected at a leadership conference and the recent secondary college graduates had experience in youth leadership development programs they have been heavily involved in acts of service. Therefore the results are likely to skew in that direction. The highest mean score for any individual item was 19 Serve others without regard to their backgrounds (gender, race, etc.) (M=4.62). This is due to the global community that has been created with a quarter of Generation Y networking primarily with an ethnicity different than their own and 78% comfortable working with people from different ethnicities (Hewlett et al., 2009).
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Discussion
5.3.2 TRANSFORMING INFLUENCE

As Transforming Influence accounted for more than a quarter of the content of youth leadership development programs, it was expected that recent secondary college graduates would rate highly on the Transforming Influence dimension of the SLBS. As discussed above, mentoring is a major part of students leadership development. Mentoring continues into the workplace with many organisations utilising Generation Ys willingness to mentor others by enabling them to teach senior members of staff Web 2.0 features such as facebook and twitter and in return be mentored by the senior staff (Hewlett et al., 2009). The programs also showed multiple opportunities for students to be empowered and use vision. These opportunities to hone their Transforming Influence skills help explain why Transforming Influence was rated so highly amongst recent secondary college graduates.
5.3.3 RESPONSIBLE MORALITY

The dimension of Responsible Morality (M=3.86) being prevalent in recent secondary college graduates was not expected as the evidence from the youth leadership development programs suggest this should not be the case as it only accounted for 3% of the total content. Most interviewees believed that not enough ethics were being taught and the literature suggested that there are little ethics being taught within schools (Elmuti et al., 2005; Richards, 1999). Hewlett et al. (2009) offers an explanation to this by stating that Generation Y are conscious of social causes such as poverty, environmental impact and education, due to mass-media and lobby groups all promoting social causes and the need for ethical reasoning. Although ethics may not be taught in youth leadership development programs or at home, as Generation Y are exposed to all these issues, their knowledge of ethics and morality grows.
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Discussion An alternative interpretation is put forth by Ricketts and Rudd (2002) who stated that students learn more about leadership from their extra-curricular activities than they do in a classroom. Therefore, their involvement in social movement groups develops their ethical and moral leadership skills (Hewlett et al., 2009; O'Donoghue & Strobel, 2007; Ricketts & Rudd, 2002). This is an area that will need continuous research to understand the implications of ethics in the next generation of leaders. In summary, recent secondary college graduates responded highly in terms of the SLBS. In particular, respondents identified strongly with Transforming Influence, Voluntary Subordination and Responsible Morality. As Responsible Morality was not being taught in students youth leadership development programs it was suggested that they are developing these skills through involvement in social cause groups or through their exposure to the media.
5.3.4 FURTHER DISCOVERIES
Ten of the top fifteen most highly rated items on the survey (all >4), were directly related to recent secondary college graduates relationships with others, for example Give others the right to question my actions and decisions, Am willing to spend time to build a professional relationship with others and Treat people as equal partners in a project or team or organisation. Hewlett et al. (2009) found that working in teams and having strong networks are important in Generation Y as are networking sites such as facebook and twitter. This study does not have the scope to understand if relationships with others are the reason recent secondary college graduates scored so highly on the SLBS, however the evidence leads itself towards that conclusion. Once again, this question remains unanswered and needs further research.
5.4 COMBINING SERVANT LEADERSHIP WITH YOUTH LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

This study uncovered multiple dimensions of servant leadership already embedded in secondary college youth leadership development programs. Further, interviews revealed that almost all of the
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Discussion dimensions should be taught in youth leadership development programs, therefore servant leadership may be effective in fostering the next generation of leaders. The current model of servant leadership utilised within this study, namely Sendjaya et al.s (2008) framework, is best suited for corporate leadership and needs to be adapted to be used in secondary colleges. This section outlines an adaptation of servant leadership in youth leadership development. As the hybrid system of leadership development which combines classroom training with leadership initiatives is the most beneficial system of leadership development (Day, 2000; Dotlich & Noel, 1998), the discussion will present classroom training and leadership initiatives for each of the dimensions. Teaching Voluntary Subordination fosters the creation of altruistic individuals (Osberg Conner & Strobel, 2007). Youth leadership development programs should seek to engage students in acts of service within their secondary college and community, such as charity work and social causes. To accompany these servant behaviours, students need to understand why they are performing these acts of service and what it means to truly be a servant. The following comment alludes to this discussion: Unless you have an opportunity to practice and see altruism working, for young people it is largely invisible. If it is not done in schools where else do they get the opportunity. (Female, Principal, Public, VIC)
To develop the dimension of Authentic Self, students need to discover who they are, what they stand for and why they lead. This can be achieved through students learning about their own personal values, vision and how their life experiences shape who they are (Shamir & Eilam, 2005). Understanding these elements will assist students in fostering their security, integrity, humility and vulnerability. These skills can be developed through students involvement in leadership committees and help students create a holistic understanding of self (Shamir & Eilam, 2005). Accountability can be used in conjunction with these committees, making students accountable to their peers and
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Discussion mentor when completing projects. An example of accountability is seen in one of the youth leadership development programs: It is the responsibility of the Co-ordinators [student leaders] to monitor the functioning of the committees. They need to check with staff regarding student attendance and participation and discuss with students if they are failing to meet their leadership obligations. (Taken from one of the Secondary College Youth Leadership Development Programs)
Covenantal Relationship has been taught through secondary college youth leadership development programs with the use of different committees, such as Student Representative Councils. In order to maximise the effectiveness of students interactions in these committees, students need to be taught theoretical aspects of working with others such as cultural awareness and conflict resolution. The outcome of teaching Covenantal Relationship in youth leadership development programs is that students are able to work effectively in teams to achieve joint goals (Cress et al., 2001). The following remark depicts this thread: ...developing skills to be able to learn from each other [and] ways of developing understanding and acceptance of individuals points of view (Taken from one of the Secondary College Youth Leadership Development Programs)
In teaching Responsibly Morality, students need the opportunity to think rationally through problems faced in the real world, such as embezzlement, climate change and other ethically questionable practices. This enables students to understand the consequences of their actions (Astin, 1993). By actively engaging students about what they believe is right and wrong they will understand the implications of their actions once they are in the workplace. It should not be about enforcing one set of over-arching morals but simply opening up an ethical debate. This is highlighted in the following remark: You are not teaching them what to think, you are teaching them how to think, to think! (Male, Leadership Facilitator, Freelance, VIC)
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Discussion Transcendental Spirituality has its focus in religion, being connected to the world and understanding the bigger picture (Sendjaya et al., 2008). As many secondary colleges are non-denominational, religious ideals being put forward under the Transcendental Spiritually framework are unable to be incorporated into their youth leadership development programs. Therefore, it is suggested that the servant leadership framework be manipulated for use in non-denominational secondary colleges removing the factor of Transcendental Spirituality. Within religious secondary colleges the outcomes of Transcendental Spirituality development should be to understand that as leaders they are part of a bigger system (Kauffman, 1980). This can be taught in non-denominational secondary colleges if the themes of interconnectedness, sense of mission and wholeness are focused on from a nonreligious base, as alluded to in the following comment: I dont think it is linked to religion as such, it is Ive been linked to this cosmos and Ive been given this opportunity at this point in time to make a difference. (Female, Teacher, Private, NSW)
As previously identified, Transforming Influence is the most prevalent dimension in secondary college youth leadership development programs. Practically, this has been achieved through mentoring by either teachers, ex-students or members of the wider community, students mentoring younger students, developing students visionary skills by creating different events and being empowered through numerous leadership committees. Theoretically, secondary colleges need to address the influence students can have on others and gaining trust from peers by displaying the characteristics of Authentic Self. The outcomes of exposing students to Transforming Influence are that students are empowered and engaged within their secondary college and look to create positive change (Cress et al., 2001; Daugherty & Williams, 1997). The following comment attends to the advantages of the above discussion: I found that when I was put in a situation where I needed to be the leader and make important decisions I excel, whereas if Im a bystander I tend to become lazy and unmotivated. (University Student Leader)
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Discussion In summary, a conceptual model of the application of servant leadership in secondary colleges is presented in Figure 3. Sample activities and outcomes corresponding to the six dimensions of servant leadership derived from the findings of this study are outlined. As this is a generic model, there is a need for customisation on the basis of the needs and wants of students in each secondary college (Shamir et al., 2005).
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Discussion Figure 3 Application of the servant leadership framework in secondary college youth leadership development programs
Dimensions of Servant Leadership

Voluntary Subordination
Classroom Training
Why become a servant?
Leadership Initiatives
Acts of service in the greater community Being accountable to mentors and peers
Outcomes
Fosters the creation of altruistic individuals Creating a holistic understanding of self Working within teams to achieve joint goals Understand the greater implications of their actions Understand they are part of a greater system Empowered and engaged in their secondary college
Authentic Self
Values, vision and life experiences
Covenantal Relationship Servant Leadership Responsible Morality
Cultural awareness
Student committees
Learning about real world problems
Engaging in ethical debates
Transcendental Spirituality
Combining service with meaning
Discovering your calling to lead
Transforming Influence
Students' ability to influence
Being mentored
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Chapter Six: Conclusion
Conclusion
CHAPTER SIX - CONCLUSION

The final chapter presents a summary and conclusion of the findings. Each of the three research questions will be briefly summarised, offering the findings and a rationale behind each discovery. Three future research problems that emerged from the study will be identified covering global leadership, leadership styles and methodological recommendations. Finally, the limitations of the study will be addressed.
6.1 KEY FINDINGS

The purpose of this study was to examine the application of servant leadership in Australian secondary colleges on the basis of Sendjaya et al.s (2008) servant leadership framework. An indepth analysis was constructed by addressing the phenomena from six different viewpoints, youth leadership development programs, leadership literature, university student leaders, recent secondary college graduates, secondary college teachers and youth leadership facilitators. The main findings of this research are summarised below.
6.1.1 RESEARCH QUESTION ONE

Research question one sought to determine what students are learning to become servant leaders. A document analysis of secondary college youth leadership development programs revealed that through these programs, students are being taught the dimensions of Covenantal Relationship, Transforming Influence and to a lesser extent Authentic Self and Voluntary Subordination. However, Transcendental Spirituality and Responsible Morality were not being taught. Interviews with secondary college teachers and youth leadership facilitators revealed that Transcendental Spirituality was not being taught due to its theoretical origins in religion. Responsible Morality was not being taught due to two reasons, first, some youth leadership facilitators believe Responsible
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Conclusion Morality is too complex for students to understand and second, secondary colleges tend to focus on academic results and tangible skills than the internal personal development of their students.
6.1.2 RESEARCH QUESTION TWO

Research question two sought to determine how students should be taught to become servant leaders. Interviews with secondary college teachers and youth leadership facilitators showed trends towards the teaching of Voluntary Subordination and Responsible Morality. This echoes scholars stating that as society is in an ethical crisis of leadership, youth leadership development programs need to focus on the teaching of ethics (Elmuti et al., 2005; Richards, 1999). Structured interviews with university student leaders also identified Voluntary Subordination as a concept needed in secondary college youth leadership development programs. There was also a majority consensus from secondary college teachers, youth leadership facilitators and university student leaders that Transcendental Spirituality should not be taught in youth leadership development programs due to its theoretical origins in religion.
6.1.3 RESEARCH QUESTION THREE

Research question three sought to determine what elements of servant leadership are prevalent in recent secondary college graduates. The surveys provided data which contradict popular perception of Generation Y (Turner & Mavin, 2008). Recent secondary college graduates scored highly on all dimensions of servant leadership, in particular Voluntary Subordination, Transforming Influence and Responsible Morality. Transforming Influence was the most prevalent theme discovered in the document analysis therefore it was expected to rate highly amongst recent secondary college graduates. Although Responsible Morality was found lacking in youth leadership programs, recent secondary college graduates produced high results in this dimension on the SLBS. There is theoretical evidence to suggest that Generation Y learn Responsible Morality through mass media and a saturation of social cause lobby groups (Hewlett et al., 2009). Out of the Boardroom and into the Classroom: Servant Leadership in Youth Leadership Development Page 75
Conclusion
6.2 SIGNIFICANCE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

This study extended the literature on youth leadership development by identifying the needs and challenges associated with youth leadership development in secondary colleges and creating a framework for the application of servant leadership in secondary college youth leadership development programs. The study includes some limitations. The magnitude of the study was limited due to a restriction of 20,000 words and a time frame of seven months in which to complete this thesis as per the requirements of the Bachelor of Business (Honours) degree. Due to the limit in time and words, considerable restraint was put on the depths of the research. With a longer study, more interviews could have taken place to address different youth leadership experiences across different types of secondary colleges, e.g. private, public and selective. Further, more surveys could have been collected to gain a deeper cross section of recent secondary college graduates to see if the dimensions of servant leadership differed between secondary college, state, gender and social background. There are two distinct methodological limitations. The first methodological limitation was the youth leadership development program sample size. Identified in Chapter Three and Four, 100 secondary colleges were invited to participate in the study. Even after following recommendations by Dillman (1991) to increase the response rate, only five accepted the offer. As secondary colleges differ greatly, it is still unknown if these youth leadership development programs represent the majority of secondary colleges or if they are a unique minority. Further studies in this area will need to look at more programs than were possible in this study. The second methodological limitation was a potential for bias in the study, as the research was conducted by one researcher. This may be present in the interpretation of themes from the interviews and the document analysis. Although reliability was assessed overtime, the study lacked
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Conclusion inter-rater reliability due to a solitary researcher (Lee, 1999). The use of multiple data sources however helped compensate this limitation (Bryman, 1995; Denzin, 1970).
6.3 IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

After ten years of academics calling for in depth research in youth leadership development, this study has provided a first step addressing the call (Dempster & Lizzio, 2007; MacBeath, 1998). This study established the importance of youth opinion in youth leadership development. As per recommendations by MacBeath (1998) and Dempster and Lizzio (2007), youth opinion must be taken into account when researching youth leadership development. In researching youth leadership development there must be a heavy weighting of youth opinion regarding what concepts, characteristics and competencies they would like to be taught and how they would like to receive the training. The following research directions are depicted from the findings of the current study. First, research needs to be undertaken to determine what other leadership characteristics need to be developed in young leaders (Cress et al., 2001). This study looked at servant leadership, however authentic (Avolio & Gardner, 2005) and transformational (Bass, 1999) leadership should also be assessed. Interviews with key business, not-for-profit, political and sporting leaders need to be undertaken to understand which of these or other leadership styles should be taught in youth leadership development programs. Second, longitudinal studies of students undertaking youth leadership development programs are required (Cress et al., 2001). Document analysis of youth leadership development programs only reveal the outline of what is being taught and often this will not reflect practice (Cooper & Schindler, 2003). Using longitudinal studies, students development and retention of leadership concepts and competencies can be monitored to analyse which dimensions of youth leadership development are being taught to and retained by the students. Although youth information retainment has been studied (Gray, Hunter, & Schwab, 2000), youth leadership development takes a different form than Out of the Boardroom and into the Classroom: Servant Leadership in Youth Leadership Development Page 77
Conclusion the traditional classroom setting of academia. It is due to the uniqueness of youth leadership development that retainment should be researched absent of other theories. Finally, the study needs to expand to address youth leadership development in a global context. Generation Y leaders will move into a global business environment where they must understand different cultures and lead work teams from different backgrounds (Caligiuri & Tarique, 2009; Hewlett et al., 2009).
6.4 SUMMARY
In conclusion, this study aimed to examine the application of servant leadership in Australian secondary colleges on the basis of Sendjaya et al.s (2008) servant leadership framework. In doing so this study utilised a mixed methods approach in order to determine what students are currently learning to become servant leaders, how they should learn to become servant leaders and what dimensions of servant leadership are prevalent in recent secondary college graduates. The servant leadership framework was found to be very beneficial in youth leadership development programs, confirmed both by the literature and by interviews with secondary college teachers and youth leadership facilitators. It was found that servant leadership dimensions should continue to be taught in youth leadership development programs but with a renewed focus on Voluntary Subordination and Responsible Morality. Future research is needed to overcome the limitations of this study and delve deeper into youth leadership development as a concept within itself. Given their prominent role in developing the next generation of leader, there is a need for secondary colleges to develop a holistic and systematic youth leadership development program as recommended in this study.
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Appendix
APPENDIX 1 SERVANT LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOURAL SCALE

LEADERSHIP SURVEY
Instructions: Please evaluate your current attitudes and behaviors by selecting the most appropriate number in the following scale. Your candid responses are much appreciated. In a typical interaction I have with others, I . . . 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Consider others needs and interests above my own Am not defensive when confronted Affirms my trust in others Am driven by a sense of a higher calling Take a resolute stand on moral principles Articulate a shared vision to give inspiration and meaning Use power in service to others, not for my own ambition When criticized focus on the message not the messenger Accept others as they are, irrespective of their failures
Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Neither
Agree
Strongly Agree
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
10. Help others to find a clarity of purpose and direction 11. Emphasize on doing what is right rather than looking good 12. Lead by personal example 13. Am more conscious of my responsibilities than my rights 14. Practices what I preach 15. Respect others for who they are, not how they make me feel 16. Promote values that transcend self-interest and material 17. Employ morally justified means to achieve legitimate ends 18. Inspire others to lead by serving 19. Serve others without regard to their backgrounds (gender, race, etc.) 20. Am willing to say I was wrong to other people 21. Have confidence in others, even when the risk seems great 22. Help others to generate a sense of meaning out of everyday life 23. Encourage others to engage in moral reasoning 24. Allow others to experiment and be creative without fear 25. Demonstrate that I care through sincere, practical deeds 26. Am willing to let others take control of situations when appropriate 27. Treat people as equal partners in a project or team or organisation 28. Enhance others capacity for moral actions 29. Draw the best out of others 30. Listen to others with intent to understand 31. Give others the right to question my actions and decisions 32. Am willing to spend time to build a professional relationship with others 33. Minimize barriers that inhibit others success 34. Assist others without seeking acknowledgement or compensation 35. Contribute to others personal and professional growth
Dr Sen Sendjaya (sen.sendjaya@buseco.monash.edu.au). All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution.
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Appendix
APPENDIX 2 ETHICS APPROVAL
Monash University Human Research Ethics Committee (MUHREC) Research Office
Human Ethics Certificate of Approval

Date: 3 July 2009 Project Number: CF09/1624 - 2009000880 Project Title: Servant leadership and youth leadership development in Australia Chief Investigator: Dr Sen Sendjaya Approved: From: 3 July 2009 To: 3 July 2014
TERMS OF APPROVAL 1. The Chief investigator is responsible for ensuring that permission letters are obtained, if relevant, and a copy forwarded to MUHREC before any data collection can occur at the specified organisation. Failure to provide permission letters to MUHREC before data collection commences is in breach of the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research and the Australian Code for the Responsible Conduct of Research. 2. Approval is only valid whilst you hold a position at Monash University. 3. It is the responsibility of the Chief Investigator to ensure that all investigators are aware of the terms of approval and to ensure the project is conducted as approved by SCERH. 4. You should notify MUHREC immediately of any serious or unexpected adverse effects on participants or unforeseen events affecting the ethical acceptability of the project. 5. The Explanatory Statement must be on Monash University letterhead and the Monash University complaints clause must contain your project number. 6. Amendments to the approved project (including changes in personnel): Requires the submission of a Request for Amendment form to MUHREC and must not begin without written approval from SCERH. Substantial variations may require a new application. 7. Future correspondence: Please quote the project number and project title above in any further correspondence. 8. Annual reports: Continued approval of this project is dependent on the submission of an Annual Report. This is determined by the date of your letter of approval. 9. Final report: A Final Report should be provided at the conclusion of the project. MUHREC should be notified if the project is discontinued before the expected date of completion. 10. Monitoring: Projects may be subject to an audit or any other form of monitoring by MUHREC at any time. 11. Retention and storage of data: The Chief Investigator is responsible for the storage and retention of original data pertaining to a project for a minimum period of five years.
Professor Ben Canny Chair, SCERH
cc: Mr Nathan Eva

Postal Monash University, Vic 3800, Australia Building 3E, Room 111, Clayton Campus, Wellington Road, Clayton Telephone +61 3 9905 5490 Facsimile +61 3 9905 3831 Email muhrec@adm.monash.edu.au www.monash.edu/research/ethics/human/index/html ABN 12 377 614 012 CRICOS Provider #00008C
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Appendix
APPENDIX 3 PARTICIPANT CONSENT FORM
Consent Form
NOTE: THIS CONSENT FORM WILL REMAIN WITH THE MONASH UNIVERSITY RESEARCHER FOR THEIR RECORDS I agree to take part in the Monash University research project specified above. I have had the project explained to me, and I have read the Explanatory Statement, which I keep for my records. I understand that agreeing to take part means that:
1. I agree to be interviewed by the researcher 2. I agree to allow the interview to be audio-taped and/or video-taped 3. I agree to make myself available for a further interview if required
Yes Yes Yes
No No No
I understand that my participation is voluntary, that I can choose not to participate in part or all of the project, and that I can withdraw at any stage of the project without being penalised or disadvantaged in any way. I understand that any data that the researcher extracts from the interview for use in reports or published findings will not, under any circumstances, contain names or identifying characteristics.
Participants name
Signature
Date
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Appendix
APPENDIX 4 LETTER OF INVITATION
Explanatory Statement
Servant Leadership: The Development of Australian Youth This information sheet is for you to keep. My name is Nathan Eva and I am conducting a research project with Dr. Sen Sendjaya a senior lecturer in the Department of Management towards a Bachelor of Business (Honours) Monash University. This means that I will be writing a thesis which is equivalent to 20,000 words. Till now there has been no account of what Secondary Colleges are teaching the next generation of Australian leaders. The purpose of this study is to establish the extent to which Australian High Schools develop servant leaders. The benefits from this study include revealing extent in which Australian Secondary College leadership programs create servant leaders and establishing characteristics of the next generation of Australian leaders. The results from the research will be delivered back to Secondary Colleges to assist in creating a leadership development program that develops leaders holistically and helps foster a new generation of servant leaders. This study involves a document analysis of your Secondary Colleges leadership program as well as 49 other leadership programs from Secondary Colleges throughout Australia. After analysing the programs an interview with you at your earliest convenience will be conducted to assess your thoughts on the results of the study which characteristics of leadership are being taught and which ones are not. There is no foreseeable risk in participate in this study as no Secondary Colleges or leadership practitioner will be identified anywhere in the study or supporting documents. Only the researchers will have access to the interview transcripts. Storage of the data collected will adhere to the University regulations and kept on University premises in a locked cupboard/filing cabinet for 5 years. A report of the study may be submitted for publication, but individual participants will not be identifiable in such a report. Being in this study is voluntary and you are under no obligation to consent to participation. However, if you do consent to participate, you may only withdraw before approving the interview transcript. If you would like to be informed of the aggregate research finding, please contact Dr. Sen Sendjaya on 9903 2089 or email sen.sendjaya@buseco.monash.edu.au. The findings are accessible until December 2009. Thank you. Nathan Eva
If you would like to contact the researchers about any aspect of this study, please contact the Chief Investigator: Dr. Sen Sendjaya Department of Management PO Box 197, Caulfield East, Monash University VIC 3145 Tel: +61 3 9903 2089 Fax: +61 3 9903 2718 Email: sen.sendjaya@buseco.monash.edu.au If you have a complaint concerning the manner in which this research project CF09/1624 2009000880 is being conducted, please contact: Executive Officer Standing Committee on Ethics in Research Involving Humans (SCERH) Building 3e Room 111 Research Office Monash University VIC 3800 Tel: +61 3 9905 2052 Fax: +61 3 9905 1420 Email: scerh@adm.monash.edu.au
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Appendix
APPENDIX 5 INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

What aspects of leadership should be covered in youth leadership development programs? What aspects should not be covered in youth leadership development programs? Do you believe students take away what they have learnt from youth leadership development programs? Servant Leadership should these be taught and why o o Acts of service and being a servant Shaping the nature of relationships with others by being available, promoting an equal relationship, accepting everyone for who they are and collaborating o Modelling themselves on other leaders, mentoring younger students, being trustworthy, having a vision and empowering themselves and others. o Being authentic displaying integrity, accountability, humility, security and vulnerability o Making ethical and moral decisions and following through on them with ethical means o Spirituality seeing yourself connected to the big picture, driven by a higher calling.
Do you believe there needs to be more training or opportunities or do we have a perfect balance
Further Comments
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Out of The Boardroom and Into The Classroom: Servant Leadership in Youth Leadership Development

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Out of the Boardroom and into the Classroom:

Servant Leadership in Youth Leadership Development

Nathan Eva 20294492

........................................................................ Nathan Mark Eva 23 October, 2009

Chapter One: Introduction

CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTION

1.1 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

1.2.1 WHY YOUTH LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

1.2.2 WHY SERVANT LEADERSHIP

1.3 DEFINING SERVANT LEADERSHIP

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESEARCH

1.5 THESIS OVERVIEW

Chapter Two: Literature Review

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1.2 LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

2.2 YOUTH LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

2.2.1 FOSTERING LEADERSHIP IN SECONDARY COLLEGE

2.2.2 THE PROCESS OF YOUTH LEADERHIP DEVELOPMENT

Program structures & supports

Youth as empowered leaders

Problems or issues in school & community

2.2.3 DEVELOPING YOUNG LEADERS

2.2.4 RETENTION OF KNOWLEDGE

2.3 SERVANT LEADERSHIP

2.3.1 JUSTIFICATION FOR SERVANT LEADERSHIP

2.3.2 DIMENSIONS OF SERVANT LEADERSHIP

Followers experience positive emotions

Display of motivation to work with the leader

2.4 SERVANT LEADERSHIP IN YOUTH LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

Chapter Three: Methodology

CHAPTER THREE - METHODOLOGY

3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN

3.2 SOURCES OF EVIDENCE

3.2.1 DOCUMENT ANALYSIS

3.3.1 SERVANT LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOURAL SCALE

3.3.2 SERVANT LEADERSHIP THEMES

3.4.2 DATA COLLECTION

3.4.3 DATA ANALYSIS

3.4.4 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Chapter Four: Results

CHAPTER FOUR - RESULTS

4.1 DOCUMENT ANALYSIS

4.2.1 SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS

Facilitate Youth Leadership Development Programs

Benefit from Youth Leadership Development Programs

Results Table 5 Interview responses to servant leadership dimensions

4 Teachers 6 Leadership Facilitators

4 Teachers 6 Leadership Facilitators

4 Teachers 6 Leadership Facilitators

3 Teachers 1 Leadership Facilitators

4 Teachers 6 Leadership Facilitators

4.2.2 STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS

Chapter Five: Discussion

5.1 RESEARCH QUESTION 1

What are students currently learning to become servant leaders?

5.1.1 TRANSFORMING INFLUENCE

5.1.2 COVENANTAL RELATIONSHIP

5.2 RESEARCH QUESTION 2

How should students be taught servant leadership?

5.2.1 RESPONSIBLE MORALITY

5.2.2 VOLUNTARY SUBORDINATION

Serving is the fundamental of living (Male, Teacher, Public, VIC)