Sklar, B.

Digital Communication System Performance

Mobile Communications Handbook
Ed. Suthan S. Suthersan
Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 1999
c 1999byCRCPressLLC
Digital Communication System
Performance
1
Bernard Sklar
Communications EngineeringServices
13.1 Introduction
TheChannel

TheLink
13.2 BandwidthandPower Considerations
The Bandwidth Efciency Plane

M-ary Signalling

Bandwidth-LimitedSystems

Power-LimitedSystems

Min-
imumBandwidth Requirements for MPSK and MFSK Sig-
nalling
13.3 Example1: Bandwidth-LimitedUncodedSystem
SolutiontoExample1
13.4 Example2: Power-LimitedUncodedSystem
SolutiontoExample2
13.5 Example3: Bandwidth-LimitedPower-LimitedCoded
System
SolutiontoExample3

CalculatingCodingGain
13.6 Example4: Direct-SequenceSpread-SpectrumCoded
System
ProcessingGain

Channel Parametersfor Example13.4

So-
lutiontoExample13.4
13.7 Conclusion
Appendix: ReceivedE
b
/N
0
IsIndependent of the
CodeParameters
References
Further Information
13.1 Introduction
Inthissectionweexaminesomefundamental tradeoffsamongbandwidth, power, anderror perfor-
manceof digital communicationsystems. Thecriteriafor choosingmodulationandcodingschemes,
basedon whether asystemisbandwidthlimitedor power limited, arereviewedfor several system
examples. Emphasisisplaced on thesubtlebut straightforward relationshipsweencounter when
transformingfromdata-bitstochannel-bitstosymbolstochips.
1
Aversionof thischapter hasappearedasapaper intheIEEECommunicationsMagazine, November 1993, under thetitle
Dening, Designing, andEvaluatingDigital CommunicationSystems.
c 1999byCRCPressLLC
Thedesign or denition of anydigital communication systembeginswith adescription of the
communication link. Thelink is thenamegiven to thecommunication transmission path from
the modulator and transmitter, through the channel, and up to and including the receiver and
demodulator. Thechannel isthenamegiven to thepropagatingmediumbetween thetransmitter
and receiver. A link description quantiestheaveragesignal power that isreceived, theavailable
bandwidth, thenoisestatistics, andother impairments, such asfading. Also neededto denethe
systemarebasicrequirements, suchasthedataratetobesupportedandtheerror performance.
13.1.1 TheChannel
For radio communications, theconcept of freespaceassumes achannel region freeof all objects
thatmightaffectradiofrequency(RF) propagationbyabsorption, reection, or refraction. Itfurther
assumesthattheatmosphereinthechannel isperfectlyuniformandnonabsorbing,andthattheearth
isinnitelyfar awayor itsreectioncoefcient isnegligible. TheRF energyarrivingat thereceiver
isassumed to beafunction of distancefromthetransmitter (simplyfollowingtheinverse-square
lawof optics). Inpractice, of course, propagationintheatmosphereandnear thegroundresultsin
refraction, reection, andabsorption, whichmodifythefreespacetransmission.
13.1.2 TheLink
A radiotransmitter ischaracterizedbyitsaverageoutput signal power P
t
andthegainof itstrans-
mittingantennaG
t
. Thenamegiventotheproduct P
t
G
t
, withreferencetoanisotropicantennais
effectiveradiatedpower(EIRP) inwatts(ordBW).Thepredetectionaveragesignal power S arrivingat
theoutputof thereceiver antennacanbedescribedasafunctionof theEIRP, thegainof thereceiving
antennaG
r
, thepathloss(or spaceloss) L
s
, andother losses, L
o
, asfollows[14, 15]:
S =
EIRPG
r
L
s
L
o
(13.1)
ThepathlossL
s
canbewrittenasfollows[15]:
L
s
=
_
4d

_
2
(13.2)
whered isthedistancebetweenthetransmitter andreceiver and isthewavelength.
Werestrict our discussiontothoselinksdistortedbythemechanismof additivewhiteGaussian
noise(AWGN) only. Suchanoiseassumptionisaveryuseful model foralargeclassofcommunication
systems. A valid approximation for averagereceived noisepower N that thismodel introducesis
writtenasfollows[5, 9]:
N

= kT

W (13.3)
wherek isBoltzmannsconstant(1.3810
23
joule/K), T

iseffectivetemperatureinkelvin, andW
isbandwidthinhertz. DividingEq.(13.3) bybandwidth, enablesustowritethereceivednoise-power
spectral densityN
0
asfollows:
N
0
=
N
W
= kT

(13.4)
DividingEq. (13.1) byN
0
yieldsthereceivedaveragesignal-power tonoise-power spectral density
S/N
0
as
S
N
0
=
EIRPG
r
/T

kL
s
L
o
(13.5)
c 1999byCRCPressLLC
whereG
r
/T

isoftenreferredtoasthereceivergureofmerit. Alinkbudgetanalysisisacompilation
of thepower gainsandlossesthroughoutthelink; itisgenerallycomputedindecibels, andthustakes
on thebookkeepingappearanceof abusiness enterprise, highlightingtheassets and liabilities of
thelink. Oncethevalueof S/N
0
isspeciedor calculatedfromthelink parameters, wethenshift
our attentiontooptimizingthechoiceof signallingtypesfor meetingsystembandwidthanderror
performancerequirements.
Given thereceived S/N
0
, wecan writethereceived bit-energy to noise-power spectral density
E
b
/N
0
, for anydesireddatarateR, asfollows:
E
b
N
0
=
ST
b
N
0
=
S
N
0
_
1
R
_
(13.6)
Equation(13.6) followsfromthebasicdenitionsthatreceivedbitenergyisequal toreceivedaverage
signal power timesthebitdurationandthatbitrateisthereciprocal of bitduration. ReceivedE
b
/N
0
isakeyparameter indeningadigital communicationsystem. Itsvalueindicatestheapportionment
of thereceivedwaveformenergyamongthebitsthat thewaveformrepresents. At rst glance, one
might think that asystemspecication should entail thesymbol-energy to noise-power spectral
densityE
s
/N
0
associatedwiththearrivingwaveforms. Wewill show, however, thatfor agivenS/N
0
thevalueof E
s
/N
0
isafunctionof themodulationandcoding. Thereasonfor deningsystemsin
termsof E
b
/N
0
stemsfromthefact that E
b
/N
0
dependsonlyonS/N
0
andR andisunaffectedby
anysystemdesignchoices, suchasmodulationandcoding.
13.2 BandwidthandPower Considerations
Twoprimarycommunicationsresourcesarethereceivedpower andtheavailabletransmissionband-
width. In many communication systems, oneof theseresources may bemoreprecious than the
other and, hence, most systemscan beclassiedaseither bandwidthlimitedor power limited. In
bandwidth-limitedsystems,spectrallyefcientmodulationtechniquescanbeusedtosavebandwidth
at theexpenseof power; in power-limited systems, power efcient modulation techniquescan be
usedto savepower at theexpenseof bandwidth. In both bandwidth- andpower-limitedsystems,
error-correctioncoding(oftencalledchannel coding) canbeusedtosavepower or toimproveerror
performanceat theexpenseof bandwidth. Recently, trellis-codedmodulation(TCM) schemeshave
beenusedtoimprovetheerror performanceof bandwidth-limitedchannelswithout anyincreasein
bandwidth[17], but thesemethodsarebeyondthescopeof thischapter.
13.2.1 TheBandwidthEfciencyPlane
Figure13.1showstheabscissaastheratioof bit-energytonoise-power spectral densityE
b
/N
0
(in
decibels) andtheordinateastheratioof throughput, R (inbitsper second), that canbetransmitted
per hertzinagivenbandwidthW. TheratioR/W iscalledbandwidthefciency, sinceitreectshow
efcientlythebandwidth resourceisutilized. Theplot stemsfromtheShannonHartleycapacity
theorem[12, 13, 15], whichcanbestatedas
C = W log
2
_
1 +
S
N
_
(13.7)
whereS/N is theratio of received averagesignal power to noisepower. When thelogarithmis
takentothebase2, thecapacityC, isgiveninbitsper second. Thecapacityof achannel denesthe
c 1999byCRCPressLLC
maximumnumber of bitsthat canbereliablysent per secondover thechannel. For thecasewhere
thedata(information) rateR isequal toC, thecurveseparatesaregionof practical communication
systemsfromaregionwheresuchcommunicationsystemscannot operatereliably[12, 15].
FIGURE13.1: Bandwidth-efciencyplane.
13.2.2 M-arySignalling
Eachsymbol inanM-aryalphabet canberelatedtoauniquesequenceof mbits, expressedas
M = 2
m
or m = log
2
M (13.8)
whereM isthesizeof thealphabet. Inthecaseof digital transmission, thetermsymbol referstothe
member of theM-aryalphabet that istransmittedduringeachsymbol durationT
s
. Totransmit the
symbol, it must bemappedontoanelectrical voltageor current waveform. Becausethewaveform
representsthesymbol, thetermssymbol andwaveformaresometimesusedinterchangeably. Since
oneof M symbolsor waveformsistransmittedduringeachsymbol durationT
s
, thedatarateR in
bitsper secondcanbeexpressedas
R =
m
T
s
=
log
2
M
T
s
(13.9)
Data-bit-timedurationisthereciprocal ofdatarate. Similarly,symbol-timedurationisthereciprocal
of symbol rate. Therefore, fromEq. (13.9), wewritethat theeffectivetimedurationT
b
of eachbit in
c 1999byCRCPressLLC
termsof thesymbol durationT
s
or thesymbol rateR
s
is
T
b
=
1
R
=
T
s
m
=
1
mR
s
(13.10)
Then, usingEqs. (13.8) and(13.10) wecanexpressthesymbol rateR
s
intermsof thebit rateR as
follows:
R
s
=
R
log
2
M
(13.11)
FromEqs. (13.9) and(13.10), anydigital schemethattransmitsm = log
2
M bitsinT
s
seconds, using
abandwidthof W hertz, operatesat abandwidthefciencyof
R
W
=
log
2
M
WT
s
=
1
WT
b
(b/s)/Hz (13.12)
whereT
b
istheeffectivetimedurationof eachdatabit.
13.2.3 Bandwidth-LimitedSystems
FromEq. (13.12), thesmaller theWT
b
product, themorebandwidth efcient will beanydigital
communication system. Thus, signals with small WT
b
products areoften used with bandwidth-
limitedsystems. For example, theEuropeandigital mobiletelephonesystemknownasGlobal System
for Mobile Communications (GSM) uses Gaussian minimumshift keying (GMSK) modulation
havingaWT
b
productequal to0.3Hz/(b/s), whereW isthe3-dBbandwidthof aGaussianlter [4].
For uncodedbandwidth-limitedsystems, theobjectiveistomaximizethetransmittedinformation
ratewithintheallowablebandwidth, at theexpenseof E
b
/N
0
(whilemaintainingaspeciedvalue
of bit-error probabilityP
B
). Theoperatingpointsfor coherent M-aryphase-shift keying(MPSK)
at P
B
= 10
5
areplotted on thebandwidth-efciency planeof Fig. 13.1. WeassumeNyquist
(ideal rectangular) lteringat baseband[10]. Thus, for MPSK, therequireddouble-sideband(DSB)
bandwidthat anintermediatefrequency(IF) isrelatedtothesymbol rateasfollows:
W =
1
T
s
= R
s
(13.13)
whereT
s
isthesymbol duration andR
s
isthesymbol rate. Theuseof Nyquist lteringresultsin
theminimumrequiredtransmissionbandwidththat yieldszerointersymbol interference; suchideal
lteringgivesrisetothenameNyquist minimumbandwidth.
FromEqs.(13.12) and(13.13), thebandwidthefciencyofMPSKmodulatedsignalsusingNyquist
lteringcanbeexpressedas
R/W = log
2
M (b/s)/Hz (13.14)
TheMPSK points in Fig. 13.1 conrmtherelationship shown in Eq. (13.14). Notethat MPSK
modulationisabandwidth-efcient scheme. AsM increasesinvalue, R/W alsoincreases. MPSK
modulationcanbeusedfor realizinganimprovementinbandwidthefciencyatthecostof increased
E
b
/N
0
. Although beyondthescopeof thischapter, manyhighlybandwidth-efcient modulation
schemesareunder investigation[1].
c 1999byCRCPressLLC
13.2.4 Power-LimitedSystems
Operatingpointsfor noncoherent orthogonal M-aryFSK (MFSK) modulation at P
B
= 10
5
are
alsoplottedonFig. 13.1. For MFSK, theIFminimumbandwidthisasfollows[15]
W =
M
T
s
= MR
s
(13.15)
whereT
s
isthesymbol durationandR
s
isthesymbol rate. WithMFSK, therequiredtransmission
bandwidthisexpandedM-foldover binaryFSK sincethereareM different orthogonal waveforms,
eachrequiringabandwidthof 1/T
s
. Thus, fromEqs. (13.12) and(13.15), thebandwidthefciency
of noncoherent orthogonal MFSK signalscanbeexpressedas
R
W
=
log
2
M
M
(b/s)/Hz (13.16)
TheMFSKpointsplottedinFig. 13.1conrmtherelationshipshowninEq.(13.16). NotethatMFSK
modulationisabandwidth-expansivescheme. AsM increases, R/W decreases. MFSK modulation
canbeusedfor realizingareductioninrequiredE
b
/N
0
at thecost of increasedbandwidth.
In Eqs. (13.13) and (13.14) for MPSK, and Eqs. (13.15) and (13.16) for MFSK, and for all the
points plotted in Fig. 13.1, ideal lteringhas been assumed. Such lters arenot realizable! For
realisticchannelsandwaveforms, therequiredtransmissionbandwidthmust beincreasedinorder
toaccount for realizablelters.
In theexamplesthat follow, wewill consider radio channelsthat aredisturbedonlybyadditive
whiteGaussian noise(AWGN) and haveno other impairments, and for simplicity, wewill limit
themodulation choiceto constant-envelopetypes, i.e., either MPSK or noncoherent orthogonal
MFSK. For anuncodedsystem, MPSK isselectedif thechannel isbandwidthlimited, andMFSK is
selectedif thechannel ispower limited. When error-correction codingisconsidered, modulation
selectionisnot assimple, becausecodingtechniquescanprovidepower-bandwidthtradeoffsmore
effectivelythanwouldbepossiblethroughtheuseof anyM-arymodulationschemeconsideredin
thischapter [3].
Inthemost general sense, M-arysignallingcanberegardedasawaveform-codingprocedure, i.e.,
whenweselect anM-arymodulationtechniqueinsteadof abinaryone, weineffect havereplaced
thebinarywaveformswithbetter waveformseither better for bandwidthperformance(MPSK) or
better for power performance(MFSK). Even though orthogonal MFSK signallingcan bethought
of asbeingacodedsystem, i.e., arst-order Reed-Muller code[8], werestrict our useof theterm
coded systemto thosetraditional error-correction codes usingredundancies, e.g., block codes or
convolutional codes.
13.2.5 MinimumBandwidthRequirementsfor MPSKand
MFSKSignalling
Thebasicrelationshipbetweenthesymbol (orwaveform)transmissionrateR
s
andthedatarateRwas
showninEq. (13.11). Usingthisrelationshiptogether withEqs. (13.1313.16) andR = 9600 b/s, a
summaryofsymbol rate,minimumbandwidth,andbandwidthefciencyforMPSKandnoncoherent
orthogonal MFSK wascompiledfor M = 2, 4, 8, 16, and32(Table13.1). Valuesof E
b
/N
0
required
toachieveabit-error probabilityof 10
5
for MPSK andMFSK arealsogivenfor eachvalueof M.
Theseentries (which werecomputed usingrelationships that arepresented later in this chapter)
corroborate the tradeoffs shown in Fig. 13.1. As M increases, MPSK signalling provides more
bandwidthefciencyatthecostof increasedE
b
/N
0
, whereasMFSKsignallingallowsfor areduction
inE
b
/N
0
at thecost of increasedbandwidth.
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TABLE13.1 Symbol Rate, MinimumBandwidth, BandwidthEfciency, andRequiredE
b
/N
0
for MPSK and
Noncoherent Orthogonal MFSK Signallingat 9600bit/s
MPSK MPSK Noncoherent MFSK
R R
s
Minimum MPSK E
b
/N
0
(dB) OrthogMFSK MFSK E
b
/N
0
(dB)
M m (b/s) (symb/s) Bandwidth(Hz) R/W P
B
= 10
5
MinBandwidth(Hz) R/W P
B
= 10
5
2 1 9600 9600 9600 1 9.6 19,200 1/2 13.4
4 2 9600 4800 4800 2 9.6 19,200 1/2 10.6
8 3 9600 3200 3200 3 13.0 25,600 3/8 9.1
16 4 9600 2400 2400 4 17.5 38,400 1/4 8.1
32 5 9600 1920 1920 5 22.4 61,440 5/32 7.4
13.3 Example1: Bandwidth-LimitedUncodedSystem
Supposewearegiven abandwidth-limited AWGN radio channel with an availablebandwidth of
W = 4000 Hz. Also, supposethat thelinkconstraints(transmitter power, antennagains, pathloss,
etc.) result intheratioof receivedaveragesignal-power tonoise-power spectral densityS/N
0
being
equal to53dB-Hz. Let therequireddatarateR beequal to9600b/s, andlet therequiredbit-error
performanceP
B
beatmost10
5
. Thegoal istochooseamodulationschemethatmeetstherequired
performance. Ingeneral, anerror-correctioncodingschememaybeneededif noneof theallowable
modulationschemescanmeet therequirements. Inthisexample, however, weshall ndthat theuse
of error-correctioncodingisnot necessary.
13.3.1 SolutiontoExample1
For anydigital communication system, therelationship between received S/N
0
and received bit-
energytonoise-power spectral density, E
b
/N
0
wasgiveninEq. (13.6) andisbrieyrewrittenas
S
N
0
=
E
b
N
0
R (13.17)
Solvingfor E
b
/N
0
indecibels, weobtain
E
b
N
0
(dB) =
S
N
0
(dB-Hz) R (dB-b/s)
= 53 dB-Hz
_
10 log
10
9600
_
dB-b/s
= 13.2 dB(or 20.89) (13.18)
Sincetherequired datarateof 9600b/sismuch larger than theavailablebandwidth of 4000Hz,
thechannel isbandwidthlimited. Wethereforeselect MPSK asour modulationscheme. Wehave
connedthepossiblemodulationchoicestobeconstant-envelopetypes; without sucharestriction,
wewouldbeabletoselect amodulationtypewithgreater bandwidthefciency. Toconservepower,
wecomputethesmallest possiblevalueof M such that theMPSK minimumbandwidth does not
exceedtheavailablebandwidthof4000Hz. Table13.1showsthatthesmallestvalueofMmeetingthis
requirementisM = 8. Nextwedeterminewhethertherequiredbit-errorperformanceofP
B
10
5
canbemet byusing8-PSK modulationaloneor whether it isnecessarytouseanerror-correction
codingscheme. Table13.1showsthat 8-PSK alonewill meet therequirements, sincetherequired
E
b
/N
0
listedfor 8-PSKislessthanthereceivedE
b
/N
0
derivedinEq. (13.18). Letusimaginethatwe
donot haveTable13.1, however, andevaluatewhether or not error-correctioncodingisnecessary.
c 1999byCRCPressLLC
Figure13.2showsthebasicmodulator/demodulator (MODEM) blockdiagramsummarizingthe
functional detailsof thisdesign. At themodulator, thetransformation fromdatabitsto symbols
yieldsanoutput symbol rateR
s
, that is, afactor log
2
M smaller thantheinput data-bit rateR, asis
seen in Eq. (13.11). Similarly, at theinput to thedemodulator, thesymbol-energyto noise-power
spectral densityE
S
/N
0
isafactor log
2
M larger thanE
b
/N
0
, sinceeachsymbol ismadeupof log
2
M
bits. BecauseE
S
/N
0
islargerthanE
b
/N
0
bythesamefactorthatR
s
issmallerthanR, wecanexpand
Eq. (13.17), asfollows:
S
N
0
=
E
b
N
0
R =
E
s
N
0
R
s
(13.19)
Thedemodulator receivesawaveform(inthisexample, oneof M = 8 possiblephaseshifts) during
eachtimeinterval T
s
. Theprobabilitythat thedemodulator makesasymbol error P
E
(M) iswell
approximatedbythefollowingequationfor M > 2 [6]:
P
E
(M)

= 2Q
_
_
2E
s
N
0
sin
_

M
_
_
(13.20)
whereQ(x), sometimescalledthecomplementaryerror function, representstheprobabilityunder
thetail of azero-meanunit-varianceGaussiandensityfunction. It isdenedasfollows[18]:
Q(x) =
1

2
_

x
exp
_

u
2
2
_
du (13.21)
Agoodapproximationfor Q(x), validfor x > 3, isgivenbythefollowingequation[2]
Q(x)

=
1
x

2
exp
_

x
2
2
_
(13.22)
InFig. 13.2andall of theguresthat follow, rather thanshowexplicit probabilityrelationships, the
generalizednotationf (x) hasbeenusedtoindicatesomefunctional dependenceonx.
Atraditional wayof characterizingcommunicationefciencyindigital systemsisintermsof the
receivedE
b
/N
0
indecibels. ThisE
b
/N
0
descriptionhasbecomestandardpractice, but recall that
therearenobitsat theinput tothedemodulator; thereareonlywaveformsthat havebeenassigned
bit meanings. ThereceivedE
b
/N
0
representsabit-apportionment of thearrivingwaveformenergy.
Tosolvefor P
E
(M) inEq. (13.20), werst needtocomputetheratioof receivedsymbol-energy
tonoise-power spectral densityE
s
/N
0
. SincefromEq. (13.18)
E
b
N
0
= 13.2 dB(or 20.89)
andbecauseeachsymbol ismadeupof log
2
M bits, wecomputethefollowingusingM = 8.
E
s
N
0
=
_
log
2
M
_
E
b
N
0
= 3 20.89 = 62.67 (13.23)
Usingtheresultsof Eq. (13.23) inEq. (13.20), yieldsthesymbol-error probabilityP
E
= 2.2 10
5
.
Totransformthistobit-error probability, weusetherelationshipbetweenbit-error probabilityP
B
andsymbol-error probabilityP
E
, for multiple-phasesignalling[8] for P
E
1 asfollows:
P
B

=
P
E
log
2
M
=
P
E
m
(13.24)
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FIGURE13.2: Basicmodulator/demodulator (MODEM) without channel coding.
whichisagoodapproximationwhenGraycodingisusedfor thebit-to-symbol assignment[6]. This
last computation yieldsP
B
= 7.3 10
6
, which meetstherequired bit-error performance. No
error-correctioncodingisnecessary, and8-PSKmodulationrepresentsthedesignchoicetomeetthe
requirementsof thebandwidth-limitedchannel, whichwehadpredictedbyexaminingtherequired
E
b
/N
0
valuesinTable13.1.
13.4 Example2: Power-LimitedUncodedSystem
Now, supposethat wehaveexactlythesamedatarateandbit-error probabilityrequirementsasin
Example1, but let theavailablebandwidthW beequal to45kHz, andtheavailableS/N
0
beequal to
48dB-Hz. Thegoal istochooseamodulationor modulation/codingschemethatyieldstherequired
performance. Weshall againndthat error-correctioncodingisnot required.
13.4.1 SolutiontoExample2
Thechannel isclearlynot bandwidthlimitedsincetheavailablebandwidthof 45kHzismorethan
adequatefor supportingtherequired datarateof 9600bit/s. Wend thereceived E
b
/N
0
from
Eq. (13.18), asfollows:
E
b
N
0
(dB) = 48 dB-Hz
_
10 log
10
9600
_
dB-b/s= 8.2 dB(or 6.61) (13.25)
Sincethereisabundantbandwidthbutarelativelysmall E
b
/N
0
for therequiredbit-error probability,
weconsider that this channel is power limited and chooseMFSK as themodulation scheme. To
conservepower, wesearch for thelargest possibleM such that theMFSK minimumbandwidth is
not expandedbeyondour availablebandwidthof 45kHz. Asearchresultsinthechoiceof M = 16
(Table13.1). Next, wedeterminewhether therequirederror performanceof P
B
10
5
canbemet
byusing16-FSK alone, i.e., without error-correction coding. Table13.1showsthat 16-FSK alone
meetstherequirements, sincetherequiredE
b
/N
0
listedfor 16-FSK islessthanthereceivedE
b
/N
0
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derivedinEq. (13.25). Let usimagineagainthat wedonot haveTable13.1, andevaluatewhether or
not error-correctioncodingisnecessary.
Theblock diagramin Fig. 13.2summarizes therelationships between symbol rateR
s
, and bit
rateR, andbetweenE
s
/N
0
andE
b
/N
0
, whichisidentical toeachof therespectiverelationshipsin
Example1. The16-FSKdemodulatorreceivesawaveform(oneof16possiblefrequencies)duringeach
symbol timeinterval T
s
. For noncoherent orthogonal MFSK, theprobabilitythat thedemodulator
makesasymbol error P
E
(M) isapproximatedbythefollowingupper bound[20]:
P
E
(M)
M 1
2
exp
_

E
s
2N
0
_
(13.26)
To solvefor P
E
(M) in Eq. (13.26), wecomputeE
S
/N
0
, as in Example1. Usingtheresults of
Eq. (13.25) inEq. (13.23), withM = 16, weget
E
s
N
0
=
_
log
2
M
_
E
b
N
0
= 4 6.61 = 26.44 (13.27)
Next, using theresults of Eq. (13.27) in Eq. (13.26), yields thesymbol-error probability P
E
=
1.4 10
5
. Totransformthistobit-error probability, P
B
, weusetherelationshipbetweenP
B
and
P
E
for orthogonal signalling[20], givenby
P
B
=
2
m1
(2
m
1)
P
E
(13.28)
ThislastcomputationyieldsP
B
= 7.310
6
,whichmeetstherequiredbit-errorperformance. Thus,
wecan meet thegiven specicationsfor thispower-limitedchannel byusing16-FSK modulation,
withoutanyneedfor error-correctioncoding, aswehadpredictedbyexaminingtherequiredE
b
/N
0
valuesinTable13.1.
13.5 Example3: Bandwidth-Limitedand
Power-LimitedCodedSystem
Westart withthesamechannel parametersasinExample1(W = 4000 Hz, S/N
0
= 53 dB-Hz, and
R = 9600 b/s), withoneexception.
c 1999byCRCPressLLC
Inthisexample, wespecifythat P
B
must beat most 10
9
. Table13.1
showsthat thesystemisbothbandwidthlimitedandpower limited,
basedontheavailablebandwidthof 4000HzandtheavailableE
b
/N
0
of 20.2dB, fromEq. (13.18); 8-PSK istheonlypossiblechoicetomeet
thebandwidthconstraint; however, theavailableE
b
/N
0
of 20.2dBis
certainlyinsufcient tomeet therequiredP
B
of 10
9
. For thissmall
valueof P
B
, weneedtoconsider theperformanceimprovement that
error-correction codingcan providewithin theavailablebandwidth.
Ingeneral, onecanuseconvolutional codesor blockcodes.
TheBoseChaudhuriHocquenghem(BCH) codesformalargeclass
of powerful error-correctingcyclic(block) codes[7]. Tosimplifythe
explanation, weshall chooseablock codefromtheBCH family. Ta-
ble13.2presentsapartial catalogof theavailableBCH codesinterms
of n, k, andt , wherek representsthenumber of information(or data)
bitsthat thecodetransformsinto alonger block of n codedbits(or
channel bits), andt representsthelargestnumber of incorrectchannel
bitsthat thecodecancorrect withineachn-sizedblock. Therateof a
codeisdenedastheratiok/n; itsinverserepresentsameasureof the
codesredundancy[7].
TABLE13.2
BCH Codes
(Partial Catalog)
n k t
7 4 1
15 11 1
7 2
5 3
31 26 1
21 2
16 3
11 5
63 57 1
51 2
45 3
39 4
36 5
30 6
127 120 1
113 2
106 3
99 4
92 5
85 6
78 7
71 9
64 10
13.5.1 SolutiontoExample3
Sincethisexamplehasthesamebandwidth-limited parametersgiven in Example1, westart with
thesame8-PSK modulationusedtomeet thestatedbandwidthconstraint. Wenowemployerror-
correctioncoding, however, sothat thebit-error probabilitycanbeloweredtoP
B
10
9
.
TomaketheoptimumcodeselectionfromTable13.2, weareguidedbythefollowinggoals.
1. Theoutput bit-error probabilityof thecombinedmodulation/codingsystemmust meet
thesystemerror requirement.
2. Therateof thecodemust not expandtherequiredtransmissionbandwidthbeyondthe
availablechannel bandwidth.
3. Thecodeshouldbeassimpleaspossible. Generally, theshorter thecode, thesimpler will
beitsimplementation.
Theuncoded8-PSK minimumbandwidthrequirement is3200Hz(Table13.1) andtheallowable
channel bandwidthis4000Hz, andsotheuncodedsignal bandwidthcanbeincreasedbynomore
thanafactor of 1.25(i.e., anexpansionof 25%). Theveryrststepinthis(simplied) codeselection
exampleistoeliminatethecandidatesinTable13.2that wouldexpandthebandwidthbymorethan
25%. Theremainingentriesformamuchreducedset of bandwidth-compatiblecodes(Table13.3).
In Table13.3, acolumn designatedCodingGainG (for MPSK at P
B
= 10
9
) hasbeen added.
Codinggainindecibelsisdenedasfollows:
G =
_
E
b
N
0
_
uncoded

_
E
b
N
0
s
_
coded
(13.29)
G can bedescribedasthereduction in therequiredE
b
/N
0
(in decibels) that isneededdueto the
error-performancepropertiesof thechannel coding. G isafunction of themodulation typeand
bit-error probability, andit hasbeen computedfor MPSK at P
B
= 10
9
(Table13.3). For MPSK
c 1999byCRCPressLLC
TABLE13.3
Bandwidth-CompatibleBCH Codes
CodingGain, G(dB)
n k t MPSK, P
B
= 10
9
31 26 1 2.0
63 57 1 2.2
51 2 3.1
127 120 1 2.2
113 2 3.3
106 3 3.9
modulation,GisrelativelyindependentofthevalueofM. Thus,foraparticularbit-errorprobability,
agivencodewill provideabout thesamecodinggainwhenusedwithanyof theMPSK modulation
schemes. Codinggainswerecalculated usingaprocedureoutlined in thesubsequent Calculating
CodingGainsection.
Ablockdiagramsummarizesthissystem, whichcontainsbothmodulationandcoding(Fig. 13.3).
Theintroduction of encoder/decoder blocks brings about additional transformations. Therela-
tionshipsthat exist whentransformingfromR b/stoR
c
channel-b/stoR
s
symbol/sareshownat
theencoder/modulator. Regardingthechannel-bit rateR
c
, someauthorsprefer tousetheunitsof
channel-symbol/s(or code-symbol/s). Thebenetisthaterror-correctioncodingisoftendescribed
moreefcientlywithnonbinarydigits. Wereservethetermsymbol for that groupof bitsmapped
ontoanelectrical waveformfor transmission, andwedesignatetheunitsof R
c
tobechannel-b/s(or
coded-b/s).
FIGURE13.3: MODEM withchannel coding.
Weassumethatour communicationsystemcannottolerateanymessagedelay, sothatthechannel-
c 1999byCRCPressLLC
bit rateR
c
must exceedthedata-bit rateR bythefactor n/k. Further, eachsymbol ismadeupof
log
2
M channel bits, andso thesymbol rateR
s
islessthan R
c
bythefactor log
2
M. For asystem
containingbothmodulationandcoding, wesummarizetheratetransformationsasfollows:
R
c
=
_
n
k
_
R (13.30)
R
s
=
R
c
log
2
M
(13.31)
At thedemodulator/decoder in Fig.13.3, thetransformationsamongdata-bit energy, channel- bit
energy, andsymbol energyarerelated(inareciprocal fashion) bythesamefactorsasshownamong
theratetransformationsinEqs. (13.30) and(13.31). Sincetheencodingtransformationhasreplaced
k databitswithn channel bits, thentheratioof channel-bit energytonoise-power spectral density
E
c
/N
0
iscomputedbydecrementingthevalueof E
b
/N
0
bythefactor k/n. Also, sinceeachtrans-
missionsymbol ismadeupof log
2
M channel bits, thenE
S
/N
0
, whichisneededinEq. (13.20) to
solvefor P
E
, iscomputedbyincrementingE
c
/N
0
bythefactorlog
2
M. For asystemcontainingboth
modulationandcoding, wesummarizetheenergytonoise-power spectral densitytransformations
asfollows:
E
c
N
0
=
_
k
n
_
E
b
N
0
(13.32)
E
s
N
0
=
_
log
2
M
_
E
c
N
0
(13.33)
UsingEqs. (13.30) and(13.31), wecannowexpandtheexpressionfor S/N
0
inEq. (13.19), asfollows
(Appendix).
S
N
0
=
E
b
N
0
R =
E
c
N
0
R
c
=
E
s
N
0
R
s
(13.34)
Asbefore,astandardwayofdescribingthelinkisintermsofthereceivedE
b
/N
0
indecibels. However,
therearenodatabitsat theinput tothedemodulator, andtherearenochannel bits; thereareonly
waveformsthat havebit meaningsand, thus, thewaveformscanbedescribedintermsof bit-energy
apportionments.
SinceS/N
0
and R weregiven as 53dB-Hz and 9600b/s, respectively, wend as before, from
Eq. (13.18), that thereceivedE
b
/N
0
= 13.2 dB. ThereceivedE
b
/N
0
isxedandindependent of
n, k, andt (Appendix). Aswesearch, inTable13.3for theideal codetomeet thespecications, we
can iterativelyrepeat thecomputationssuggestedin Fig. 13.3. It might beuseful to programon a
personal computer (or calculator) thefollowingfour stepsasafunctionof n, k, andt . Step1starts
bycombiningEqs. (13.32) and(13.33), asfollows.
Step1:
E
s
N
0
=
_
log
2
M
_
E
c
N
0
=
_
log
2
M
_
_
k
n
_
E
b
N
0
(13.35)
Step2:
P
E
(M)

= 2Q
_
_
2E
s
N
0
sin
_

M
_
_
(13.36)
which istheapproximation for symbol-error probability P
E
rewritten fromEq. (13.20). At each
symbol-timeinterval, thedemodulator makesasymbol decision, but it deliversachannel-bit se-
quencerepresentingthatsymbol tothedecoder. Whenthechannel-bitoutputof thedemodulator is
c 1999byCRCPressLLC
quantizedtotwolevels, 1and0, thedemodulator issaidtomakeharddecisions. Whentheoutput is
quantizedtomorethantwolevels, thedemodulator issaidtomakesoft decisions[15]. Throughout
thispaper, weshall assumehard-decisiondemodulation.
Nowthat wehaveadecoder block in thesystem, wedesignatethechannel-bit-error probability
out of thedemodulator andintothedecoder asp
c
, andwereservethenotationP
B
for thebit-error
probabilityout of thedecoder. WerewriteEq. (13.24) intermsof p
c
for P
E
1 asfollows.
Step3:
p
c

=
P
E
log
2
M
=
P
E
m
(13.37)
relatingthechannel-bit-error probabilityto thesymbol-error probabilityout of thedemodulator,
assumingGraycoding, asreferencedinEq. (13.24).
For traditional channel-codingschemesandagivenvalueof receivedS/N
0
, thevalueof E
s
/N
0
with codingwill always beless than thevalueof E
s
/N
0
without coding. Sincethedemodulator
withcodingreceiveslessE
s
/N
0
, it makesmoreerrors! When codingisused, however, thesystem
error-performancedoesnot onlydependon theperformanceof thedemodulator, it also depends
ontheperformanceof thedecoder. For error-performanceimprovementduetocoding, thedecoder
must provideenough error correction to morethan compensatefor thepoor performanceof the
demodulator.
Thenal output decodedbit-error probabilityP
B
dependson theparticular code, thedecoder,
andthechannel-bit-error probabilityp
c
. It canbeexpressedbythefollowingapproximation[11].
Step4:
P
B

=
1
n
n

j=t +1
j
_
n
j
_
p
j
c
(1 p
c
)
nj
(13.38)
wheret isthelargest number of channel bitsthat thecodecancorrect withineachblock of n bits.
UsingEqs. (13.3513.38) inthefour steps, wecancomputethedecodedbit-error probabilityP
B
as
afunction of n, k, andt for eachof thecodeslistedin Table13.3. Theentrythat meetsthestated
error requirement withthelargest possiblecoderateandthesmallest valueof n isthedouble-error
correcting(63, 51) code. Thecomputationsareasfollows.
Step1:
E
s
N
0
= 3
_
51
63
_
20.89 = 50.73
whereM = 8, andthereceivedE
b
/N
0
= 13.2 dB(or 20.89).
Step2:
P
E

= 2Q
_

101.5 sin
_

8
__
= 2Q(3.86) = 1.2 10
4
Step3:
p
c

=
1.2 10
4
3
= 4 10
5
Step4:
P
B

=
3
63
_
63
3
_
_
4 10
5
_
3
_
1 4 10
5
_
60
+
4
63
_
63
4
_
_
4 10
5
_
4
_
1 4 10
5
_
59
+
= 1.2 10
10
c 1999byCRCPressLLC
wherethebit-error-correctingcapabilityof thecodeist = 2. For thecomputationof P
B
instep4,
weneedonlyconsider therst twotermsinthesummationof Eq. (13.38) sincetheother termshave
avanishinglysmall effectontheresult. Nowthatwehaveselectedthe(63, 51) code, wecancompute
thevaluesof channel-bit rateR
c
andsymbol rateR
s
usingEqs. (13.30) and(13.31), withM = 8,
R
c
=
_
n
k
_
R =
_
63
51
_
9600 11,859 channel-b/s
R
s
=
R
c
log
2
M
=
11859
3
= 3953 symbol/s
13.5.2 CalculatingCodingGain
Perhapsamoredirect wayof ndingthesimplest codethat meetsthespeciederror performance
isto rst computehowmuchcodinggain G isrequiredin order to yieldP
B
= 10
9
when using
8-PSK modulation alone; then, fromTable13.3, wecan simplychoosethecodethat providesthis
performanceimprovement. First, wend theuncoded E
s
/N
0
that yieldsan error probabilityof
P
B
= 10
9
, bywritingfromEqs. (13.24) and(13.36), thefollowing:
P
B

=
P
E
log
2
M

=
2Q
__
2E
s
N
0
sin
_

M
_
_
log
2
M
= 10
9
(13.39)
At this low value of bit-error probability, it is valid to use Eq. (13.22) to approximate Q(x)
in Eq. (13.39) By trial and error (on a programmable calculator), we nd that the uncoded
E
s
/N
0
= 120.67 = 20.8 dB, and sinceeach symbol ismadeup of log
2
8 = 3 bits, therequired
(E
b
/N
0
)
uncoded
= 120.67/3 = 40.22 = 16 dB. FromthegivenparametersandEq. (13.18), weknow
that thereceived(E
b
/N
0
)
coded
= 13.2 dB. UsingEq. (13.29), therequiredcodinggaintomeet the
bit-error performanceof P
B
= 10
9
indecibelsis
G =
_
E
b
N
0
_
uncoded

_
E
b
N
0
_
coded
= 16 13.2 = 2.8
Tobeprecise, eachof theE
b
/N
0
valuesin theprecedingcomputation must correspondtoexactly
the same value of bit-error probability (which they do not). They correspond to P
B
= 10
9
and P
B
= 1.2 10
10
, respectively. At theselowprobabilityvalues, however, even with such a
discrepancy, thiscomputationstill providesagoodapproximationof therequiredcodinggain. In
searchingTable13.3for thesimplest codethat will yieldacodinggainof at least 2.8dB, weseethat
thechoiceisthe(63, 51) code, whichcorrespondstothesamecodechoicethat wemadeearlier.
13.6 Example4: Direct-Sequence(DS)
Spread-SpectrumCodedSystem
Spread-spectrumsystems arenot usually classied as beingbandwidth- or power-limited. They
aregenerallyperceivedtobepower-limitedsystems, however, becausethebandwidthoccupancyof
theinformationismuchlarger thanthebandwidththat isintrinsicallyneededfor theinformation
transmission. Inadirect-sequencespread-spectrum(DS/SS) system,spreadingthesignal bandwidth
bysomefactorpermitsloweringthesignal-powerspectral densitybythesamefactor(thetotal average
signal power isthesameasbeforespreading). Thebandwidthspreadingistypicallyaccomplished
c 1999byCRCPressLLC
bymultiplyingarelativelynarrowbanddatasignal byawidebandspreadingsignal. Thespreading
signal or spreadingcodeisoftenreferredtoasapseudorandomcodeor PNcode.
13.6.1 ProcessingGain
Atypical DS/SSradiosystemisoftendescribedasatwo-stepBPSK modulationprocess. Intherst
step, thecarrier waveismodulatedbyabipolar datawaveformhavingavalue+1 or 1 duringeach
data-bitduration;inthesecondstep,theoutputoftherststepismultiplied(modulated) byabipolar
PN-codewaveformhavingavalue+1 or 1 duringeachPN-code-bit duration. Inreality, DS/SS
systemsareusuallyimplementedbyrst multiplyingthedatawaveformbythePN-codewaveform
andthenmakingasinglepassthroughaBPSK modulator. For thisexample, however, it isuseful to
characterizethemodulation processin two separatestepstheouter modulator/demodulator for
thedata, andtheinner modulator/demodulator for thePNcode(Fig. 13.4).
FIGURE13.4: Direct-sequencespread-spectrumMODEM withchannel coding.
Aspread-spectrumsystemischaracterizedbyaprocessinggainG
p
, that isdenedintermsof the
spread-spectrumbandwidthW
ss
andthedatarateR asfollows [20]:
G
p
=
W
ss
R
(13.40)
For aDS/SSsystem, thePN-codebit hasbeengiventhenamechip, andthespread-spectrumsignal
bandwidthcanbeshowntobeabout equal tothechiprateR
ch
asfollows:
G
p
=
R
ch
R
(13.41)
c 1999byCRCPressLLC
Someauthorsdeneprocessinggaintobetheratioof thespread-spectrumbandwidthtothesymbol
rate. Thisdenitionseparatesthesystemperformancethat isduetobandwidthspreadingfromthe
performancethat is dueto error-correction coding. Sinceweultimately want to relateall of the
codingmechanismsrelativetotheinformationsource, weshall conformtothemostusuallyaccepted
denitionfor processinggain, asexpressedinEqs. (13.40) and(13.41).
Aspread-spectrumsystemcanbeusedfor interferencerejectionandfor multipleaccess(allowing
multipleuserstoaccessacommunicationsresourcesimultaneously). Thebenetsof DS/SSsignals
arebestachievedwhentheprocessinggainisverylarge; inother words, thechiprateof thespreading
(or PN) codeismuch larger than thedatarate. In such systems, thelargevalueof G
p
allowsthe
signallingchipstobetransmittedat apower level well belowthat of thethermal noise. Wewill usea
valueof G
p
= 1000. At thereceiver, thedespreadingoperationcorrelatestheincomingsignal with
asynchronized copyof thePN codeand, thus, accumulatestheenergyfrommultiple(G
p
) chips
toyieldtheenergyper databit. Thevalueof G
p
hasamajor inuenceontheperformanceof the
spread-spectrumsystemapplication. Weshall see, however, thatthevalueof G
p
hasnoeffectonthe
receivedE
b
/N
0
. Inother words, spreadspectrumtechniquesoffer noerror-performanceadvantage
over thermal noise. For DS/SSsystems, thereisno disadvantageeither! Sometimessuch spread-
spectrumradiosystemsareemployedonlytoenablethetransmissionof verysmall power-spectral
densitiesandthusavoidtheneedfor FCClicensing[16].
13.6.2 Channel Parametersfor Example13.4
Consider aDS/SSradiosystemthat usesthesame(63, 51) codeasinthepreviousexample. Instead
of usingMPSK for thedatamodulation, weshall useBPSK. Also, weshall useBPSK for modulating
thePN-codechips. Let thereceived S/N
0
= 48 dB-Hz, thedatarateR = 9600 b/s, and the
requiredP
B
10
6
. For simplicity, assumethat therearenobandwidthconstraints. Our task is
simplytodeterminewhether or not therequirederror performancecanbeachievedusingthegiven
systemarchitectureanddesign parameters. In evaluatingthesystem, wewill usethesametypeof
transformationsusedinthepreviousexamples.
13.6.3 SolutiontoExample13.4
A typical DS/SSsystemcan beimplemented moresimply than theoneshown in Fig. 13.4. The
dataandthePN codewouldbecombinedat baseband, followedbyasinglepassthrough aBPSK
modulator. Wewill, however, assumetheexistenceof theindividual blocksinFig. 13.4becausethey
enhanceour understandingof thetransformationprocess. Therelationshipsintransformingfrom
databits, to channel bits, to symbols, and to chips Fig. 13.4havethesamepattern of subtlebut
straightforwardtransformationsinratesandenergiesaspreviousrelationships(Figs. 13.2and13.3).
Thevaluesof R
c
, R
s
, andR
ch
cannowbecalculatedimmediatelysincethe(63, 51) BCH codehas
alreadybeenselected. FromEq. (13.30) wewrite
R
c
=
_
n
k
_
R =
_
63
51
_
9600 11,859 channel-b/s
SincethedatamodulationconsideredhereisBPSK, thenfromEq. (13.31) wewrite
R
s
= R
c
11,859 symbol/s
andfromEq. (13.41), withanassumedvalueof G
p
= 1000
R
ch
= G
p
R = 1000 9600 = 9.6 10
6
chip/s
c 1999byCRCPressLLC
SincewehavebeengiventhesameS/N
0
andthesamedatarateasinExample2, wendthevalue
of receivedE
b
/N
0
fromEq. (13.25) tobe8.2dB(or 6.61). At thedemodulator, wecannowexpand
theexpressionfor S/N
0
inEq. (13.34) andtheAppendixasfollows:
S
N
0
=
E
b
N
0
R =
E
c
N
0
R
c
=
E
s
N
0
R
s
=
E
ch
N
0
R
ch
(13.42)
Correspondingtoeachtransformedentity(databit, channel bit, symbol, or chip) thereisachange
inrateand, similarly, areciprocal changeinenergy-to-noisespectral densityfor that receivedentity.
Equation (13.42) isvalidfor anysuch transformation when therateandenergyaremodiedin a
reciprocal way. Thereisakindof conservationof power (or energy) phenomenonthat existsinthe
transformations. Thetotal receivedaveragepower (or total receivedenergyper symbol duration) is
xedregardlessof howit iscomputed, onthebasisof databits, channel bits, symbols, or chips.
The ratio E
ch
/N
0
is much lower in value than E
b
/N
0
. This can be seen fromEqs. (13.42)
and(13.41), asfollows:
E
ch
N
0
=
S
N
0
_
1
R
ch
_
=
S
N
0
_
1
G
p
R
_
=
_
1
G
p
_
E
b
N
0
(13.43)
But, evenso, thedespreadingfunction(whenproperlysynchronized) accumulatestheenergycon-
tainedinaquantityG
p
ofthechips,yieldingthesamevalueE
b
/N
0
= 8.2 dB,aswascomputedearlier
fromEq. (13.25). Thus, theDSspreadingtransformationhasnoeffect ontheerror performanceof
anAWGNchannel [15], andthevalueof G
p
hasnobearingonthevalueof P
B
inthisexample.
FromEq. (13.43), wecancompute, indecibels,
E
ch
N
0
= E
b
/N
0
G
p
= 8.2
_
10 log
10
1000
_
= 21.8 (13.44)
Thechosenvalueof processinggain(G
p
= 1000) enablestheDS/SSsystemtooperateat avalueof
chipenergywell belowthethermal noise, withthesameerror performanceaswithout spreading.
SinceBPSK isthedatamodulationselectedinthisexample, eachmessagesymbol thereforecorre-
spondstoasinglechannel bit, andwecanwrite
E
s
N
0
=
E
c
N
0
=
_
k
n
_
E
b
N
0
=
_
51
63
_
6.61 = 5.35 (13.45)
wherethereceivedE
b
/N
0
= 8.2 dB(or 6.61). Out of theBPSK datademodulator, thesymbol-error
probabilityP
E
(andthechannel-bit error probabilityp
c
) iscomputedasfollows[15]:
p
c
= P
E
= Q
_
_
2E
c
N
0
_
(13.46)
Usingtheresultsof Eq. (13.45) inEq. (13.46) yields
p
c
= Q(3.27) = 5.8 10
4
Finally, usingthis valueof p
c
in Eq. (13.38) for the(63,51) double-error correctingcodeyields
theoutput bit-error probabilityof P
B
= 3.6 10
7
. Wecan, therefore, verifythat for thegiven
architectureand design parametersof thisexamplethesystemdoes, in fact, achievetherequired
error performance.
c 1999byCRCPressLLC
13.7 Conclusion
Thegoal of thissectionhasbeentoreviewfundamental relationshipsusedinevaluatingtheperfor-
manceof digital communication systems. First, wedescribedtheconcept of alink andachannel
andexaminedaradiosystemfromitstransmittingsegment upthroughtheoutput of thereceiving
antenna. Wethenexaminedtheconcept of bandwidth-limitedandpower-limitedsystemsandhow
suchconditionsinuencethesystemdesignwhenthechoicesareconnedtoMPSKandMFSKmod-
ulation. Most important, wefocusedonthedenitionsandcomputationsinvolvedintransforming
fromdatabitstochannel bitstosymbolstochips. Ingeneral, most digital communicationsystems
sharetheseconcepts; thus, understandingthemshouldenableonetoevaluateother suchsystemsin
asimilar way.
Appendix: ReceivedE
b
/N
0
IsIndependent of the
CodeParameters
Startingwiththebasicconceptthatthereceivedaveragesignal powerS isequal tothereceivedsymbol
or waveformenergy, E
s
, dividedbythesymbol-timeduration, T
s
(or multipliedbythesymbol rate,
R
s
), wewrite
S
N
0
=
E
s
/T
s
N
0
=
E
s
N
0
R
s
(A13.1)
whereN
0
isnoise-power spectral density.
UsingEqs. (13.27) and(13.25), rewrittenas
E
s
N
0
=
_
log
2
M
_
E
c
N
0
and R
s
=
R
c
log
2
M
let usmakesubstitutionsintoEq. (A13.1), whichyields
S
N
0
=
E
c
N
0
R
c
(A13.2)
Next, usingEqs. (13.26) and(13.24), rewrittenas
E
c
N
0
=
_
k
n
_
E
b
N
0
and R
c
=
_
n
k
_
R
letusnowmakesubstitutionsintoEq. (A13.2), whichyieldstherelationshipexpressedinEq. (13.11)
S
N
0
=
E
b
N
0
R (A13.3)
Hence, the received E
b
/N
0
is only a function of the received S/N
0
and the data rate R. It is
independent of thecodeparameters, n, k, andt . TheseresultsaresummarizedinFig. 13.3.
References
[1] Anderson, J.B.andSundberg, C.-E.W., Advancesinconstantenvelopecodedmodulation,IEEE
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c 1999byCRCPressLLC
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[3] ClarkJr., G.C. andCain, J.B., Error-CorrectionCodingfor Digital Communications, Plenum
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[4] Hodges, M.R.L., TheGSM radiointerface, BritishTelecomTechnol. J., 8(1), 3143, 1990.
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[6] Korn, I., Digital Communications, VanNostrandReinholdCo., NewYork, 1985.
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Hall, EnglewoodCliffs, NJ, 1983.
[8] Lindsey, W.C. andSimon, M.K., TelecommunicationSystemsEngineering, Prentice-Hall, En-
glewoodCliffs, NJ, 1973.
[9] Nyquist, H., Thermal agitationof electricchargeinconductors, Phys. Rev., 32, 110113, Jul.
1928.
[10] Nyquist, H., Certaintopicsontelegraphtransmissiontheory, Trans. AIEE, 47, 617644, Apr.
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[11] Odenwalder, J.P., Error Control CodingHandbook. Linkabit Corp., San Diego, CA, Jul. 15,
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[12] Shannon, C.E., Amathematical theoryof communication, BSTJ. 27, 379423, 623657, 1948.
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[14] Sklar, B., What thesystemlink budget tellsthesystemengineer or howI learnedtocount in
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Further Information
Auseful compilationof selectedpaperscanbefoundin: Cellular Radio&Personal Communications
ABookof SelectedReadings, editedbyTheodoreS. Rappaport, Instituteof Electrical andElectronics
Engineers, Inc., Piscataway, NewJersey, 1995. Fundamental design issues, such as propagation,
modulation, channel coding, speechcoding, multiple-accessingandnetworking, arewell represented
inthisvolume.
Another useful sourcebook that covers the fundamentals of mobile communications in great
detail is: MobileRadioCommunications, edited byRaymond Steele, Pentech Press, London 1992.
This volumeis also availablethrough theInstituteof Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.,
Piscataway, NewJersey.
For spreadspectrumsystems, anexcellent referenceis: SpreadSpectrumCommunicationsHand-
book, byMarvinK. Simon, JimK. Omura, Robert A. Scholtz, andBarryK. Levitt, McGraw-Hill Inc.,
NewYork, 1994.
c 1999byCRCPressLLC