Lecture 15 (Network Layer) Outline

„ Internet Network Layer:

z IP Addressing
z IPv6

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 15.4. IP Addressing

„ IP address:
z Is a 32-bit address that uniquely identifies
interfaces of a device – host or router.
Interface: provides connection between a device
and a physical link.
z A device can have multiple interfaces - more than
one IP address.
z Decimal point notation:

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 15.4. IP Addressing

„ “class-full” addressing:
z IP address consists of two parts:
network part (high order bits).
host part (low order bits).

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 15.4. IP Addressing

z Address range:

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 15.4. IP Addressing

z All 0s and all 1s are reserved for special

addresses.

Class Number of Networks Number of Hosts

A 27-1=127 224-2=16,777,214

B 214=16,384 216-2=65,534

C 221=2,097,152 28-2=254

D, E Not applicable Not applicable

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 15.4. IP Addressing

„ What’s a network? (from IP address perspective)

z Device interfaces with same network part of IP
address.
z Can physically reach each other without
intervening router – direct delivery of packets.
z For example:
129.8.x.x is a class B address, so it consists of all
hosts/routers with the same first two bytes of IP
address.
207.42.56.x is a class C address, so it consists of
all hosts/routers with the same first three bytes of
IP address.

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 15.4. IP Addressing

„ Example:

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 15.4. IP Addressing

„ Special addresses:
z Network address:
Host ID is all 0s.

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 15.4. IP Addressing

„ Special addresses:
z Direct broadcast address:
Host ID is all 1s.

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 15.4. IP Addressing

„ Special addresses:
z Loopback address:
Used to test the software on a machine.
Packet never leaves the machine.

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 15.4. IP Addressing

„ “class-full” addressing:
z Allows a network with two levels of hierarchy.
z Inefficient use of address space leads to address
space exhaustion.
e.g. class B net allocated enough addresses for 65K
hosts, even if only 2K hosts in that network
z Short-term solutions:
Subnetting: divides a network into several smaller
networks.
Supernetting: combine several class C addresses to
create a larger range of addresses.
z Long-term solution:
IPv6 or IPng.
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 15.4.1. Subnetting

„ Subnetting:
z Divides a network into several smaller networks.
z The subnetworks still appear as a single network
to the rest of the Internet.

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 15.4.1. Subnetting

z Creates an intermediate level of hierarchy.

netid: defines the site.
subnetid: defines the physical subnetwork.
hostid: defines the connection of the host to the
subnet.

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 15.4.1. Subnetting

„ Masking:
z Process that extracts the address of the physical
network from an IP address.
z Applicable with or without subnetting.

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 15.4.1. Subnetting

z Uses bit-wise-and operation on the IP address

and the mask.

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 15.4.2. Supernetting

„ Supernetting:
z Assigns a set of class C addresses to an
organization that needs more than 254 host
addresses.

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 15.4.2. Supernetting

„ Supernet mask:
z Reverse of the subnet
mask.
Subnet mask: change
some zeros in the
hostid to 1s.
Supernet mask: change
some 1s in netid to
zeros.
z The position of 1s in the
supernet mask defines
lowest address.

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 15.4.2. Supernetting

„ Classless InterDomain Routing (CIDR):

z Reduces the entries in the routing table for
supernet.
Represents supernet by a single entry in the routing
table.
z Network portion of address of arbitrary length.
z Address format: a.b.c.d/x, where x is # bits in
network portion of address.
network host
part part
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
200.23.16.0/23
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 15.4.2. Supernetting

z Route aggregation.

192 4 16 host 11000000 00000100 00010000

192 4 17 host 11000000 00000100 00010001

16 Class C Dec/Bin
192 4 18 host 11000000 00000100 00010010
Networks
. .
. .
. .

192 4 31 host 11000000 00000100 00011111

Classless
Network

11000000 00000100 0001

20-bit Network Part

12-bit Host Part

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 15.4.3.Getting an IP Address

„ IP addresses are allocated by ICANN.

z ICANN: Internet Corporation for Assigned Names
and Numbers.
Decides which IP addresses are to be reserved for
special purpose and which ones that can be used.
Also assigns domain names and manages domain
name servers.
Resolves domain name disputes.
z Actual assignment of IP addresses is managed by
Regional Internet Registries:
Keep track who actually own the IP addresses.
More info: see http://www.apnic.net/db/RIRs.html.

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 15.4.3.Getting an IP Address

„ How a host gets its IP address?

z Hard-coded by system admin in a file.
z Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP):
Application-layer protocol.
Dynamically get address: “plug-and-play”.

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 15.5. IPv6

„ Initial motivation:
z solve 32-bit address space which may completely
be allocated by 2008.
„ Additional motivation:
z change header format to speed up
processing/forwarding.
z change header to facilitate QoS.
z provide new “anycast” address: route to “best” of
several replicated servers.

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 15.5. IPv6

„ IPv6 addressing:
z 16 bytes = 128 bits.
z Hexadecimal colon notation:

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 15.5. IPv6

z Provider-based address is used by a normal host

as a unicast address.
Hierarchical addressing.

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 15.5. IPv6

„ IPv6 datagram format:

z fixed-length 40 byte header.
z no fragmentation allowed.

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 15.5. IPv6

„ IPv6 datagram format:

z Priority: identify priority among datagrams
in flow.
z Flow Label: identify datagrams in the same
“flow.” (concept of “flow” is not well
defined).
z Next header: identify upper layer protocol
for data.
z Hop limit = TTL

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 15.5. IPv6

„ Other changes from IPv4:

z Checksum: removed entirely to reduce processing
time at each hop
z Options: allowed, but outside of header, indicated
by “Next Header” field
z ICMPv6: new version of ICMP
additional message types, e.g. “Packet Too Big”
multicast group management functions

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 15.5. IPv6

„ Transition from IPv4 to IPv6:

z Not all routers can be upgraded simultaneous.
no “flag days”.
How will the network operatewith mixed IPv4 and
IPv6 routers?
z Two proposed approaches:
Dual Stack: some routers with dual stack (v6, v4)
can “translate” between formats.
Tunneling: IPv6 carried as payload n IPv4
datagram among IPv4 routers.

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 15.5. IPv6

„ Dual Stack Approach:

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 15.5. IPv6

„ Tunneling:

IPv6 inside IPv4 where needed

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 15.5. IPv6

„ Dual Stack:
z Router converts header format between IPv6 to
IPv4.
Data H6 Data H4

„ Tunnelling:
z Using IPv4 header format to encapsulate IPv6
header.
Data H6 Data H6 H4

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 15.6. Further Readings

„ Internet Network Layer:

z Internet Routing Protocols : Section 21.7 – 21.8.
z IP Datagram Format : Section 24.2.
z IP Addressing : Section 24.3.
z IPv6: Appendix H.

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 Next Lecture

IP Control Protocols
(Forouzan Section 24.5
Ross Chapter 4)

33