Elements of Theoretical Physics (1897)

THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES
DEC 11
1976
THEORETICAL PHYSICS
ELEMENTS
OF
THEORETICAL PHYSICS
BY
DR.
C.
CHRISTIANSEN
PROFESSOR OF PHYSICS IN THE UNIVERSITY OF COPENHAGEN
TRANSLATED INTO ENGLISH BY
W.
F.
MAGIE,
PH.D.
PROFESSOR OF PHYSICS IN PRINCETON UNIVERSITY
MACMILLAN AND
NEW YORK
:
CO, LIMITED
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1897
All rights resei~eed
GLASGOW PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS BY ROBERT MACLEHOSE AND CO.

:
Physii
TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.
THE
treatise of Professor Christiansen, of
which a translation
of
is
here
given,
presents the fundamental

far
principles
Theoretical Physics,
and develops them so
as
to
is
bring
the reader in touch with

It
is
much
of the
new work
that
being done in that subject.

it is
not in every respect exhaustive, but
stimulating and informing,
and furnishes a view of the whole
field,
which
it.
will facilitate
the
reader's subsequent progress in special parts of
The need
of such
a book, in which the various branches of the subject are developed

in connection
with one another and in a consistent notation, has
been long
felt
by both teachers and students.

of the translator are due to Professor Christiansen for
The thanks
his courtesy in permitting the use of his book.
The
translation
was
was
made from
the
German
of
Miiller.
The
first
draft
of
it
prepared by the translator's wife, without whose aid the task might
never have been accomplished.
W.
F.
MAGIE.
PRINCETON UNIVERSITY, September,
1896.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE
INTRODUCTION,
CHAPTER
I.
GENERAL THEORY OF MOTION.

SECTION
I.
Freely Falling Bodies,
5
7
-
II.
The Motion
of Projectiles,
III.
Equations of Motion for a Material Point,
8
-
IV.
The Tangential and Normal
Forces,
13 14
V.
VI.
Work and Kinetic Energy, The Work Done on a Body during

Path,
-
its
Motion
in
a Closed
16
-
VII.
The
Potential,
....
-
21
VIII.
Constrained Motion,
Kepler's Laws,
24 27
-
IX.
X. XI.
XII.
XIII.
Universal Attraction, Universal Attraction (continued},
30
31
The Potential
of a
System
of Masses,
...
-
34
36
41
XIV.
Examples. Calculation of Potentials, Gauss's Theorem. The Equations of Laplace and Poisson,
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
Examples
of
Equations,
------the
Application
of
Laplace's
and
---46
-
Poisson's
Action and Reaction.

of Bodies,.
-
On
-
the Molecular and Atomic Structure
48
The Centre
of Gravity,
-.-
50
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
XXXIX.
XL.
Conditions of Equilibrium,
III.
EQUILIBRIUM OF FLUIDS.
Examples
...
101
of the Equilibrium of Fluids,
CHAPTER
XLI.
XLII.
IV.
MOTION OF FLUIDS.
Euler's Equations of Motion, Transformation of Euler's Equations,
103
106
CONTENTS.
SECTION
IX
PAGE
XLIII.
Vortex Motions and Currents in a Fluid,

Steady Motion with Velocity-Potential,
Lagrange's Equations of Motion,
-
107
XLIV.
109
111
XLV.
XL VI.
Wave
Motions,
112
CHAPTER
XL VII.
XLVIII.
V.
INTERNAL FRICTION.
Internal Forces,
115
Equations of Motion of a Viscous Fluid,
118
119
XLIX.
Flow through a Tube
of Circular Cross Section,
CHAPTER
Surface Energy,
VI.
CAPILLARITY.
L.
-
121
-
LI.
Capillary Tubes,
-
123
125
LII.
CHAPTER
VII.
ELECTROSTATICS.
LIIL
LIV.
Fundamental Phenomena
Electrical Potential,
of Electricity,
127
128
LV.
LVI.
LVII.
The Distribution
The Distribution
Ellipsoid,
-
of Electricity
on a Good Conductor.
130
132
135
of Electricity on a
-
Sphere and on an
-
Electrical Distribution,
.....
-
LVI 1 1.
LIX.
Complete Distribution, Mechanical Force Acting on a Charged Body,

Lines of Electrical Force,
Electrical Energy,
-
139
141
LX.
LXI.
LXII.
LXIII.
143
-
145
147
System
of Conductors,
Mechanical Forces,
150
151
155-
LXIV. LXV.
The Condenser and Electrometer, The Dielectric,
CONTENTS.
SECTION
PAGE
LXVI. LXVII.
157
Mechanical Force and Electrical Energy in the Dielectric,
158
CHAPTER
LXVIII.
VIII.
MAGNETISM.
General Properties of Magnets,
LXIX.
LXX.
The Magnetic The Potential
Potential,
of a
------
163 166
Magnetized Sphere,
-
168 169
171
LXXL
LXXII.
.
The Forces which Act on a Magnet, Potential Energy of a Magnet, Magnetic Distribution,
Lines of Magnetic Force,
-
LXXIII.
.'
173 174
LXXIV.
LXXV.
LXXVI. LXXVII.
The Equation
Magnetic
of Lines of Force,
-
178 179
Magnetic Induction,
Shells,
-
fc
180
CHAPTEE
IX.
ELECTEO-MAGNETISM.
LXX VIII.
Biot and Savart's Law,
.
-
j 84
LXXIX. Systems of Currents, . . . , LXXX. The Fundamental Equations of Electro-Magnetism, LXXXI. Systems of Currents in General, LXXXII. The Action of Electrical Currents on each
.
186 188
190
192
other,
LXXXIII.
The Measurement
of Electricity,
of Current-Strength on the Quantity

..
.
.
_
.
LXXXI V.
'-194
-
Ohm's Law and Joule's Law,
197
CHAPTER
LXXXV. LXXXVI.
Induction,
-
X.
INDUCTION.
-
....
'
Coefficients of Induction,
202
205
LXXXVII. Measurement LXXXVIII. Fundamental
of Resistance,
Equations of Induction,
-
LXXXIX.
XC.
Electro-Kinetic Energy,
210
211
Absolute Units,
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XL
ELECTRICAL OSCILLATIONS.
SECTION
XCI.
Oscillations in a Conductor,
XCII.
Calculation of the Period,
XCI II. The Fundamental

or Dielectrics,
-----------------Equations for Electrical Insulators

-
215
217
219
221
XCIV.
XCV. XCVI.
Plane Waves in the Dielectric, The Hertzian Oscillations,

Poynting's Theorem,
223
224
CHAPTER
BODIES.
XCVII.
XCVIII.
Introduction,
-
XII.
REFRACTION OF LIGHT IN ISOTROPIC AND TRANSPARENT

229
231
of Light,
Fresnel's Formulas,
XCIX.
C.
The Electro-Magnetic Theory
235
237
or.
Equations of the Electro-Magnetic Theory of Light, Refraction in a Plate,
GIL
GUI.
CIV.
Double Refraction,
----....
-
242 246 249

251
Discussion of the Velocities of Propagation,
The Wave
Surface,
-
CV.
CVI.
CVII.
CVIII.
The Wave Surface (continued), The Direction of the Rays,

Uniaxial Crystals,
-
...
-
254 256
259
of a Crystal,
-
Double Refraction at the Surface

Double Refraction
261
CIX.
in Uniaxial Crystals,
264
CHAPTER
CX.
CXI.
CXII.
CXIII.
XIII.
THERMODYNAMICS.
The State
of a
.
Body,
-------
266
Ideal Gases,
270
272
Cyclic Processes,
Carnot's
and
Clausius' Theorem,
274
279
CXIV.
Application of the Second Law,
Xll
SECTION
CONTENTS.
PAGE
CXV.
CXVI.
CXVII.
CXVITI.
The
Differential Coefficients,
-
280
281
Liquids and Solids,
The Development
of
Heat by Change
of Length,
-
282
Van
der Waal's Equation of State,
283 290
CXIX.
Saturated Vapours,
CXX. The
CXXI.
Entropy,
Dissociation,
--------CHAPTER
XIV.
-
292
295
CONDUCTION OF HEAT.
CXXII.
CXXIII.
Fourier's Equation,
-
298
Steady State,
300
301
CXXIV. The Periodic Flow CXXV. A Heated Surface, CXXVI. The Flow of Heat CXXVII. The Flow of Heat
CXXVIII.
The Formation
of
of
-
Heat
-
in a given Direction,
303 304
-
from a Point, in an Infinitely Extended Body,

-
305
307
of Ice,
in
CXXIX. The Flow
Heat
a Plate whose Surface
is
kept at
a Constant Temperature,
308
CXXX. The
CXXXI. The
Development
of Functions in Series of Sines

-
and
312
Cosines,
Application of Fourier's of Heat,
Theorem
to the
Conduction
-
315 318
CXXXII. The Cooling of a Sphere, CXXXIII. The Motion of Heat in an Infinitely Long Cylinder, CXXXIV. On the Conduction of Heat in Fluids, CXX XV. The Influence of the Conduction of Heat on the Intensity
322
325
and Velocity
of
Sound
in Gases,
330
INTRODUCTION.
IN the Science of Physics
it is
assumed that
all
phenomena are
capable of ultimate representation by motions, that is, by changes of place considered with reference to the time required for their
We therefore begin with a brief discussion of the theory of pure motion (Kinematics). We will treat first the motion of a point. The continuous line traced out by the successive positions
accomplishment.
which a moving point occupies
symbol
path in used as
in space is called its path. The represents the distance which the point traverses along its the time t. In measuring these quantities the second is the unit of time; the centimetre, as the unit of length.
The measures
of motions
of
may
all the magnitudes which occur in the discussion be stated in terms of these two units.
curvilinear,
sufficiently
Motions are distinguished by the form of the path, as rectilinear, or periodic. Eectilinear and curvilinear motions are
defined by their names. A periodic motion is one in which the same condition of motion recurs after a definite interval of time; that is, one in which the moving point returns after a definite time to the same position with the same velocity and direction
of motion.
It is uniform Rectilinear motion may be either uniform or variable. In this the moving point traverses equal distances in equal times. case the point traverses the same distance in each unit of time, and
if
the distance traversed in the unit of time measures
its velocity.
If
the point traverses the distance 5 in the time t with a uniform motion, A velocity is the velocity c is the ratio of s to t, or (a) c = s/t. therefore a length divided by a time.
If a point
moves on the circumference of a
circle
with a constant
velocity, the radius vector drawn to this point sweeps out equal In this case the angle which is swept out by sectors in equal times.
this radius vector in the unit of
time measures the angular velocity.
4
is
INTRODUCTION.
xl
ac
is
+ x2 The component = sc1 + 2

.
of velocity in the direction of the
a--axis
Similar expressions hold for motions in the directions of the other The resultant velocity is represented by the diagonal of the 2 = parallelepiped, whose edges are x, y, z, or by s *]d? + y- + z
axes.
.
Since an acceleration
acceleration
the increment of a velocity, the resultant will be determined in a similar manner. Let ajj, a%
is
represent the .r-components of the increments of velocity due to then have for the total acceleration in the the two motions.
We
direction of the
.r-axis,
2
2)
= point, 3 ^/(iBj
which s is expressed as the diagonal of the parallelepiped whose edges are a;, y, z. If the coordinates of the moving point are given as functions of
)
,
x = xl + x.2 and for + (yl + i/^f + (^ + z2 2 by

,
the acceleration of the
the time, the equation of the path is obtained by determining the values of x and y which hold for the same time L If, for example, x=fl (t)a,ndy=f2 (t), the relation between x and y is found by
eliminating the variable
t
from the equations by any appropriate
method.
From this brief discussion of these purely kinematic questions we turn to the consideration of the causes of motion, taking as our starting point the researches of Galileo on freely falling bodies.
CHAPTER
I.

SECTION
I.
FREELY FALLING BODIES.
THE
by Galileo of the motion of freely falling bodies It is step in the development of modern physics. advantageous to start from the same point in our study of the Galileo concluded from his experiments that all bodies falling subject.
investigation
first
was the
freely in
important discoveries in natural science, since
is one of the most shows that all bodies, independent of their condition in other respects, have one property in common. No parallel to this has been found in Nature. It points to a unity in the constitution of matter, of which we certainly do
vacuo will fall at the
same
rate.
This
it
not as yet appreciate the

Galileo's conclusions
full significance.
have been confirmed by the careful experiGalileo concluded further, ments of Newton, Bessel, and others. that the distance s traversed by a falling body in the time t is proportional
to
the square of the time,

is
The constant g
so that (a) s = ^gt 2 , where g is a constant. The falling body called the acceleration of gravity.
has a uniformly accelerated motion, since
=s=
Its acceleration
is
and
This second law of falling
therefore
constant.
bodies
is
not to be considered a fundamental law in the sense in
which the first is.* In the time r immediately following the time /, the body traverses the distance <r, which is determined from the 2 = By the use of equation (a) we obtain equation s + a- ^(t + r) g.
* Later researches have shown that the value of the force of gravity depends on the distance of the falling body from the centre of the earth, and therefore the fall. However, the variation of // is so slight that it has <j varies during not yet been detected by direct experiment on falling bodies.
6
(b)
a-

= gtr + ^r
mean
2
.
[CHAP.
i.
is
the
is
If r
During the time r the velocity is variable, but if = = velocity during that time, we will have v <r/T gt + ^gT. = ds, and neglecting infinitely small and equal to dt, we have <r
gt,
\gdt in comparison with

increases proportionally
relocity in the unit
to
(c) v
= ds/dt='s = gt.
and g
The
velocity therefore
the
time,
represents
the
increment of
of time.
is
The body falls through the space s in the time t, which, from (a), determined by (d) t = <j2s/g. The velocity at the time t is obtained by substituting this value We of t in (c) ; making this substitution, we have (e) v = J2sg.
reach the same result
by eliminating t between equations (a) and (c). the laws of falling bodies we deduce the law of inertia. In order to explain the fact that the velocity of a falling body
From
increases uniformly with the time, a body retains a velocity once imparted
direction;
is
we make the assumption,

to it
that
any change of
its
velocity is
unchanged in magnitude and due to external causes. This law
called the principle of inertia.
At the time
is
of an external cause, namely, gt, the force of gravity, the velocity gr is added. Under the action of 2 = gravity the body traverses the space cr gtT + ^gT in the time T,
here
the velocity v' is (t + T) to which, in consequence
v'
= gt + gr.
The
initial velocity
immediately following the time t. The falling body traverses the space gtr during the time T, with the velocity gt attained at the end of the time t the additional distance \gr l traversed by the
;
falling
body
is
due to the action of gravity during the time
T.
principle of inertia holds not only when the increment of velocity is in the same direction as the original velocity, but also
The
when
it
makes any angle whatever with the
original velocity.
This
principle justifies the application of the methods addition to the motions and accelerations of bodies.
of geometrical
The laws of
falling bodies lead also to
an answer to the question,
how
evident that the gain in velocity of a body, and its pressure on a support, that is, its weight, are properly regarded as actions of one and the same force. The
forces
are
to
be measured.
It
is
increasing velocity of a body in its fall is an evidence of that force, and the increment of velocity in the unit of time gives a new measure This definition shows what before Galileo's time was not of it.
clearly understood,
how
the combined action of several forces
may
be
measured.
forces are
The increments of velocity corresponding to the separate combined by the method previously described, and the recombined action of the
forces.
sulting increment gives a measure" of the
SECT.
II.]
THE MOTION OF PBOJECTILES.

SECTION
II.
THE MOTION OF
PROJECTILES.
We
which
1.
will
is
apply the foregoing principles to the motion of projectiles, closely connected with that of freely falling bodies.
We
consider
Vertical projection, both downward and upward. in his study of the motion of projectiles, proceeded on the assumption that a body which is given an initial motion in any
Galileo,
direction retains this motion, which

to
If,
is
combined with that imparted
it
by gravity
the
at
in accordance with the laws of freely falling bodies. time t = 0, the velocity u is given to a body, directed
vertically downward, its velocity r, after the lapse of the time t, 2 If is (a) r = u + gt, and the distance traversed is (b) s = ut + ^gt
.
the body is given the initial velocity u, directed vertically upward, the corresponding formulas are (c) (d) v = u- gt and s = ut- ^gt~.
2.
Projection in a direction inclined to the vertical.
Let a body be projected in the direction OA, making an angle a with the horizontal. Let OA represent the initial velocity u (Fig. 1).
The space which the body

would traverse
t
in the
time
if
gravity did not act on
it
is OB = ut. The body, however, does not reach B, but, at the end of the time
/,
is
beneath
that
at the point
C,
so
BC=\gP.
Let
the x-axis Ox and the #-axis Oy lie in the vertical plane
then the containing OB coordinates of the point C at the time t are

;
(e)
x= OD =
these equations the posiof the body at any
is
By
tion
time
determined.
FIG.
1.
During
the time-element dt the coordinates x and y increase by

(f)
dx = ucosadt and dy = u sin a dt distance ds traversed in the time dt

ds*
is
gtdt.
The
= dx* + df = [(u cos
a)
+(
determined by sin a - gt) 2 ]dt*.

velocity v
is
[CHAP.
i.
The
given by
v* = s = & + f = u?- Zugtsin a + gW. The components of the velocity parallel to the axes Ox and Oy are respectively v dx/ds and v dy/ds, or, by (g), are equal to x and y. From equation (f) we have (i) x = u cos a y = u sin a - gt. Hence
(g) (h)
v=s
and
the
horizontal
velocity
is
constant,
while
the
vertical
velocity
is
diminishes uniformly; this follows because the only force acting
directed vertically downward. If t is eliminated from the equations (e) we obtain for the equation of the path (k) y = x tan a - x2/4h (1 + tan'2 a), where h = %u 2/g is the distance through which the body must fall under the action of gravity
.
to attain
parabola.
the
velocity
u.
Equation
(k)
shows that
the
path
at
is
The
range,
or the distance reckoned from
0,
which
the path cuts the z-axis, is given by (k) if we set y = 0. have = tan -\gx(\ +tan 2 a)/u 2 The range W, or the particular value u2 sin 2a/</ ; the maximum range of x given by this equation, is
We
W=
is
attained
when
o.
= \ir.
we may determine from
equation (k)
If the velocity u is given,
the direction in which a body
a prescribed point.
must be projected Transposing, we obtain tan a = (2h V4A2 - 4hy - x2 )/x.
in order to reach
This equation shows that there are in general two directions in which the body may be projected with the initial velocity u so as
to reach a prescribed point. If the expression under the radical is zero, there is only one possible direction. If the point to be reached by the body is so situated that 4/i 2 - 4hy - x 2 <0, tan a will
be imaginary, and the body will not reach the prescribed point.
SECTION
III.
EQUATIONS OF MOTION FOR A MATERIAL POINT.
causes,
If a
In the theory of motion we use the word force to designate the known or unknown, of a change in the motion of a body.
rest is set in motion, or if a moving body comes to changes are ascribed to the action of a force. If the change is sudden, the force acting on the body is called an instantaneous or impulse. Close examination shows, however, that finite force,
body at
these
rest,
changes in the motion of a body are never instantaneous, but occur only in a finite time. This time may, in many cases, be very small. The motion of a body, which is measured by its velocity, may vary
SECT, in.]
EQUATIONS OF MOTION.
The velocity of a freely falling body varies only in amount the velocity of a body revolving round a centre varies in direction, and sometimes also in amount. Experiment shows that all changes in the direction, as well as in the amount of velocity, are due to external causes, which act during a
;
both in amount and in direction.
longer or shorter time, but never instantaneously. We may set aside all questions as to the origin of force, and measure the amount of a force by its action. may take as a
We
measure of a force either the space which a body, starting from rest, traverses under the action of the force, or the velocity which
There is no essential the force imparts to the body in a given time. between these two modes of measurement, but generally the velocity produced, or better, the change in velocity, is used for
difference
the purpose.
velocity
We
measure the amount of an impulse by the change in
body by the impulse, and the amount of a constant force acting continually upon the body, by the change in velocity which Newton assumed further, that the force is proportional occurs in a second. imparted
to the to the
where b is the acceleration of the body, and / is a factor dependent on the units of force, mass, and acceleration, or on the units of mass, time, and length. If we set/=l, then F=m.b, and we obtain the following definition for
the body.
quantity of that which He therefore set
is set
in motion, that
b
is,
to
the
mass
of
F=f.m.
the unit of force

of acceleration
the unit of
is
The unit of force
is that foi~ce
to the
unit of mass, or which imparts
which imparts the unit to a body in a second
momentum (cf. XVI.). This unit of force, called a dyne, therefore that force which, acting for one second, imparts to a mass of one gram the velocity of one centimetre per second. Hence
the dimensions of force are
MLT~ 2
(cf.
Introduction).
which a body is attracted by the earth is called its weight, and is measured by the product of its mass and the If a body acceleration which it would have if it were falling freely. is prevented from falling by a support, it exerts a pressure on the
force with
The
support which is equal to its weight. Conversely, the support exerts the same pressure on the body, in accordance with the law of action and reaction. This pressure may be determined by the balance, by
the elasticity of a spring, etc. Since the velocity which is caused by a force may be resolved into components in the directions of the three axes of a system of
rectangular coordinates, so, in the same way, the force resolved into components along the three coordinate axes.
F may
2
be
2
.
If these
components are represented by X, Y, and Z, we have
F = X' + Y' + Z
2 2
10

also resolve
[CHAP.
i.
We may
These
If a
forces into their
components in other ways.
will be treated later.
body moves with the and if a
(Fig. 2) velocity v in the direction force acts on it in the direction AC,
AB
the path of the body may be determined by the method used by Galileo to obtain the law
Consider the motion of the motion of projectiles. In that time the body will train the time T.
verse the
its
distance
AM =
VT,
in
consequence of
velocity ; in traverse the distance

initial
the
AN=
same time it will 2 |yr under the action
of the force F,
if
y represents the acceleration

If the parallelogram
^
OX, OY,
due to the force F.

is
AMDN
be the position of the body at the end of the time r.

constructed,
a, /8,
;
D will
Let the direction of motion make the angles
y with the axes
a system of rectangular coordinates let the direction If the of the force make the angles A, /j., v with the same axes.
coordinates of the point
OZ of
are
a*,
y,
and
z,
the x coordinate of the
cos A = x + VT cos a + yr2 cos A. Since cos a + is (b) .r + point the coordinates are functions of the time, we may obtain an expression for the ^-coordinate of by the use of Taylor's theorem. Applying
AM
DM
this theorem,
(c)
it
we
obtain
(c)
x + XT +
|arr
. . .
By comparing
(b)
and
way
In a similar follows that (d) (e) v cos a = x and y cos A = .r. we obtain v cos jK = y, y cos n i/ ; v cos y = z, y cos v = z. Tb e
x,
symbols
etc.,
y,
this appeai-s also if
z represent the velocities along the coordinate axes ; we write v = ds/dt, and notice that cosa = dx/ds,
.
so that v cos a = dxjds
= x.
From
(e) it
2
follows further that
ray cos
\ = mx.
Since
my
is
the force
F=JX
of the force F, we have (f) represents the x component = These equations (f) are the equations of similarly Y=my, Z mz. motion of the particle m. If X, Y, and Z are given functions of the
+ Y* + Z* and my cos A
X=mx;
coordinates,
(f)
of the time,
and sometimes of the
velocity,
if
its
equations
will
determine the motion of the mass m,
position
and
To determine velocity are given at the beginning of the motion. the motion, however, it is necessary to integrate equations (f), which
can be done in only a very few cases.
that
is,
If the motion is known, and z are given as functions of the time #, these equations may be more easily applied to find the force which causes
if
.r,
y,
the motion.
We
will
now
consider
some examples.
SECT.
III.]
1.
11
Motion in a
Circle.
Let a body of mass in move with constant velocity in the circle ABC, whose centre lies at the origin of coordinates, and whose
radius
period. ,-axis
is
R
If
Let T represent the time of revolution, or (Fig. 3). w represents the angular velocity of the body, and if the
drawn through the point occupied by the body at the x = Bcos (at), y = E sin (wi). It then follows from (f) that X=mx= -raw2 /i?cos ((at), Y=my = -moPRsm ((at) or X= m<a?x, Y= rridPy. The force acting on the body is, therefore, F= *JX'2 + 1' 2 = maPll. The cosines of the angles made by the direction
is
time
= 0, we have
FIG. 3.
The
v v
of the force with the x- and y-axes are respectively -x/ft&nd y/R. force is therefore directed toward the centre of the circle. If represents
the
velocity
of
the
body
.
in
the
circle,
we have
directed
Ii(a
2
.
= /fw = 27r/r and F=mv*/R = 4Tr*mfi/T2

is
The
acceleration
toward
the centre, the so-called centripetal acceleration, is equal
tov2 /R =
called the centripetal force.
This result was
first
obtained by
Huygens.
2.
The Motion of
Projectiles.
Let a body be projected from the origin of coordinates with the velocity u in a direction which makes the angle a with the horizontal #-axis let the positive ?/-axis be directed upward. Then
;
A"=0,
Y=-mg.
12
[CHAP.
The equations of motion are mx = Q, mi/ = -ing. By integration we have x = a + a^, y = b + b 1 t- \gfi, where a, a v b, b l are constants. and Since the body is at the origin at the time t = 0, we have a = 6 = 0. The components of velocity at the time t are x = a v y = \-gi From the value of the velocity at the time t = Q we have
al
= u cos
a,
l)
= u sin
a.
We
thus obtain again the equations given in
II. (e).
3.
Oscillatory Motion.
If
an
elastic
negligible,
and which
cylindrical rod, whose weight is so small as to be carries on one end a heavy sphere, is clamped
if it is
firmly
by the other end, and

its
then bent,
it will
be urged back
is is
toward
position of equilibrium by a force which to its displacement from that position. If r (Fig. 4)
proportional the distance
FIG.
4.
to the point P, which the body from the position of equilibrium occupies at the time t, the force which urges it toward may be
set equal to
force are
X=
- m&V, where k is a constant. The components of -mk'2x, Y= -mk zy, and the equations of motion
this
are
SECT.
III.]
+ b.2 sin kt,
13
The
integrals of these equations are x = a : cos let + J x sin kt, y = a 2 cos

bv
let
where a v
at the
a2
t
b 2 are constants.
If the coordinates of the point
P
v
at the time
are x
same time are UQ

z
and if the components of the velocity and # we have

, ,
= ai'
^0
= %;
= &A
= bjc.
.
With
these values of the constants, the equations become x = x cos kt + u /k sin kt, y = yQ cos kt + vjk sin
.
The components of the velocity are x= -kx sinkt + u coskt, y = - ky

If,
sin kt
+v
cos
kt.
when
= 0,
velocity v
is
the point P lies on the axis Oy, and if = 0; and parallel to the or-axis, V = UQ and v x = MO/^ sin kt, y = y cos kt.
.
its
initial
For two values of

are
which
differ
is
by
2ir/k,
the values of x and y
The period is equation by ujk, the second by y and add the squares of the right and left sides of both equations, we eliminate t, and obtain the equation of an ellipse as the equation
the same.
If
therefore periodic.
The motion
divide the
T=2ir/k.
we
first
of the path of the body.
SECTION IV.
Let
THE TANGENTIAL AND NORMAL FORCES.

be a part of the path of a body whose mass
MAD
(Fig. 5)
FIG.
is
5.
m,
let
AB
be the tangent to the path at the point A, AC, the
14
[CHAP.
i.
direction of the force
motion and of the force

this
The directions of the acting on the body. lie in the plane* of the path. choose
We
plane for the ay-plane of a system of rectangular coordinates whose .vaxis lies in the direction AB. The normal AH, drawn to
the same side as the force
AC,
is
taken as the positive
#-axis.
The
equations of motion are mx = T, my N. T and are the components of the force in the direction of the
tangent and of the normal, and are called in consequence tangential and normal forces. If the small arc is represented by s, if
AD
the centre of curvature of the curve at the point A, and radius of curvature is represented by It, the coordinates of
is
if
the
are
AH
x=
sin (s/R),
y = R-Rcos (s/R).
(s/R)
.
Hence
x = s.
cos (s/R)
- sin
/R,
If s
is very small, have then
= s.sin (s/R) + cos (s/R) ^,'R. i/ we may set cos (s/R) = 1 and x = s, y = s2/R = v*/R,
.
sin (s/R)
= 0.
We
and therefore
that
is,
T=ms
is
and
N=m^jR,
to the
the tangential force is proportional to the acceleration in the path.
The normal force
proportional directly
square of the
velocity,
and
inversely to the radius of curvature.
SECTION V.
If a particle,
WORK AND
KINETIC ENERGY.*
S,
under the action of a force

is
moves along a path
ds,
whose direction
force
equal to Sds. make the angle 6 with each other, we must use the component of the force in the direction of motion, instead of the total force S ; If the body moves in a given path s s the work done is Sds cos 0.
that of the force S, the force is said to do work If the direction of motion and the direction of the
under the action of the tangential force T, the work done by motion through the element ds is Tds, and the work done in the path s s
is
given by the integral

v,
Tds.
If the velocity
of the particle
is
represented by
(a)
= ds/dt and T=mii

('Tds
mv.
Hence
=
fmvvdt
= \m$ - \mi-*,
.
where
The
represents the velocity of the body in its initial position s mt'2 or the product of one half the mass and the quantity
v
,
Kinetic energy
is
also called actual energy or vis viva.
SECT, v.]
WORK AND
(a) the
KINETIC ENERGY.
15
square of the velocity,
From
equation
by the tangential foi'ce, since in the calculation of the
is called the kinetic energy of the body. gain in kinetic energy is equal to the work done or is equal to the work done by the total force,
work
as
it
has been defined
it
is
necessary to consider only the component of the total force which If a, (3, y are the angles which ds acts in the direction of the path. makes with the coordinate axes, and X, Y, Z the components of the
force T, then the following equations hold
:
T = JTcos a + Fcos ft + Zcos y, ds cos a = dx, ds cos /3 = dy, ds cos y = dz.

The work done by the
Equation
(b)
force
in the infinitely small distance ds is
Xdx + Ydy + Zdz.

(a)
then takes the form
= \(Xdx + Ydy + Zdz) %mv
\mv*.
This equatipn may be applied to advantage in many cases, especially If the path is if the force is a function of the coordinates only. also given, we may use this equation to determine the velocity at
any point
1.
in the path.
Let the a^-plane of a system of rectangular coExample. ordinates be horizontal, f and let the y-axis be directed vertically upward. Let a body of mass m be situated on the /-axis, and let
the only force acting on
it
be gravity.
Its
components are
the
We
(c)
have therefore
X=Q, Y= -mg, Z=0. + Ydy + Zdz) = - mg(y { (Xdx

= b.
b),
if
body
begins to
move
at the point y
From
(b)
we
obtain
Hence the
example
2.
is
velocity
is
= v<*-2g(y-b). determined by the ^-coordinate alone.

II.
is
This
discussed in
Example.
The
force
a function of the distance of the particle
from a fixed point. Let the force be a repulsion and a central force, that is, one whose direction passes always through a fixed point 0. We take this point as the origin. The components of the force which acts at the point (x, y, z) are
X=f(r).x/r, Y=f(r).ylr, Z=f(r).z/r. Using these values, we have
I (Xdx 4- Ydy
Since
r
2
,
+ Zdz) -
f^(xdx
rdr
+ ydy + zdz).
xdx + ydy + zdz,
the
= x2 + f + z2 and
therefore
work
16
which
is
[CHAP,
done by the force during the movement of the body from
the point
to the point
is
f(r)dr, if r
and
r are respectively
the distances from the point and velocities at the points
to the points
be.
and B. Let the respectively v and r, then
in kinetic energy depends only on r and r, and is conThe general consequently independent of the form of the path. dition which must be fulfilled that the work done may depend
The gain
only on the
initial
pendent of
ther
and final positions of the body, and be indepath traversed, will be examined in the next section.
SECTION VI.
THE WORK DONE ON A BODY DURING

IN
ITS
MOTION
A CLOSED PATH.
If a
body describes a
closed path
A BCD
(Fig. 6)
under the action
of a force whose components are X, Y, Z, the work done upon it is determined by taking the integral (a) ^(Xdx+ Ydy + Zdz) over the If the body, moving from with the velocity r whole path.
FIG.
6.
traverses the closed path in the direction indicated by the arrow, and returns to with the velocity v, the work done is equal to
A
,
Supposing
v>v
kinetic energy
is
will increase continuously if the
produced during the motion, and motion is continued. On the other
hand, supposing
v<v
kinetic energy will be produced if the
body
SECT, vi.]
MOTION
IN-
A CLOSED PATH.
17
traverses the path
A BCD
by experience that a body, under the action of
in the Opposite direction. Now, we know forces proceeding
from fixed points, after traversing a closed path, returns to the starting point with the same kinetic energy which it had when it
started.
It is therefore
important to investigate to what conditions
the components of the force must conform in order that the integral (a), taken over a closed path, shall be zero; that is,. the conditions
path,
which must hold in order that a body, moving through a closed shall return to its original position with the same kinetic
energy with which it started. If the integral taken over the closed path
{ABC
is, if
/
A BCD
equals zero, that
rCDA
(Xdx + Ydy + Zdz) + J

is
(Xdx + Ydy + Zdz) = 0,
where the
first
letters
integral
connected with the integral signs indicate that the to be taken over the line ABC, the second, over
CDA, we
If the
have
/ABC(Xdx
to
+ Ydy + Zdz) = J
fADC
(Xdx + Ydy + Zdz).
work done during the passage of the body from one point
is
initial
independent of the path and dependent only on the points of its path, the components X, Y, Z are single valued and continuous functions of the position of the point. Before we deduce the general conditions which must hold in order
another
and
final
that the
initial
work performed by a
final
force shall be
dependent only on the
and
in
done
are
the
points of the path, we will determine the work case in which the area enclosed by the path is
infinitely small.
x,
Through the point
(Fig. 7),
whose coordinates
the lines Ox, Oy, Oz parallel to the coordinate axes, whose positive directions are determined in the following way. If the right hand is stretched out in the direction of the positive -axis, a line drawn from the palm will give the direction of the
y,
z,
we draw
positive
positive
is
y-axis,
and the
thumb
that
is
of
the
positive
?-axis.
rotation
around the
re-axis
that by which the
+/-axis
into coincidence with the +2-axis.
brought by a rotation through a right angle This rule,
by cyclic* interchange of the letters x, y, z, gives the directions of the positive rotations *~ about the y- and 2-axes. If OBDC is a rectangle in the i/2-plane, and
if
its
perimeter
is
That is, if y by y, and x by
is
z.
replaced by
x, z will
be replaced
18
GENERAL THEOEY OF MOTION.

OBDCO,
the motion by which
it is
[CHAP.
traversed in the direction

is
traversed
This convention as to the said to be in the positive direction. sign of the direction of rotation shall hold in all our subsequent
If we set OB = dy, the work done by the transfer of the If the body moves from B to D, to B equals Ydy. body from the work done is (Z+'dZ/'dy dy)dz. The work done in the path DC is -(Y+dYfd2.dz)dy, and that done in the path CO is - Zdz.
work.
FIG.
7.
Hence the total work done is (c>Zpy>-'dYj'dz)dydz. In general, the work done by a force during the movement of a body around a surface element dS^ which is parallel to the y^-plane, is
(b)
F.dSx
way we
obtain
In the same
dS, = (dX/'dz
SECT. VI.]
MOTION IN A CLOSED PATH.
19
are the quantities of work done during the movement F, G, and of the body around a unit area at the point 0, when perpendicular to the x-, y-, and s-axes respectively.
If
OABC
(Fig.
8) is
an
infinitely small tetrahedron,
whose three
edges OA, OB,
body moves
are parallel to the coordinate axes, and if the in the direction on the boundary of the surface
OC
ABC
given by the order of the letters, the work done is equal to that which is done by moving the body in succession about OAB, OBC,
By this set of motions, the distances AB, EC, CA will each be traversed once in the positive direction, while the distances
and OCA.
FIG. 8.
so that the
OA, OB, OC will each be traversed twice and in opposite directions, work done in them is zero. The work done during the movement of the body about the surface ABC = ds is, therefore, m, n are the (c) J .dS=F .dS.l + G.dS .m + H.dS.n, where /, cosines of the angles which the normal to the surface dS drawn outward from the tetrahedron makes with the coordinate axes. Hence the work J done during the movement of the body around unit area is (d) J=Fl + Gm + Hn, where Z, m, and n determine the
position of the unit area.
20
If the
[CHAP.
i.
small surface
surface, or
work done during the movement of a body about an infinitely is zero, we must have .7=0 for all positions of the
F=G = H=Q,
(
-dZfdy
- 'dY/'dz = 0,
ax/a? VZ/Vx = 0, 9F/aB-aX/<ty = 0.
When the equations of condition (e) are satisfied, the expression under the integral sign in (a) is the complete differential of a function = dVj'dx, Y='dF/'dy, Z='dF/'dz. The equations of x, y, z, whence
of condition (e) are satisfied the mathematical definition

efficients
by
this assumption.
;
The function
first
V is
time
co-
the potential of the acting forces
we
here obtain for the

function,
of this
whose
differential
with respect to x, y, z are the components of force X, Y, Z. is also a If is a value of the potential of the acting forces, where C is a constant; since value, if
V=V+C,
.Y=3F/3z = 3F7ar,
The value
constant.
etc.
of the potential therefore involves an unknown or arbitrary will return to the consideration of this point in the
We
next section.
If the
equations of condition
(e)
are
everywhere
satisfied,
the
also
work done during the movement of the body about a

zero
//
'-
surface
is
is
when the
surface
surface
finite.
>^
/\
I
The
may
be divided into
-t
-i
//,
L*~*il I
\
7|
7
surface-elements, as
If
the
shown in Fig. 9. body moves about these

work done assumed
are confunc-
~7
7
+
7
4-
7
+ /
/
J
7
-r
elements one after another in the
4-
-f
same
^ Dat
direction, the total
X^ " /
x
/
^~^^_
I/
will equal zero.
It is here
^,/
7
"
1^^^
ê
f rces
X, F,
tinuous
tions
and
of the
single valued coordinates.
Every
line-element
thus
introduced will
be traversed
twice in opposite
directions, with the exception of those the finite surface.
which form the boundary of
Those forces or systems of forces, which are such that the work done by them is independent of the path in which the body is transferred from its initial to its final position, are called conservative forces. The most important examples of such forces are those which act
from a fixed point, and have values which depend only on their If the force acting at the point P depends only on it. the distance of that point from the origin of coordinates 0, that is,
distance from
SECT, vi.]
if it
MOTION IN A CLOSED PATH.

X=f(r)
.
21
equals /(r), then

line
x/r,
since x/r
#-axis.
is
the cosine of the angle
which the
OP makes = R,
with the
We
have similarly
X=f(r).x/r,
If
r=/(r).y/r,
Z=f(r).z/r.
we
set f(r)/r
X=Ex, Y=Ry, Z=Rz. = -dZfiy dR/dr yz/r, 3F/3* = dR/dr

then
.
We
.
have then
yz/r.
The equation of condition ~dZ/c)y -?>Y/'d2 = is therefore satisfied. The same is true of the other equations of condition (e). The work done during the movement of the body about a surface is given by the integral \(Xdx + Ydy + Zdz). This work is also done
the body moves in succession about all the surface-elements into which the finite surface is divided (Fig. 9). In this process the
if
motion must be uniformly carried out in the same sense.

this
From
(c)
work
and
is
equal to \(Fl +
Gf,
pressions for F,
(a)
(b),
.
Gm + Hn)dS.
If
we
substitute the ex-
formerly obtained,
we
have,
by the use of
dx/ds +
Y. dyjds + Z dz/ds)ds = I j [(dZfdy - -dY/3z)l + (dX/Vz - -dZ/3x)m

.
{\(X
where
s is
+ (dY/3x-'dXI'dy)n]dS,
the perimeter of the surface S, and I, m, n are the direction cosines of the normal to each surface-element. Equation (f) shows that the line integral along a closed curve may be replaced by a
surface- integral over
a surface bounded by this curve.
conditions which the surface
S must
fulfil
are that
it
shall
The only be bounded
by the curve and have no singular in (f) was discovered by Stokes.
points.
The theorem contained
SECTION VII.
THE POTENTIAL.
The only applications of the potential that we will discuss are those like the foregoing, in which the work done during the motion
is
That
completely determined by the initial and this may be the case, we must have
final points of
the path.
We
exclude from the discussion
all
cases in
which these equations
do not hold. Let the components of the force in the field be X, Y, Z, Let there be a unit of mass at the point (Fig. 10), whose rectangular
22
coordinates are
[CHAP.
i.
The work
(a)
to P along the path a, b, c, and let it move from done by the force during this motion is
s.
V=
f'(Xdx + Ydy + Zdz)
VP -
it being assumed that A', Y, are the partial derivatives of a single The work function V, which itself is a function only of x, y, z. is to required to transfer the unit of mass from any point
at those points, P and equal to the difference of the potentials or is equal to the difference of potential. Such differences of potential are all that can be directly measured. The value of the potential itself
FIG. 10.
involves an
determined.
unknown constant, and If we assume that the

the potential at P.
therefore cannot be completely potential is zero at the point 0,

the potential at
to
then
VP
is
Hence
work required to transfer the unit of mass where the potential is zero.
that point
any point is the from a point
The
(b)
potential
V is
a function of the coordinates.

is
The equation
y(x, y, z)
= C, when C
points,
the locus of
such
constant, represents a surface which is that the amount of work required to
SECT. VII.]
THE POTENTIAL.
mass from a point where the potential
is is
23
zero
transfer the unit of
to
any one of them

Let
the same.
If different values of
level
are taken,
we
obtain a system of surfaces, which are called
surfaces.
PF
and QQ'
(Fig.
11) be
two
infinitely
or equipotential near surfaces
of this system ; let the potential on be V, and on QQ' be V+dV. Let ds be the element of an arbitrary curve crossing these surfaces, which is cut off by them. If the force acting in the direction of
ds
is
PP
T,
of the
the quantity of work Tds will be done by the unit of mass from P to
transfer
this
work
is
also
V^-V^dV.
fore,
(c)
We
T .ds = dV
force in
is
equal to have, thereor T=dVjds.
Hence the
at a point
any direction
determined from the
the relation between potential ; force and potential being given by Since the direction equation (c).
of the element ds
may
is arbitrary, we substitute for ds the elements
dx, dy, dz,
and obtain
the force
for the
com-
ponents
of
X='dV/'d.r,
Y= dF/c)y,
Z^'dF/^z.
From
equa-
tion (c) the force is inversely proportional to the element ds drawn
between the two equipotential surfaces V and V'+ dV. If the

direction of ds
"
FIG. 11.
is that of the normal to the surface PP', the force If a series of lines is drawn which cut the greatest value. equipotential surfaces orthogonally, their directions are the directions
has
its
of the force at the points of intersection.
Such
lines are conse-
quently called
The tangent to the line of force at a of force. point gives the direction of the force at that point. are two infinitely near points in an equipotential If and 2 l to surface, no work need be done to transfer a body from l 2
lines
P
Pl
for
the force acting on the body the direction of motion.

^ \
VP
is
perpendicular to
surface
1.
Example.
Gravity.
If at a place near the
earth's
we
is
up a system of rectangular coordinates, horizontal, and the positive ?y-axis directed ^=0, Y= -mg, Z=0. Hence we have
set
so that the .r^-plane

vertically
upward, then
is,
V=
-mgy, that
the
equipotential surfaces are horizontal planes.
24
2.

Example.
[CHAP.
i.
In the case discussed in V., Ex.
2,
the
work
F=fjf(r)dr
needed to move the body from its position at the distance r from a fixed point to another position at the distance r. Hence we have F"= F(r) - jP(r ), and the equipotential surfaces are spheres
is
whose centres are at the centre of attraction
0.
SECTION VIII.
CONSTRAINED MOTION.
Galileo investigated not only freely falling bodies and the motion of projectiles, but also motion on an inclined plane and the motion
of a pendulum, and thus
made
the
first
step in the investigation of
constrained motion.
If a
body
is
which
is compelled by any cause to move in a given path, not that which it would follow if free to yield to the
it,
action of the forces applied to

1.
its
motion
is
said to be constrained.
Example.
The Inclined Plane.

slide
Let the body
(Fig.
12), acted
on by gravity,
down an
inclined plane
AB, which makes
the
FIG. 12.
angle a with the horizontal plane BC.
We
which
may
arise
from
friction.
The
force
neglect any resistance or reaction exerted by
the inclined plane acts perpendicularly to the plane AB, and does not affect the motion of the body. The expression sought may be best obtained by using the relation between kinetic energy and
work.
If in represents the
at B, g the acceleration
of gravity,
mass of the body, v the velocity acquired and I the length AB of the
.
inclined plane, we have fymv 2 = mg sin a begins at A, so that the initial velocity
/,
assuming that the motion

zero.
I
is
If a represents the
height
AC
of the inclined plane,
we have
sin a
= a, and
the
work
-SECT VIII.]
CONSTEAINED MOTION.
Hence the
velocity
is
25
<lone equals mga. the inclined plane
of the
body
at the foot of
it
is
= .j2ga, and
the same as that which
would have at C, if it were to fall freely through the distance AC. If a body moves on the curve AB (Fig. 13) under the action of gravity, we determine the velocity at B in a similar way, from (the initial That is, we have velocity v at A and the distance of the fall AC.
FIG. 13.
- %mv * = mga, and therefore (a) #2 = v 2 + 2ga. %mv for the movement of the body from A to B is
2
The time t required
<">
-jft
is
where ds
2.
an element of the path
AB.
Example. The Pendulum. If we suspend a body (Fig: 14) at the end of a weightless rod which can swing freely about the
point 0, it is compelled to move on the surface of a sphere whose will treat only the radius is equal to the length I of the rod. simple case in which the departure of the pendulum from its position
We
of equilibrium is small. If, at the time rest at A, it will move in the arc
= 0,
the body starts from
C lying If we set OA = l, ÂOC = a, i_OC=0, perpendicularly under 0. and if A' and BB' are drawn perpendicular to OC, then the velocity to B equals that which would which the body gains in moving from
through the point
A BCD
A
be gained to B'
if it
is
were to fall freely from A' to B'. The distance from A'B' = l(cos 0-cosa), and therefore the velocity at B is
v = *j2gl (cos
- cos a).
26
For
v

= 0,
to
[CHAP.
i.
or for
6=
if
then at
A
We
or D,
i.DOC = LAOC.
body
move from
the pendulum bob will be at rest, and is The time t taken by the to B is found by substituting this value of v
a,
in (b).
(c)
thus obtain
t= -
I id6/J2gl(cos 6
'a
- cos a),
This expression
small that
is
we may
easily set
integrated
is
cos0=l-0 2
pansion of the cosine in a series
a, and therefore 2 and cosa = of the form
if
0,
are so
l-a
The
ex-
and
if
is
very small
we may
neglect terms of higher orders than
the second.
Making
this restriction,
we have
and by integration (d) 6 = acos(t>JgJl). If t^/g/l = ^Tr, we have = 0; the body moving from A reaches the lowest point of its path in The time T required for the movement of the time t = ir *Jl/g.
.
to the body from period of oscillation.*
is
twice this, or (e) T=irjl/g.
is
called the
The period of
oscillation is directly proportional
* In the case of the pendulum here treated, which swings in a plane, it must be clearly understood that by the period of oscillation T only one advancing In other periodic motions, the period of oscillaor returning beat is meant.
tion is the time
between two
instants, at
which the motion
of the
body
is
precisely similar, that is, at which the body has the same velocity and direction of motion ; or, it is the time required for both the advancing and returning
l>eats.
SECT. VIIL]
to the
CONSTEAINED MOTION.
27
square root of the length of the pendulum, and' is inversely proportional
to the
The equation
finite
square root of the acceleration of gravity. (e) holds only for very small arcs.
a,
In the case of
values of
we
use the formula
(f)
It is only for very small arcs that the oscillations of the pendulum are isochronous, that is, independent of the size of the arcs. If the arc is not infinitesimal, the period will increase rather rapidly with
the length of the arc.
The pendulum may

by the
(Fig.
also be studied
in
an oscillating body of mass

force
be at the point
this
the following way. Let J5, and be acted on

force
mg.
14).
Draw
We may represent EF perpendicular to
by the
line
OE
are
OB; then OF and FE
components of the force OE. The magnitude of the tangential force is mgsind. If we set BC = s, and reckon the tangential force positive, when it tends to increase s we have P= -mgsin(s/l), and if
t
we assume
motion
is
to be very small,
P=
-mgs/L
Hence the equation
-of
(g)
ms = P or
-gs/l.
a suitable
choice
of constants, (h)
By integration we obtain, by s = a cos (t\/g/l). This equation

a given surface, the deter-
corresponds to (d). If a body is compelled to
move on
mination of
in general very difficult. will not enter into the discussion of the general case, but will consider only
its
is
motion
We
the motion of an infinitely small body on a spherical surface, when the body during the motion always remains near the lowest point C of this surface, and when gravity is the only force acting on it.
We may
the body
mgsjl,
then assume that the component of gravity which moves

is
the point C, and that it is equal to represents the radius of the sphere. This assumption The path is an ellipse and gives the motion treated in III., Ex. 3.
directed toward
when
The time of oscillation of oscillation is T=2ir*Jl/g. therefore independent of the form and dimensions of the path.
the time
is
SECTION IX.
KEPLER'S LAWS.
In our deduction of the principal theorems of the general theory of motion, we proceeded from Galileo's laws of falling bodies. We
turn
now
to that force of
which gravity
is
a special example, and
28
[CHAP.
i.
from whose properties the laws of planetary motion may be deduced. Starting with the hypothesis of Copernicus, that the sun is stationary and that the earth rotates on its own axis and also revolves round
the sun, Kepler announced the following laws 1. radius vector drawn from the sun to a planet describes equal
:
sectors in equal times.

2.
3.
The
orbits
of the planets are

the,
ellipses
with the sun at one of the foci.

to
The squares of
periodic, times of two planets are proportional
the cubes of the semi-major axes of their orbits.
These laws may be expressed" analytically in the following way. Let S be the centre of the sun (Fig. 15) and APQ a part of the orbit of a planet. Let the
planet be at
A
P
at the time
t.
= 0, and
at
at the time
In the next time element dt

the planet moves from P to Q, and its radius vector drawn
from the sun describes the sector PSQ. Let -ASP = Q, LPSQ = dQ, and SP = r. The
PSQ is equal to \r-dQ. Since by Kepler's first law the surface described by the
surface
radius
vector
to
2
increases
pro-
portionally
the time,
we
is
have r dQ
Mt, where k
constant, or, writing the equation in another form,

(a)
7-
.0 = &.
FIG. 15.
law is a special Kepler's case of a general law which is

first
called the law of areas.
This law
fixt
is
If the force which

the surface the
acts
upon a
moving body
radius vector
rate.
pi'oceeds
from a
described by the
drawn from that point to Hence Kepler's first law holds
body increases at a constant
for all central forces.
From (a) it appears that the angular velocity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance of the planet from the
sun.
by v, and the represent the velocity of the planet at perpendicular from S upon the tangent to the orbit at the point P
by
We
SN=p.
SECT, ix.]
KEPLER'S LAWS.
set
29
If
we
PQ = ds,
is
Tc,
the
area of
the
sector
PSQ
dt.
is
equal
at
,to
= fypvdt. But it = = pvdt Mt, or pv

^pds
points
also equal to ^r2dQ

is,
= \k
to
Hence we have
different
that
the
velocities
of the planet
the
in
its
orbit
are
inversely
proportional
distances
of the
tangents at those points
from
the sun, the centre of attraction.
Let
BPC
be
the
elliptical
orbit of the planet (Fig. 16), with the sun situated at the
focus S.
be
BC=2a, and
Let the major axis let SA be a
fixed radius vector
which makes
the angle a with the major axis.
We set SP = _ASP = Q. If n ifF and S are the foci; we have

r,
i
ci
v.
FIG. 16.
PF+PS=2a,
and hence
if e is
2 2 2 (2a-?-) --=4a e
the
eccentricity,
and
if,
PF=2a-r, + r2 + 4aercos(6-a), From therefore, FS=2ae.

cos (6
2
.
this equation
we
(b)
obtain for the equation of the path in polar coordinates

1/r
= [1 + e
o)]/a(l
- e2
).
equation (a) we have J^r dO taken over the whole orbit and, if T
From
= |&
is
T, if the integration is
integral
is
equal to the area of the
ellipse,
the minor axis.
Hence we have
obtain (c)
27r
2
the periodic time. The or to a b TT, if b represents %Trab = k.T. If we notice that
. .
a 2 = b 2 + a?e 2
we
V 1 - e = JcT,
2
and squaring,
all
,
By
The
Kepler's third law

(d)
T2/a 3
/*
is
constant for
2
the planets.
We
must therefore have

velocity v
16)
= k2/a(l - e ) = 47r 2 a3 /T2
a constant.
S
v2
(Fig.
let
and
SA
2
if
.
may be determined in the following way. Let be the origin of a system of rectangular coordinates, be the a-axis. We have x = rcosQ and y = rsin6, and
the equations
= z? 4-
From
vz
(e)
x = r cos
obtain
(f)
- r sin
.
y=r
sin
+r
cos
9,
we
and
= r2 + r 2 6 2
r6
If
we
substitute for
its
value given by equations
(a)
and
(b),
for r the value got

v2
by
differentiating equation (b),
we have
Noticing
obtain,
that
by the
introducing the
2 2 2 - e 2) 2 a) + e ) & /a (l + e 2 = 2(l + e cos (6 - a)J - (1 -e2 ), we 2 2 2= help of equation (b), (2/r- I/a) & /a(l -e ), or, 2 quantity p. defined by (d), (g) v = 2p,/r p/a.
= (l + 2e cos
(0
+2ecos (Q -
a)
30

SECTION X.
[CHAP.
i.
UNIVERSAL ATTRACTION.
We owe
must
to
Newton
the determination of the law of the force which

its
act on a
planet in order that
motions
may conform
to
To determine this force, we use equation (g) IX. Kepler's laws. Let the centre of the sun be the origin of a system of rectangular
coordinates,
and
let
the planet be
situated
at
the
and Y. Represent the components of the unknown force by the law of kinetic energy (V.) we have |#2 - t' 2 = { Xdx + Ydy.
is
point
(z,
y)
From
If v
the velocity at the distance r
we
If
obtain,
by the help of equation

is
(g) IX., fJL/r-fjL/rQ
= \Xdx + Ydy.
have
Xdx+Ydy
a complete
differ-
ential
d<f>,
we
will
or
X = 'tyfdx**'d(plrydx and = - /x/V2 3r/ac = - /iz/r 8 Y X

-
The
that
is,
force
is
with which the sun acts on the planet

is
is
R=
/*/r
a force which
inversely proportional
to
the square of the
distance of the planet
from
the sun.
It is evident
all
from equation
the planets.
(d)
IX.
that the quantity
p.
has the same value for
FIG. 17.
x=
The unknown components of force and Y may be represented by the lines PA and PB (Fig. 17), and resolved
We may
also
obtain
these
results
X and
from the general equations
y=Y.
into a
component
in
the direction
SP = r
t
and a component
perpendicular to SP.
Setting
-PSX = Q we have T= - XsinQ+ Fcos6.
SECT, x.]
(e) IX., this
31
By
(d)
the help of equation

72
becomes
.
But
since r2 6
= r-r6 2 and T=2fQ + re=l/r d(r*6)ldt. = constant by Kepler's first law, we have T=Q.
is
The
attractive force
therefore
directed toward
the
sun.
Using equations
.
(a)
and
(b) IX.,
we
obtain (e)
R=
/a(l
-e2 >' 2 = - f*,'r2
apply this result to the motion of the moon. By reference to (d) IX., where the value of p. is given, we find that
We
R=
The
orbit
-4irV/ZV.
approximately a circle with a radius 60,27 times as great as that of the earth. Setting
of the
is
moon
r=a=4.
we have the
7=
47r 2 a/r2
10 9 .60,27/27rcm,
acceleration 7 of the
moon toward
.
the earth,
= 877
60,27
10 9 /2 360 600 2 cm,
since the period of the moon's rotation is 27,322 days or 2 360 600 seconds. If the centre of the Hence we have 7 = 0,27183 cm.
moon were
situated at the distance of the radius of the earth from

it
the earth's centre,
would have an acceleration equal to

2
0,27183.60,27
cm = 987cm,
assuming that the force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance. This value accords so well with that of the acceleration at the surface of the earth, that
we
are justified in assuming
that the motion of a falling body is an action of the same force as that which keeps the moon and the planets in their orbits. The final proof of the validity of Newton's law of mass attraction is
drawn from
bodies.
obtained from the complete agreement of the theoretical conclusions it with the results of observations on the heavenly
SECTION XI.
UNIVERSAL ATTRACTION
(continued).
We
one.
will
We
use a method precisely the opposite of our former will assume the law of attraction known, and determine
now
the path of a planet whose position and velocity at the time t = are Let S be the centre of the sun (Fig. 18), let the attracted given.
body be situated at A at the time = 0, and let AC represent the whose direction makes the angle CAD = Avith SA = r velocity r produced. If the acceleration which the sun imparts to the planet is set equal to p./r 2 then, using a system of polar coordinates whose
, </>
,
32
[CHAP.
i_
it is
origin is at S, and writing the force with the directed toward the sun, we obtain
(a) (b)
It follows
minus sign because
- r6 2 = - fM/r2 and
1/r
d(r*Q)/dt
= 0.
This
for-
from
2 (b) that (c) r 9
= &, where
is
a constant.
mula was obtained from Kepler's first law, (a) IX. Since ?-6 is the component of velocity perpendicular to the direction of r, we obtain
for
t
= Q,
(d)
k/r
= vQ sm(f>.
2
By
the help of equation

is
(c),
(a)
take&
2i-dt,
the form r - F/r3 = -
/*/r
If this equation
multiplied
by
we have
3 2 2 d(f )+d(k /r )
= 2d(p/r), and by integration r2 + F/r2 = 2/i/r + Const.
FIG. 18.
In the
/
= 0,
help
(e)
point A, we have v = v and r = v cos<f>, therefore we obtain 2 cos 2 + F/r 2 = 2fi/r + Const., from which by 2 = of (d) it follows that Hence we have 2/*/r + Const. r2 = V-2f0o + 2/Vr-F/r>.
initial
()
for
?'
<
the
?;
Since the velocity v, from (f) IX., may be expressed generally by 2 we obtain by the use of (c) and (e)
j
This equation agrees with (g) IX.
The same
result
may
be derived from the theorem
connectin
kinetic energy
(g)
and work.
From
ft
(e)
we have
and
r=x/V-2
is
where the upper sign

together.
It follows
t,
to be taken, if r
increase or diminish
.
depend only on
ft
.
from equation (c) that Q we obtain from (c) and (g)
= k/r 2
Since r and
d(l/r)/dB
= + VV-2/
SECT, xi.]
33
the differential equation of the orbit. By adding and sub2 2 under the radical sign, and by noticing that p/k is a fj. /k constant, and that therefore its differential is zero, this equation
This
is
tracting
may
(h)
If
be written
dQ = d(k/r we
set
M2 = v
2/x/r
+ p?/k 2 we get by integration = arc cos (k/ur - p/uk) + a,

,
where a is a constant. Hence the equation of the path

(i)
is
.
l/r=(l+Jb//tco8(e-o))/<^//*),
In this equation u
arbitrary.
may always
be considered positive,
since
is
2 polar equation of a conic is (k) l/r= (l +e cos (0 a))/a(l -e ), ellipse, a parabola, or a branch of an hyperbola = l or e>l. If e = we have the respectively, according as e<l, e
The
which represents an
equation of the the value of
,
circle.
From
(1)
the equation
1
= ku/p, by
2
)
.
we
obtain
-e 2 = (2//r
-i>
&2//*2
,
introducing If a body
velocity will
approaches the sun from infinity to the distance r be v v determining by the following equation
its
we have (m) e2 = 1 - (v^ - v 2 ) F//* 2 Hence the path is either an ellipse, a parabola, or an hyperbola, according as
Therefore
. .
o<*'i
vo
= vi
or vo> vi'>
that is, the path of the body is an ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola, according as the vis viva imparted to the planet at the first instant is too small to send it to infinity against the attraction of the sun,
or exactly sufficient, or
result.
more than
is
sufficient,
to accomplish that
By
(n)
comparison of the formulas

o(l
(i)
and
(k),
we
obtain
-#) = *//*.
(n) it follows,
is
This corresponds to (d) IX.

2 v 2) that (o) yu. = (flj the lower when v1 <v
. .
From (m) and

The upper
a.
sign
moreover, used when v1 >v

,
In the
first case,
if
the value for #x 2
is
substituted
in (o),
we
have #
v2
= 2/i/7- - p-ja.
= 2/x/r
In conjunction with (f) this equation becomes - p/a, which corresponds to (g) IX.
34
GENEEAL THEOEY OF MOTION.

SECTION XII.
[CHAP.
i.
THE POTENTIAL OF A SYSTEM OF MASSES.
In the previous discussion Newton's law of gravitation was derived
from Kepler's laws by the assumption that the attraction proceeds from the centre of the sun, or, what is the same thing, that the whole mass of the sun is concentrated at its centre. A similar
assumption was made in the case of the planets. These assumptions might be made without further demonstration if the radius of the sun were infinitely small in comparison with the orbits of the planets
;
necessary to investigate with what force a mass distributed throughout a given space acts on a body. This problem in the simplest cases was solved by Newton. His
since this
is
not the case,
it
is
and those of other distinguished mathematicians, have of the greatest importance, both in physics and mathematics. The method by which such problems are treated is due to Laplace, and the theory was developed by Poisson, Green, Gauss, and others. Let the masses m v m 2 mB be situated at the points A, B, C (Fig. 19), and let a unit of mass be concentrated at the point whose coordinates are x, y, z. The force with which the unit of mass is attracted by ml is -fmjr^ where 1\ is the distance AP, and / a constant dependent on the units of mass, Call the coforce, and length.
researches,
led
to
results
ordinates of A,
components by which P
Xv Yv Z
is
rj
The v fr of the force
attracted to
2
.
are
evidently X, -fmjr, (x ^)/rv etc. In the same way we calculate the
components of the forces

originate
at
which
points,
the
is
other
repre-
B, C,
etc.
If the
sum
of
all
the
components
sented by X,
(a)
we
obtain
X= -/K(z - fJW + m.(x - &)lr* +...}.

set (b)
We
Now
F= mj^ + w /r2 + m /r3 +

2 3
. . .
V=
(x
2 &) + (y-^Y +(*- &)
and therefore
r^dr^fdx =(x- gj, etc.
Hence we have
and
(c)
X=f.
SECT, xii.]
POTENTIAL OF MASSES.
way we
derive the equations
.
35
In a similar
(d) (e)
F=/.3r/3y and Z =f
VP'I'dz.
The quantity
the point
V
(c)
defined
by equation
(e)
(b) is (VII.)
the potential at
of the given system of masses.

(d)
the
equations
and
determine
If the potential is given, the forces acting in the
directions of the coordinate axes.
Since the position of the system
of coordinates
is
arbitrary, the force acting in
any direction may be
derived from V.
This has been already shown in VII.

s is
.
The
force
acting in the direction
therefore
.
.
The work
d F/ds = 3 F/3z dx/ds + 3F/fy dy/ds + 9F/3* dz/ds. A performed by the force in moving a unit of mass
is
along an arbitrarily chosen path
given by
A=
where
path.
for
o
+ + l\Xdx Ydy Zdz),

initial
and
are respectively the
and
final
points
of the
If the values given in the formulas (c) (d) (e) are substituted
the coordinate axes are dx, dy, dz
X, Y, and Z, and the element of the path whose projections on is designated by ds, then
A =ff(d Vj'dx
dx/ds
+ 3 FJ-dy
dy/ds+ 3 F/3z dz{ds)ds =fj'd V,

.
and hence we have A=f(Tt -F ). If the body traverses a closed path, the work done by the forces equals zero (cf. VI., VIL). Therefore, if we let a body traverse a closed path under the action of gravity, the work which gravity performs in moving the body forward is equal in absolute value to the work which must be
starting point.
performed against gravity in order to bring the body back to the There is no surplus work performed. Hence it is
evidently impossible to produce a perpetuum mobile, that is, an arrangement which continuously creates work out of nothing. We have assumed that the masses considered are concentrated at
Matter is more points; this, however, does not occur in nature. or less continuously distributed throughout space or on surfaces. If is uniformly distributed in space, the mass p contained in the it If it is not uniformly unit of volume is called the density.
distributed,
about the point

to
its
a sphere of infinitely small radius be constructed P ; the ratio of the mass contained in the sphere volume is the volume density p at the point P. If the
let
mass
point
is
distributed
is
defined
by the
over a surface, the surface density a- at the ratio of the mass contained within a
circle of infinitely small radius
drawn about the point
as centre
to the area of the circle.
36
If the

mass contained
in
[CHAP.
i.
the unit of volume

pe?w.
is
p,
the element
of volume dw will contain the mass
The
potential of a
(b),
mass
which
(g)
is
distributed in space
is
therefore,
from equation
F=JJJô,/r.
This integral is extended over the whole volume occupied by the mass, r is the distance between dt and the point for which the potential is to be determined.
It is
an
infinitely thin sheet
sometimes necessary to consider the mass as distributed in over a surface. If the mass on the unit of
dS will contain the mass crdS. is a-, the surface-element The potential takes the form (h) F=\\a-dS/r. The potential cannot be determined without some further information in the next paragraph we will discuss some of the simplest cases.
surface
;
SECTION XIII.
EXAMPLES.
CALCULATION OF POTENTIALS.
The sun and planets are approximately spherical. On the supposition that they are spheres, their potential can be easily calculated, if the density p is given, and if we assume that it is a function of
the radius, and therefore has the same value for all parts of the concentric spherical layers which compose the sphere.
FIG. 20.
1.
The Potential of an
Infinitely
Thin Spherical Shell of Constant Surface

<r.
Density
Let
mined.
ABD
If
(Fig. 20) be a sphere,

is
whose centre
is
whose radius
R.
The
potential at the point

<j>
the point C and is to be deter-
we
set
OC = r, L.OCB =
and
.
OB = u, we
.
have
?=
r-2-n-R sin
<
Rd<i>
<r/u.
SECT, xin.]
<f>d(j>,
37
Since u 2
= r'2 + R2 - 2Rr cos $ and udu = Rr sin
the form
= 2TrRa-/r. \du. If - (r - R) = 2 R while if it lies within sphere, we have \du = (r + R) the sphere, we have \du = (R + r)-(R- r) = 2r. If we designate the
V= faR/r
udu/u
<r
the integral takes lies outside the
potential outside the sphere = IvRaV- we have (a) i

t
by
Va
and
and that within the sphere by

The potential
is
= îrRâ-jr.
therefore
constant inside the spherical shell;

it
at points outside the spherical shell
Hence the to the distance from its centre. whole region is given by the two different exIt is not discontinuous at the surface, since pressions Va and V^ = iirRo-. On the other hand, its differential for r = R we have Va
is
inversely proportional
potential
for
the
=V
coefficient is discontinuous at the surface.

2 dVJdr = -irR?<r/r and
For we have
and therefore
(b)
[dVJdr] r=Jt =
infinitely thin
it.
-4
and
Hence an
its
lying within
The
spherical shell exerts no force at a point sphere acts only on' points outside of it, as if
its
whole mass were concentrated at
centre.
Hence a
solid
of homogeneous concentric spherical shells acts on outside points in a similar manner. If the attracted point is situated within the mass of a spherical shell, it will be attracted to the centre
sphere
made up
by the portion of the mass which lies within a sphere described about the centre with the distance of the point from the centre as radius.
The portion lying
outside this surface exerts no action.
2.
The Potential of a Solid
'Sphere.
We
will
p.
now
density
We
calculate the potential of a solid sphere of constant have for points outside the sphere
and
for points inside the sphere
V,
= f 47T.R2 dR
.
P /r +
f iirR
~r
dR
= ~r*P + 2irp(R2
O
- r2 ),
2 or (d) -^). In this case also, the potentials within and without the sphere are represented by two different expressions and Both values, however, coincide at the surface, since for a
FZirp^
= R we
= îrR^p. have for the potential a The function V which represents the potential of a mass
i t
V =V
dis-
tributed through
coefficients
(e)
space,
is
everywhere continuous.
Its
differential
with respect to r are
dV /dr=
t
- frrp, dVJdr= -
38

surface,
[CHAP.
i.
and these values at the
where
= R,
are also equal, that
is,
Hence the
first
derivatives of the potential of a mass distributed in
space are nowhere discontinuous, but are continuous throughout all On the other hand, its second derivatives vary continuously space.
and the exterior regions, but on passage through the That is, d2 F'/dr2 at the spherical surface a discontinuity occurs, surface has two values, since
in the interior
[cVFJdr*]^^ -$irp and
[d
Fa /dr
2
] r=J!
+fay>.
equation (e) the force outside the sphere is inversely proportional to the square of the distance of the unit of mass from the centre of the sphere. We thus justify the assumption that the planets and the sun may be treated as points in which their re-
From
In the interior of the sphere the spective masses are concentrated. force is proportional to the distance of the attracted point from the
If we transform equation (e) to dFt/dr = -^m^p.l/r we centre. see that the force proceeds from that portion of the sphere whose This only holds on the distance from the centre is less than r.
2
,
assumption made about p. The earth's density very probably increases toward the centre; hence the force of gravity will not have its This greatest value at the surface, but at some point beneath it. corresponds with the results of experiments on the time of vibration
of a
pendulum
in a
deep mine.
The Potential of a Circular
Plate.
a-;
3.
Let
AE
(Fig. 21) be a circular plate of surface density
the
centre of the plate
is
and the axis OP.
The point P, for which the potential is to be determined, lies on the axis at the
distance x from the plate.
The
potential
is
then
F=
f*
I
2irr)
drj
o-/<u,
where R is the radius of the plate and and u are the distances of a point on 7; and P respectively. the plate from We have v? = rf + x 2 therefore ndui)d^t and hence
,
IG '
V= fadu .<r=27ra-(p- x),

P
from the edge of the
plate.
if
is
the distance of the point
If
SECT. XIII.]
39
the x drawn from one face of the plate is considered positive, the r Hence potential for negative values of x is P =2Trcr(p + x).
(f)
Jfora;>0,
= 2ir(r(p-x)
we may
have
If the radius of the plate is infinitely great in comparison with x, r set P l = C-2Tra-x and C+2iro-x, where C is an infinitely 2
great constant, since
is
infinitely great
and
o-
remains
finite.
We
for
x>Q,
and
for
x<0,
dV jdx = -2ircr, d F2 /dx = + 27nr.

l
By
passage through
47rcr.
the surface,
dF/dx, that
is,
the force,
changes dis-
continuously by
4.
The Potential of an
infinitely long straight line.
Suppose each unit of length of the line Let G be a point at the

.
AB (Fig.
22) to have the
distance
a from
perpendicular let
AB, and CD the fall from C upon
"B
AB.
(7,
The
potential V, at the point
is
V= 2^ log (z'/a
Since
z'
is
infinitely great in
com1
parison with a, we may neglect under the radical and write

(k)
V= 2p log
is if
z'
2z'/a)
= C.-p log a 2
where C
stant,
an infinitely great conis
infinitely
great.
Further,
we
obtain
-2/*/a,
is
dF/da=
that
is,
the
to
FlG
inversely pro-
'
22>
force
the
portioned
distance
of the point from
the
straight
line.
5.
The Potential of a Circular
Represent the surface density of a circular cylinder by a-. Through the point P, for which the potential is to be determined, pass a plane
40
[CHAP.
i.
be the Let perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder (Fig. 23). radius of the cross section of the cylinder and r the distance of the
point
from
its
centre.
FIG. 23.
We
We
then have from (k)
v= c-^JJme.a-. log a
now
find the value of the integral
2
.
in
which a = *Jf2 - 2rE cos 6 + If2
First consider the case in which

if
r>R.
The
integral
may
rir
o
then be written,
^ = 2J
Since cos 6 = \(&9 +
Rd6(\og r
+ log Vl 1
-**),
we have
- 2a cos
_
we
2a cos
set a
= E/r,
+ a2 ).
),
+ a 2 = (1 - a.e i6 }( 1 - ae~ ie
and
jf
Now
developing the terms in this integral in series, and carrying out the integration, we find that the integral is equal to zero,
and hence that

all
= Z-n-R log r. Thus the mean value of log a for points of the circumference of the circle is equal to log r or to the logarithm of the mean distance from to the circumference of the
circle.
If
and
if
now V< R, that is, if P lies between we set a = rjR, we have
and the circumference,
=2
and hence
Rd6(\0g
R + log N/l-2aCOS0+a 2
),
A = 2-rrE log R.
In this case also the mean value of log a
SECT, xiii.]
is
mean
distance from
41
equal to the logarithm of the
to the circum-
ference of the circle.

for the potentials of points outside n and i setting inside the cylinder respectively, we have from these values,
Now
and
ra =C- 47rô- log r,

The
potential
is
V = c- lirEo- log
i
R.
cylinder.
(n)
therefore constant, and the force zero within the Outside the cylinder the force is given by
d7Jdr= is,
4irftr/r,
that
inversely proportional to the distance of the point from the axis of the cylinder.
is
the force
SECTION XIV.
GAUSS'S THEOREM.
THE EQUATIONS or LAPLACE AND POISSON.

surface,
Let (Fig. 24) be a closed surface-element, and at the point
ABF
of which
AB = dS
is
be concentrated.
On
within the surface, let the mass the element ds at C, construct the normal
CE.
Let the length of the
line connecting
and C be
r,
and
let
the normal
CE make
the angle
DCE = Q
r
with
00
is potential at C due to v then P l = m l/r, l = 'dVl [dn) while the acting at the point C in the direction CE is l total force in the direction of CO is mjr 2. have
If the produced. and the force
N
.
We
2
(a)
JVt
= wij/r2
cos (
- 6) = -
mjr
cos 0.
42
If a
GENEEAL THEORY OF MOTION.

sphere of unit radius
is
[CHAP.
i.
described about the point
as
centre, the straight lines drawn to the contour of (IS mark out this unit sphere a surface-element whose magnitude is equal to
(b)
on
du = dS.cose/r*.
(a)
From
If
and
-
(b)
we
2
.
obtain
NjdS=
surface,
mjr
cos
there are
still
other masses,
QdS= - m^w and m^ my

"d
.
'dPJ'dn
etc.,
dS= - mfa.
the
closed
within
we
obtain similarly
.
3 fy3
dS = - mû,
= V^^n, dS
m do>,
s
....
Vv
Vy
~,
m v m2 ms
are the potentials at the point C due to the masses For the total potential at the point C we respectively. ..., and therefore
.dS= -
If
we designate the mass enclosed by the surface by 2m, integration over the whole surface gives (c) foV/'dn. dS= - 47r2m. The force
acting in the direction of the normal to the surface S is 'dF'/'dn ; we call 'dF'/'dn. dS the flux of force which passes through the element dS.
Hence
the
the total flux of force
sum of
the
acting
if
passing through a finite closed surface equals masses contained within the surface multiplied
is
by
- 4:ir.
Hence,
is
the entire acting mass
and 'dVfdn
masses
may
given for all points on the surface, the be determined by the help of equation (c).
enclosed by the surface, sum of the
SECT, xiv.]
GAUSS'S THEOREM.
43
The theorem expressed

outside the closed surface.
0' (Fig.
is
in (c) also holds in case the acting mass lies Let the mass m' be situated at the point
25) outside the surface
ABB' A.
If the surface-element do>
taken on the surface of the unit sphere described about 0' as centre, the straight lines drawn from 0' through the boundary of this
surface-element
mark out on the
closed surface the surface-elements
AB and A'ff directed outward from the closed surface be n and n' respectively, and let the forces 'dF'/'dn and 'dF'/'dn' act in the direction of these normals. AB = dS
and A'B' = dS'. Let the normals to
The
line
in these expressions represents the potential
due to
m'.
If
the angles
made by
drawn
set
the normals directed outward and the straight from 0' are designated by 6 and 6' respectively, and if
we
-dF'fdn
0'A=r, 0'A' = r', we then obtain = m'/r 2 cos (a- - 9) 'dF'/^n' = m'/r' 2
.
cos
.
(a-
- 6'),
dS
and therefore
cos
(TT
- 6) = r2 du
dS' cos 6'
= r' 2
du,
Wpn.dS + W/dri .dS' = 0.
We
therefore have (d)
\?)V'/'dn.dS=Q, if the integral is extended over the whole surface. The flux of force proceeding from a point outside a closed surface, and Therefore the value of the passing through the surface, is equal to zero.
integral
is
then, generally, (e) foF'fdn.dS** -4-jrM, where S the potential, n the normal directed outward,
independent of the mass outside the surface. We have is a closed surface,
and
is
M the
sum
of
all
the masses within the surface.
This theorem
Equation
(e)
may
be put into another form.

. .
We
.
due to Gauss. have

dz/dn,
3 Ffdn = 3 Vfdx dx/dn + 3 F/^ dy/dn + 3 V\"bz

and dx/dn =
A,
dyjdn = p, dzldn = v, where A, /*, and v are the cosines of the angles which the normal to the surface makes with the axes. We have then 3F/3tt = \X + ^Y+ vZ. X, Y, and Z are the comforce,
(f)
ponents of the
Gauss's theorem
and /
is
set equal to
1.
We
then obtain from
J(ZX + Yp + Zv)dS=
1-rrM.
Let
x, y,
z (Fig. 26) be the coordinates of the point 0, Ox, Oy,
and Oz
be parallel to the coordinate axes, and 00' be a parallelepiped whose edges are parallel to these axes. Let X, Y, Z be the components of
the force acting at 0. whose coordinates are x
The components of the
force at the point
A,
+ dx,
y, z, will
be
X+VXfdx.dx, Y+'dY/'dx.dx, Z+-dZ/Vx.dx.

apply Gauss's theorem to the surface of this parallelepiped. The force acting normal to the surface OA' is - X, that acting normal In the same way the force acting normal to AO' is +X+~dX/c)x.dx.
We
44
1

BO'
is
[CHAP.
i.
to OB is -Y, and that acting normal to similar statement holds for the z coordinate.
\-dVfdn,
.
We
Y+'dY/'dy.d have therefore

.
dS = Jf J[ - Xdydz + (X+ VX/Vx
dx)dydz]
dy)dzdx]
+ [ - Ydxdz + (Y+ VY/oy
We
/>,
so that
suppose the volume-element 00' to contain the mass M=pdxdydz. We then have from (e)
M of density
(g)
or (h)
On account of the frequent use made of this equation in mathematical physics, we use for the sum of the first derivatives of a function / with respect to the three coordinates the symbol
and
for the
sum
variables the symbol
of the second derivatives with respect to the same V 2/= 32//a 2 + 3 2//c)?/ 2 + 3 2//3 2 With this notation
.
SECT, xiv.]
GAUSS'S THEOREM.
45
equation (h)
equation,
may
be written
first
(i)
V F+ 4ny> = 0.
2
By
the help of this

is
which was
used by Poisson,
If
if
we can determine the

present in
0,
density when the potential is known. the region under consideration, that is,
(k)
no matter
p=
we have
32 r/9a;2 + 32 F/3y2 + 3 2 r/o^ = V 2 r=0.

first
This equation was
derived by Laplace.
It
may
be obtained
more simply
in the following
way.
We
start
from
where
i],
and
are constant, and obtain

)/r,
= - (x 3(l/r)/a*
^(l/r)/^ = -
l/r
+ 3(a? .
Analogous expressions hold for these equations, we have
38(l/r)/8jy2 and 3 2 (l/r)<322

3
2
Adding
= 0.
2
F=2w/r [(b) XII.], this is equivalent to V F=0. equation may also be obtained in the following way. Let the density at the point P be p. Describe a sphere of infinitely small radius R so as to contain the point P, and suppose the density
Since the potential
Poisson's
The potential at sphere to be constant. the point P consists of two parts, Fj and F~a a is due to the mass outside the sphere, and to the mass within the sphere. The
in the interior of the
;
is potential at centre of the sphere,
V=V +V
a
If
is
at the distance
from the
we have from
r2 )
;
(d) XIII.
(k')
F = 2aX#
t
,
V= Va + **p(& - &*)>
.
If
rj,
and
and of
z are the coordinates of the centre of the sphere 2 = - 2+ - r)) 2 + (z - ) 2 (x respectively, we will have r ) (y
x, y,
x,
By
differentiation with respect to
we
obtain
therefore
is
W
(e).
2 = 2(x - ) and 9 2 (r2 )/ae2 = 2, 3(r )/ae = 6, and from equation (k') V*V=V*Va -lvp.
Now Va
the potential due to the mass lying outside of the sphere, and therefore V 2 F"a = and V 2 F+47r/a = 0. This is Poisson's equation. In the parts of the region where p is infinitely great, Poisson's
we return to the fundamental mass be distributed on a surface S with surface density a-. Draw the normals v and va to the element dS on both sides of the surface, and construct right cylinders on
equation loses
its
meaning.
In this case
let a
equation
For example,
both sides of the surface on dS as base, and with the heights dv and dva the linear elements of these cylinders are lines of force. By
;
applying equation
(e)
to the
volume included
in the cylinders,
we
46
obtain

?>V^v
i
.
[CHAP.
i.
dS+'dFJ'dva
dS= -4WS, where V and

t
Va represent
Hence
the values of the potential on both sides of the surface.

(1)
3r/3v, + ^Val^va +
lira-
= 0.
This equation finds an application in the theory of electricity. Comparing formulas (e) and (h), and noticing that ^^pdxdydz,
M=
obtain the relation (m) \\\V z Vdxdydz = Jf3F/3. dS. The triple integral in (m) must be extended over the volume bounded by the
we
surface S,
may
also be proved
and the double integral over the surface by integration by parts.
S.
This theorem
SECTION XV.
EXAMPLES OF THE APPLICATION OF LAPLACE'S AND

POISSON'S EQUATIONS.
at the point x, yt z is a function of the three The potential coordinates, and, from the previous discussion, has the form
(a)
V= Mpd&vdt/J(z - & + (y- ^ + (* rj,
2
>
where the density p at the point (,

coordinates.
is
a function of the
We
may, however, use the
differential equation (b)
V2 F+47r/> =
as the starting point for the determination of the potential; we thus often obtain the desired result by a more convenient method.
The density p must be given

integral of (b)
is
as
a function of
(a),
x,
y,
and
z.
The
always given by
but
may
often be found
more conveniently by
direct integration of Poisson's equation.
In the solution of problems in potential, special attention must be paid to the boundary conditions which serve to determine the functions
which are obtained by integration. shall investigate the equations of condition to which the potential V within a closed surface S and the potential a outside that surface must conform, if the surface S
t
We
all the masses which are present in the field, and if no present outside the surface. Applying Poisson's equation to the region enclosed by #, we have (c) V2 J^ + 47r/> = 0. Outside 2 the surface S we have (d) F"a = 0.
encloses
mass
is
If
is
any point within

have,
S,
P
S.
a,
point outside S, and
if
we
set
OP = r, we
when
r is very great, (e)
Fa = M/r.
<x>,
M represents
approaches
the whole mass enclosed
F=
tt
by
Hence, for r =
is,
the potential
and
(f)
lim(rFa ) r=00
the finite limit
=M,
that
the product
rVa
if
the point
moves
off to infinity.
SECT, xv.]
LAPLACE'S
and
AND
POISSON'S EQUATIONS.
lie
47
other
If
P2
are
two points which

for all points
infinitely near each
on
different sides of the surface S, the potentials at both points are
equal,
and we have
on the surface
S, (g)
dash drawn over
V is
it
used to denote the value of
V = Fa The V at the surface.

i
.
From
where
finite.
o-
(1)
XIV.
follows further that for the points on the surface

i
= 0, we
have (h) 'dF /'dv = 'dFa /?)v, where the normal to
is
designated by v
It is here
= -
va
The
is
potential
is
therefore everywhere
assumed that p
everywhere
finite.
For the places
other equations of condition, which may For example, if o- is readily be derived from those already given. the surface density on a surface S, in which, therefore, p is infinitely = Q for all other points in the region, then, in our great, and if p
so
where p =
we
obtain
former notation, we have

(i)
Vi=V
By
V 2 F"j =
t
and
V 2 F" = 0,
tt
but
l'dv
+ Wjdva +4:ira- = Q
for all points
on the surface
S.
these equations we may determine the potential if the density Outside the sphere p is constant. p within a sphere of radius is supposed to be zero. The potential within the sphere is and
t,
outside
of
it
Fa
We
have then
W, +
.
4ir/o
= 0, V 2 F = 0.
ft
.
Now
we have
= dFfdr 'dF/'dx
.
x/r,
.
2 2 &Ffda? = d*Fjdr* x /r + dFjdr
1/r
2 -dF/dr x /^.
Similar equations hold for the derivatives of with respect to y and z. thus obtain V 2 F=d?F/dr 2 + 2/r dFjdr. Since, however,
We
(1)
d(r F){dr
= rd F/dr + V and d2 (rF)/dr2 = rd 2 F/dr 2 + 2d F/dr,
we have
The
(m)
V F= 1/r
2
d2 (rF)/dr2
i
differential equations
t
which
l-rpr
and
d 2 (rF )ldr2 +
these
= 0,
Fa must satisfy d 2 (r Fa )/dr* = 0.
are therefore
From
For
r
we
it
obtain
by integration
= ao
is
assumed that
0,
Fa = 0,
so that
(7
cannot become infinite for r =
we have
Fa = Cl '/r. = 0, and hence
Since
Since
since,
the
force
is
therefore,
for
a continuous function of the coordinates, arid all points on the surface, dF /dr = dFJdr, we
i
will also have,
when
= B,
therefore
(n)
Fa =
(c)
irE sp/r.
^TrpR Since
= C '/R2
l
F" 4
=F
2
Hence C^^-n-pB3
and
have
a 2
when
).
= R, we
C=27rR2p, and
the same as
therefore (o)
F^^^R -^-
These formulas are
and
(d) XIII.
48
[CHAP.
i.
If the potential depends on the distance of the point under consideration from a straight line, we choose this line as the -axis of a system of rectangular coordinates. Let the distance from the
2-axis
of the
be
r.
We
have then
point for which the potential r~ = x 2 + y-, and further
is
to
be determined
x*/r
dtF/dr*
+ l/r dFfdr - x2/^

.
dF/dr,
etc.
Therefore
(p)
^Y^^YI^ + ijr
we
are
dp/fir =
i IT
d(rdF/dr)/dr.
If
radius
z-axis,
(r)
dealing with an infinitely long circular cylinder of and surface-density a-, the axis of which is taken as the
(q)
we have
Vs F = F =FM
i
t
and
V 2 F" = 0,
(q) that
while for r
47ro-.
= R we have
d FJdr - dFt/dr = (p)
It follows
from equations
and
d(rdFt/dr)/dr
= Q and
l
d(rdf a/dr)ldr =
r
0.
Hence
i
dF /dr=C /r
t
and and
dFa /dr = C2/r,
r = (7 logr+(7
1
'
Fa =C
\ogr+C2
GI
must be equal
cylinder.
to zero,
since
for
of the
Further,
no force acts at points in the axis r = R, we have C^ = C.2 log E + C2

.
From
equation
(r)
we have C2 =
-47rKo-,
and therefore
V. =
C2 - lirRo- log R;
Fa = C
iirRo- log r.
These equations are the same as those given in (m) XIII.
SECTION XVI.
ACTION AND REACTION. ON THE MOLECULAR AND ATOMIC STRUCTURE OF BODIES.
In our discussions up to this point we have considered the motion of a body under the action of given forces ; but nothing has yet been said as to the origin of these forces. body upon which no
forces act
line
moves forward, by the
with a uniform velocity.
principle of inertia, in a straight change in the motion can arise
We learn from experience that the motion only from outside causes. of one body in the presence of another undergoes a change, and we are therefore led to assume that in the mutual action of these bodies
is
to be found the reason
for the
change of motion.
We
will first
consider the mutual action of

of investigating the
two
bodies.
We
thus obtain the means
more general
case in
which three or more bodies
SECT, xvi.]
ACTION AND REACTION.

The mutual
action
49
act on one another.
may
be of different kinds.
If
two bodies
collide their
motion changes.
when
the bodies slide over each other.
similar change occurs In both cases the bodies
are at least momentarily in contact. Bodies also act on each other without contact; thus, for example, a magnet attracts a piece of The iron, or a piece of amber when rubbed attracts a feather.
first
at a distance
serious eifort to explain these mutual actions or so-called actions was made by Descartes. His explanation was based
on the assumption that all space is filled with very small particles in motion, and that all observed motions of bodies are due to collisions between them and these invisible particles. Hence the discovery of the laws of collision became one of the most important tasks in the study of physics. Descartes investigated this question, but without success. It was not until the close of the 17th century that Huygens, Wallis, and Wren contemporaneously succeeded in solving it. A sphere in motion can set in motion a
sphere at rest; the moving sphere, therefore, possesses energy of itself. Let the collision be central, that is, let the direction of motion
An iron coincide with the line joining the centres of the spheres. sphere produces a greater effect on the sphere at rest than a wooden
large spheres
Of two equally sphere of equal size moving with the same velocity. whose mass is the same, the one produces the greater effect which has the greater velocity. Hence the force which the
moving sphere possesses increases with its mass and with its velocity The product of the mass and the velocity gives a measure jointly. for the force residing in the body, and is called its momentum, or
quantity of motion.
The principal result which Huygens, Wallis, and others obtained was the following If two bodies collide, they undergo changes of momentum which are equally great and in opposite directions, or, they act on each other with equal but oppositely directed forces. The action and reaction are therefore equal and oppositely directed. This is one of the most important laws of natural philosophy, and we will discuss the grounds upon which it is founded. It was without its thereby first derived from observations on collision, becoming apparent how far it holds for other interactions between Xewton first recognized in this law a universal law of bodies. nature, which always applies when bodies act on one another. By
:
careful investigation of the collisions of different bodies (steel, glass,
wool, cork) he found that the action and reaction are equal, if allowance is made for the resistance of the air. In order to examine
50
GENEKAL THEORY OF MOTION.
[CHAP.
i.
whether the same law holds for actions at a distance, he mounted

a magnet and a piece of iron on corks and floated them on water. The iron and the magnet approached each other and remained at
rest after they
had come
in contact,
so
that
the forces
by which
the iron and the magnet were mutually attracted were oppositely He showed further by the following argument directed, and equal.
that
action
:
repulsion
If
and reaction are equal in the case of attraction or two bodies acting on each other are rigidly connected,
if
they should both move in the direction of the greater force
action
and reaction were not equal

inertia.
this
would contradict the
principle of
Since Newton's time this law has been established in many ways, and many discoveries in physics have furnished proofs of its correctIt has led in many cases to new discoveries, and there is no ness. longer any doubt of its universal applicability. The simplest conception of the structure of bodies is that, according to which bodies are composed of discrete particles, for whose mutual action the law of action and reaction holds. Starting from this
view, Newton calculated the action of gravity. Gravity is a function of distance alone ; its value is therefore the same so long as the distance is unchanged. This conception of the structure of bodies
has led to important results in other branches of physics.

are,
There
seems inadequate. Chemistry teaches that bodies are composed of molecules, which themselves may be groups of smaller particles or atoms. These molecules have
however,
many
cases in which
it
certainly a very complex structure, and the mutual actions among them, especially if the distances between them are great in comparison with their size, must therefore be of a very complicated nature. As
yet
we
we have little knowledge on this subject. In what follows will confine ourselves to the treatment of the motions of particles
acting on each other with forces which are functions only of the distances between them.
SECTION XVII.
THE CENTRE OF GRAVITY.
Gravity acts on all parts of a body; the forces thus arising may be considered parallel for all parts of the same body. The action
of gravity on all the particles of a body may be combined in a resultant whose point of application is at the centre of gravity. If the centre of gravity is rigidly connected with the body and rests
SECT. XVII.]
51
on a support, the body
Since is in equilibrium in any position. gravity is proportional to the mass, the centre of gravity coincides with the centre of mass. The resultant applied at the centre of gravity is the weight of the body. The straight lever is in equilibrium if there
applied to its centre of gravity a force equal to its weight and acting in the opposite direction ; the particles on the one side of the centre of gravity tend by their weight to produce rotation in one sense which is equal to that produced in the opposite sense by
is
the particles on the other side. Let the masses ra x and whose velocities are represented by A' 2 and BB' (Fig. 27), be situated at the points and B. Let the point
A
2
C be so determined on the line joining The point C is then .called the centre
and
that
m AC = m. BC.
l
of gravity of the
two masses
and
m2
If the
point C'
is
so determined
m2 B'C', we may
on the line joining consider CC' the velocity of
FIG. 28.
tJie
centre of gravity.
If
AD
and
BE
of the mass m l may and DA', and similarly the velocity BB' may be resolved into the components BE and EB'. Now, since ml /m.2 = BC/AC=B'C'/A'C', the triangles A'CfD and B'C'E are similar, the sides A'D and B'E are = B'EIA'D^ The velocities of the masses parallel, and hence m l /m 2
the velocity
AA
are equal and parallel to CO', be resolved into the components
AD
may
be considered as compounded of the velocity of the

,
common
centre
of gravity and two velocities vl and v2 which are parallel to each other and inversely proportional to the masses ; so that
therefore, oa
m-^
If,
masses
parts ac
oc
and ob (Fig. 28) represent the velocities of the and m 2 and if ab is divided by the point c into the and be, which are inversely proportional to the masses, then
,
represents the velocity of the centre of gravity, and ca and cb
52
[CHAP.
i.
represent the velocities of the masses m l and m.2 relative to the centre It is convenient to resolve the velocity in this way, of gravity.
because the velocity of the centre of gravity

forces only.
is
changed by external
Fig. 28 the
momenta are resolved and compounded like forces, then from momentum of the centre of gravity, in which we may consider both masses united, equals the resultant of the momenta of the The momentum ml .oa may be resolved separate masses m l and m 2
If
.
into
m 1 oc + m1 c,
m.ycb
the
momentum
m ob
2
into
m 2 oc + m 2 cb.
and
are equal but opposite in direction. the resultant momentum m^c + m.2 oc = (ml + 2 )oc.
Now, m^ca Hence we have for
velocity of the centre of gravity remains unchanged if the act on each other according to the law of action bodies m^ and 2
The
and
reaction.
In this case both bodies receive momenta which are
This equal but oppositely directed, and which annul each other. may be derived analytically in the following way. If xl and x2 are the coordinates of the particles m^ and m.2 the line joining which is
result
,
the ,r-components of the forces with which the masses act on each other are X^ and X>, the equations of motion
taken for the

are (a)
(b)
a-axis,
and
if
m x =X
1
and
d*(m l x l
+m<p2 )/dt- = Xl + X2
m^cz =
X
.
Since
Adding these and l
equations,
we have
from the
arise
in direction,
(c)
mutual action of the masses on each other, they are equal but opposite and hence + 2 = Q. Setting l
X X
mfa + mjK2 = (TWj + ro 2 ),
Const. we have Hence the point 0, ^-coordinate moves with the constant velocity because of the centre of gravity is 1 (.r 1
,
by the The .r-coordinate = w ( - x 2 ). Differ)

determined
.
entiating equation (c) with respect to
t,
we have
That is, the momentum of the centre of gravity equals the sum of the momenta of the separate masses. By Newton's law of universal attraction two masses m l and m.2 2 act on each other with a force -fm^m^f where r is the distance between the two masses. Their motion may be determined in the The velocity of the centre of gravity and the following way.
,
velocities of the
mined from the

with
masses relative to the centre of gravity are deterThese act on each other velocities of the masses.
forces directed toward the centre of gravity, and we can If 1\ is the distance therefore consider this as the attracting point. of the mass m^ from the centre of gravity, then m 1 rl = 2 (r-r1 ), and
SECT, xvii.]

m.2 r =
53
therefore
(m 1 + m.2 )rl
By
substitution of this value of r
%
on
obtain for the force the expression fm l m.2A l(m l + therefore moves round the centre of gravity as
it
w2
) 2ri
2
-
we The mass
were due to a mass
M =m
l
3
2
j(ml
+ m.- ) 2
>
if the force acting situated at that point.
SECTION XVIII.
MATERIAL SYSTEM.
We
of the
will
now
act on each other with forces
consider a system of separate masses in vacuo, which which are functions of the distances
masses from each other, and obey the law of action and The forces which act in such a way within the system are called internal forces. External forces, proceeding from bodies
reaction.
which do not belong

are designated
to the system,
by %,
m2 m
,
3 , etc.,
may also act on it. The masses and the positions of the masses are
determined by the coordinates x, y, z, with appropriate indices. We may determine the position of the system by supposing each mass to be made up of different numbers of units of mass ; the mean
values
(a)
, ,
y,
of the
x-,
y-,
^-coordinates will then be

...)/(m l
= (mft + m^ + m yx3 +
-i],
+ m2 +
...).
etc.
masses.
time
t,
are the coordinates of the centre of gravity of the system of If the equation (a) is differentiated with respect to the it appears that the velocity of the centre of gravity depends
velocities of the particles.
on the
(b)
That
)/(/,
is,
= (m^ + m^c2 + m^bs +
. . .
+ m2 + m 3 +
...
),
etc.
internal forces cannot change the motion of the centre of gravity, since by the law of
The
action and reaction
two masses impart
to each
a,
other equal and opposite momenta, the sum of whose projections on any axis is equal to
zero.
This result
may be
represented geometrically
From any point in the following way. (Fig. 29) draw the lines Oa, Ob, Oc, etc., which represent the velocities of the masses
m v m2 m3
,
etc.
Then
if
the masses
mv mv m
s,
etc.,
are placed
at the points a, b, c, etc., respectively, and if is the centre of gravity of the masses, Op centre of gravity.
is
the velocity of the
54
[CHAP.
i.
must know the separate
In order to determine the motion of the separate particles we If the comforces which act on them.
by
ponents of the external forces acting on the mass ma are designated M Ya, Za if Fab is the force with which ma is attracted by
mM
and
if r,^ is
the distance between
rn a
and
b,
the ,r-component
of the forces acting on
ma
is
X +F
a
ab
.(xa
-xb )/rab + Fac (x -x )lrae +....

<l
We
(c)
obtain similar expressions for

.
Since
m m etc. Hence we have etc. mâ = Xa + F^ (xa - x )/rab + FM (xa - x )/rM + F = F we have by the law of action and reaction Fn6 = F
b, c,
b
.
. . .
ba ,
ac
ca ,
\
If
we now
introduce the coordinates of the centre of gravity,

(a),
we
have, using equation
This equation contains the law of the motion of the centre of gravity, which may be thus stated The centre of gravity of a system of masses moves like a material point in which all the masses of the system are
:
united,
and
at which all the forces are applied.
The momentum of the whole system is compounded of the momenta of the separate masses. From a point (Fig. 30) draw
OA = mava
va .
parallel to the direction of the velocity
2?/
= m b rb In the same way draw v e c, etc. Taking account of all particles we reach a point D. The line OD then represents the
,
AB
BC=m
momentum
of the system.
jections of the
momenta on
The sums of the prothe coordinate axes are
By
equation (b) these sums equal the components In of the momentum of the centre of gravity.
the time-element dt the motions of the separate masses are changed by the forces which act on
them; nevertheless, the
internal
forces
do not
change the momentum, since the resultant of the momenta which these forces occasion is zero, by the law of action
and
On the other hand, changes of momentum are occareaction. force sioned by the action of the external forces. produces .dt in the time dt. If all the momenta which the momentum
the external forces produce are determined in this way, and com-
SECT, xviii.]
A MATERIAL SYSTEM.
momentum
is
55
obtained.
:
bined with those originally given, the actual This also appears from equation (d), which
(f )
Sir
may be thus written xa + m bxb + m,xe +...) = (Xa + Xb + X +. ..)dt. d(ma William Rowan Hamilton introduced the word vector to reprec
sent magnitudes which have direction, and which

like
may
be compounded
The sum of vectors is called motions, velocities, forces, etc. their resultant. If we consider momentum and force as vectors, the
increase of the
momentum which
a system receives in the time dt
equals the product of the resultant of the external forces and the time dt. Since the momentum of the system equals the momentum
of the centre of gravity, the law just stated holds also for this latter.
SECTION XIX.
If the
MOMENT OF MOMENTUM.
mass
at the point
v,
(Fig. 31)
is
moves
If
in the direction
is
AB
^
with the velocity

fixed point,
its
momentum
mi:
an arbitrary
and 00 =p a line perpendicular to AB, the product mvp is called the moment of momentum with respect to 0. The value of the moment depends on the position of the point 0. If we erect a perpendicular on the plane deterand AB, and lay off on it from mined by
a length proportional to mvp, the vector determined in this way is called the moment of
momentum.
that
if
This vector
is
to be so constructed
;
it points in the direction of the thumb, the right hand points in the direction OC, and the palm is turned toward the direction of the force.
In the same
way
the vectors corresponding to
all
parts of the
system can be determined, and compounded by the method given If neither external nor internal forces act on the parts in Fig 30.
of the system,
invariable,
the
moment
of
momentum
of the entire system
is
The separate moments remain invariable. moment of momentum of the system is also not changed by the and action of internal forces. If, for example, (Fig. 32) are
since
the
the points occupied by two masses m^ and m^ which repel each receives in the time dt the momentum other with the force K, then K.dt in the direction A', and B receives the same momentum in
the opposite direction.
The moments of momentum
of
and
56

On
the other hand, the
[CHAP.
i.
annul each other.
moment
of
momentum
of the system will in general be changed by external forces, but it will remain constant in case the directions of all the external forces
always pass through the fixed point

Hence,
of
the
if
0.
the
external forces
moments of momentum and the moments of the are considered as vectors, the increment of the moment
forces multiplied
momentum
of the system in the time dt equals the resultant of
moments of the external
by
dt.
X
FIG. 32.
FIG. 33.
This
may
AB
x and
AC=y
be represented analytically in the following way. Let be the velocity components of the particle
(Fig. 33).
moving mass from the x-axis is y, and from the ?/-axis is x. Hence the moments of momentum with respect to the -axis are mxy and myx. These being oppositely
situated at
The
distance of the
directed, their difference
mxy -myx
is
the
moment
of
momentum
of
with respect to the z-axis. This moment receives in the time dt the increment md(xy - yx) = m(xy - yx)dt. Hence we have
(a)
2m(a#
is,
- yx) = 2(zF- yX), or

which
the
(b)
d2m(xy - yd) = dfS,(xY- yX),
that
the increment
receives in the time dt is equal
of the external forces about the
moment of momentum about any axis to the pi'oduct of the sum of the moments same axis and the time-element dt.
SECTION XX.
If a particle
is
/nfl
THE ENERGY OF A SYSTEM OF MASSES.
moves with a velocity v = ds/dt, its kinetic energy 2 = Since ds 2 = dx* + df + dz 2 this may ws2 [V.] be written %mv z = \m(xl + y2 + 22 ). The kinetic energy of the system
m(<fe/<ft)
SECT, xx.]
ENERGY OF SYSTEM OF MASSES.
57
is determined from the velocities of the separate particles of the 2 z = If x y, z are the system. It is expressed by T % *2m(x* + y + z ). the coordinates of the centre of coordinates of a particle, and rj,
.
gravity, the coordinates = of gravity are x
x',
of the particle with respect to the centre =z y ri = y', z Using these new
1 .
coordinates,
we
Swfce2
obtain
From XVIII.
= 2m( + x)' = 22m + Zmx' 2 + 22m', etc. = 0, if the centre of (a) we may set ^mx'
2
gravity
is
chosen as the origin of coordinates.
Then
2
).
.
T= \
The
(+ if +
2 )
.
2m + 1 ^m(x"1 + y"2 + z
sum
kinetic energy of the system is equal to the
of the kinetic energy
of the masses due to the motion of the centre of gravity, and the kinetic energy of the masses due to their motion relative to the centre of gravity. The increment of the kinetic energy of the system in the time-
element dt equals the work done by the forces during that time. This is divisible into two parts, that of the external and that of
If we designate the components of the motion of a particle parallel to the axes by dx, dy, dz, the work done by the external forces is ^(Xdx+Ydy + Zdz).
the internal forces.
If
is
the distance between two particles and the repulsive force
between them, the work done by the internal forces is *2.Fdr. If the force with Hence we have dT=^(Xdx+Ydy + Zdz) + ^Fdr. which the masses act on each other is a function of the distance r = d^, where ^ is a function of r only. Now only, we can set Fdr = setting ^d$ dU, we have finally
acts
(d )
dT = 2 (Xdx + Ydy + Zdz) + d U.
depends only on the distance between the particles or on the configuration of the system. is the potential of the system on itself or the internal potential energy of the system. Further, U is
The function
work which would be done by the internal forces if the particles were to move from their positions at any instant into other positions
the
in
which their mutual actions are

If,
zero.
for example, the given
masses act on each other according to

2
,
Newton's law, we have
F= -fm m /r'
l
2
2
and therefore
Fdr= -fm m 2dr/r'

l
= +fd(m l m2 /r).
we have
If several masses
,
mv
m.2
m3
...
...
are present, whose distances from
each other are r12 r13 , r23,

(e)
respectively,
1
d U =.fd(m l m 2 lrl2 + w
8 /r I8
+ m2m3 /r23 +...).
58
[CHAP.
i..
If the system passes from one configuration to another, the work done by the internal forces is determined only by the initial and final positions of the particles, and does not depend on the paths traversed by them. If no external forces act on the system, we have
(f)
clT= dU or
T- T = U- U
we may
set
Now, from the
discussion in VII.,
is,
E/"
= 0, and
so obtain
T=U+T
original
forces.
that
the kinetic
kinetic energy T In case of a change in the relative positions of the particles, supposing no external forces to act, a transformation of the one
energy of the system equals the increased by the work U done by the
form of energy into the other occurs without causing a change in the total energy of the system, that is, the sum of the kinetic and
potential energies of such a system is constant.
SECTION XXI.
CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM.
RIGID BODIES.
We
also
If the
now consider the conditions of equilibrium of a system. positions of the separate masses at a definite instant, and the internal and external forces are given, the system is in
will
resultant of all the forces acting on each If the internal forces are in equilibrium, no change occurs in the motion of the system, so long as no external forces
equilibrium,
particle
is
when the
zero.
act on
it.
but
it is
also possible that
External forces will as a rule set the system in motion they will not change the equilibrium of
;
'
the system as a whole even if its separate parts are set in motion. If the resultant of the external forces is zero, the motion of the
centre of gravity remains unchanged [XVIII. ] ; so that, for example, But even if the centre of gravity, is at rest, it remains at rest. when this is the case, the external forces may set the separate
masses in motion
the relative positions
of the
particles
may
be
The conchanged, and changes of form or rotations may occur. ditions for such changes are developed in the theory of elasticity and in hydrodynamics. At present we will consider only the
behaviour of rigid bodies. The particles of such bodies are so conditioned that the distances
If the positions of three between them are constant or nearly so. particles of the body are given, the positions of all the other particles If the are also given, and the position of the body is determined.
SECT. XXI.]
body (Fig. 34) is moved from its position so that the points A, B, C are brought to the points A', B', C' respectively, it can be brought back to its original position by a series of simple operations. The body may first be displaced parallel with itself through the distance
A' coincides with A, and the points B' and c. C'c, B'b, and A' A are equal and parallel. The body may then be turned about an axis passing through A, perpendicular to the plane determined by BA and
AA',
C' are
so that the point brought to b and
bA, through the angle coincides with B and

c'.
BA
c is
>,
so that b
c' may be made to coincide The motion of the body is thus reduced to a translation and two
axis
By AB,
brought to a second rotation about the
with C.
A rigid body, therefore, rotations. cannot be moved, if it can neither be displaced nor rotated.
In order that a body acted on
by
FIG. 34.
external forces shall be in equilibrium, its centre of gravity must remain at

rest.
is
The necessary condition
for this
is
that the resultant of the external forces

axis.
zero.
It
must also
have no rotation about any

receive a certain
If such rotations exist, its particles
the axis.
momentum, which has a moment with respect to moment is positive, because the parts of the body all move in the same sense, and, therefore, the momenta of the separate particles have the same sign, the sum of the momenta can vanish only when each one of them is separately zero. Now the sum of the moments of momentum is [XIX.] equal to the product of the moment of force and the time Hence it is required for equilibrium during which the force acts. that the forces which act on the body have no moment with respect
Since each of the elements in this
to the axis.
This must hold for each axis about which the body
can turn.
of
Now, if the moment of the forces equals zero, the sum the moments of momentum equals zero, therefore the moment of
of each particle equals zero; that is, each particle is in Furthermore, since moments can be compounded like
will exist if the
momentum
equilibrium.
forces, equilibrium
moments with
respect to three
arbitrary axes are zero.
60

ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY.
[CHAP.
i.
SECTION XXII.
Let a
solid
THE PENDULUM.
axis,
body revolve around an invariable
which
is
chosen
as the 0-axis of a system of rectangular coordinates. Let the angular If r represents the distance of any particle velocity of the body be w. from the 2-axis, the velocity of this particle is ro> and its kinetic
energy ^mr-wr. kinetic energy
Since
tu
has the same value for

.
all
particles,
is
;
the
moment
T equals T=W2 2mr 2 The factor 2mr2 of inertia J of the body with respect to the 3-axis
is
called the
the
moment
equal to the sum of the products of the particles into the squares of their respective distances from the 0-axis. Hence we have T=\(-J, that is, the kinetic energy of a rotating body is equal to
of inertia
its
tJie square of its angular velocity. 2 = K'2 -m. This found, such that length is called the radius of gyration of the body. It is the distance from the axis at which a mass equal to the mass of the body would
moment of
length
inertia multiplied by half
may always be
2w
have the same moment of inertia with respect to the axis as that
of the body. If the only external forces which act on the body pass through the axis, the work done by them is zero, since the axis does not
move.
and therefore
Since the internal forces also do no Avork, the kinetic energy also the angular velocity o> must remain constant.
Since [XVIII.] the centre of gravity moves as if the resultant of all the forces acted on the mass of the body concentrated at the centre
of gravity, this resultant R can be determined. If we represent the distance OP (Fig. 35) of the centre of gravity from the r-axis
by
a,
we have
[IV. (b)]
E = ^ma-(a-/a = ^mao)-.
forces applied to the
is
the resultant
of the forces with which the body acts on the axis of rotation. In general, the
body so
act
that
they have no resultant; they tend only In to produce rotation about the axis.
order to determine them, the theorem in
XIX. concerning moments

must be used.
If external forces act
of
momentum
its
on the body,
The amount angular velocity changes. of this change is determined from XIX.
The momentum of a particle m is represented by mro>, and its moment of momentum by mrtar. Hence the moment for all particles If the moment of the forces with respect of the body is <o2wr 2 = wJ.
SKCT. xxii.]
ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY.

is
61
to the i-axis
represented by M,
we
is
have, from XIX., d(<oj)
= Melt
or
(c)
If,
Jdwfdt =
for
M.
example, the
moment
constant,
the
angular velocity
increases in direct ratio with the time.

If the
moment
is
due to gravity, the body under certain conditions
performs
suppose the a-axis taken parallel to the direction of gravity and represent the force of gravity by g. The position of the centre of gravity (Fig. 35) is determined by the
oscillations.
We
angle
POX=Q
-/;
and the angular velocity

s-axis
is
o>
by dS = <adt. The moment of
force with respect to the
(m^ + rn.^ +...)#=

2m
(c)
where
is
sum
of
all
the y-coordinate of the centre of gravity. the masses. Since t] = a sin 0, we have from
-?/. g?m, denotes the
/.
If
- a sin
g~2m.
is
very small, so that we
may
set sin
9 = 9,
this
becomes
(d)
9=
-aeg'Sm/J.
this equation with that given in VIII. (g), we find that = 2m//. The period of oscillation they are identical when we set l/7 of the physical pendulum is therefore (e) t = vxjlfg = irJjjgaSm. Since
Comparing
2 2 J=2m(x- + y + z ), we
get by transferring the origin of the system of coordinates to the centre of gravity (, 77, ), if #', y', z' are the
coordinates with respect to the
(f )
new
origin,
J = 2m{(z' +
Now,
if
)2
+ (y' + ,)2 + (z' + O 2 } = 2ma* + ?m(yf* + y"> + ^\

and 2mtf vanish. 2 2m, where k is the radius of gyration,
since the terms
2w.?', rj^my'
we
set
/= a2 2w + &
(e)
we
obtain from
length
(g)
= irj(a2 + k*)/ga.
We
call
the
reduced
of the pendulum
pendulum.
The point S
or the length of the equivalent simple which is at the extremity of the line OS = l
and P, is called the centre of oscillation. (Fig. 35), drawn through If an axis is passed through S parallel to the -axis, and the body
oscillates
about
it,
the reduced length of the
pendulum
I'
is
Since, however,
l-a = k 2/a, we have
I'
= (a 2 + k2 )/a =
I.
The reduced
length of the pendulum and therefore the time of oscillation are the same for this new axis as for the former one.
CHAPTER
II.
THE THEOEY OF ELASTICITY.

SECTION XXIII.
IF
all
INTERNAL FORCES.
body are in equilibrium and if no tensions or pressures act on them, yet internal forces must be present acting between the separate parts of the body. Every action produces changes of form
parts of a
in the body, and thus develops forces in sense opposite to the external forces.
its interior,
which act in a
These internal forces con-
dition the nature of the body, determining, for example, the difference between solids and fluids. No sharp distinction can be drawn, how-
between these two classes of bodies. Viscous fluids and jellywhich seem to be transition forms between true solids and fluids. If a pressure acts on the surface of a fluid, it must be equally great on equal areas of the surface at all points, and it must be
ever,
like solids are bodies
perpendicular to the surface, if the fluid This pressure is exerted throughout the
is
to be in equilibrium. whole mass all equal

;
surface-elements at a point are subjected to equal pressures, which call such a are always perpendicular to the surface-elements.
We
similar pressure may also be present pressure hydrostatic pressure. in solids. If a solid, a piece of glass, for example, which fills the volume enclosed by its external surface, is immersed in a fluid on
which a pressure
is
exerted, the same pressure exists at every point

is
The pressure in the surface of the glass as in the fluid. the same, and perpendicular to the surface-elements.
everywhere
there-
We may
fore speak of hydrostatic pressure in solids also. Yet, in general, internal forces in solids are very different Let a cylindrical rod be fastened at one end, those in fluids.
let the force
from
and
V be
applied at the other end so as to lengthen the

62
CH.
II.
SECT. XXIII.]
INTERNAL FORCES.
63
rod. In a cross section perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder the internal forces are everywhere equal. Let the area of the cross section be (Fig. 36), then the force V\A acts on unit of area in A.
This quotient represents the stress S in the rod. If another plane cross section B is taken in the rod, which makes the angle with A, the force & acts
<
on each unit of area of B, so that
&
and hence
(a)
AJ
*b
^4
=o
Jj
cos
<PJ
no longer perpendicular to the surface B on which it acts ; its magnitude decreases with cos <f> and vanishes for
stress S' is
<
S' = Scos<J>.
The
= |TT.
parallel to its axis is therefore subjected
surface-element within the cylinder and neither to
pressure nor to tension ; this conclusion holds for an element of the surface of the cylinder. may
We
resolve
is
S'
into
tangent, and the other,
two components, one of which, N, normal to B, and have
T,
(b)
N=Scos-<f),
T = S cos
<f>
sin
<J>.
If internal forces of this type exist within a body, we call the stresses In the direction of the axis the stress is S; a unit of surface axial.
whose normal makes the angle

force
<
with the axis
is
acted on by a
S cos
<
in the direction of the axis.
We will consider a rectangular parallelepiped (Fig. 37), of which the lines OA, OB, and OC are adjacent edges. The stresses which act on each unit of area of the faces
which are perpendicular to OA, OB, and
OC
are
Sa S
,
b,
respectively.
If the
normal to an arbitrarily situated unit

of surface
/ makes
the angles
a,
(3,
y,
with the edges OA, OB,

the force acting on / of the forces Sa cos a,
OC
is
respectively, the resultant
which are parallel

spectively. If
the
Sb cos /3, Sc cos y, to OA, OB, OC restresses Sa Sb Sc

,
/
&/ cos 2 a + cos L'/3 + cos'-'y = S.
have the same value
S, this
resultant
is
Hence three equal
stresses
cause a hydrostatic stress, whatever may be the position of the surface.

of this stress are
which are perpendicular to each other since their resultant has the same value
Since the components
y, it is
S cos a, S cos ft, and S cos
perpendicular to
the unit area
/.
64

On
the other hand, if
[CHAP n.
is,
Sc =
and Sa = Sb = S, that
if
two
stresses
act at right angles to each other, while the stress perpendicular to them both is zero, the components in the directions OA, OB, OC
respectively are
S cos
a,
S cos /3, + cos

2
0.
Hence the
force acting
y,
on /
is
Sj
and
is
cos-a
= &Jl - cos-y = S sin /?
perpendicular to OC.
equatorial.
be called
Such a state of The plane which contains
every plane parallel to both these lines, The same stress S acts on each unit area perpendicular to If the normal to the surface / makes the angle the equatorial plane.
plane.
(f)
body may and OB, or rather, may be called an equatorial
stress in a
OA
with the equatorial plane, the stress on
it is
proportional to cos <.
SECTION XXIV.
Let the surface
B.
is
COMPONENTS OF STRESS.
body into two parts, A and which touches the element dF of the surface F removed, a force must act on dF to keep B in equilibrium. This
(Fig. 38) divide a
If the portion of
force
SdF
is
The not, as a rule, perpendicular to the element dF. forces acting at the various points of are, in general, different.
If the
force
tends to
move
the
element
pied
dF
by
into the space occuB, it is called a pressure

if it
on the surface dF;
tends to
into
move
the
element
dF
the
space occupied by A, a tension. In all cases

force
it is
called
we
call
the
a
stress;
if this acts as
a positive stress, if as a pressure, it is a negative stress. If the part of B which touches

tension,
it is
dF
FIG. 38.
is
removed, then to maintain

in
equilibrium
force
SdF
and
must act on dF,
since action
reaction are equal Hence both forces which act on an element of surface within a body are equal, but oppositely directed. It is characteristic of a stress that it may be looked on as made up of
two equal and opposite
forces.
SECT, xxiv.]
COMPONENTS OF
dF
remains in
STRESS.
65
If the surface-element
but
is
turned about one of
its points,
corresponds to every one of its stress may be zero. When the body in which the surface is drawn is a fluid, the stress is independent of the position of the surface.
its original place in the body, a particular value of the stress positions; for special positions the
We
assume
in
in the
stresses
the
surface-elements,
body a system of rectangular coordinates. The which are perpendicular to the
directions of the axes, are determined
Let the surface-element
dF = dy
dz.
by their components. be perpendicular to the z-axis, and let If that part of the body is removed which lies on
dF
the positive side of the surface-element dydz, the positive side being determined by the positive direction of the z-axis, then, to maintain The equilibrium, a force Sdydz must act on the surface dydz.
force
AS'
is
resolved
into
the
components
Xa Ya
Z^ which
are
The index indicates respectively parallel to the coordinate axes. that the forces act on an element which is perpendicular to the a--axis. x is perpendicular to the surface-element; it is therefore
called the normal force
Yx
and
Zx
are
tangential forces.
Xow,
let
the element
it
is
remain in the same place, but be turned so that We may then set dF=dzdx. perpendicular to the y-axis.
dF
before, there are three components of force X^ y Zy acting on the surface-element dzdx, of which and Zy y is the normal force, y are the tangential forces. If the surface-element dF is turned so as
As
to be perpendicular to the z-axis, we have as components a a Z,, of which and are the tangential the normal force and z t is z forces. There are therefore, in all, nine components,
X Y
Y
z,
Xa
By
OA, OB, 00
to the
x-, y-,
Y^Z*; X0Y,,Z,;
Xa Y Z
is
these components the stress on any surface

(Fig.
2-axes.
determined.
Let
39) represent line-elements, parallel
respectively
through A, B, and
tetrahedron
(7,
Let a plane be passed so as to form the
OABC. Let P, Q, and R be the components of the stress in the directions of the coordinate axes at a point in the base of the tetrahedron.
ABC
We
now form
move
forces
the equation of condition, which must hold that the tetrahedron shall not
in the direction of the z-axis.
'
FIG.
The
which tend to move the tetrahedron in that direction are .OAB X .OBC, acting on its base, and y .OAC, Hence the force which urges the tetrahedron in acting on its faces.
P.
ABC
-X
-X
-X
66
THE THEORY OF ELASTICITY.

is
[CHAP. n.
the direction of the o-axis
P.
ABC - X OBC-Xy .OAC- X

x
.
OAB.
Designate by a, /3, y the angles made with the axes by the normal to the surface ABC drawn outward from the tetrahedron; then the
expression for the force in the direction of the
,r-axis
becomes
(P -
cos a
cos
(3
X cos y)
z
ABC.
no external attractions or repulsions act on any part of the body, the conditions of equilibrium, obtained by setting this, and the two similar expressions which hold for the other axes, equal to
Now,
if
zero, are
(a)
P = Xx cos a + Xy cos ft + X Q=Yx cosa+ Fy cosp+Y [^=^cosa+ Zy cos /3 + Z

f
cos y,
cosy,
cos
y.
the parts of the body, these must be taken into account in equations (a). If the force
acts on the unit of
If other forces besides the stresses act on
mass in the direction of the a;-axis, the force acting in that direction on the tetrahedron is Xpdv, if dv represents its volume, and p its density. The condition of equilibrium in the
direction of the z-axis then
becomes
j3
(P
cos a
.
X,
cos
- X, cos
h
is
y)
ABC + Xpdv = 0.
Now,
since dv
= %h ABC, where
the height of the tetrahedron,
this equation is equivalent to
P - Xx cos a - Xy cos (3 - X
cos y
+ $hpX = 0.
Since the height h of the tetrahedron is infinitely small, we may neglect the term containing it, and again obtain the first of equations (a), which hold generally.
In order to exhibit the meaning of equations (a), we will consider the following case. Suppose a tension S to act in the direction of the re-axis, and a pressure of the same value to act in the direction of the
y-axis.
Then
= S,
Yy =
S,
and
all
other components of stress are
equal to zero.
Hence
P = S cos a, Q =
-Scosfl,
is
E = 0.
If A,
//,,
The
are
resultant
of these components
^=$siny.
we have
the
angles
between
cos v
and the
e
axes,
cos
cos
M=
B
sm T
-.
= 0.
The angle
is
between
and the normal

o
.
to the surface-element considered
determined by cos
to
'
smy
y=
>/}
-.
If
the
surface
element
2a.
is
parallel
the
âxis,
a A=S,
COS
= COS 2a,
SECT. XXIV.]
COMPONENTS OF
then
e
STEESS.
67
If
a=
^,
the resultant
is
is
a tangential force.
Thus the
and whose
surface of a prism
whose axis
parallel to the s-axis,
1
FIG. 39
a.
make
by tangential
angles of 45 with the xz- and y^-planes, forces, each equal to S.
is
acted on only
SECTION
XXV.
RELATIONS AMONG THE COMPONENTS OF STRESS.
The force which acts on the volume-element dxdydz (Fig. 40) is Let the components determined from the components of stress. be given, and let the force which acts on OA' acting at the point
in the direction of the x-axis be equal
to
- Xjlydz.
laurin's
By development by Mactheorem we obtain for the force

AO' the expression
acting on
(Xx + 'dXx /'dx.dx)dydz.

The
and
resultant
.
of
these
two
forces
y
is
'dXJ'dx
(
dxdydz.
u
The
. .
forces
- X dxdz
whose reon the
+ 'dXJ'dy
'dXj'dy
dy}dxdz,
dxdydz,
sultant
is
act
surfaces OB' and O'B respectively in the direction of the z-axis. The resultant of the forces acting in the same direction on the surfaces O'C and OC' is 'dXJ'dz dxdydz.
.
Hence the
total
force
acting on the
parallelepiped
dxdydz in the
direction of the
-axis is
68
If (X),

(Y),
stresses act
[CHAP. n.
which the
and (Z) represent the components of the on unit of volume, we have

(X)
force with
= 'dXJ (Y) = VYJ-dx + 3 YJ-dy + 'd YJ-dz, (Z) = c)ZJ3x + 'dZy fdy + 'dZJ'dz.
body is acted on only by stresses, equilibrium will exist The the three components (X), (Y), (Z) are each equal to zero. equations (b) in this case are three differential equations which the If a force whose components components of stress must satisfy.
If the
if
are X, Y,
Z
we
acts
body
is p,
on each unit of mass, and if the density of the obtain the conditions of equilibrium,
[
VXJ'dx + VXJdy + 'dXJ^z + P

'dYJ'dx + 'dYJ-dy + 'dYJ-dz +
X= 0,
(c)
I
(
pYÔ, -d Zx /*dx + 3 ZJdy + ~d ZJ-dz + P Z=0.

00'
Internal forces produce both translations and rotations in the The tangential components tend to rotate the parallelepiped
about the
-axis.
The
tangential force
acts
on the surface OB'
in the .negative direction, while the tangential force 3 y + XJ'dy dy These acts on the opposite surface O'B in the positive direction.
.
two
forces
dxdz
dy, if
form a couple acting on the parallelepiped with a moment terms of an order higher than the third are neglected.
tends to turn the parallelepiped about the 2-axis in The tangential forces acting on the surfaces
This
moment
the negative direction. OA' and O'A have the
moment z dydz dx, which tends to turn the parallelepiped in the positive direction. The total moment which tends to rotate the parallelepiped about the z-axis is (Yx - y )dxdydz.
. .
If the
body
is
in equilibrium
under the action of the

zero, that
is,
stresses con-
sidered, this
moment must be
The
last
first.
(d)
Yx = X
y,
Zy = Ya X,= Z^
way
if
two equations are derived
and similarly in the same
as the
If attractive forces, such as gravity, or in general,

(d)
any forces acting at a distance act on the body, equations
will still be applicable.

infinitely
forces,
small
of application of such forces, in bodies, coincides with the centre of gravity ; such
The point
make
cannot produce rotations, and, therefore, cannot equilibrium with the forces which tend to rotate the body. It appears from equations (d) that six quantities are sufficient to
therefore,
I Zz determine the stress at a point in a body, namely, x = ZX x = y The first three are normal forces, the other Zy a 2
7
,
,,,
=Y X
Y X
three tangential farces.
It
is
possible to express these forces
by a
SECT, xxv.]
COMPONENTS OF
STEESS.
69
simpler notation, but we will retain the above, which has the advantage that it exhibits more clearly than any other the true significance of
the quantities involved. It must be borne in mind that the value of a component of stress remains unchanged if the direction of the
force
and the direction of the normal to the surface-element, on

stress acts, are interchanged.
which the
SECTION XXVI.
THE PRINCIPAL
STRESSES.
forces,
In order to obtain a better understanding of the nature of internal we will examine if it is possible to pass a surface through a given point in a body in such a position that no tangential force
acts
on
it.
We may
anticipate our conclusion
by the statement that
be drawn through any point and that they To show this, we proceed from are perpendicular to each other.
three such surfaces
may
the equations
[XXIV.
(
(a)]
z
(a)
P = Xx cos a + Xy cos (3 + X cos y, \ Q= Y cosa+Y cos/3 + F.cosy, x y = Zx cos a + Zy cos (3 + Z cos 7, [ R

t
y are the angles between the normal to the surface and the axes, and determine the position of the surface on which the components of stress P. Q, R act. It is to be shown that this
in
a,
/3,
which
surface
may have
perpendicularly to
stress S.
it
such a position in the body that the stress acts we will call the stress in this case the principal ;
direction of
The angles which the

a,
/3,
S makes
with the axes
are as before,
(b)
y,
and
P = Scosa,
f
Q = Scos(3,
(a),
Introducing these values in
we have
(Xx
S) cos a
+ Xy cos ft + X, cos y = 0,
(c)
If cos
a,
cos
(3,
cosy are eliminated from these equations, we obtain

t t
1
(S*-(Xt +Y,, + Z )S* + (Xx Y,+ YJ + ZtX,-Z*-X*-Y ?)S 2 \ (Xx YJ + 2Zy X Yx - XJ? - Yy X* - Z YX ) = 0.
t
z Z
This equation has always one real root A, and responding values of a, /?, y from equations
we
(c)
can find the cor-
and the relation
70
cos a
2

+ cos
2
2
[CHAP. n.
there
1. + cos Therefore, through any point in the body be passed at least one plane having the property that no We call such a plane a principal plant. tangential forces act on it. Let the system of coordinates be so rotated that this principal
/?
y=
may
plane
is
parallel
to
the
7/2-plane.
On
(c)
this
supposition,
we have
= A,
Yx = 0, ZX ^Q.
The equations
;
then become
(A - S) cos a =
(Y,,- S) cos
p+Y cosy = Q;
z
These equations are
satisfied
when we
set
S=A,
cosa
l,
cos [3
= cos y = 0.
We
thus return to the principal plane already found, with its approThe same equations are also satisfied if we priate normal stress A.
set cos a
Since cos a
= 0, and
first
cos /3/cos y a
one.
= - Yj(Yy - S) = - (Z - S)/Z,r = |TT, the new principal planes

t
are perpen-
dicular to the
We
have further,
and
cos /3/cos
y=\(Y -Z
!l
J( Yy
-Z
These equations present two values of S and two values each of If we represent the values of P and y by /5' and /3", y' (3 and y. and y" respectively, we have
and hence
= -1, cos ft' cos /?" + cos y' cos y" = 0.

cos
(3'
cos P"
cos y' cos y"
Since the corresponding values of a are equal to JTT, it follows that the two new principal planes are perpendicular to each other. It is thus proved that, in general, through any point in a body, there may be drawn three surface-elements, and only three, on
one another.
which only normal forces act, and that they are perpendicular to The normal stresses corresponding to the three planes may be designated by A, B, and C. From (d) the following relations hold among these normal stresses and the components of stress,
(e)
(
ABC= XJî + 1ZV X.YX - XtZ* the
YJt?
- ZY?.
it
The
first
of these equations should be especially noticed;
shows,
that the
sum of
normal forces for
three planes perpendicular to each
other is constant.
SECT. XXVI.]
THE PRINCIPAL
STRESSES.
71
If the axes of the
system of coordinates are parallel to the directions
of the principal stresses A, B, and C, equations (a) become
P = Aco$a,
Q = Bcos[3,
E=Ccosj.
2,
IfA>E>C,
,
and we
set
A = B+S V C=B-S
the principal stresses
can be replaced by a hydrostatic stress B and two axial stresses S l and S.2 the first of which is a tension, the second a pressure.
This investigation shows that through any point in a body three planes can always be passed which are acted on only by normal stresses, equal to the principal stresses A, B, and C. A, B, and C
are the three roots of equation (d) by the help of equations (c).
;
their directions
may be determined
coordinate axes.
We
write cos a x
makes the angles a, (3, y, with the = / 1} cos f3l = m v and cos y l = n v The
corresponding notation for

table
:
and
is
exhibited in the following
(g)
From
equations
:
(c)
the
following
relations
hold
among
these
quantities
Am
= YJ +
1
Em. = Yxlz + Yym., + Y n 2 Bn z = ZJZ + Zu m. + Zp

z
C13
A>
J3
t
3,
+ Zym3 + Z n a
These equations can be solved for the components of stress x Yy etc. These quantities may, however, be determined more easily in the following way. Through a point P draw the lines PA', PB', and PC'
, ,
parallel to the directions of the principal stresses A, B, and C. three lines, together with a plane parallel to the p-plane,
These
deter-
F
is
mine a tetrahedron.
is
The plane
base
is
l
infinitely small
its
dF.
s
so placed that the tetrahedron The areas of the faces which meet
at
are
I^dF,
2 dF,
and
dF.
The
is
,
1-^dF in
the direction of the o>axis
Al^
Cl s
,
force acting on unit area in the forces acting on unit ;

respectively,
area in the two other faces are B1 2
and the
force
72
[CHAP. n.
shall not
x acting on unit area in dF is in the direction of the ar-axis
X
.
That the tetrahedron
move
we must have
dF+ 3 C
1
dF= XxdF
or
2 X, = Al* + Bl.2 +
C7 32
By
a similar process
:
we
obtain for the other components the following
equations
+ Cl 3n 5
Cl3
It
may
easily be seen that these values of the

(h),
if
components of
stress
satisfy equations
the
known
relations
among
the quantities
given in (g) are taken into account.
SECTION XXVII.
FARADAY'S VIEWS ON THE NATURE OF FORCES ACTING AT A DISTANCE.
Newton
considered the action between two masses as an action at

is
a distance which
not propagated from particle to particle of the the masses. Faraday, on the other hand, in discussing electrical action, held that the intervening medium is the seat of the action between two charged bodies, and that the action
medium surrounding
is
transferred from particle to particle.
electricity is displaced in the direction of a line of force,
In each of these particles one end
of which becomes positively and the other negatively electrified. In a body thus polarized the particles are so arranged that poles Hence the lines of force tend of opposite name are contiguous.
to contract,
is
and a
In
state of stress arises in the
similar to the elastic stress,
and was
his
called
medium. This stress by Maxwell electrical

Electricity,
elasticity.
Chapter V.
of
Treatise
on
Maxwell,
using Faraday's hypothesis, developed a theory which we will now proceed to discuss. Since electrical and magnetic forces conform to the same law as that of universal attraction, the discussion may be
made perfectly general, and applicable to all forces between bodies which are inversely proportional to the squares of the distances
separating the bodies. Let the potential $ be given for all points of the region. The density p is determined from the potential by Poisson's equation
(a)
32 ^/?.r2 + 3-Y/3y2 + ^/dz2 +
TT
= 0.
SECT, xxvii.]
FORCES ACTING AT A DISTANCE.

d-v
73
is
The mass pdv contained in the volume-element a force whose components are
acted on by
The upper
for
mass
attractions.
sign holds for magnetic or electrical attractions, the lower Introducing the value of p given in (a) the
in the direction of the .r-axis
component acting
becomes
differential coefficients
This quantity must be capable of representation as the sum of three with respect to x, y, and z. We have
Hence the
force
which
is
acts in the
direction of the a-axis on the
volume-element dv
If we designate the components of force which act on the unit of volume by (X), (Y), and (Z) [XXV.], and if, for brevity, we set
X=
we
obtain
f
- -d^px,
Y=-
(X) (F)
(Z)
(b)
I/STT
[Zd(XZ)/-dx + Zd(YZ)l*dy + 3(Z
-X
Since these equations are perfectly analogous to those which determine the force with which stresses act on the unit of volume, we
may
ether
the medium.
consider forces acting at a distance as arising from stresses in If we are dealing with universal mass attraction, the
may be assumed to be the intervening medium; if we are discussing electrical actions, the dependence of the stress in the ether on the matter which fills the region, air, water, etc., must be
taken into account.
It is
not necessary to enter upon this question
in our treatment of the subject.
A
(c)
comparison of equation
(b)
with equation
2
XXV.
(b)
shows that
X
-I
2 (X 2
)/Sir,
2
Y
Zx
X,
Yy =(Y -X -Z
2
)/87r,
Z=
z
(Z
-X
FO/STT,
74

the principal stresses in the Avhich give
[CHAP.
11.
To determine
medium, we use equations
XXVI.
(e),
A + B+ C=
BC+AC+AB=
ABC =
If
+ (X- + F- + Z2 )/8ir, 2 F 2 + Z 2 )/87r) 2 ((A' +

2
((X'
+ =
+ Z-')/8ir) 8
or
we
set (d)
(X'
3
+Y* + Z'2 )/8ir = S,
A, B, and C are the roots of
the
equation
SD'2 (e)
SW + S
(D + S) (D
or
have therefore either
A = + S, B=C = -S
= 0. We S)' A =- S, B=C = + S.
2
Hence two principal mine their directions,

It is easiest
always equal. In order to deterand y must be calculated from XXVI. (c). to determine the directions of the equal stresses B and
stresses are
a, (3,
C. If the values of S, given in (d), are substituted for S in the equations referred to [XXVI. (c)], using the negative value of S in combination with the positive value of etc., and vice versa, we x
obtain
(f)
A" cos a
+ Ycos (3 + Zcosy = Q.
Hence both of the equal
principal stresses are perpendicular to the direction of the force ; the third principal stress is in the direction of the force, and is equal
to the square of the force divided by STT. It has thus been shown that all forces acting at a distance may be explained by a state of stress in an intervening medium. From
this point of
stress, that
is replaced by a negative a pressure, in the direction of the lines of force, and a positive stress, that is, a tension in all directions perpendicular to A surface-element which lies perpendicular to the direction the force.
is,
view universal mass attraction
of the force is acted on by a tension which is equal to the force. In the case of magnetic and electrical attractions the opposite holds true. There is no independent evidence for the existence of such
stresses in the case of gravity
;
but several phenomena in electricity
indicate that the
of stress,
bodies.
medium between two electrified bodies is in a state and no facts are known that are inconsistent with the
is
assumption that this stress
the cause of the forces acting on the
SECTION XXVIII.
If a
DEFORMATION.
body changes its shape or its position in space, one of its whose coordinates are originally x, y, may be so displaced are the prothat its coordinates become x + y + ??, z+ jections of the path which P has traversed or the components of
points,
.:,
,
->;,
SECT. XXVIII.]
DEFORMATION.
,
the displacement. If position of the point
77,
are given as functions of the time, the

is
any instant of the separate points of the body are

,
at
determined.
The motions
?/,
are functions of
x,
?/,
z.
We
in general different, that is, will first consider some simple
motions of the body.

If
,
77,
are
move through equal
equal for all points of the body, the points all distances and in the same direction ; the motion
is a translation. In this motion all parts of the body remain at fixed distances from each other, and there are no internal forces developed. This holds also in the case of a rotation of the body about an axis.
Let the axis of rotation be parallel to the

the point
o;-axis,
x,
?/,
(Fig. 41),
whose coordinates are
s.
and pass through Let a point Q,
r=QS
is
x', y z, traverse the path Qli = lix r, where the distance of the point Q from the axis, aud hx is the
, .
angle of rotation.
By
this rotation the ^/-coordinate is diminished

z),
by BB' = QR(z' -z}/r = h x (z'CO'
and the
.^-coordinate is increased
= QR(y' -y}lr = hx (ij -y).
If the
body
rotates at the
y-
about two other axes, which are parallel to the

if
by same time and z-axes, and
the angles of rotation are designated by liy and hz respectively, which have the following the coordinates of Q are increased by 17, values
,
,
:
* W --9)*.- &-*)*,-
We may
now proceed
to
the discussion
of the general case, in
which the points of the body change their relative positions. Let the point P, whose coordinates are .T, y, z, pass during this motion to the point P', whose coordinates are x + g, y + r,, z + let another
;
76

y',
[CHAP. n.
point Q, whose coordinates are originally x\ Q, whose coordinates are x' + y' + i/, z' +
',
'.
If
pass to the point is a known func-
tion of
x, y,
'
z, we will have = + (x' - x^j-dx + (y - y)3/3// + (z' - *)3/3* +
.*
We may
assume that
x'
and Q are
y'
infinitely near, so that

z'
x = dx,
y = dy,
z = dz.
Neglecting terms of the second order
we
.
obtain the following relations,

.
77'
= + 3/d.r = + 'drf/'dx = + 3/3.r ('

'
dx + Î'dy dy + V/3z dx + 'drj/'dy dy + 'dq/'dz

.
dz,
?;
dz,
dz.
dx + 'dtfdy dy + *dtfdz
.
By
introducing the following notation,
yx = xy
we
obtain
= 4- x,dx + xvdy + x.dz - h dy + hjlz, = + yjlx + yy dy + yjlz - hjz + h dx, T (' = C + M* + z^y + z dz - hydx + h,dy.
z
rj'
r]
These equations determine the motion of a point in the neighbourhood of P. This motion is compounded of a translation, whose a rotation, whose components are h^ ky h ;, components are
,
:,
and two motions, determined by x^ y^ zz and zf xa yf If we confine our attention to the way in which the form of the body changes, we need only consider the motion whose components e?, d^, d are
determined by the following equations
:
dr)
= yr d = z dz + z,dx + zy dy.
t
,
interpret the coefficients xz y^ sz and z^ a;,, y^ we assume that all except xx are equal to zero. Then dg = xx .dx and dr) = d=Q. The
To
change of form corresponding to this is a dilatation of the body in the direction of the ar-axis, by which dx increases by d. The coefficient
parallel to the x-axis,

;e-axis.
xx therefore represents the dilatation of a unit of length or is the dilatation in the direction of the
zt are the dilatations in the directions of the
Hence yv and
y-
and
2-axis respectively.
SECT, xxvin.]
DEFORMATION.
77
If,
of zy
on the other hand, all the coefficients vanish with the exception we have dg = Q, d^=zy .dz, d=zy .dy. The particles are dis-
placed in a plane parallel to the yz-plane, and their distances from the yz-plane remain unchanged. Let the original coordinates of the be a square, the length of point P (Fig. 42) be x, y, z; let
ABCD
whose
x,
sides is 2a.
The point A, whose
A therefore
points
Z>',
y + a, z + a, referred to the axes whose coordinates are a + zya, a

lies
PY
+
and PZ,
original coordinates were is displaced to
A\
zya.
on
PA
;
produced.
The
and
and
lie
D
on
are displaced to B'
which
BD
is
displaced along
The square ABCD produced to C". This becomes the rhombus A'B'C'D. change of form is called a shear; the
AC
quantities zy of shear.
xa yx are called components
In the theory of elasticity we consider FIG 49 only very small deformations of the body the components xx yy etc., are consequently small quantities, whose second and higher powers may be neglected. The volume of the
; , ,
body is not changed by a shear; the square whose area become a rhombus A'B'C'D' whose area is
is
4a2 will
2PA' PB' =
.
-z 2(a 4 zya)j2(a y a)j2

of the square
will not be
= 4a 2 (l - z?).
is
If
we
neglect
zy-,
the area
equal to that of the
rhombus; hence the volume
changed by the shear. From Fig. 42 it is evident that the infinitely small angle between AB and A'B' is equal to azy /a = zy hence the right angle DAB is
;
diminished by the shear by 2zy
so that
As the
result of a dilatation determined
by xa yy
zz , the
volume
of the parallelepiped dxdydz becomes dxdydz(\ + xx )(l +yy )(l+zz ). If the components of dilatation are supposed infinitely small, we may Hence the increase in neglect their second and higher powers.
unit volume
is
= xx + yy + z
is
called the volume dilatation.
Sub-
stituting the values of x^ y^ za

(e)
we have
also
Q = 'dfdx + 'fr)l'dy + 'dtrdz.

;
a,
Let dr be an element of a straight line which makes the angles then /3, y, with the coordinate axes
dx = dr cos
a,
dy = dr cos (3,
dz = dr cos
y.
78

the deformation dr becomes
axis, so that
;
[CHAP. n.
By
dr',
and makes the angles

dz
a,
(3',
y'
with the
dx + dg = dr'cosa
dy + djj
= dr' cos (B'
+d
=dr' cosy',
If the
/3
from which
be determined by equations (d). direction of the line dr remains unchanged, we have a = a,

dg,
dt],
may
= /3',
and 7 = 7', and hence dg = dpcosa, drj = dp cos (3, d=dpcosy, where dp = d(r'-r). The length dp is the elongation of dr, and dp/dr is Hence we have the dilatation s in the direction of the line dr.
.9
= dp/dr.
Equations (d) then assume the following form:

cos (3 + x cos 7 = 0, y + (yy - s) cos (3 + y cos y = 0, {(xcos a + zy cos (3 + (z - s) cos 7 = 0. 2^
x
- s)cos a + x
a-
yx cos
comparison of these relations with those of XXVI. they both may be interpreted in a similar way.
called the principal axes of dilatation, in
(c)
shows that
There are therefore three directions perpendicular to each other, which only dilatations occur ; every line-element which is parallel to one of these three directions contains after deformation the particles which were in it before the This conclusion holds only on the supposition that deformation. the body does not rotate, a supposition which has been made in
deducing equations
(d).
b,
c,
If
mined are
called a,
f
we
the principal dilatations have, as in XXVI. (e),

z
,
thus
deter-
(g)
j
be
+ b + c = xx + yy + z + ac + ab = z$, + x^ + ypx - z* - x* -
y*,
{ abc
= xji^ + 2ZfCjff - x^f - yp* - zjy*.

t
The
first
of these equations shows that the volume dilatation does not
depend on the position of the system of coordinates. In the same way as that in which the components of stress are expressed in terms of the principal stresses [XXVI. (i)] xa xy ,... may be expressed in terms of the principal dilatations a, b, and c. Denoting the cosines of the angles which the direction of a makes with the axes
by l v
mv
the axes
by
f
n v and the cosines of the angles which 1 n 2 1 3 m3 %, we obtain 2 m. 2

,
,
and
make with
xx = al l 2 +bl.2 2 +c/3 2 yy =
2,om1n
;
(h)
|
zt
a, l 2 + bm 22 + cffl./ = an^ + bn.2- + en./
xt -=al l n 1
yx = al-pi^
SECT. XXIX.
STRESSES
AND DEFORMATIONS.
SECTION
XXIX.
RELATIONS BETWEEN STRESSES AND DEFORMATIONS.

body has shown that
The study
of the deformations of an elastic
a parallelepiped which is stretched by forces applied to its ends, is increased in length and diminished in cross section. If we only
consider forces which are so small that the limits of elasticity are
not exceeded, the elongation s per unit of length is s = S/E, where is the coefficient of elasticity and S the force acting on the unit of surface. The contraction s' per unit of length parallel to the end
surfaces, is given
by
s'
=k
S/E, where k
that
is,
is
a constant.
It is
all
assumed
that the
body
is
isotropic,
equally elastic in
directions
and
at all points.
will first consider a rectangular parallelepiped, whose edges The normal forces are denoted are parallel with the coordinate axes. a and a unit of length which is parallel to the a-axis by x y
We
X Y Z
,
,
increases
by xx
2-axes respectively increase
the units of length which are parallel to the y- and then have by yy and zz
.
We
-k(Xx +Yy )/E.

From XXVIII.
(e)
the volume dilatation
is
From
these equations
we deduce
2k)
= kEQ/(l + k)(l-
A. = kE/( I + k) (1 Setting we obtain (a) X, = XO + 2/tr, ; and by addition
2k),
p.
+ Exx/(l + k). = i/(l + k),

;
Yy = XQ + 2p.yy
(b)
Yy + Z = (3X + 2^)9.
z
To
investigate
the
relation
between
the
shears and the tangential forces we may use the following method, due to V. v. Lang.*
If the
prism
ABCD
the tension
of
its
ends
AB
(Fig. 43) is stretched by applied to each unit of surface and CD, it takes the form
Four plane sections EF, FG, GH, and HE are passed through the prism, which mark out the rectangle EFGH on a plane
AB'C'D'.
parallel
to the axis;
*
the rectangle
v.
EFGH
becomes by deformation
411.
V.
Lang,
Theoretisc.he Physik;
80
[CHAP. n.
The angle is represented by </>. in the tangential stress T, which acts on the surface direction EF, is given [XXIII. (b)] by T = S sin <f> cos <. BFG = |?r - <, the same tangential stress T acts on GF Since On deformation the angle in the direction GF. becomes
the parallelogram E'F'G'H'.
AFE
The
EF
<
AFE
AF'E' =
<f>
+ d<f>, and we have

and
s'
Now
since s=--SjE
(
= kS/E
are infinitely small,
we have
+ s)/(l - s') = 1 + s + s' = 1 + (1 + k)S/E.
Further,
we have
and
so that
= tg + d(f>/co$ 2 tg (< + dfy = (l+k)S sin cos </ E = 1 d<l>

<f>
<j>,
<f>
Hence the change of the angle is proportional Since the same tangential stress acts on stress T.
<
to the tangential as on EF, the
GF
angle BFG increases by d<f>, the angle EFG diminishes by 2d(f>, and the angle increases by 2d<f). The shear is thus equal to 2e?<,
FGH
and we have 2d<f>=2(l+k)T/E.

viously introduced,
2/3-plane;
But
zy
2d<f>
is
when
the rectangle
EFGH
the quantity 2zy preis parallel to the

If
and hence
T=Zy
and
= (l+k)ZJE.
z,
we
set
we have
(c)
^ = 2^,
(a)
A>2/^
Yx = 2^yx
The equations
and
(c)
the components of stress, conversely. They contain only two constants, A and /*, which involve the deformations caused by simple dilatation in the following way
:
are the solution of the problem, to find when the deformations are given, and
X = */(l +*)(!- 2*);
,*
t-<8V+4i*V(*+p);
Since A and
/A
The
are positive, & must be less than \. relations between the elastic forces and the deformations
may
by another method. Let the principal stresses A, B, and C, at the point P, be known in magnitude and direction [cf. XXVI. An infinitely small parallelepiped, whose edges are parallel (g)]. to the directions of the stresses A, B, and C, is extended in those The increments a, b, and c of the unit of length three directions. are parallel to A, B, and (7, and as in (a), we have
also be derived
(e)
when
A = \e + -2iM, B = XQ + 2pb, = a + b + c, or [XXVIII. (g)], Q =
SECT, xxix.]
STRESSES
AND DEFORMATIONS.
we
obtain the equation
),
81
By
applying the formula
which, from
XXVI. (i), = X0 + 2/x(a/ 2 + bl/ + c/3 2 XXVIIL (h), becomes Xx = X9 + 2/xa^
The
expressions for
Yy
and
are obtained in a similar way.

(i),
From XXVI.
we have
and hence [XXVIIL (h)] Zy = 2fj.zy We obtain the expressions for A", and Yx in a similar way. The coefficients E and k depend on the nature of the body. It was at one time believed that k had the same value for all bodies. This opinion was first expressed by Navier. He assumed that bodies are made up of material points which repel one another, and on this Poisson also had the same opinion. assumption concluded that k =
.
.
While k is a mere number, the coefficient of elasticity E is determined by E = S/s; the fraction \\E is called the modulus of elasticity. Sis the force which acts on the unit of surface, and [III.] its dimensions
are
LT~ 2 M/L 2 = L~
T~'2 M.
Since
s is
and the original length,

sions of
it is
also a
the ratio between the elongation mere number. Hence the dimen-
are
L~ 1 T-'2 M.
E denotes the number of kilograms which would produce an elongation in a rod of one square millimetre cross section, such that its length is doubled. In order to transform it into absolute
In practical units
measure, we notice that the weight of one gram is about equal to 981 dynes, and that therefore the weight of one kilogram is equal to 981 000 dynes. The cross section must be taken equal to 1 sq. cm.,
factor of transformation
and the number must therefore be multiplied by 100, so that the becomes 98,100,000. According to Wertheim, E equals 17278 in practical units for English steel therefore, in
;
absolute units
it
equals 17278. 981
10 5
= 1,695
10 12
In the case of
fluids,
the discussion
is
simplified
by the condition
that a fluid always yields to tangential forces, so that, when it is in This condition, equilibrium, there are no tangential forces acting in it.
from
(c),
enables us to set
if
its
/^
= 0.
v
If the fluid is subjected to the

is
pressure p, and
volume
thereby diminished by
dv,
we
have from
(b)
(f)
-{
or,
since
/^
= 0,
dv =pv/X.
82
If,

for example, the unit
[CHAP. n.
volume of water
1
is
when
the pressure
is
increased by
.
atmosphere,
diminished by 0,000 046, we have
X =pv/dv = 7&
In the case of gases,
13,596
if
981/0,000,046
= 2,204
10 10
and
its
represent the original pressure by P, increase by p, Mariotte's law gives the equation
we
Pv = (P+p)(v-dv).
Assuming that p
and
is
very small in comparison with P, we obtain
dv=pv/P,
therefore, for gases,
we have from
(f),
(g)
P=X.
SECTION
If a
XXX.
CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM OF AN ELASTIC BODY.
whose components are X, Y, mass of a body, we have from XXV. (c)

force
(a)
acts
on the unit of
Further [XXIX.
(b)
+ 'dX,l'dy + 'dXJ'dz + pX=O etc. (c)] we have Xx = XQ + 2fj..^px, Zy =Y = p.(dil'dy + 'd-ql^z\

VX,J'dx
(a)
t
and
etc.
If the values for
XM
c
etc.,
are substituted in
.
(a),
it
follows that
(X
+ p)
ae/a-e
+ /* V2 + pX = 0,
(c)
I
By
the use of our former symbols for the components of rotation,
viz.,
2A
| \
equations
(c)
become
?
<e)
I
(X +
(x
2/t)
+ 2/*)
.r,
If the first equation is differentiated with respect to with respect to y, and the third with respect to ,r,
the second
we have by
addition
when
is
constant,
(X
+ 2/x)y 2 6 + P (dXfix + VYîj + -dZI-dz) = 0.

^,
If X, Y, and Z are the derivatives of a potential 2 = 0. everywhere within the body, then (f) y
and
if y'-^
of the surface of the body. dS, whose components are
This result must be supplemented by the conditions of equilibrium The force acting on the surface-element
FQ'R,
is
in equilibrium with
the elastic
SECT, xxx.]
STRESSES IN A SPHERICAL SHELL.
83
If
forces
.Xx
Yy
which act on the parts of the body contiguous to dS. etc., are the components of the elastic forces, we have
'
= XX COS a + Xy COS ft + Xi COS 7. (g) There are similar values for Q' and R'. The symbols a, (3, 7 represent the angles which the normal to the surface directed outward makes with the coordinate axes. We assume (h) = ax, = by, {=cz, where a, b, and c are constants. are therefore linear functions of x, y, and z, and ., ij, and depends On this supposition only on x, 77 only on y, and only on z.
r)
[XXVIII.
only.
(b)]
The volume dilatation is assumed for r/, satisfy equations

,
the deformation of the body is made up of dilatations = a + i + c; hence the values

(c),
if
we
neglect the action of
external forces.
We
have further
If
we
set
b
X
= c and
= S,
Yy = 0,
=
we have
The
S=X(a + 2b) + '2pa;

last
equation gives
b/a=
and the
first
-A/(X + /*)= -k, # = a(3A/* + 2/* 2 )/(A + p) = Ea.

of the expansion
The equations thus obtained give the law

elastic prism.
of an
'
SECTION XXXI.
Suppose a spherical whose radii are r l and
STRESSES IN A SPHERICAL SHELL.

shell,
r2
bounded by two Of these we assume
concentric
r2
spheres,
constant hydrostatic pressure
Suppose a applied to the inner surface, and
> rr
a similar pressure
and p 2
The pressures p^ applied to the outer surface. Let the centre are perpendicular to the surfaces. of the
p.2
any point
surface
centre.
is
of sphere be the origin of coordinates, and let the distance from in the shell be r. On the hypothesis that has been made with respect to the pressures, all points lying in the same spherical
having the centre 0, receive equal displacements from the Let the displacement of the point considered be er, where e
a very small quantity.
We
then have
84
Since
e

is
[CHAP. n.
a function of r only,
we may
.
set
= fr
where
<f>
x/r
= d<j>/dr
r.
"drfdx
= 'd^j'dx,
represent
ij
is
new
function of
We may
and
in
similar way, so that

(b)
= 3./3.,
(c)
(c),
Hence we have
become
^30/fy, 6 = V 2<.
if
t=3</>/32.
The equations XXX.

(A
the action
of gravity
is
neglected,
so that (d)
+ 2fi).V2 3</9.c = 0, (A. + 2/z). V 23</>/3y = 0, (A + 2/*) V^fdz = 0, = V-< = a, where a is a constant. From XXX. (b) the components of stress are c Xx = Aa + 2p J Y = Xa + 2 p. (e) y 2 I Z, = Xa + 2/i.32 ^/?3 8 F, = 2/t 3 </>/3o%.
.
The
stress
(a),
in
surface-element perpendicular to r
is
given by
XXIV.
If the
if
we
set
cos a
= z/'r,
.
cos
(3
= y/r,
.
cos y
= z/r.
.
components of stress are P, Q, and R,

.
P = Xa
a-/r
we have + 2/*(.r/r 3 2 <^>/3a;2 + y/r ^fdxdy + zlr &<t>/'dzdz).

Pt/dr*
.
Using the equations

x*/i*
.
d<f>/dr
+l/r. dj/dr,
.
xy/f* d*<j>/dr*
xz/r*
.
- xy/r*
d<j>/dr, d<f>/dr,
d^/dr* - xzji*
.
we have
Similar expressions
cipal
P = (\a + 2p.
may
(f)
d^jdr*)
2
xfr.
It.
be obtained for Q and

.
Hence
a prin-
stress
A = Aa + 2/*
d*<j>/dr
acts
on
the
surface-element
considered.
in the
For a surface-element which contains r, the components are obtained same way. If a, /?, y are the angles which the normal to the surface-element makes with the axes, we have
P = Aa cos a + 2/*(9 2 </3;e 2

If
cos a
+ 3 2 </3.c3y
.
cos
ft
+ 32 </>/3x3^
0,
cos
y).
we
notice that in this case

cos a x/r
.
+ cos (3
y/r
+ cos
7 z/r =
.
and use the expressions given above for the we have P = (\a + 2/*/r d<J>/dr) cos
.
differential
a.
coefficients,
We may
obtain
Q and
by replacing a by
ft
and y respectively.
SECT, xxxi.]
TOESION.
principal stress
85
is
Hence the
acting on the element
From
(d)
and XV.
(1)
we have
and therefore
(h)
d<j>/dr
=
it
*ar
+ b/r*
d 2 <j>/dr 2 =
â-
26/r
3.
From
For
r
(f)
and
(g)
follows that
;
A = (X + |/i)a - 4/xJ/r3
= rv
B=
,
A.
+ |/z)a + fyb/r3
,
A=
-p v and for r = rz A= -p 2 a = 3/(3X + 2/x) (pfi

.
therefore
and
AB=
SECTION XXXII.
TORSION.
-axis;
Let us consider a circular cylinder whose axis coincides with the and let the circle in which the xy -plane cuts the cylinder
If torsion is be the end of the cylinder and be fixed in position. applied to the cylinder, a point at the distance r from the axis describes an arc r<f>, parallel to the xy-plane, whose centre lies on the z-axis.
This angle, in the case of pure torsion, is proportional to the distance of the point from the zy-plane, so that <f> = kz, where k is a constant. The displacement of this point is krz, and its components are 77,
,
(a)
=-kyz,
pure
torsion dots not cause
(b)],
r,
= kxz,
f=0.
is
Using these values, we find that the volume-dilatation

is,
zero, that
a change of volume.
We
have further
[XXX.
= 0,
Yy = 0, Z = Q,
Z
and hence no normal
forces act
to the coordinate planes.
on the surfaces which are On the other hand, we have
parallel
Z^fjJcx,
X =-fdy, Y = 0.
t
surface-element perpendicular to the -axis is acted on by the = - pJcy, whose resultant pkr is tangential forces Y,= + fj.kx and Jfz
perpendicular to the radius r and to the z-axis. By XXIV. (a) we reach the same result. That
f
is,
we
get
P = - ftky cos y, R = -nkycosa
Q = pkx cos
7,
86
For the
stress
[CHAP. n.
on the surface of the cylinder we must set

cos a
= x/r,
cos
f3
= y/r,
cos y
= 0.
We
will then
have
P = 0,
Q = 0, ^ = 0.
Hence a surface-element perpendicular to the radius, or which is part of the surface of a circular cylinder whose axis is the z-axis, is not acted onby a force.
To
find the surface-elements
on which the only forces which act

(d),
are normal forces, before us, becomes
we use equation XXVI.
which, in the case
If
A, B, and C are the roots of
this equation,
we can
set
A = 0, B = pkr, C=-ph\
If the angles
between the axes and the normal to one of these surfacea, /3,
elements are represented by
y,
S cos a =
If
p.ky cos y,
S cos f3 = pJcx cosy,
Scosy =
//.?/ cos
+ //Xvr cos /.
we
by A,
stress
substitute in these equations the particular values of S given B, and (7, the values of a, J3, y thus obtained show that the
A=
acts
in directions perpendicular to the radius acts in the angles of 45 degrees with the 2-axis. as the torsion, C in the opposite direction.
and C act
on a surface-element perpendicular to r and that r, and making

;
same direction
For example, considering a point which lies in the surface of the and A" = r, cylinder and in the .s-plane, and setting therefore we have S cos a = 0, S cos /? = pkr cos y, S cos y = pier cos p.
Y=0
When S = Q we
cos
(3
have y = /3 =
of force
^7r;
when S
1
,
= cosy.
Since cos 2 a
The moment
due
is
+ cos 2/? + cos 2y =
pkr we have we have eos/? =
= ^7r,
s /|.
to which the torsion of the cylinder is
M=
R
(f&r.
Zirrdr.r.
of the integral is the radius of the cylinder, The upper limit = ir<f>ii.R4 j2l, where I is the length Integrating, we have M=^TrfjJcR* of the cylinder and </> the angle of torsion. The factor T = Trp.R*/2l is called the moment of torsion of the cylinder.
It
of elasticity
depends only on the dimensions of the cylinder and the constant is called the coefficient of torsion. For this reason /x.
//,
SECT. XXXIII.
FLEXURE.
SECTION XXXIII.
87
FLEXURE.
It is not possible to give a rigorous discussion of the flexure of a prism. will, therefore, confine ourselves to an approximate
We
calculation in one very simple case*. Let (Fig. 44) be the prism considered.
ABCD
Its length is
supposed
directed
and coincident with the axis Ox. perpendicularly upward, and the axis Oy
horizontal
The
is
axis Oz
is
therefore
horizontal.
After flexure, the cross section

displaced to
section
AB
is
A'', which may lie in the same plane as AB. Another plane cross
FG, also perpendicular to the
;
axis, is displaced
by the flexure to F'G' we assume that the section F'G' is also plane, and that the plane F'G' cuts the
a
0.
through P.
of
all
plane A'B' in a horizontal line passing This line of intersection is
supposed to be
common
to
the
planes
The
sections perpendicular to the axis. parts of the prism which originally
lay in
OQ
lie
after the flexure in OQ',
FlG 44
which we
will consider as the arc of a

is
Such a flexure is called circular. All the circle whose centre P. lines in the prism which were originally parallel to the x-axis become circles, whose centres lie on the straight line passing through P.
Represent the original coordinates of a point
in
the
,
section
*
by 0, y, z, and its coordinates after flexure by 0, y + ^ 2+f The same changes occur in the other cross sections, for example in FG. If the coordinates of a point M' in FG are originally x, y, z, We set L. OPQ' = they will become by flexure x + g, y + t], z +
<f>,
AB
This last assumption is admissible, since there is always one line whose length does not change by flexure, and since we have as yet made no assumption as to the position of the
z-axis.
OP = pa,nd OQ = OQ'.
We
therefore obtain
+ 1 = * + to -(/> + * + &)(! x,
<f>
cos <).
,
If p
is
very great in comparison with

sin
<
z,
and
8
we may
set
= x/p
Mem.
cos
and obtain
*
(a)
= xz/p,
n=
a^/2p t=to- x2/ 2 PT. 14.

Paris, 1856.
Barre de Saint- Venant,
pres. par div. Savants.
88

so determine
x
[CHAP. n.
We may
except
(1
)
and
that
all
the components of stress
vanish
hence
we may
write
(4)
X, = A6 + 2^/p = S,
Z,
(2)
(3)
y,=Ae+2/u3v^ =0 Z = \Q + 2iidf fdz = Q,

t
>
5)
(6)
Y,
Further,
we have
and
with
Q = z/p + 'dr]
From
(2)
(3) it follows that (b)
Comparing
or of k to
(b)
is
cross section
1.
XXIX. (d) it appears that the contraction of the to the increase in length in the ratio of |A. to A + /z, do not involve x, we have Further, since T? O and
from
(b)
rj
= - kyz/p +/(*),
= - kz*/2p + g(y),
functions.
when / and g designate two unknown

-ty/p+f'(z)
constant.
From
c
is
+ g'(y) = 0, and
hence f\z) = c, where
(4) we have an unknown
It follows that
c',
= kf/ 2p-cy + c" = cz + g(y) f(z) = k (V 2 ~ )/%P ~W + c". = - kyz/p + cz + c', O At the point 0, where y = z = Q, we have Vo = ^> & = 0> and hence Since the prism does not turn about the ;r-axis c' = and c" = 0. = = also, and consequently during flexure, it follows that for y Q, ^ c = 0. We obtain therefore
and
T,
Z<2
and
(d)
further,
from
t
(a),
r
i
= xzl*
^,
=- kyz/p,
and
t=k(y*the equations
These values for
rj,
^ satisfy
XXX.
(c),
since
by hypothesis
X=Y=Z=0.
.
The equations 1-6 show that the
From (1) and (b) we get conditions of equilibrium are fulfilled. 2 X, --=S = (3X/A + 2/* )/(A. + p.) zfp. If we introduce the general coefficient
of elasticity
[XXIX.
(d)],
we have
(e)
S = Ez/P
.
prism. the forces
dydz, and is equal to zero, if the a;-axis passes through the centre of gravity of the If we assume this and then determine the moment of
The
resultant
of the forces
is (f )
R = Ejp
\z
with respect to a horizontal line passing through the = \Szdydz = Ejp \zzdydz = EJjp, centre of gravity, we will have
where J is the moment of inertia of the cross section. In order to bend the prism so that an axis passing through the centre of gravity of the prism becomes a circle of radius p, a rotating force of moment must act on each end surface the axes of the rotating forces are perpendicular to the plane of the circle, and are oppositely
directed.
SECT, xxxin.]
MOTION OF AN ELASTIC BODY.
89
The cross section of the prism is noticeably altered by the flexure. Since the parts on the convex side of the prism are extended, and the parts on the concave side compressed, the former tend to contract in the directions of the y and .s-axes, the
latter
to
expand.
is
If,
for
example, the
cross section
Fig. 45,
ABCD
a rectangle ABCD, as in takes the form A'FC'D'.

surfaces
The two plane
whose projections
are represented in the figure by and CD are transformed into surfaces of double
curvature.
AB
'
r "~
We may
consider A'B' and
C'D' as arcs with the centre E, while A'D' and B'C' are straight lines which intersect
at E.
The lines A'I? and B'C' are not FlG 45 changed in length, AB is shortened and CD lengthened. If z = %BC, it follows from the definition of k
-
[cf.
XXIX.]
that
A'B' = AB(\ -
kz/p),
C'D'
= CD(l + kz/p).
kz/ P )/(l
UOE = p,
then
A'B' /C'D' =
(p'
- z)I(p +z) = (l-
+ kz/p),
from which
follows that p = kp. This relation has been applied to the determination of k for glass prisms.
it
SECTION
XXXIV.
EQUATIONS OF MOTION OF AN ELASTIC BODY.

elastic
The
resultant with which the
forces act
on an
infinitely
small volume-element dv of an elastic body in the direction of the 3-axis is [XXV.], (dXx/^x + 'dXy !dy + 'dXi pz)dv. If the body is acted
on besides by attractions or
direction of the z-axis
is
repulsions,
whose component
is
in
the
X, the element dv
also acted on
by the
component of force X.dv.p, where p is the density of the body. Hence the .r-component of the acting forces is
(dXjVx + VXJVy + VXfiz + pX)dv.

of the
motion occurs in the direction and the momentum imparted to the part of the body under consideration in unit time is pdvd-(x + g)/dt? pdvd'2 g/dt 2 where t denotes the time. Hence we have
If this resultant is not equal to zero,
.T-axis,
,
= VXJdx + VXJciy + "dXJdz + P X.
90
If the

components of
(b),
[CHAP.
ir.
stress
are
expressed by
ry,
and
as
in
XXX.
(a)
we
obtain the equation

p
= (* + /*) 39/3* + )"V 2 + pX
are similar. The equations for V) and As in XXX. (e) the equations (a) take the form - 3/* /3y) + /oA'. + 2/*) 36/3x +
(b)
p= (A
X=
2/i(3A,/3
AT,
If the force
if
whose components are

-3*/3a:,
F,
and
2T
has a potential, and
therefore
F= -3/3y,
= -3/3*,
#,
by differentiation of equation and by addition, we have

(c)
(b) with respect to
y, 2
respectively,
Pe
= (A + 2/*)V 2 ethat no
zero.
/>V
2
.
In what follows
the components X,
we assume
Y,
external forces act, so that
are
Therefore
V 2^
drops out of
equation
(c).
SECTION
XXXV.
PLANE WAVES IN AN INFINITELY EXTENDED BODY.
Lame* treated this form of motion in the following way. Suppose a plane wave propagated in a direction which makes the angles a, J3, y with the axes; let the velocity of propagation be V, and let the
If u direction of vibration make with the axes the angles a, b, c. represents the distance of a point from its position of equilibrium, the amplitude, and T the period of vibration, the vibration at the At any other point, origin may be expressed by u= Ucos(2trt/T).

(a)
x,
y,
z,
we have
tfcosW.
= u cos a,
rj
We
(b)
have further
= u cos b,
= ti cos c.
If the angle
between the direction of propagation and the direction

is
of vibration
represented by <,
cos
<f>
we have = cos a cos a + cos bcos/3 + cos c cos y.
For brevity we
set
**,
tfsin
1'elasticit^, p.
jar/
Lame, Theorie de
138.
Paris, 1866.
SECT, xxxv.]
PLANE WAVES.
91
and obtain
2 z 9 = 2KS/T V. cos u/T V- .cos a. cos & 36/ar = - 47r 2 M/r 2 cos a. V 2 = - 47r 2 M/r 2 V1 cos a,
</>,
. .
By
we
the help of these relations and corresponding ones for obtain from XXXIV. (a)
r
t\
and
(A +
p.)
cos a cos
<
+ (p. - pV2 ) cos a = 0,

+ (/x - pV2 )
by
cos
a,
<
(c)
I
(A
+ /*) cos y
cos
<
cos
= 0.
cosy respectively and then added, we have (X + 2/X-/3/72 ) cos = 0. We therefore have either (d) (e) pV'2 = \ + 2fj. or cos< = 0. In the first case, equations (c) become
cos/2,
If these equations are multiplied
cos a
If the right
= cos a cos <,

and
cos b
= cos (3 cos <,

<
cos
= cos 7 cos
<.
of these equations are squared and added, we obtain (f) cos 2 (/>=l, so that either = or = TT. The vibrations therefore occur in the direction of propagation ; they are called
left sides
<
= JTT, that is, the vibraIn the second case longitudinal vibrations. tions are perpendicular to the direction of propagation ; they are called transverse vibrations.
<
Longitudinal Vibrations. vibrations is determined
The
by
velocity
(g)
tt
of propagation
12
of these
(d),
= <J(\ + '2/j.)lp.
Hence con-
densations and rarefactions occur, since
To determine
case
the stresses
we assume
that the waves are propagated

0-axis.
in the direction of
one of the coordinate axes, say the

17
In this
we have
(b) the tangential forces are zero
.
.
From XXX.
(h)
(i)
X
w = x//Vp.
have
C=Ucos{27r/T.(t-z/^)}. the normal = Y, = 27rX/7'I2 U sin { 2^/T (t - g/Q)}. x

; t
= 0,
= 0,
forces are
Z = 2v(\ + 2p)/TQ.
Transverse Vibrations.
Usin{2Tr/T.(t-z/tt)}.
The
for
(k)
Since,
velocity of propagation w, from (c), equals these vibrations, we have cos< = 0, we
also
9 = 0,
is
that
is,
neither condensations nor rarefactions occur.

2-axis,
If the
propagated in the direction of the vibrations are parallel to the .T-axis,
wave
and
if
the
=
force
Ucos{2ir/T.(t-z/^)},
77
= 0,
}.
=0.
All components of stress vanish with the exception of the tangential
Za
(1)
Zx = 2^/T^ .Usin{ 2v/T. (t - z/w)
92
In a

solid, therefore,
[CHAP. n.
two
different
^re propagated with different velocities
wave motions may exist, which 12 and u>. From formulas
(g) and (k) the velocity 12 of the longitudinal vibrations is always In liquids greater than the velocity w of the transverse vibrations. and gases the only vibrations which can occur are longitudinal, since
for these bodies
p.
= 0.
For gases we have A. =J PJXXIX. (g)], and hence the velocity of sound in air is (m) 12 = *JP/p. P must here be expressed in absolute units. According to Regnault the density of atmospheric air at Paris equals 0,0012932 under a pressure of 76 cm. of mercury, and
At a temperature of 0C. Since the acceleration of gravity at Paris is 980,94, the pressure of the air on a square centimetre equals
76.13,596.980,94
in absolute units.
Hence the density p of the
air under a pressure
in absolute units is
.
<n)
= 0,001 293 P/76
13,596. 980,94
cm, or approximately Using this value of P/p we obtain 280 metres per second at 0C. Since the density of the air at f C is p = P. 1,2759. 10~ 9 /(l+af) the velocity of sound at f is
= P. 12 = 27 996
9 1,2759 .-lO'
where a is the coefficient of expansion of air 0,00 366. The result obtained from this form of the theory does not agree with that found Observation shows that 12 is about 330. The by observation.
reason
why
later in the
theory and observation are not in accord will be discussed theory of heat.
The velocity of sound in water is obtained in a similiar manner. For water at 15 C. we have A = 2,22. 10 10 At the same temperature we have P = 0,999 173, whence 12 =149 060 cm. In a research carried out on the Lake of Geneva, Colladon and Sturm found that the velocity of sound in water at 8,1C. is 12 = 143 500 centimetres; the difference between the observed and calculated
.
values is explained by the difference in temperature, since A. increases rapidly for water as the temperature rises.* No observations have been made on wave motions in large masses
of metal
wire.
In such a body, however, sound
but the velocity of sound has been determined in a metallic is propagated with a different
the wire
If velocity from that which it would have in an extended body. is parallel to the z-axis, and if we consider only the motion
of the particles in the direction of this axis, the stress Z, at the distance z from the .r//-plane is, in our usual notation, Zt =
*
Fogliani
und
Vicentini, Wied. Beibl.
Bd.
8.
S. 794.
SECT, xxxv.]
WAVE
(z
t
MOTIONS.
is
93
At the
distance
+ dz)
the stress
.
Z + dZJdz
dz = E(dffd3
+ 32
/32
dz).
Hence a portion of the wire whose length is dz and whose cross section is A, is acted on by a force given by AE&ydz2 dz. The 2 = F2 3 2 t/9.s 2 equation of motion is pA dz. ^=AEî/dz dz or (o) where V=jE/p. The integral of the differential equation (o) is =cos {2ir/T. (t-zlV)} the velocity of propagation Vis obtained (p)
. .
from equation
(p).
According to the researches of Wertheim the velocity calculated from (p) agrees fairly well with the results of observation.
SECTION
Spherical
XXXVI.
OTHER WAVE MOTIONS.

investigate
Waves.
We
will
the
circumstances
of the
propagation of spherical waves in an infinitely extended elastic body, when the direction of vibration of every particle passes through the
same
in
(a)
point.
(b)
We
we
take this point as the origin of coordinates.

set
As
XXXI.
= 30/3a,
e
i7
= 30/3y,
t
where
origin.
is
an unknown function of
=30/3*, and of the distance
from the
The equations of motion [XXXIV. (b)] give (b) = Q 2 V 2 <. In this case [XV. (1)] we may set V 2 = !/? 32 (r0)/3r2 and hence 2 2 = 2 fi 2 3 2 This equation is satisfied by (c) 3 (r<)/3< (r<)/3r
<
.
(d)
= a/r.cos{27r/r.(*-r/fl)},
is
when a is a constant and T the period of vibration. The distance u of a point from its position of equilibrium
u = 30/3r = 2 fl/r
.
cos
^JT
(t
r/fl)}
îrafBr sin {2-n-fT.

.
(t
r/Q)},
where
B=
lT.
If r is
first
can neglect the
very much greater than the wave length we term on the right, and have
u = A/r.sin{-27r/T.(t-rltt)}.
The wave motion
is
therefore one in which the
wave
surfaces are
spheres propagated with the velocit}^ 12. Since the expressions (a) satisfy the equations of motion, if <f> has the value given in (d), these equations are also satisfied if </> is replaced by 30/3x, or by another differential coefficient taken with respect
to one or
more coordinates. Due to Torsion. Let the axis of a coincide with the 2-axis, and its separate parts
Vibrations
circular
oscillate
cylinder in arcs
94
about the same

axis.
[CHAP. n.
The components
<
of displacement of a particle
{e)
expressed [XXXII. (a)] by is a function of z. =0, where = 0; therefore condensation and From XXVIII. (e) we have The equations of motion are [XXXIV. (a) rarefaction do not occur.
from
its
position of equilibrium
fi
may be
-<^y,
= <t>x,
and
XXXV.
<
(k)],
= w2 V 2
<j>
77=0,^,,
.
= w?'d2 <t>/'dz'2 This equation is satisfied whence we again obtain (f) = asin {27T/T. (t-zjw)}. Hence w = v//x//j is the velocity by (g) with which a wave motion is propagated in the direction of the
axis of the cylinder.
From XXX.
where
(b) the
components of
.
stress are
Zt = - Apx,
X = + AM
z
A = Zira/Tta
cos {2ir/T.
(t
- z/u)}.
The other components

it,
of stress are zero.
If the cylinder is of finite length, stationary waves can exist in that is, waves such that certain definite points of the cylinder
called nodal points are at rest, while on both sides of a nodal point the vibrations are in opposite phase. The amplitude of the vibration is greatest half way between two nodal points, at the ventral segments. Stationary waves are formed when waves which have passed over a
certain point return to that point again in the opposite direction. To find the period T of these vibrations, we notice that equation (f)
will
be satisfied not only by

in general
<
(g),
but also by
<}>
= b sin{2?r/T.
.
(t
+ z/>)},
and
by
cos (ZirzjTu)
= B sin 27rt/T.
C,
+ Ccos (2irt/T)
sin (2vz/T<o),
where B,
fixed, the
T are constants. If the points for which ^ = are constant B will be zero and (i) <j>=Ccos (2vtjT) sin (2irz/Tw).
and
.
If
.z
represents the length of the cylinder, and if the points for which = when z = l, and therefore l are also fixed, we will have
<
pTr,
where
is
a whole number.
Hence
If,
on the other hand, one end of the rod
is free,
Y =X =
z 2
when
I.
.Since
X
a whole
= -w
3</a?,
Y =+IM.
Z
3<f>/'dz,
we have
j?
is
= when z = l. 9</3.z In this case we obtain from equation
(i) 2irl/T<a
= ^(2p+
1).
TT,
where
both
number; and hence ends of the rod are free, T=2l/
T=M/(2p+ 1).
v//>//x.
If
SECT, xxxvii.]
VIBRATING STRINGS.
SECTION XXXVII.
95
VIBRATING STRINGS.
is
Although the problem of the motion of vibrating strings

slightly connected with the theory of elasticity, a of this form of motion will be considered here.
only
simple example suppose a
We
and perfectly flexible string stretched between two fixed points If B. is the stress in the string, / the length of the string before
applied,
the application of the stress, and / its length while the stress is p the cross section of the string, E the coefficient of elasticity,
we have 1-1 P1 /FE. Let the string be slightly moved from its and position of equilibrium, that is, the straight line which joins B, and let the new form of the string be designated by ACDB. By this deformation the length of the string is increased by dl = dP 1 'FE.
It is here
assumed that dP
is infinitely
small in comparison with P,
we may set the stress in the string everywhere equal to P. For the sake of simplicity we suppose that the motion of the Let A be the origin string is always in one plane, say the z#-plane. of coordinates, and let B lie on the a>axis at the distance I from A. The distance of any point C of the string from A may be represented by 5, and that of the infinitely near point D by s + ds. The components of stress at C in the directions of the x- and y-axis respectively are Pdx/'ds and P'dy/'ds. For the point D the similar components are
so that
PCdx/'ds
+ 'd-x/^s 2
.
ds)
and P(byl^s + 3 2y/3s2
ds).
infinitely short portion CD of the string is therefore acted on by the force P^x/cts- ds in the direction of the z-axis, and by the force P&y/'ds 2 ds in the direction of the y-axis. If the string
The
is
can set
displaced only very slightly from s = x; the z-component then
its
position of equilibrium,
we
vanishes and
the string oscillate perpendicularly to the z-axis. m mass of unit length of the string, the equation of motion
the particles of If represents the

is
or, if
we
set
is
ma? = P,
(b)
(a)
ij
= a 2 d*y/3a:2
.
equation
number.
When
y= 2=
A H cos (mrat/l)
y=
The integral of this differential sin (mrx/l), where n is a whole

.
and x = l we have y = 0, and when
= 0,
A n sin(mrx/l)
this is the equation of a sinusoid.

If,
in the general case, the
form of the string when
=
...
.
is
given
by the equation y=f(x), then

f(x)
= A l sin (TTX/I) + AZ sin (2irx/l) + A 3 sin
(3vx/l)
96

,
[CHAP. H.
The
coefficients A v A 2 A 3 ... are determined in the following way. Let the general term of the series be A n sinn<f>, where <t> = -xjl. If both sides of the last equation are multiplied by sin <, we will have
/(/^>/7r)sinn^)
=^
sin <sin?t<
+ ^ 2 sin2(sin72< +
...
+ A n sin-n<f> +
....
If this equation is multiplied and IT, we will have limits

ff(l<f>/Tr)
by dfa and integrated between the
sin
n<f>
d<f>
= An
For
if in
~w.
/
and n are
different numbers,
I
we have
n)$)e?<
sin
=\ m<f> sin n<f>d(f>

equal,
/
(cos
(m - w)< - cos (m -f
= 0.
But when they are

(c)
sin%<d<
n<f> d<f>
= ITT.
=
2 //
.
Hence
f(x) sin (nc//)
.
A = 2/7T
/W-) sin
rfz.
for example, the string is so displaced from its position of If, is equilibrium that a point in it at the distance p from the end moved through the distance h in the direction of the y-axis, we have
f(x)
= hxjp
for
< x <p,
p
..
I 2
but f(x)
= h(l - x)j(l -p)

.
for
p<x<
I
/.
Hence
JP
l-p
2
.
and therefore
A n = 2hF/p(l -p)
We
obtain for
y
y,
(sin
^\ /V
.
= 2a%/(a +
l);r
fl/1
[_
2
.
sin -
sin
^
/
cos
/
27r
1/22. sin
^-.cos^+ at
.
sin
where a = Z/p.
If the string
is
struck in the middle,
we have
= 2 and
SECTION XXXVIII.
POTENTIAL ENERGY OF AN ELASTIC BODY.
When
stored
elastic,
body changes its form work will be done. This is up in the body as potential energy if the body is perfectly which we will assume to be the case. The work necessary
an
elastic
to bring about a particular change
gained by the body, and
may
is equal to the potential energy be determined in the following way.
SECT,
xxxvni.]
1
VIBRATING STRINGS.
97
Let A', B and C" represent the principal stresses at a point in the body about this point construct the infinitely small parallelepiped,
;
whose edges
u, v
and
ic
are parallel to the principal stresses.
When
iv(l+c').
the stresses are applied, the edges of the parallelepiped are extended,
u becoming u(l+a'), v becoming v(l+b'), and From XXIX. (e) we have
iv
becoming
A'
If
a',
b'
= A9' + 2/iw',
B"
= A6' + 2/aJ',
C'
= A9' + 2/xc'.
and dc
respectively,
and
c'
change by the increments
da', db'
the edges of the parallelepiped are increased by uda, vdb' and wdc', and the parallelepiped undergoes an infinitely small change of form.
The
forces which act in the directions of the edges are vwA', uwB' and uvC". Hence the work done by the stresses during the change of form is
(A'da
since
+ B'dV +
C'dc')uvw
0'
= ( A6W + ^(a'da + b'db' + c'dc'))uvw, = a' + b' +

c'.
the form of the parallelepiped by an determined by the elongations a, b, c, the work

4(
To change
amount which
is
A6 2 + 2/n(a 2 + b2 + c2))uvw
of the whole body
2
must be done.
If
we
set dv for the
the potential energy

(a)
Ep
volume uvw of the parallelepiped, is given by
^ = |J(Ae
Ep = ^{(A +
+ 2/>i(a 2 + & 2 + c2 ))cfo.

C [XXIX.
(e)],
If
we
introduce the principal stresses A, B,
we have
(b)
+ C) 2 /E-(AS +
C+CA)lfi}dv.
this equation (b) the potential energy is determined, the components of stress and of elongation are known. We confine ourselves to the statement of the following relation,
By
(c)
Er = i Jfe + Yjy, + Z z + *Zjs, + 2A>, + 2YjJdr,

:
z
from which the others can easily be deduced. Galileo was the first to study the properties of
failed,
however, to reach correct
theory of elasticity was given by a treatise, De potential restitutira, in which he showed by experiment that the changes of form of an elastic body are proportional to the
forces applied to
it.
elastic bodies; he physical basis for the Eobert Hooke, Avho in 1678 published
results.
The
Among
earlier investigations those of Mariotte
and Coulomb deserve
especial mention.
More
recently the theory
of elasticity has been developed principally
by the French mathematicians, Cauchy, Poisson, Lame, Barr6 de Saint-Venant, and others.
98

owe
to
[CH. u. SECT,
xxxvin.
We
form here given.

elasticity
Cauchy the theory of the components of stress in the For more extended accounts of the theory of
Paris, 1866.
we may mention Lame,

Leipzig, 1862.
des Carps Bolides.
Theorie Mathe'matique de V Elasticity Clebsch, Theorie der Elasticitdt fester
Korper.
Among
et
the more important recent treatises

:
on the theory of
Paris, 1885.
elasticity
we mention
Boussinesq,
Application des
Potentiel a I'Etude de I'Equilibre
du mouvement des
Solides Elastiques.
M6m.
d.
sav.
Mr.
Barr6 de Saint- Venant, Me'moire sur la Torsion des Prismes. T. XIV. Paris, 1856 ; Mtmoire sur la Flexion des
I.,
Prismes.
Liouville
1856.
William
Phil.
Thomson, Elements
London,
of
Mathem. Theory of
Elasticity.
Tr.
1856; Dynamical
Problems on Elastic Spheroids. Phil. Tr. London, 1864. Further researches on the theory of elasticity have been carried out in recent years by W. Voigt.
CHAPTER
III.
SECTION
XXXIX.
THE
and gases on the other

is
principal difference between solids on the one hand and liquids consists in the fact that the latter do not,
change of form. A force always needed to change the form of a fluid mass, but the resistance offered by the fluid is determined by the rate at which the change
like the former, offer a great resistance to
of form
slowly.
proceeds, and
will
be infinitely small
if it
proceeds very
We
equilibrium is assume, in hydrostatics, that a fluid offers no resistance to change of form, so long as this does not involve change of volume.
assume that the motion by which the condition of attained proceeds very slowly, and we may therefore
Each infinitely small change of form of an infinitely small part of the body may [XXVIII.] be treated as if it were produced by the dilatations The lengths b, c in three directions perpendicular to each other. u, v, w drawn in these three directions become u(\ + a), v(l +b), w(\ +c). If A, B, C are the corresponding normal forces per unit of surface which act on the surfaces vw, uw, iw respectively, the work done by the normal forces in this change of form is
,
Avwua 4- Buwvb + Cuvwc

The change
or
(Aa + Bb + Cc)u .v.w.
of form considered will, in general, involve an increase of volume, given by uvw(\ + a}(\ +b)(l +c) - uvw. Since a, b, c are
infinitely small, the
if
increment of the volume equals (a + b + c)u. v. w, neglect infinitely small quantities of a higher order. If we start from the assumption that the work done by the forces
we
equals zero
if
the volume
is
not changed,
b
we have
at
the same
time
true
Aa + Bb + C'c = Q and only if A = B = C.
a+
+ c = 0.
These equations can both be
100
for the
t
[CHAP. in.
The equations
There
If
components of
Z,
stress
[XXVI.
(i)]
give
X
we
start
=Y, = Z, and
= 0,
X, =
0,
Yx = 0.
are, therefore,
no tangential forces in a
fluid in equilibrium.
from the condition that the only forces which act on

perpendicular to their surfaces,
all
fluids in equilibrium are
same result, namely, that the normal stresses are show this we set Zy = Q, A'2 = 0, 1^ = 0, and have, from XXVI. (a),
we reach the To equal.
P=X
cosa,
Q=Y,cos/3,
fi
= Z;Cosy.
P, Q and R are the components of stress for a surface whose normal The stress acting on this makes the angles a, (3, y with the axes. is determined by surface is <JP- + Q- + R\ the normal force
N= Pcosa + Qcosfi + R cos

The
tangential force
y.
T
Q*
is
T-
= (P2 +
Introducing the values of P,
+ R2 } - (P cos a + Q cos P + R cos y) 2 Q and R, we have

cos'y
2
(X,
2 2 2 F,) cos a cos j3
and hence
+ (Yy - Zy- cos 2 =Z Xx =Yy

z
.
+ (Z - Xx )* cos 2
cos 2 y
= 0,
,
From
that
is,
the
the expression given above for N, it follows that X normal force acting on a surface-element in the interior of
N=X
the fluid is independent of the position of the element.
If we neglect the force of cohesion of the fluid, which will be treated later, the normal force will be a pressure ; if this is designated
by
(a)
p,
we have
X,=
is
Y,
= Z,= -p;
fluid,
Zv = 0,
we
X, =
Q,
Yx = 0.
XXV.
(c)
If p
the density of the
obtain from
the condi-
tions of equilibrium
(b)
"dp/fa
= pX,
dp/'dy
= pY, oppz = P Z.
The components
of the force acting on the unit of mass are A", Y, Z; we may
consider p as constant in liquids in gases is a function of the pressure.

;
Equations
(b)
may also
be developed in
/C
~B'
the following way. Represent the sides of the parallelepiped 00' (Fig. 46) by
OA=dx,
OB = dy,
OC = dz.
.
The pressure on OA' ispdydz, the pressure on O'A is (p + "dp/dx dx)dydz. The resultant of the pressures is the pressure - "dp/*dx .dx.dy.dz in
SECT, xxxix.]
The
force
101
the direction of the a-axis.
pXdxdydz also acts on the
The condition of equilibrium parallelepiped in the same direction. is therefore ( - 'dp/'dx + pX)dxdydz = 0, from which we obtain the first
of equations
for this are
(
(b).
If equilibrium obtains,
p must
satisfy equations (b)
the conditions
1
These equations will hold
(d)
if
a function
4> exists,
such that
= -d3>px pX,
(c)
= -d3>py pY,
?&fiz = f>Z.
;
Equations
are satisfied,
are the essential conditions of equilibrium
if
they
p may be determined from the equation dp = p(Xdx + Ydy + Zdz).

have a potential
i/s,
If the forces
so that
will have (e) dp= - pd^. In gases p is a function of In the latter case constant.
we
p we
in liquids p
obtain
(f)
may be considered p = c - pif>, where c is
constant.
SECTION XL.
EXAMPLES OF THE EQUILIBRIUM OF FLUIDS.
The conditions of equilibrium of a liquid mass contained in a vessel, and acted on by gravity only, may be determined in the
following way Suppose the position of the particles of the liquid referred to a system of rectangular coordinates, whose 2-axis is directed
:
perpendicularly upward
we then have
X = 0,
and therefore $ = gz.
F-0,
Z=-g,
Since the density p is considered constant, equilibrium can obtain under the action of gravity. From XXXIX. (f) we have p = c-gpz. Hence the pressure at the same level is every-
where the same. We now determine

rotates
The
the pressure in a liquid contained in a vessel, which with constant angular velocity w. about a perpendicular axis fluid will turn, like a solid, about the axis with the same
angular velocity as that of the vessel. A particle at the distance r from the axis
gravity and
is
acted on both by
is
by a
centrifugal
force
whose acceleration
w 2 r.
We
102
refer
it
EQUILIBEIUM OF FLUIDS.
to a system of rectangular coordinates
[CHAP. HI. SECT. XL.
perpendicularly upward, We then have
whose 2-axis is directed and coincides with the axis of rotation.
X=tfx,
and the potential ^
sure
is is
Y=^y,
z
Z=-g,
From XXXIX.
(f) the presof constant pressure are paraboloids of revolution with the common axis A. will make a third application of the conditions of equilibrium
^=
-%<a
r-
+ gz.
2 p = c + p( Jw'V - gz).
The
surfaces
We
to the determination of the pressure in the atmosphere. suppose gravity directed toward the centre of the earth, its acceleration y - ga?/f2 where g is the acceleration may then be expressed by
We
7=
at the surface of the earth, a the earth's radius,
and
r the distance
then have of the point considered from the centre of the earth. 2 If the temperature is constant p = k.p, where k is con\}/= -ga /r.
stant.
We
We
have then
[XXXIX.
(e)]
dp=
If,
-k.pdif* or log p
is
= c - k^.
p
,
at the earth's surface, the pressure
have logpQ = c-k$
and Iog(pjp) = k(\f'-^
difference r-a is very small in = Iog(p /p) = kgh, where h r a is the height of the point considered above the earth's surface, and k is equal to 1,2759 10~ 9 for dry air
.
and the potential we = kg(ar-a 2 )/r. If the comparison with a, we can set
/,
at
0C.
CHAPTER
IV.
MOTION OF FLUIDS.
SECTION XLI. EULER'S EQUATIONS or MOTION.
IN the study of the motion of fluids very serious difficulties are encountered, and thus far only a few problems have been completely
solved.
In the following chapter
we
will consider only the so-called
and therefore neglect the friction between their moving particles and the forces of adhesion and cohesion, which will be treated later. We further assume that the fluids considered are incompressible, and thus limit our discussion to liquids, which are only
ideal fluids,
slightly compressible.
On
these assumptions several characteristics
of the motion of liquids may be derived. As the study of the motion of gases is extremely difficult, and as little success has so far been
obtained in
fluid the path of each separate particle, as well as the position of the particle in the The coordinates x, y, z of the path at any instant, may be given.
it, we will not enter upon it here. For a complete determination of the motion of a
particle
M may
is expressed in terms of the components of velocity, which according to circumstances shall be designated by U, V, W, or u, v, w. to Suppose U, F, be the components of velocity of a particular particle of the fluid
An
easier
method
be given as functions of the time t. is one in which the motion
if
the particle at the time t is situated at P and at the time / + dt at P', will be the components of velocity at the point P, and U, V,
dU TT U+ llt dt
lt
>
dV r V+ lTt dt
lt
>
d,W,. W +-^
,
the components of velocity at P. The quantities dU, dF, represent the increments which U, V, respectively receive during the time dt, if our attention is confined to the motion of a particular
dW
particle.
103
104
MOTION OF FLUIDS.
[CHAP.
iv.
The other symbols, u, v, iv, represent the components of velocity at a definite point in space, where one particle replaces another in the course of the motion. If x, y, z are the coordinates of the point
considered, u, v, w are the components of velocity of a particle situated at that point at the time t. After the lapse of the time dt the same
point
are
is
occupied by another particle, whose components of velocity
u + du/'dt.dt,
+ 'dv/'dt.dt,
w + 'dw/^t.dt.
particle situated, at the time t, at a point whose coordinates are x + dz, y + dy, z + dz, has a velocity whose projection on the ,r-axis is
The
u, v,
velocities u,
v,
+ 'du/'dx dx + "dufdy dy + "dufdz w are everywhere functions

.
.
dz.
of
x,
y,
and
/.
If
are the components of velocity, at the time /, at the point P, whose coordinates are x, y, z, the components at the time t + dt at
another point P, whose coordinates are x + dx, y + dy, z +
dz, will
be
u + 'du/'dt
dt
+ 'du/'dx
dx + "dufdy dy +
.
'du/'dz
dz, etc.
If the fluid particle is situated at the time t + dt at P', then we have and
at
P
.
and at the time
U=u
.
U+ d U/dt .dt = u+ oupt

or (a)
dt
d U/dt = Vu/?)t + Vu/'dx

its
is
+ 'duj'dx dx + ^fdy dy + 'du/'dz dz, dx/dt + 'du/'dy dyfdt + 'dufdz dz/dt.

.
.
The
particle
considered traverses the distance PP' in the time
dt,
hence
velocity
PF/dt, the projections of which on the coordinate

dy/dt
.
axis are evidently dxfdt = u,
= v,
dz/dt
.
= w.
Thus we obtain
.
d U/dt = 'du/'dt + u du/'dx + v
'du/'dy + w
'du/'dz.
The equations for dVjdt and dlVjdt are similar. To find the equations of motion of a fluid let us
cut from
it
parallelepiped dw, whose edges are dx, dy, dz, and on which a force acts whose components are X, Y, Z. In the time dt the parallelepiped receives an increase of momentum, whose components are
pXdudt,
pYdwdt,
the
pZdwdt,
when p denotes the density of The pressure p acting at the

a former chapter, imparts to
fluid.
dto
point .r, y, z, as has been shown in the components of momentum

.
'dp/'dx'. d<adt,
'dp/'dy
dwdt,
ty/'dz dwdt.
.
body receives, in unit time, an increment of velocity whose components are dU/dt, dVjdt, dWjdt, and hence we have
the action of these forces the
(b)
Under
SECT.
XLL]
MOTION OF FLUIDS.
we then
obtain
105
By
the help of equations (a)

f "duj'dt
(c)
+ udul'dx + v'dufiy + wdttfiz = X- l/p.'dp/'dx, i.'dv fit + u*v fix + vdv fiy + wdv fiz=Y-l/p. Vpfiy, = Z -\jp. *dpfiz. \ "divfit + tidwfiz + vdwfiy + wdwj'dz
These equations are due to Euler, and are known as Euler's Equations To them must be added the so-called equation of continuity,
is
of Motion.
which
found in the following way

dt,
The
parallelepiped receives in
;
the time
loses,
and fluid pudydzdt through the opposite face, the quantity (pu + 'd(pu)j'dx.dx)dydzdt. The difference between the quantities flowing through the two surfaces, which indicates a loss of fluid, if ~d(pu)fix dx is positive, will be
through the face dydz, the quantity of
.
3(ptt)/3a;
do>
dt.
a similar argument applied to the two other pairs of faces it appears that the total difference between the quantities of fluid which
By
leave
and enter the parallelepiped
is
.
The
(d(pu)fix + ^(pv)fiy + -d(pw)fiz)d< dt. parallelepiped at first contained the quantity p
do>
.
after the
lapse of the time dt it contains the quantity (p + ~dpfit d)d<a ; the difference of these two quantities is -~dpfit.dw.dt. By equating these two expressions for the same quantity we get the equation of
continuity (d)
"dp fit is
+ ^pujfix + ?>(pv)fiy + ^(pw^fiz = 0.

'dU'/'dx
If the density
p of the fluid
(e)
constant, the equation of continuity
becomes
+ "dofiy + Vwfiz = 0.
Euler's equations are specially suited to investigations of the motion If the surface of the fluid in fluid masses with fixed boundaries.
changes there will be points which will lie sometimes within and sometimes without the fluid the velocity at such a point cannot be determined by the method here given. Lagrange's method is the one
;
then employed. In equations

tities u, v, 10
To
(c)
this
we
will return later.
and
(e)
there are contained four
unknown quan-
and
p, for
whose determination we have four equations
To determine the constants of integration the conditions of given. the motion of the fluid must be given at a definite time. If the
is bounded by a fixed surface, the components of velocity in the direction of the normals to the bounding surface are zero. If u, v, w are the components of velocity of a particle at the boundary of
fluid
the fluid, and

a,
ft,
if
the normal to the bounding surface makes the angles
7 with the axes,
we have
(f )
u cos a
+ v cos ft + w
cos 7
= 0.
106
SECTION
MOTION OF FLUIDS.
XLIL
[CHAP.
iv.
TRANSFORMATION OF EULER'S EQUATIONS.
In k fluid in motion an elementary parallelepiped, whose edges are originally dx, dy, dz, not only changes its position in space but may also rotate and change its form at the same time. Its motion
at
any instant is determined by the components of velocity u, r, v: ; the rotations and changes of form may be determined in the following way In the theory of elasticity the component of rotation h x of such
:
= and rf are the expressed by h x ^(dC'/'dy ty'/'dz), if infinitely small changes of the coordinates z and y introduced by the motion. We may set = iv.dt, rj' = v.dt, and obtain
an element
'
is
'
If
is
the corresponding angular velocity,
we
will
have h x = %. dt
and hence
(a)
(3tp/By-a0/az);
for
t]
77
=$
may
be derived in the same way as the
The equations
first;
,
and
are the components of angular velocity in a rotation about the three coordinate axes.
/,
If
no rotation exists in the
fluid,
we have
= y = {=Q
or
These equations are the conditions for the existence of a function of x, y, z and t which has the property that
it
4>
3^/Da;,
= - 3</9y,
v.
tr
= - "d^fdz.
velocity potential,
This function
</>
is
called
by
Helmholtz the
since
the components of velocity U, v, w, are related to each other in the same way as the components of a force if it has a potential.
The equation of continuity [XLI. (e)], on the assumption that a velocity potential exists and that the fluid is incompressible, becomes
*
= V 2 = Q.
<t>
The
velocity h of a particle
is
From
The
equations a
it
follows that
(c)
'du['dy
= 'dv/'dx - 2
4-
'du/'dz
= 'dtv/'dx + 2r
'dpjox.
first
of equations XLI.
.
becomes
.
dw/3*
+ 2(ui) - vQ + u
may
f 3tt fit
\
'du/'dx
+v
dr/da:
'dwj'dx
= X-l/p.
This equation
be written
We
+ 2(v) rfl = have similarly

-
X - 1 Ip
-dv fit
+2
-w)=Y-\lp.
SECT. XLII.]
VORTEX MOTIONS.
107
the velocity of a particle. "We may eliminate p from equations (b) by differentiating the second of those equations with respect to z, and the third with respect to y and subtracting.
is
where h
We
thus obtain
If we use the equation of continuity 'du/'dx + 'dv/'dy + 'dw/'dz = 0, and the relation following from (a) 3/3z + cfy/3?/ + 3/?z = 0, we obtain
3/3< + u 3/3z + v 9/3y + w m'dz . .
'du/ox
- rj
'duf'dy
If & 7/' represent the components of rotation at a point in the region containing the fluid at the time /, we may use &, H, Z to represent the components of rotation of a particle at the time t + dt,
whose components at the time t were The connection between the components and &, H, Z may 77, be established in the same way as that previously used to find the relation between the velocity at a point in space and the velocity of a particle of the fluid. We have
.
-rj,
= S,
Using
(c)
dS/dt = 3/3rf +
this equation
we
obtain
rj
.
dS/dt =
any point in
'du/'dx +
-duj-dy
'du/'dz
+ tfdZ/'dy and
if therefore
If at any time no rotation

at
exists in the fluid,
= y = =0
the fluid, a rotation
may
still
be set
no potential. If, on the other hand, that -W/oz and
and
up if Z and Y have have a potential so
Z=
besides
rotation
If have dSjdt = 0. -o/'dx, we have dU/dt = Q and dZ/dt = Q. Hence no In can be set up in an ideal fluid if the fwces have a potential
F=-3/3y,
we
will
X=
which rotate already continue to which do not rotate from the beginning will never was first given by v. Helmholtz.
this case, the particles
rotate, but the particles

rotate.
This theorem
SECTION XLIII.
VORTEX MOTIONS AND CURRENTS

it
IN A FLUID.
In researches on the motion of fluids
is
important to observe
whether the particles rotate or We then have cortex motion.

(a)
not.
If there is rotation it is called
=$
this
it
From
follows at once that (b)

is
equation of continuity
(c) 'du/'dx
3/3z + 3^/3y + 3f/3^ = 0. + 'dv/'dy + 'dw/'dz = 0.
The
108
If the forces
MOTION OF FLUIDS.
have a potential
C
[CHAP.
iv.
it
follows from equations

.
XLIL
(c)
that
dS/dt =
3n / cte + 17
'dw I'dy
(d)
{
dZ fdt =
,
Sw/dx + 77 dw?/3# +
.
'dwj'dz.
In these equations
point x, y, z; S, H, Z at the .time t is situated at the point x, y, z, but which at the time t + dt is situated at the point x + dx, y + dy, z + dz.
the components of rotation at the are the same components for a particle which
77,
are
the other hand, if the components , 77, are zero at every point a definite instant they are equal to zero at any time, from equations (d). In this case we call the motion a flow. It is
in the fluid at
On
characterized
(e)
by the equations
'dw/'dy
u, v
x,
= Zv/'dz,
?m/dz =
'dw/'dx,
Vvj'dx
= 'du/'dy.
<f>,
From XLII.
and
y,
then have a
t.
velocity potential
which depends
is
in general on
(g)
and
The equation
take the form
of continuity
32 </ar 2 + a^/a^ 8 + a^/a?2 = v-< = o.

XLI.
(c)
Euler's equations
r
X=
Y=
(h)
^pfdy + ^W/Vy + 1 fp
Hence such a motion can

tial
(i)
.
exist only when the forces have a potenIn case this condition holds, we obtain from (h) by integration T= 'd^/'dt - %h? -p/p, where T is a function of the time only.
In order to have a simple example of the two classes of motion just described, we consider the case of an infinite fluid mass, all particles of which move in circles parallel to the zy-plane whose
centres
.z-axis
lie
on the
z-axis.
move with the same
All particles at the same distance from the velocity and in the same sense.
We
w depends -wy, v= +ux, w = 0. only on the distance r of the particle from the z-axis. Since we have = = + and dw/dr. the of conhave then from
XXXVI.
(e)
u=
'du/'dx
xy/r dw/dr
.
'dvj'dy
xy/r
equation
tinuity
is
satisfied,
because
is
'du/'dx
+ "dv/^y
'dv/'dx
0.
In general there
'duj'dy
rotation of the separate particles, since

.
= - (a - y 2/r
=< +
?
dw/dr ;
and therefore
.do>/dr.
Since
= w + x 2 /r dw/dr, = 0, = and u,
.
77
r,
are
independent of z, the equations of motion (d) are satisfied. We assume f = for r <r and =0 for r > r where is a constant.
,
In the
first
case,
we have w = f +
Cjr
2
,
where C
is
new
constant.
SECT. XLIII.]
STEADY MOTION.
109
C must
an infinitely great velocity.
vanish, because otherwise the particles at the axis would have Hence o> = for the part of the fluid
() ,
and whose axis lying within a circular cylinder whose radius is ?coincides with the 2-axis. These fluid particles therefore rotate about
they formed a solid body. If, on the other hand, The and hence {=0, the angular velocity w' will be ot'=C'/r z linear velocity is rw' or C'/r, and therefore inversely proportional to the
the
-axis, just as if
,
r>r
distance of the particle from the axis. On the condition that there is = C'/r 2 no discontinuity in the motion of the fluid, we have for r = r ,
.
Hence
for r
> r we
,
have
rw'
=r
/r.
If r
is
infinitely small
and
infinitely great,
we
obtain a so-called vortex filament.
The
on
its
action of the vortex filament on the surrounding fluid depends = irr , If we set cross-section and its angular velocity.
the velocity h of a fluid particle which does not belong to the vortex is h = rw = m/Trr.
Vortex filaments may have other forms they were first investigated v. Helmholtz,* and afterwards by William Thomson, and several others. We see from this example, that the separate parts of the
;
by
fluid
do not need to turn about themselves as their centres of gravity

:
describe circles
although the fluid surrounding the vortex filament
revolves about the 2-axis, the separate drops, into which the mass may be divided, do not rotate about themselves.
SECTION XLIV.
If the
STEADY MOTION WITH VELOCITY-POTENTIAL.

if
components of velocity are independent of the time, or

<
the condition of motion at any definite point in the fluid does not If a velocity-potential exists, change, the motion is called steady.
we have
forces
set
;
(a)
u=
'd<f>/'dz,
c)(/3y,
w=
-'dtfij'dz,
where
1
<f>
is
function of
x, y,
z only.
The same holds
hence the function
T=
-C, we have
(b)
T V+p/p + $h 2 = C.
for the potential M* of the in XLIII. (i) must be constant. If we
If the only forces
which
= and conclude act are pressures within the fluid, we may set that the velocity of the particles increases as they pass from places
of higher pressure to places of lower pressure, and inversely. For a motion for which there is a velocity-potential, the equation of continuity is (c) V 2 = 0.
<
As an example
rest in
of such a motion,
an
infinitely
extended
fluid.
we will consider a sphere at The particles of the fluid which
* Helmholtz, Crelle's Journal, Bel. 55, S. 25, 1858.
110
MOTION OF FLUIDS.
sphere
[CHAP.
iv.
are at a great distance from the centre of the equal velocities in the same direction.
move with
Let the sphere be placed so that its centre is at the origin of The particles coordinates 0, and let the radius of the sphere be R. is infinite are whose distance r from supposed to move in a
direction
set
r
parallel to the
positive
(d)
2
2-axis
with the velocity

u-^z,
w
.
We
when
Using
to a
the velocity-potential
$=V-
in
Avhich
r
V=
tc
Then (e) u = equation (c) we have
= oo.
-'dF/'dx,
(f)
v= V F=0.
-'dF/'dy, 10 If we set
-'dP jdz +
P=l/r, or equal
differential
coefficient
equation
.r-axis
is
(f)
will
be
of 1/r taken with respect to x, y, or z, the Since the arrangement around the satisfied.
symmetrical,
we
will consider if the
assumption
will satisfy the
given conditions.
surface of the sphere, direction of the radius
The particles of the fluid move over the and hence the component of velocity in the
is
equal to zero,
that
is
(3</>/<3r) r=J j
= 0.
If
we
set
z/r
= cosy, we
cos
y.
have
2 </>=-(? cos y/r -
ra'
cos y
and
d<f>/dr
= 2C cos y/r3
that
w?
From this it follows that (h) C=wQ R*. From equations (d), (g), and (h), it follows
Using equations (e) we obtain u = - %w R3 zx/r>, v = - f w R?zyli*
Q
w=
If
we
set
2
tt,-
t>
= s and
2
+ y = q-,
2
5 3 ^R^Sz^/r - 1/r ) + zr we will have s= -^w^qz/r5

.
If q
and
z are the coordinates of the path of a particle, the equation
may integrate equation (k) and obtain q~(\ -R?/r3 ) = c. If c is constant, this is the equation of a stream line. If c = 0, we will have either r = R or <? = 0; in the first case, we get the equation of a great circle, in the second, the equa,
of the path will be (k) dq/dz = s/w. 2 2 2 Remembering that r = q + z we
tion of the z-axis.
The pressure p may be determined by the help of equation (b). Since ^P = 0, we have p = p(C- ^h'2 ). Now h 2 = u2 + v* + w 2 and hence
,
for a point
on the surface of the sphere we have h = %w q/E. Hence the pressure p on the part of the sphere which lies toward
(>
the positive side of the 0-axis, is as great as that on that part of the sphere which lies on the negative side of the 2-axis ; the moving mass of fluid will therefore impart no motion to the sphere. And
SECT. XLIV.]
LAGRANGE'S EQUATIONS.
Ill
further, a sphere
tion in an infinite
motion.
which moves with constant velocity in any direcmass of fluid experiences no resistance during its This result, which is at first sight so startling, is explained
by the
account.
fact that the resistance offered
by
friction is
not taken into
SECTION XLV.
LAGRANGE'S EQUATIONS OF MOTION.
Suppose a particle P of a fluid to be originally situated at the point whose coordinates are a, b, c, and after the lapse of the time
dt,
to have reached the point

t,
x, y, z.
t
are functions of
a,
b,
c;
if
The general coordinates x, y, z, alone varies in these functions, we
obtain the path of a particular particle. If, on the other hand, we give to the coordinates a, b, c, all possible values, and keep t constant, we have the positions of all the particles of the fluid at the same
time.
fluid
If the
pressure
if
is
by
(b)
p,
and
we
set
designated by p, and the density of the U=x, V=y, JF=z, we obtain from
XLI.
(a)
x = X-l/ P .dp/dx,
ij=Y -Ijp.dpldy,
= Z-l/p.dp/dz.
x,
In order to eliminate the differential coefficients with respect to y, z, we multiply these equations respectively by dx/da, dy/da,
dz/da,
by
-
dx/db, dy/db, dz/db,
and
finally
by
dx/dc, dy/dc, dz/dc.

:
By
(b)
-
addition
f (x
.
we then
get the following equations

dz/'da
X) dx/da + (y-Y). dy/da + (z-Z).

dx/db
dx/dc
+l/p. dp/da = 0,
.
(x-X).
( (x
X]
+ (y-Y). dy/'db + (z-Z). dzjdb + l/p dp/db = 0, + 0/-Y). dy/dc + (z-Z). dz/'dc + l(p. dp/dc = 0,
These equations are due to Lagrange. To these equations there must be added a relation which expresses The particles the fact that the volume of the fluid does not change.
originally
jections of
situated in a
da, db, dc, are at the time
rectangular parallelepiped with the edges t contained in a parallelepiped, the pro-
whose edges are

dx/da da,
.
dy/da da,
.
dx/db
dx/dc
db,
dc,
dy/db db,
.
dz/da da ; dz/db db ;
.
.
dy/dc
dc,
dz/dc
dc.
The volume of the
parallelepiped at the time

dx/da,
dx/db,
dx/dc,
will therefore be
dy/da,
dy/db,
dy/dc,
dz/da
dz/db .dadbdc.
dz/dc
112
Since the
tinuity is
MOTION OF FLUIDS.
fluid
is
[CHAP.
iv.
assumed incompressible, the
equation
of
con-
'dxj'da,
'dy/da,
-dy/cib,
'dy/'dc,
'dz/'da
(c)
-dxj-db,
'dx/'dc,
-dz/Zb
'dzj'dc
=1.
To apply Lagrange's equations, we will consider a fluid mass, which turns with a constant angular velocity <u about the z-axis, directed vertically downward. We then have X=0, F=0, Z = g,
and we
set z
= c,
a = r cos
x = r cos y
(f>,
= r sin
</>,
and
further,
(<f>
= r sin
it
(<
+ (at) = a cos ut -b sin W, + W) = b cos tat + a sin wt.
From
these relations
dx/'da
follows that
= cos (at, = sin (at, ~dy/da

i
1
= - sin (at, = cos (at, ~dy/db

~dx/db
'dx/'dc
'dy/'dc
= 0, =
2 o> a;,
y
is
(a
y,
= 0.
and the equations of
'dp/'dc
The equation
motion
(b)
of continuity (c)
'dp/'da
satisfied
are
= /ooj%,
'dp/'db
= p(a 2 b,
= gp.
Hence we
obtain by integration with that given in XL.
p= C + p(iw2 (a- + J 2 )+^c).
This solution agrees
SECTION XLVI.
WAVE
MOTIONS.
Lagrange's equations may be used to advantage in investigations on wave motions in a fluid acted on by gravity. All the particles
of the fluid
may
;
the x^-plane
let
the
be assumed to move in plane curves parallel to a;-axis be horizontal, and the -axis be directed
perpendicularly downward.
Then,
if
we
set y
= 0, 'dx/'db
If
(b)
9y/3a = 0, dy/3& = l, 3y/3c = 0, we further set p = pP, the equations of

(
= b, we obtain = and y = 0. "dz[db motion given in XLV.
become
x. 'dx/da
,.
dx/'dc
+ (z-g). + (z-g).
'dz/'da
dz/dc
+ ?>P/da = 0, + 'dPj'dc = 0,
and the equation of continuity XLV. (c) takes the form - 'dzj'da "dx/dc = 1
(b)
'dx/'da
.
'dz/dc
Suppose the particle B (Fig. 47), having, while in its position of = c, to move in a circle and equilibrium, the coordinates
OA=a
AB
SECT. XLVI.]
WAVE
centre
is
MOTIONS.
113
particle,
DFE, whose
and
(c)
at C.
Let
be the position of the
represent the angle between

set
CD
and the perpendicular
CE by
0,
BC=s, CD = r.
x
We
then have
Here
and n are constants and
and
are functions of
c.
We
therefore obtain
"dzfda
= 1 + nr cos 0, 'dz/'da = - nr sin 0, 'dxj'dc = 'dr/'dc = 1 + 'dsj'dc + 9r/3c cos 0. "dz/dc

. .
sin 0,
By
these relations, equation (b) takes the form

3s/3e + nr
'dr/'dc
+ {nr(l + 3s/3c) + 3r/3c}

all
cos
= 0.
Since this equation holds for

(d)
values of
or 0,
we have
3s/9e
+ nr.3r/dc =
and 3r/3c + r(l+a*/3c) = 0.
We
(e)
obtain further from equations (a) the relations
-mh:'drl'dcthe last of which

(f)
is transformed by the help of equations (d) into - g + 'dP/'dc = 0. (w gnfrCdrfdc + ( 1 + ^s/'dc) cos } the pressure depends on c only, it follows from (e) and (f) that
If
(g) (h)
m2 = gn, P = gc,
if
the constant
c
sure therefore disappears for free surface of the fluid.
= 0.
is set equal to zero; the presThis condition must hold at the
The paths of the particles are circles. If the time required by the is the period of oscillaparticle to traverse its path is T, that is, if
tion,
we have
m = 27r/7
and
6 = 2ir/T.
114
If
MOTION OF FLUIDS.
X
is
[CHAP.
iv. SECT.
XLVI.
the wave length and h the velocity of the wave,
we
will
have h = Tg/2Tr and h = \/T, from which it follows that h = *Jg\j'2ir and n = 2ir/X. (i)
The motion of the

centre
lies
particle is such that it describes a circle
whose
little
From
the
first
above the position of equilibrium of the particle. of equations (d) we have s= -^nr2 where the con,
stant disappears, since s and r vanish simultaneously. Hence also 2 From the second of equations (d) it follows that (k) s= -7rr /A.
d log r + nd(c + s) = 0, and hence, by integration, log r + n(c + s) = k, when is a constant. if the For a particle on the surface we have c = values of r and s for this particle are designated by E and S, we have log B + nS=k. We have further log (r/E) + n(c + s-S) = Q. The factor c + s-S=H is the perpendicular distance between the centre of the path of the particle considered and the centre of the path of a particle in the surface. We have therefore (1) r = Ee~ Zira x If ds/dc is eliminated from equations (d) we obtain = 0, dr + nr(dc k
;
i'
nrdr)
and by integration
surface
1 ,'n
log r + c
- |nr2 =
.
Tc'.
we have
1/n. log
c
E - ^nE2 = k'
.
For the Hence

.
particles
on the
(m)
= A/27T
log (E/r)
- ir/A (E2 -
r2 ).
The
free surface can be
circular cylinder
thought of as formed by the rolling of a on the under side of a horizontal surface AB (Fig. 48),
FIG. 48.
which
lies
which the particles
over the centres of the paths at the height in the surface describe. The free surface is then
OA = X/2ir
represented by a straight line whose distance from the axis of the cylinder is E,
CHAPTER
V.
INTERNAL FRICTION.
SECTION XLVII.
INTERNAL FORCES.
fluids,
IN the discussion of the motion of

fluid particles has
the friction
is
among
the
not been considered.
Friction
excited in different
degrees between the particles of the fluid when they move among themselves at different rates. In consequence of friction the viscosity of the fluid is more or less great. will try to determine the
We
friction caused
by the motion of the
fluid.
suppose that the particles of a fluid mass are moving in a direction parallel to the ar-axis, and that those situated at the same
will
We
distance from the ar^-plane have the same velocity. The velocity increases in proportion to the distance from the xy-pl&ne. One sheet of the fluid glides over another and thereby gives rise to a definite
resistance, which, according to Newton, may be assumed proportional to the rate of change of velocity with respect to the distance from the ^-plane, so that du/dy = e. The friction between two contiguous sheets is then proporfrictional
tional to the difference of their velocities,
and inversely proportional to the distance between them. We therefore set the
Let 00' (Fig. 49) velocity u <u Q + ey. be a part of the fluid mass ; on each
unit of surface of O'B there acts, in the direction O.r, a tangential force
(a)
T=
//,
p.
du/dy = /*,
of friction.
where
force
is
the
coefficient
FlG
49 -
on .OB' in the direction Ox. Further, the tangential forces T [XXV. (d)] must act on O'A and OA', of which the one acting on O'A is in the direction Oy, and the one acting on OA' is
acts
in the direction yO.
115
116
If the fluid
INTERNAL FRICTION.
mass moves in the direction of the
force
^/-axis
[CHAP. v.
v=v
is
+ e'x,
the tangential
necessary to
produce
with a velocity this motion
T'
=p
force
If both motions exist simultaneously, a tangential dv/dx. acts on the fluid, such that we have
X, = T+T' = iJ.(dujdy + dv/dx).

In order to examine the physical meaning of this expression,
we
z,
will consider a fluid particle, originally situated at the point x, y,
which has moved through an jections on the axes are 7;, and X=p.'dl'dt('dgfiy + 'dii/'dx)
,
infinitely
small distance, whose pro-
We
= 2p.'dz,rdt.
then have u = 3/9/, fl=cty/^, This expression gives
the tangential force which arises from motion in a fluid in terms of the friction. "We may therefore set
Zy =
2[j.
"dzj'dt
v fis),
+ 'div/'dx),
2/t
.
'dyj'dt
ft is
/*(9t>
fix
+ *dufiy).
independent of the pressure. The meaning of the other quantities in (b) is clear without explanation. By the help of the formulas given in (b), we can determine the tangential forces which must act in the fluid to overcome the frictional
"We know by experiment that
resistances.
We
will
now determine
d'
forces
the magnitudes of the normal which are necessary for
J)'
the extension of a viscous fluid

in a given direction. Let the fluid move in a direction parallel
to
(Fig. 50), and let the velocity of a particle situated at the distance i/ from this line be equal
AB
to u.
As +
*y-
before,
we may
set
u=
?/
After the lapse of the time dty
A has traversed the distance u dt,

and G the distance (u + fAC)dt. CC' represents the motion of the
= point C relative to A, and we have CC' e the angle GAG' by d<f>, we have (c) d<f> = f.dt.
.
AC
dt.
If
we
designate
The rectangle EFGH, described in the rectangle ABCD, transforms into the parallelogram EF'G'H', and we determine the increments which the sides and receive by this transformation. Eepre-
EH
EF
by
senting the angle
HEB
^,
and noticing that
HH' and
FF
are
SECT. XLVII.]
INTERNAL FORCES.
1
H7
EF' = EF- FF'sin
+.
parallel to
AB, we have EH' = EH'+ HH 'cos
&
We
further have
HH' = BH.
and hence
d<j>
= EHsint.d<t>, FF' = AF.

EF)/EF
d<j>
= EFcos $
d<t>,
(EH' - EH)/EH= sin ^ cos $d<j> ; = - sin ^ cos ^ty. (P" -
is designated by ds, If the increment of length per unit-length of we have (d) ds = sin ^ cos \W< ; ds is also the diminution of length
EH
per unit-length of EF. To bring about the deformation considered, a tangential force T must act on ABCD, which is, from (a), (e) T=p.e. This force acts
on the surface corresponding to
CD
in the direction
CD, and on that
in the direction BA ; on the other two surfaces corresponding to To determine the the forces act in the directions CA and BD.
AB
normal force
/3
N acting
TT,
on the surface EF, we
'set in
XXIV.
= |TT -
^,
y=
and
X =Y = T.
y x
(a)
a = ^,
Since
all
the other components
of stress are equal to zero,

(f)
we
obtain
N=Pcost + Qsinf = 2TsiniI>cost.

(c)
From
and
(d)
we have
ds = sin
Hence, JV=2/xesin ^cos is acting on the surface

\j/.
EH
^ cos ^ e dt, and from (e) and (f ) we have (g) N=2p..ds/dL The stress -N. It has been shown that a unit of
. .
length, in the direction EF, is increased were to act on the surface of ABCD, it
the deformation; but a normal force
by ds. If a normal stress would have no influence on S+ would act on EF, and a
normal force
S-N
on EH.
If the normal stresses M Y^ Zt act on a rectangular parallelepiped whose edges are parallel to the coordinate axes, when the fluid is in motion, they cause deformations and a change of volume. If, as in the theory of elasticity, we set the volume dilatation Q = xx + y, + za is the of the increase in the direction of the ic-axis then xx -
JO
which -S x
is is
part here considered.
Similarly,
we
set
3S = Xx +
Yy -f Za
and
the part of the normal force in the direction of the which causes the deformation. By the help of (g), we obtain
a;-axis
S a quantity p, which may be considered a If, finally, we set for pressure, on account of its analogy with the pressure in ideal fluids and gases, and remember that xx = 'dl'dx, 'dxt/'dt = 'du/'dx, etc., we will
have
(h)
= -p +
2/j.
'duf'dx
- ^('du/'dx + dv/3y + "dwfdz).
Analogous
expressions hold for
Yy
and
Zf
118
INTERNAL FRICTION.
.
[CHAP. v.
l l The coequation (h) the dimensions of ju, are ML~ T~ It changes has been determined for many fluids and gases. C. very much with the temperature. The following values hold for
From
efficient
p.
Water, 0,01775; Alcohol, 0,01838; Air, 0,000182.
SECTION XLVIII.
EQUATIONS OF MOTION OF A Viscous FLUID.
We
will
now
internal friction. unit of
present the equations of motion of a fluid exhibiting From XXV. the components of stress act on the
in the direction of the x-axis
volume
with the force
(X) = -dXJ-dx + aX,/3y + *dXJVz.

If
is the velocity of a single particle of the fluid in the direction of the z-axis, then pU=(X) +pX, where, in the usual notation, A" denotes the component of force in the direction of the x-axis. From
XL VII. (b) and (h), we have pU=pX- dpfdx + p-V u + (a)

2
/x
3(3tt/3z
+ dv/dy + 'dw/'dz)/'dx.
This equation, and those analogous to it, which hold for the velocities and in the directions of the y- and -axes, are due to Stokes.*
They hold
(b)
in connection with the equation of continuity

3/0/3*
+ 3{pw)/3a; + 'd(pv)/Vy + 3(pw')/^ = 0.

fluid is incompressible,
'du/'dx
We
(c)
assume that the
and have
p(u+u.
(d)
J
{
+u p(w + u
p(v
v
+v +v 'dw/'dx + v
'du/'dx
?>v
fdx
+ 'dv/'dy + 'dw/'dz = 0. = pV 2 u + pX - "dpfdx, 'duj'dy + w 'du/'dz) = /*V 2 ? +pY- 3p/3y, 'dv fdy + w.d>v fdz) w 'dw/'dz) = p.V2 w + pZ - 'dp/'dz. 'dw/'dy +
.
.
The equations
ft
are
simplified
if
the
motion
is
steady,
that
.
is,
if
= 0, w = 0. If the velocity is very small, the terms u 'du/'dx, we then have v 'du/'dy, etc., may be neglected 2 = 0, fj.V 2 v + pY-'dp/'dy = 0, p&w + pZ - 'dp/'dz = 0. (e) nV u + P X-'dpl'dz 2 2^ = If the forces have a potential 0. If we introduce (f) V p + pV
.
= 0,
the components of rotation
= (dw/dy - 'dv/dz),
and
(g)
if
= $(dufdz -
dw/dx),
(e)
the forces have a potential,
we have from
V 2 = 0,
(h)
*
V 2 = 0,
/
V 2 C=0.
Further we have
Stokes, Cambridge Phil. Tr., Vol. vin., p. 297, 1845.
SECT. XLVIII.]
MOTION OF A VISCOUS FLUID.
119
With
particles of the fluid
reference to the boundary conditions, it is assumed that the which are in contact with solid boundaries have
;
no relative motion with respect to them at the boundary of the fluid we have therefore w = 0, v = 0, w = 0, if u, v, and w represent the
components of velocity at the bounding surface. If solids are present in the moving fluid, we may generally assume that each particle in the surface of the solid has the same velocity as the particle of the fluid which is in contact with it.
SECTION XLIX.
FLOW THROUGH
A TUBE OF CIRCULAR
CROSS SECTION.
We
which
consider a viscous fluid

is
moving slowly through a narrow tube,

that
set
horizontal,
so
gravity
does
not influence
z-axis,
it.
the
motion.
Let the axis of the tube be taken as the
that the particles of the fluid
move
parallel to
and suppose We then have
Equations XLVIII.
(a)
(e),
(c)
and
(f)
then become
(b), (c) dw/'dz
9p/a
= 0,
it
3p/3y =
0,
^w^'dp/'dz;
\7
p = 0.
From
pQ
follows that (d) d 2p/dzz (c) are constant.
= Q and p=fa+p
() ,
where
/ and
It follows further from (a) that ju,y%=/. Since w depends on the distance r of the particle from the axis of the tube, we have, since r2 = x 1 + y 2
,
V 2w = d2 w/dr2 + l/r
dw/dr.
Hence we obtain d^/dr^+l/r.dw/dr^f/fjL.
By
.
integration
w = c log r +fr2
Since
/4:fj.
+ WQ
has a
(e)
Therefore
finite value for r = 0, the w = w +fr 2/4/JL, where WQ is

l)
constant
c must, equal 0. the velocity in the axis

l
of the tube.
If the pressure
when
value
all
l,
we have from
in
(d)
of/
equation
(e),
= and to p equal to p when z f=(pi-p )/l- If we substitute this we have w = w -rz (p -pi)/4fd- For
is
.
particles of the fluid
which are
in contact
with the wall of the
tube,
we have w = 0.
have
Representing by
will therefore
0=W -^.(p
-j^)/4/tZ.
the radius of the tube, obtain finally
we
We
120
INTERNAL FRICTION.
[CHAP. v. SECT. XLIX.
The volume
of the fluid which flows in one second

is
through a
cross-section of the tube
given by
.
(f)
m=
2irrdr
w = 7r(pQ -p^W/Spl,
that is, the volume of the fluid is directly proportional to the fourth power of the radius of the tube, inversely proportional to its length, and inversely
proportional
to the
constant
/*.
was the first who investigated the flow of a fluid through narrow tubes ; he was led to results which agree with the above
Poiseuille
formulas.*
* Among recent works on hydrodynamics are to be mentioned Lamb, Treatise the Motion of Fluids. Cambridge, 1879. Auerbach, Die Theoretische Hydrodynamik. Braunschweig, 1881.
:
on
CHAPTER
VI.
CAPILLARITY.
SECTION
L.
SURFACE ENERGY.
THE
mass on which no external forces act is determined by the forces with which its particles act on one another. If the mass is very great, it will take the spherical form, in consequence of
fluid
form of a
the gravitational attraction of its parts ; if, on the other hand, the mass is small, the force of gravitation between the particles will have no perceptible influence. If the force of gravitation can be neglected, the force of cohesion, which acts in every fluid mass, tends to bring it into the same spherical form. From researches which have been made on the mode of action of this force, it appears that it acts only between particles which are at very small distances from one another. The law of its dependence on the distance between the
particles
is
not yet known.
We may
of a
nevertheless develop the laws
of capillarity by the use knowledge of that law.
method which does not require a
If the form of a fluid mass is originally a sphere, work must be done to change it into any other form. If the fluid offers no frictional resistance, this work can be due only to the fluid particles situated in or near the surface since the only particles which can act on a particle at a greater distance from the surface are those which immediately surround it; these either remain in their positions or are replaced by others which act in the same way as those replaced. The work done is therefore expended in adding new particles to those already present in the surface, or, what is the same thing, in
;
To increase the surface S of the fluid by the enlarging the surface. infinitely small quantity dS, the work CdS is necessary ; C is constant
and may be called the
capillary constant.
bodies in general meet in a surface, and C depends on the In the case of a falling raindrop the character of these two bodies.
121
Two
122
CAPILLARITY.
[CHAP. vi.
two bodies in contact are water and air. At the surface of a drop of oil which floats in a mixture of water and alcohol, as in the Even well-known experiment of Plateau, two liquids are in contact. when a fluid is in contact with a solid, or when two solids are in
contact, the
common
surface possesses a definite surface energy.

,
Let the capillary constant of two bodies a and b be Cab and let be the surface in which the two bodies meet. The potential energy
of the surface
Ep
is
(a)
Ep = Cab
is
S.
Since
the dimensions of
Ep
and S are
fluid
L 2 T~ 2 M and
Cab = EP /S, and
since
L- respectively, the
tension
dimensions of the capillary constant are T~'2 M.
The
is
surface
of the
under a
definite
somewhat
analogous to that of an elastic membrane.
described in a plane surface of a fluid, retain their positions unchanged while the fourth side FG, along with the particles of the fluid present in it, is moved through the distance
If a rectangle and if three sides of it
DEFG
FH
in the direction EF, the surface is enlarged by the area FG FH, and the surface energy is increased by C FG FH, where C is the To produce the motion considered, a force must capillary constant. the work done is therefore equal to FG FH. It act on FG
.
follows that (b)

is
K=C,
or the tension per unit-length of the fluid surface
numerically equal to the capillary constant. This tension existing in the surface exerts a pressure in the fluid. Let (Fig. 51) be a point in the surface which is supposed convex
in the
sections erected at P,
neighbourhood of P. Suppose two plane which contain the normal

surface at that
point.
to
the
One
of these
planes cuts the surface in the curve PA, the other in the curve PA and PB shall
PR
intersect at right angles and their radii of curvature shall be the principal radii of curvature of the surface at the point P. third plane
containing the normal to in the curve PF, whose radius of curvature R Euler's theorem by the equation (c) l/E = cos 2 <f>/fi l
is
P
is
cuts
the surface
determined from
,
+ sin 2 (f)/R 2 where
(f>
the angle between and PF. About the point P as a centre we suppose described a sphere of infinitely small radius which cuts the surface in the curve AFBDE. The element FG of this curve is acted
PA
C FG, proceeding from the adjacent parts of the be set equal to rd<f> and the tension to Crd<f). Its direction makes an angle with the normal to the surface, whose
on by the tension
surface.
.
FG may
cosine
is
r/R; hence the force acting in the direction of the normal
SECT. L.]
SURFACE ENERGY.
.
123
is
Cr /E
d<f>.
The
surface tension therefore draws the surface-element

fluid
ABDE
toward the interior of the

Cr2
with a force
[*'d<f>/lt. Jo
Therefore
if
represents the pressure on unit of surface
we have
PTTT-
= Cr2
l^d^jR
and
P = C/ir
(c),
f^'d^/B.
If for
(d)
we
introduce the value given in
we
obtain
It is probable that in addition to the pressure here found, which arises from the curvature of the surface, there also exists a constant pressure which acts in the fluid when its surface is plane. The total
pressure due to capillary forces is therefore M+C(l/Rl + l/R2 ), where and C depend on the character of the two bodies which are in
contact in the surface.
Since the
phenomena of
it
capillarity
do not
permit of the measurement of this quantity M,

considered.
need not be further
At 20
C. the value of
for the surface of contact

air 540,
and air is 81, between mercury and and water 418.
between water and between mercury
SECTION
LI.
mass if its potential energy remains Equilibrium unchanged when the position and form of the mass are changed by an infinitely small amount. Since the energy depends on the extent of surface we must obtain an expression for the increment SS of the surface. Suppose a fluid A surrounded by another fluid B, the two fluids being such that they do not mix. If no external forces act on them, A will assume the spherical form. Suppose the surface S to be concave toward A and to move toward
exists in a fluid
so that it undergoes an infinitely small change of form. Let s be the contour of the surface S, and S' represent that surface after the change of form has occurred. The contour of S' may be repre-
sented by
s'.
Erect at
all
o-,
points of
normals to
S which
cut the
which may be supposed to lie within s'. If we designate the infinitely small distance between a- and s' by 81, the part of S' which lies between o- and s' will be given by (b) j/ ds.
surface S' in a
.
new curve
124
CAPILLARITY.
[CHAP.
vi.
erect at a point P in S the normal PP which cuts S" PP' = 8t>, and draw through P on the surface S two curves PE and PF, one of which corresponds to the maximum curvature These principal curves of the surface at P, the other to the minimum. and two others infinitely near them will bound a rectangle PEQF, If P^ and 72 2 whose sides PE = a and PF=b are infinitely small. are the principal radii of curvature, there will always be two angles a and (3 such that a = Rl a, b = R.2 (3, and therefore dS = a.b = fi l R2 a/3. The normals to S erected at E, Q and F, intersect S' at E', Q\ F'. We set FE' = a', P'F = b' and obtain a' = (R 1 + 8v)a, b' = (R z + 8v)/3 If Si is the part of S' bounded by <r, we will have
We now
at
set
dSi
= a'b' = (R^ + (R + R2 )8v)a{3

l
and d(Sl -S)

l
'
= (l JP^ + I JR 2 )8vdS.
The
total
We
have therefore
(c)
-S=\(l/R + \/R2 )8vdS.

\8l
.
increis
ment 8S which S
therefore (d)
receives in consequence of the change of form

ds.
This expression remains valid even if 81 and 8v at particular points or at all points of the surface S are negative. If the fluid mass is bounded by a single
if
8S= f (l/^ + l/R2 )8vdS +
surface, the contour s will be zero;
the contour
is is
fixed
we have
$ = 0.
(e)
In both cases the condition of equilibrium \(I/E 1
+ l/R 2 )8 v dS=0.
Since the space occupied by the fluid mass
have
(f)
ftvdS
(e)
= 0,
(f)
since
it
From
constant.
and
is supposed constant, we the increment of volume. ftvdS represents follows that (g) l/R l + ljR z = c t where c is a
result is also given by L. (d) if we notice that the pressure in the fluid mass must be constant. If three fluids which do not mix meet in a line, the three angles
The same
which the surfaces of the

determined.
of water.
fluids
make with one another may be

drop of
oil lies
Such
relations occur if a
on the surface
In this case the three fluids which meet are water, oil, and air. We shall designate these fluids, for greater generality, by a, b, and c; let the energy of a unit area of the surface separating
a and
to
b be Cab let and (76c have similar meanings. It is sufficient examine the case in which the edge is a straight line. The directions of the three surface tensions Gab C^, and (7^, determine
;
.
the inclination of the surfaces to each other
equilibrium exists
when
Let a, /?, y be the are in equilibrium. three angles sought, belonging respectively to the three fluids a. b, and c. then have as the condition of equilibrium,
the three forces
,
Cab
C^.,
C^
We
(h)
CJ sin a = CJ sin
(3
= CJ sin
y.
SECT. LI.]
125
these equations we may in general determine a, (3, y. If, however, one of the tensions, say C^, is greater than the sum of In this case, the fluid the other two, equilibrium cannot exist. spreads out into a very thin sheet which separates the fluids b and
From
we have
as
an example the behaviour of a drop of
oil
of turpen-
tine
on water.
The theorem given in (h) may be also obtained by the following If the edge is displaced by an infinitely small distance method
:
from
its original position,
the
sum
of the surface energies
increased
by Cbc 8S1 + Coc 8S2 + Cab 8S3
This increment must be equal

b,
to zero, if equilibrium exists; we thus obtain equations (h). If a solid c (Fig. 51) is in contact with two fluids a and
the
edges
solid.
@ic
may
c
be displaced infinitely little along the surface of the In this case we have 8S: = - 8S2 8S3 = - S^j cos a, and further,
,
.
Ca = CM
cos a
Hence we have
(i)
cos a
= (C^ - C^)ICaM where
is
the so-called contact angle.
SECTION LII.
CAPILLARY TUBES.
application of the foregoing principles, we will consider a cylindrical tube c (Fig. 51 A) placed perpendicularly, the lower end of which is immersed in a fluid b ; the upper part of the tube is
To make an
surrounded by
sented by
a.
air,
which may be repre-
The bounding surfaces may be represented as before by Sv S2 and S3 We may call the surface of contact between the fluid and the tube Sv that
,
.
between the
air
and the tube S2
and
that between the air and the fluid
The
fluid surface
MM MM
S3
~M
outside the tube
FIG. 51 A.
may
be infinitely great; it may also be considered as at rest, even when the surface in the tube is in motion. Take the surface for the xy-plsuue, and let the z-axis be directed
If g represents the acceleration of gravity, perpendicularly upward. and p the density of the fluid, the potential energy of a particle of Hence the potential energy of the the fluid pdv, will be g pdv z.
. .
fluid
mass lying above the xy-plane
is
126
if x, y, z
CAPILLARITY.
are from
[CHAP. vi. SECT.
LIT.
now on
of the potential energy
Ep
considered as belonging to S3 The part whose variations are to be considered is

.
EP = &P\ \Mxdy + C
In the case of equilibrium
<a)
ab
S3 + CJ3, + CJ3V
or
we have 8EP = Q,
- gp\ \z8zdxdy + Cab8S3 + CM 8S2 + CJS^
If s is the length of the line of section of the surface S3 with the inner surface of the tube, if </> represents the angle between ds and the xy-pla.ne, and if all points of the surface S3 are elevated by the
same infinitely small amount Sz, where 8z is constant, we will have 8S3 = Q, &!= -8S2 = \cos<j>8zds. The equation (a) then becomes
(b)
gp\ \zdxdy
fluid will
= (CM -
C7fc
)J
cos
<frds.
Hence the
If,
be displaced by the difference of the tensions

line
in the surfaces S.2
and Sr on the other hand, the

the only change
is
of section s retains
its
position,
and
if
the change in the shape of the surface
S3
have from LI. (d) 8S3 = ^(l/El + l/Sa )8vdSs and 8Sl = 8S2 = Q, in which 8v is an element of a normal lying between the surfaces
we
will
and
-ST.
We may
Since 8v
is
replace
Szdxdy by 8vdS3
and obtain from equation

>
(a)
f {gpz+
C^l/E, + l/R 2 )}8 vdS3 = 0.
= 0. If arbitrary, we must have (c) gpz + Cab (l/Rl + 1/A 2 ) the curvature of the surface is' expressed by the differential coefficients
y,
of z with respect to x and
we
will obtain
from
(c) a differential
If the equation for the determination of the form of the surface. contact angle is also given, the surface is completely determined. If the cross-section of the tube is circular and very narrow, we may assume that approximately B^ = R.2 = r/ cos a, where r is the
the
radius of the tube and a the contact angle. fluid rises is then z = - 2 cos a/gpr C^.
.
The height
z to
which
We
obtain
the
result
from equation
(i).
(b) if
we
set
^zdxdy
= Trr 2 z,
Jc08<kfca*2rr,
same and
use equation LI.
The theory of capillarity was discussed by Laplace in a supplement to the tenth book of the Mtcanique Celeste. Poisson wrote a larger work on the subject, called Nmivelle Thdorie de I' Action Paris, 1831. Capillaire Finally Gauss made an epoch-making in:
vestigation on the theory of capillarity, published in the Commentationes Soc. Scient. Gottingensis. Vol. VII. 1830. (Works., Vol. V., p. 29.)
The most
Tktorie de la Capillarity
elaborate recent publication on the subject Paris, 1883.

:
is
that of Mathieu,
CHAPTER
VII.
ELECTEOSTATICS.
SECTION LIII.
FUNDAMENTAL PHENOMENA OF ELECTRICITY.
THE theory of electricity is founded upon the observation that amber and other bodies obtain by friction the property of attracting Gray showed that this property may be transferred light bodies. from one body to another. The conception was thus suggested that
this property
set free
by
friction in the body,
depends upon the presence of a fluid which is formed or and which, under certain conditions,
can pass from body to body.

so-called
electrical
fluids,
Dufay
or
first
showed that there are two

and
since
conditions,
according to the conception just

positive
negative,
stated,
two
which Franklin named
they can completely neutralize each other. The hypothesis of two fluids has had an extraordinary influence on the development of the theory of electricity. Poisson proceeded
from this conception in his researches on and W. Weber founded on it his theory of
electrical
distribution,
electrical currents.
In opposition to this theory, which, in its mathematical treatment, proceeds from the conception that electrical action is, like gravity, a force acting at a distance, Faraday adopted the view that the electrical forces propagate themselves from particle to particle, not
immediately, therefore, but by the action of an intervening medium. On this view it is not possible to explain the phenomena of electricity
completely without introducing a
and we thus meet with peculiar

entirely
difficulties,
hypothetical medium, the ether, which have not yet been
overcome.
Fruitful
as
we
still
cannot explain
many phenomena, even by
Faraday's conceptions have been, their help, and a
complete systematic discussion of electricity cannot yet be given. In the following presentation it has not been possible to consider the whole subject from one point of view ; we have only endeavoured
to present the
most important
results
127
which have been obtained.
128
ELECTROSTATICS.
[CHAP. vn.
The starting point of our study is Coulomb's investigation of the mechanical force which two electrified bodies exert on each other.
Two bodies which carry the charges e l and e 2 measured in any manner and separated from each other by the distance r, will then act on
,
each other, according to Coulomb's law, with a force ^ = c e^/r 2 where c is a constant. According as the two charges are similar or dissimilar the bodies repel or attract each other. If the distribution
.
of electricity on extended bodies is known, the mechanical with which the bodies act on each other may be calculated.
rule,
force
As
however, the distribution of electricity on a body cannot be If electricity is developed by friction on a glass considered given.
rod or a stick of sealing wax, that is, on relatively poor conductors, a slow discharge of the same occurs with lapse of time. The distribution of electricity on good conductors depends on their form, on the char-
body surrounding them, and on the charge. In determining the distribution, we start from the assumption that the same force acts between two quantities of electricity as between two bodies
acter of the
which are charged with these quantities of electricity. If a definite charge is imparted to an insulated conductor its separate parts will act on each other, and there will be a definite distribution. Charged bodies excite an electrical distribution in neighbouring
bodies.
The
is
body
explained by the
electricities
which a charged body exerts on an uncharged assumption that positive and negative in equal quantities are present in the latter body, and
attraction
that under the influence of the charged body a separation of the opposite electricities occurs, the force which proceeds from the charged The distribution thus probody acting as an electromotive force.
duced acts against the external electromotive force, and a condition of equilibrium is brought about if the electromotive force, which arises partly from the force acting from without which causes the distri-
and partly from the electricity separated in the body itself In poor free, is everywhere zero within the conductor. conductors also as, for example, the air, an electromotive force must arise under similar circumstances, whose action we will at present
bution,
and therefore
not consider.
SECTION LIV.
ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL.
(Fig. 52),
Suppose that electricity of density p is contained within the body and that electricity of density a- is present on its surface.
volume-element dr then contains the quantity of electricity p
.
dr,
SECT. LIV.]
ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL.
o.
129
dS.
and a surface-element dS contains the quantity

unit quantity of electricity is present at the point P, whose coordinates are x, y, z, and that the
Suppose that
L and on its surface ( L ] "jT Let the coordinates upon it. of any point in the body L be and let X, Y, Z be the com7, FlG 52 ponents of the force which acts at the point P. We then have from Coulomb's law (cf. XII.),
charges within
act
,
A' =
\(x
(y
)/
pdr
\(x
)/r
a-dS,
y=
where
If
(c)
*
is
1*
.
r*
= (x set (b)
2
)
we
+ (y- r,f + (z- () 2 = J/o dr/r + Jo- dS/r,

.
.
it
follows that
X=-Wrdx,
the
if r'
electrical potential.
is
Y=
-'d^py,
Z= -W/Vz.
moves from
the point (,
If the unit charge
P
?/,
to Q,
)
and
the distance of the point
= ^p. dr/r' + Jo- dS/r r the body L, we will have the electrical forces during the motion is by
.
Q from
of
The work done
\(Xdx + Ydy + Zdz)
-'.
' :
work done
at
= 0, the If the point Q is so far distant from the body L that will equal M*. can therefore say the electrical potential
We
a point is equal to the work done by the electrical forces when a unit of electricity moves from the point considered to a point at an infinite distance
from
the charged body.
If the point
is
within the body L,
we
describe a sphere
K of
about the point P as centre, so small that the density p within it may be considered constant. The force due to the charge in is then zero (cf. XIII.) ; the potential within L due to the
radius
electricity present in it cannot, therefore, be infinite.
The
with
arises
potential
electricity.
has the same value on loth sides of a surface charged If the surface density is o-, the potential which
from the surface distribution
is
^F
= Jo-
dS/r.
We
points
will consider
the values
(Fig. 53)
"^ and W.2

lie
of the potential at two
and
P2
which
by an
infinitely
on each side of the surface AB, and are separated Let the line P^PZ be a normal to small distance.
suppose an infinitely small portion of the surface
i
the surface.
We
130
cut
off
ELECTROSTATICS.
by a
is
[CHAP. VH.
circular cylinder,
whose axis
is
is
radius
R.
of two parts, one of which *Py arises from the part of the surface which is cut off by the cylinder, and the other ^r l - ^Py from the remaining
potential
The
the line /^P., and whose
made up
The latter value, part of the surface. "*?/, discontinuous nor infinite in the distance from
is
neither
l
to
of two parts. The radius of the infinitely small circle cut out of the surface is R. Let n be the distance of P l from the surface we
The value
is
likewise
made up
will
then have
It
therefore appears that >Py vanishes if

It has
and n are
infinitely small.
been shown [XIV.] that
a 2 (i/r)/az2 + a2 (i/r)/a#2 + a2 (i/r)/a^2 = o.

FIG 53
^ ave tnere f re from

>
(b),
for a point outside of L,
(d)
a^pyaa;
if
+ a^/a^2 + a^/a^2 = v'2 ^ = o.

within the body
On
(e)
the other hand,
P
s
lies
we have [XIV.
(h)]
designate the normals to the surface drawn inward and outward by v and va we have for the surface density = o[XIV. (1)], (f) W,/3v, + a^ /ava + 47TO- 0. The horizontal lines over the differential coefficients indicate that their values are to be taken
If
,
V 21? + 4irp = 0.
we
Hence if v represents the sum of the forces acting in the direction from both faces equals lira-.
at the surface.
the
electrical density
on a surface,
of the normals drawn outward
These properties of the potential hold for every system of bodies charged in any way with electricity. If the distribution is given, the If potential can be determined either from (b) or from (e) and (f).
(e)
the potential is given, the densities p and o- are determined from and (f), while the components of the electrical force are given
(c).
from
The
force F, acting in
any direction
ds,
is
F=
SECTION LV.
THE DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICITY ON A GOOD CONDUCTOR.

communicated to a good conductor, it distributes \Ve will determine its volume density p
If a charge e
itself
is
over the conductor.
SECT. LV.]
DISTRIBUTION ON A CONDUCTOR.
surface density
<r.
131
and the
If
M^
is
the potential inside, and *P a the

(d)
potential outside the conductor,

(a)
we have from LIV. V 2 ^,. + 47rp = and V*P,, = 0.

attained there
(b)
is
and
(e)
After equilibrium
interior, that
all points in
is,
is
no
electrical separation in the
we have
/>
3,/ae = 0, 3y3z/ = 0, 3,/a? =

Hence
is
for
the interior of the conductor.
(c)
V2î==0,
and
therefore from (a)
= 0.
Hence
the
electricity
distributed
only on
the surface of the conductor.
From
to
",
(b)
^
rt
is is
constant in the interior of the conductor and equal
where
determine
the value of the potential on the surface. = * for from the equations y 2^fa = and
'
We may
all
points
of the surface.
The
surface density
is
given by
3*V9i'
Since
If
,
+ 'd
m[dv il
is
constant
we
obtain (d)
4iro-
+ 47TO- = 0. = -^J?>va
represent the force acting outward at the surface of the - 'd j a /dva = 47ro-, that is, the force conductor by F, we have (e)
we
acting at
a point on
equal
to the
the surface of the conductor in the direction of the
normal
is
surface density
a-
at that point multiplied by 47r.
an element of a curve drawn on the surface of the conductor, we have 3^/3$ = 0, since "*" is equal to ^f everywhere on the surface, as has just been shown. Hence F has no components
If ds is
in the surface.
potential,
The
surface of the conductor
is
a surface of constant
and the direction of the force
F is
everywhere perpendicular
to
it.
To determine the calculated we have

;
potential of the conductor its charge e e = dS, and therefore J

Jo.
must be
<f)
'e
1/47T
JJ
F.
dS= -
1 ,/47T
j3*V3v
dS.
no charge in the interior of the conductor, we have *P a = If the electricity on the conductor, whose density \\<r.dSlr. is <r, is in equilibrium, it will remain so if the density becomes wr, where n is a number. If one distribution which is in equilibrium is
Since there
is
superposed on another, the

If the density is
new
distribution
is
still
in equilibrium.
ri*Fa
.
everywhere rw, the potential has the value

the charge.
The potential is therefore proportional to bring the conductor to the potential
If the charge
r
will
= C^ must 1, the charge (g) Q be imparted to the conductor in order to bring the potential from to "V. We call C the capacity of the conductor. The capacity C
.
is the ratio of the In charge Q of a conductor to its potential order to give a means of representing the magnitude and direction
132
ELECTROSTATICS.
[CHAP. vn.
of the electrical force in the region around the conductor, we determine the position of the surfaces of constant potential which surround
it.
Their equation is The first equic, where c is a constant. =X potential surface is the surface of the conductor, for which At a distance which is very great in comparison with the dimensions
^=
of the conductor, the equi-potential surfaces will be spheres, since in = ejr. that case the expression reduces to
VII. the surfaces of constant potential are perpendicular to the direction of the force. If two such surfaces are considered which
are infinitely near each other, it appears from VII. that the force at every point in one of them is inversely proportional to the distance between the surfaces. If a line of force P is drawn 1 2 B (Fig. 54)
From
PP P
,
from a point on the surface, and if the points Pv P2 P3 etc., are so chosen that F. PPl = Fl P1 P2 = F.2 P 2 P3 etc., where Flt F^ are
, ,
. .
the electrical forces at the points Pv P2 we have a relation which may be carried out to
,
any
distance.
If
we draw way
surfaces in such a
the equi-potential that the potential, as
we pass from one to the next, increases or diminishes regularly by the same amount, the
product
further
Fn .(PJPn+1
we
will
be constant.
The
pass from the acting quantity of electricity the greater will be the distance between the successive equi-potential surfaces.
FIG. 54.
If the
magnitude of the force at one of the
equi-potential surfaces is given, its magnitude at another point of the figure may be calculated from the distance between the successive equi-potential surfaces, and if the magnitude
of the electrical force
at
the surface of the body
is
given, its
magnitude at every other point of the figure may be determined.
SECTION LVI.
THE DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICITY ON A
SPHERE AND ON AN ELLIPSOID.

1.
The Sphere,
Suppose the charge Q given to an insulated sphere
of radius R.
the sphere.
coordinates.
"
are to determine the potential "*P at a point outside Let the centre of the sphere be taken as the origin of have V 2 a = 0. Since is a function of the dis-
We
We
tance from the centre 0,
we have [XV.
cx
(1)]
2 1/r .d' (rV n )/dr*
= 0, and
hence
P a = c + c<Jr, where
l
and
c2
are constants.
SECT. LVL]
DISTEIBUTION ON
AN
ELLIPSOID.
133
assume that no charged bodies are present besides the sphere, = when r = <x> and hence c x = 0. The electrical force at the distance r from the centre is F= -d^rjdr = c.2 /r2 From LV. (e) we have further
so that
,
.
We
The
potential
and the capacity

a
are therefore
=0/r,
C=QI^ = R.
a, b, c,
The dimensions
2.
The
its
Ellipsoid.
of capacity are therefore those of a length. Eepresent the semi-axes of the ellipsoid by
and
charge by Q. It is most natural to assume that the surfaces of constant potential are confocal ellipsoids. The equation of a
system of such surfaces

(a)
is
.
E = 3?
will write
2 2 2 =1 I (a? + A) + f/(b + A) + * /(c + A)
On we
our assumption the potential must be a function of

=/(A).
A,
so that
To
find this function
/ we
proceed from
and the analogous expressions

<b)
for y
and
2
z.
These give
.
* = d'WJdX*
A=
B=
.
2
.
( (3A/3.C)
+ (3A/ay) + (3A/3z) 2 ) + dV/dX V 2 A.
We
will set for brevity,

2 2
/(o
2 2
+ A) 2 + f/(b* + A) 2 + ^/(c 2 + A) 2
./:
/(
+ A) 3
We
(c)
then have
(d)
to y and
c>
Analogous expressions hold for the z. Hence we have

2
2
differential coeflBcients \vith respect
/a*;
= 2/(tt 2 + A) - ^ 9 2 A/3.7:2 .
2ar/(a
+ A) 2
or,
using equation
(c),
.
(e)
32 /ac2 =
2/(a
+ A) - A 3 2 A/3x 2 + '2B.
(c)
From
(f)
equations
and
(a) it follows that
A
(e)
.
2 2 ((d\px)* + (3A/3y) + (9A/o?) )
= 4A,
and from
(g)
and
(f)
2
that
A V A = 2/(a 2 + A) + 2/(ft 2 + A) + 2/(c2 + A).

the help of equations
(f)
By
<h)
and
.
(g)
(l/(fl
it
2
follows from (b) that

2
A V
.
2 *"
= 4d-^/dX2 + 2djdX
+ A) + l/(6 2 + A) +
l/(c
A)).
134
Outside the ellipsoid
ELECTEOSTATICS.
[CHAP. vn.
have from
(h),
(i)
we have y 2 ^ = 0. If C is a constant, we dV/d\ = - Cjjfa* + A)(62 + A)(c2 + A) and

2
A)(c
+ A) + <72
= y = z = QC , is assumed infinitely distant point, for which x equal to zero ; and for such a point equation (a) shows that A. = x> The potential at any point (x, y, z) is therefore given by
At an
"
+ A)(6 2 + A)(c2 + A),

where A
z2/(a 2 + A)
If the charge
is
2
?/
/(&2
known from the equation + A) + s2/(c 2 + A) = 1

.
on the ellipsoid great distance from the ellipsoid we then obtain

(1)
is is
Q,
the potential at a point at a Qj^JX ; by comparison with (k)
= Q/2
electrical force
d\lJ(a* + A) (ft
its
+ A)(c2 + A).
The
and
components X, Y,
Z
-
are determined
from the equations
X = - dVdX
F= From
(f)
3Aar
Y=
- dVdX
9A3
Z=
and
(1)
we have
F=
If we represent the perpendicular let fall from the origin on the t plane tangent to the ellipsoid at the point x, y, z of its surface by
we have JA-\IN> and hence F=Q. JV/>/(^+A)(6* + A)(c 2 + A). The surface density o- on the ellipsoid itself is determined by
the
equation 47ro- = F, and A = for this ellipsoid, so that (m) a- = N. Q/lirabc. Hence the electrical density at a point on the ellipsoid is proportional io
the perpendicular
let
fall
from
the
centre
on the plane tangent
to
the
ellipsoid at that point.
We
will
now
ellipsoid of rotation
In the case of an consider several special cases. a = b, and therefore from (1), if is the potential
^
2
of the ellipsoid,
we have
%=
Hence
(o)^P
(P) for a
Q/2
2
.
JfU/(a
2
.
+ AjVc^+A:
arctg c/V
>
c,
(n)
= Qf-Ja* - c
a<c,
.
(\TT
2
)
;
for
= c,
= Q/a; and
for
ô = /2v/c^2
log
[(c
+ N/^^)/(C - Vc 2 ^^)].
SECT. LVI.]
DISTEIBUTION ON
we
set c =
y
AN
ELLIPSOID.
135
its
If in (n)
the ellipsoid becomes a circular plate, and
capacity
is
whose length great in comparison with the equatorial diameter, we have from (p) = Q/c log (2c/o) and C'=c/log(2c/o). The surface density a-, from equation (m), is
is
C= Q/ ir = a/(^Tr).
For an
ellipsoid of rotation
a-
= Q/l-rrabc
2
.
l/Na: /
ellipsoid,
If z is eliminated
if
c
by the help of the equation of the

small,
and
is
infinitely
we have
that
is,
for
b,
the
density on
if
an
elliptical
.
plate
whose semi-axes are a and

circular,
.
a-^Q/^Trab. !/>/!
If the plate is
if
= b, and
we
set x2
-x2 /a 2 -y'2/b'2 + y'2 = r2
we have
<r
= Qjlira
l/>Ja?
- r*.
At
a point whose distance u from
the edge is very small, we have o- = Q/4:Tra. l/*/2au. In this case, therefore, the density is inversely proportional to the square root of the distance of the point from the
SECTION LVII.
ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION.
If several charged conductors are present in a region, the distribution of electricity on the conductors is determined not only by their form and magnitude, but also by their mutual action. The deter-
mination of the conditions of electrical equilibrium

difficult.
is,
as a rule, very
been done by Poisson and William Thomson. We will here make use of the method of electrical images given by Thomson.
this subject has
(a)
The most important work on
Distribution
on
Plane
Surface.
Suppose
;
the
electricity e present at the point
(Fig. 55)
let
AS
quantity of be the plane
surface of a very large conductor L, which is in conducting contact with
the earth.
therefore
The
zero,
potential since we
of
is
assume the
(cf.
potential of the earth equal to zero are to determine the VII.).
We
surface density
o-
of the distribution
on the surface. Let the potential at an arbitrary point in space due to the conductor L be "*",., so that is the work done by the electrical forces of
FlG
55
the conductor
unit quantity of electricity, which is supposed to be merely a test charge and to have no effect on the electrical distribution
if
136
ELECTROSTATICS.
[CHAP. vu.
on L, is transferred from the point to infinity. If OP = r, the = e/r + V,. potential ^F at P will be now suppose a quantity of electricity - e situated at the point
We
which is the image of the point with respect to the This imaginary quantity at 0' would act on all points as 0, in the same way as lying on the same side of the plane the quantity of electricity which is distributed on for the ;
0' (Fig. 55),
plane
AB.
AB
AB
potential
which
arises
all
from the
quantities
lie
Laplace's equation at
points which
and on the same

at
0'
satisfies
side of the
FIG. 56.
itself. as 0, except at the point Further, the potential plane vanishes at all points of the plane AB, since all points of that plane, which passes perpendicularly through the middle point of the line
AB
all
and 0', and hence for from the points we have e/r - e/r' = 0, where r and r' points of the plane and 0'. Now represent the distances of a point in the plane from if a function satisfies Laplace's equation and assumes assigned values over a given surface, and if the function itself and its differential
00', are equally distant
AB
coefficients are continuous, it is single-valued
and determinate.
This
theorem
is
known
as Dirichlet's Principle.
SECT. LVII.]
It
DISTRIBUTION.
"9~e
ELECTRICAL IMAGES.
that the potential
137
at the
should be noticed that
= e/r -e/r'. point P is A unit quantity of positive electricity lying at a point P (Fig. 56) = e/r''2, in the plane is acted on by two forces, K=e/r 2 and
= e/r', and
AB
3
,
whose directions coincide with

direction of the resultant force
OP and
is
PO' respectively. Hence the parallel to 00' and equal to
F=
2eOI/OP
.
if
we consider the
.
force positive
when
it is
directed
toward the region in which lies. Now since 4:Tra- = F we obtain <T= - e/2ir OB/OP S The surface density at the point P (Fig. 56)
is
therefore inversely proportional to the cube of the distance of the point
from the point 0, at which the quantity of electricity +e is situated. The potential and the surface density are calculated in the same
way when
(b)
several points carrying charges are present in the region.
The Sphere.
are situated at the points
Suppose that the quantities of electricity e and e' and 0' (Fig. 57). The equi-potential
FIG. 57.
4/r
surface for which the potential vanishes is given by the equation + e'/r' = Q if r and r represent the distances of a point on the and 0' respectively. If e and e' have equi-potential surface from
the same signs, this equation represents a surface lying at infinity if e and e' have opposite signs it represents a sphere and, in the limiting case, a plane.
The centre C
: :
of the
sphere
lies
on the
line
00' and
triangles
we have
CO'B and
the sphere is the mean and 0' from the proportional between the distances of the points centre of the sphere.
If a hollow sphere of very thin sheet metal, in conducting connection with the earth, is brought into the place occupied by this spherical
00 0'C= e 2 e"2 and CO'/CB = CBJCO = e'/e. CBO are similar, and the radius CB of
The
surface of zero-potential, the potential of points in the region will not be changed, either within or without the sphere ; the electrical
action depends only on the quantities of electricity e and
e'.
138
ELECTROSTATICS.
[CHAP. vn.
we remove the quantity
If the sphere remains in conducting contact with the earth, and if of electricity e' from the interior of the
sphere, the potential within outside the sphere it retains

electricity e does
the
its
sphere will become zero, while former value, since the quantity of
sphere
not change its position and the potential of the remains zero. Hence, the quantity e lying outside the sphere, kept at potential zero, together with the electricity induced on the sphere, exerts on points outside the sphere the same action
still
as if the induced electricity
the sphere.
electrical
We
call
the point
were replaced by the mass e' lying inside 0', where the mass e' is situated, the
image of the point 0. The quantity of electricity e' at that point will exert the same action as the quantity of electricity actually In optics a point which appears to emit present on the sphere.
from behind a mirror or lens which, if it were self-luminous, would emit rays in the same direction as those which proceed from
light
the mirror or lens, is called a virtual image. 0' the electrical image.
If
Hence, we
may
consider
we
set
C0'=f,
(70
= a, and CB = R, we
have
e'/e
= 0'B/OB=f/E = R/a;
set
and hence
acts at
e'
= Be/a.
We
OB = r
and 0'B = r'.
The
force
e/r
2 OB, and the force e'/r' acts at the same The former of these may be resolved point in the direction BO'. into the components e/r'2 a/r along OC and e/r2 Rjr along CB, the latter into -e'/r' 2 .f/Y along OC and -e'/r' 2 .R/r along CB. The
in the direction
two components in the direction OC are equal but oppositely directed, and therefore annul each other. The other two combine to give the 3 3 = 2 5 force which acts in the direction e/r
efi/r
e'R/r'
is
(a
R?)/E
CB.
The sphere
at
to
there/we an equi-potential surface, since the direction of

its
the force,
any point of
surface, coincides tvith the direction of the
normal
that surface.
<r,
The density
and hence
is
as obtained from
F= 4,
to
is
cr= - (a- - R^/îrR.e/r3
from the is - e' =
power of the distance The quantity of electricity on the sphere charged point 0. - Re I'a, since this charge produces the same potential in the
inversely p-oportional
the
third
region as the actual charge on the sphere, and therefore [LV.
(f)]
must
be equal to
it.
The sphere
is
attracted
by the point
with the force
If the distance (70
=a
is
3 very great, this force becomes Re^/a
SECT. LVII.]
ELECTRICAL IMAGES.
is
139
can (c) originally insulated find the electrical distribution on it by assuming that, besides carrying a charge, distributed as above described, it also carries a uniformly
distributed
If the sphere
and uncharged, we
sum
zero.
2 The charge whose surface-density is e'/4:-!rR = e/4:TrRa. of these two charges or the charge of the sphere is equal to 2
The surface-density is then o- = e/4;rj?.(l/a- (a The )/^). surface-density cr is zero on a circle whose periphery is distant r = af/1 - ft? /a 2 from the point 0. The plane of this circle lies nearer
2
than the centre of the sphere. In order to find the potential^ of the sphere, we determine it for the centre. Since the charge on the sphere is zero, the potential due to that charge is also zero the = eja. This follows from the potential at the centre is therefore
to
;
remark that the induced charge - e' and the charge e at together have no effect on the potential of the sphere the potential is due to the additional charge + e', which makes the potential e /R = e/a. The force with which the sphere is attracted by is in this case very much smaller than if the sphere were in conducting connection
;
with the earth.

ee'/(a
It is
2 -/) 2
ee'/a
= Re 2/a s R2 ('2a 2 - R2 )/(a 2 - R 2 ) 2

.
Re 2/a3
When R is very 2R fa 2
2
. .
small in comparison with a, the force is approximately In this case we have a simpler expression for the
surface-density
a-.
Designating the angle
BCO by
6,
we have
If a
is
have r~ 3
e/a?
so great that the higher powers of R/a can be neglected, we = a~ 3 (l + 3R/a cos 6). If we designate the inducing force
.
which proceeds from

o-,
in the formula for
we
comparison with a and
3 cos 6/47r X, if, as infinitely small in substitute the value just given for r~ 3
a.
by X, we have
= -
consider the radius
SECTION LVIII.
If a charged
COMPLETE DISTRIBUTION.
body A (Fig. 58) is situated in the interior of a metallic BC, there will be a distribution of electricity on the shell. If A is charged positively, the inner surface B will be negatively, and Let the charge on A be the outer surface C positively electrified.
shell
e,
that on
e',
and that on C
e'.
We
will
show that the
quantity of induced electricity e' is equal to the quantity of inducLet us suppose a closed surface drawn in the ing electricity e.
interior
of BC.
If
is
the
potential in the shell BC, and
the
140
ELECTROSTATICS.
[CHAP. vii.
normal to the element dS of the surface D, we have from XIV.

Since the potential "*~ in the shell 4ir(e -e')=- \(dy/Vv)dS. constant the integral vanishes, and hence e = e'. The charge e on can be conducted off, or another charge can be conducted to
(c),
is
C
it
without causing any change in the charges A and B. If the inducing body is entirely surrounded by the body in which electricity is induced, we may say that the induction is complete ; the inducing and
induced quantities of
electricity
are equal.
FIG. 58.
FIG. 59.
This theorem
may
different conductors.
be used in the comparison of the charges of If the outer surface of BC is connected with
will
an instrument which
measure potentials, and
if
the charged
bodies to be tested are brought successively into the hollow within BC, the potentials indicated by the instrument are proportional to
the magnitudes of the charges. Suppose the sphere A, whose radius
is
quantity
e (Fig. 59).
Let
2
whose
radii
are
and
BC be a spherical Ry The inner

e.
R, to be charged with the shell concentric with A,

surface
is
of
BC
is
then
charged with the quantity
If there
no
= ejR l - e/R 2 The potential is at outer surface (7, the potential at a point within the shell BC or outside the surface C is zero, since both charges act with respect to an external point, as if they were
electricity
.
on the
concentrated
at
the
definition of the capacity

(a)
common centre (7, we have
of
[cf.
the
spheres.
(g)]
From
the
LV.
C=e/V = RiRJ(R z - A).

when
Let
The induction can, in many cases, be almost complete, even the one conductor is not completely surrounded by the other.
ABC
and
DEF
(Fig. 60)
be two conductors whose surfaces
BC
and
SECT. LVIII.]
COMPLETE DISTRIBUTION.
141
lie very near each other. On the surface BC describe a closed curve GH, and from all points of it draw lines of force, which cut out on the curve KJ. Now draw a closed
DF
DF
in such a manner that the two curves GH and JK lie in it. The surfaces bounded by the curves G'H' and J'K' lie inside the conductors and are congruent to the surfaces GH and JK respectively. Let dS be a surfaceelement of the closed surface G'H' J'K', and let e and e' be the charges of the surfaces GH and JK. The potential is represented by and the normal by v. We then have from LV. dS. + e')= (b)
surface
G'GJJ'K'KHH'
Tr(e
\\Wfiv
constant within the conductors, and since between the conductors the force is parallel to the closed surface.
integral vanishes, since
is
The
Hence we have
other,
-e'.
If the surfaces
-a-',
BC and DF lie
very near each
we
also
have <r=
that
is,
the densities on the two surfaces
are equal but of opposite sign. If a is the distance between the surfaces
is
BC
and DF, and
if
the potential of ABC, and the potential of 2 force in the intervening space is [VII. (e)]
DEF,
the electrical
=
is
+ Fa,
LV.
e
F=(
(e)]
2 )/a
<r'
surface-density ocharge on the surface

If the conductor
The
[cf.
a-= 2 )/47ra
2 )/47
The
S
is
is
= (^ -
S.
is,
DF
connected with the earth, that

C*
if
the capacity
proportional
to
will
be
= $/47ra,
^=
0,
that
is,
the
capacity
is
inversely
the distance between the conductors,

is
This formula
used in air-condensers, when a
is
very small.
SECTION LIX.
If
it is
MECHANICAL FORCE ACTING ON A CHARGED BODY.
an element of volume contains the quantity of electricity pdv, acted on by a force whose components are Xpdv, Ypdv, and Zpdv.
(a)
.
From LV.
1/47T
the ,r-component can be expressed

.
by
Wrdx
^dv = +
1/47T
X(dX/*dx + VY/dy + dZfdz)dr.
In the interior of a good conductor the force and electrical density are zero but a force acts on each element of its surface, where the
;
density
is
not zero.
This force
is
determined
in the following
way
142
ELECTROSTATICS.
[CHAP. vn.
= dS the surfaceLet (Fig. 61) be the electrified surface, and BC element, which is cut out by an infinitely small sphere described about the point P as centre, 'with the radius PB = PC.
Let
AD
P2
lie
on the normal
small in
PP2
to
BC, and
let P.2
be
infinitely
p+1
A unit of comparison with PB. electricity at the point P2 is acted on by the force 27ro- arising from the distribution on the surface BC
XIII. (3)]. At the corresponding point P l on [cf. the opposite side of BC the force acting is - 27nr. If /, m, n are the cosines of the angles which PjP., makes with the axes, and X, Y, Z are the components of
force
which
arise
from
all
the electricity present except
FIG. 61.
that on BC,
we have
2Tro-l,
X.,
= -3
2,
/ae =
X+
l
= - 3,/az = X -
2Tro-l.
X X
2,
and
are the components of force and the potentials
at the points
P2
and
respectively.
We
have
(c)
X=^(X<, + Xl ).
Analogous expressions hold for the other components of force. represents the force Avhich acts on a unit of electricity on dS in the direction of the a:-axis. The element dS is therefore moved in the
direction of the #-axis
If the
force (d) Xa-dS %(X.2 + XJo-dS. part of the surface of a good conductor, and if P l lies within the conductor, the force at P is equal to zero. If l we represent the force acting at P.2 by F, the force which acts on
by the
element dS
is
(IS
is,
from
(c)
and
(d),
(e)
^Fa-dS.
Since, from
LV.
(e),
we have
F=
in
+47ro-,
W.
the force sought will be (f) 2Tro-'2dS=l/8ir.F 2 .dS. Thomson has made an interesting application of this equation
the construction of his absolute electrometer.
This consists of an
insulated metal plate

parallel with
EF
EF.
CD
circular plate CD, which is forms a part of the base of a metallic cylinder If the potential of (Fig. 62).
and a smaller
AB
is
'
and that of
is
CD
CD
way
is
will be attracted
EF AB is zero, to EF by a force
and
there
which
:
Since
determined in the following and CD are almost
AB
like a single continuous body,
no perceptible surface distribution on the inner surface of A BCD. ReFIG. 62.
surface of
the
CD by surface CD = S.
o-,
present the density on the external the distance between CD and by a, and let
EF
The
force
which attracts
CD
toward
EF
is,
SECT. L1X.]
FORCE ON CHARGED BODY.

equal to K=$F<rS.
143
[cf.
from
(e),
and therefore
K=S^'2 l%ira z
We We
have Fa =
VII.], If
^<r =
F,
is
determine the weight which
necessary to counterbalance the electrical attraction. necessary for this purpose, acceleration of gravity.
we have
^ = aj8TrMg/S
M grams are
is
where g
the
SECTION LX.
All actions
tion, etc.,
LINES OF ELECTRICAL FORCE.
by which
electricity is produced, such as friction, induc;
produce equal quantities of positive and negative electricity for this reason we are led to assume that in every unelectrified body Let equal quantities of positive and negative electricity are present. A and B (Fig. 63) be two bodies electrified
by
Fig.
friction
which
further and
are gradually separated further from each other, as in
64 ; during this separation they retain and Suppose equal but opposite charges. B to be good conductors and to be insulated.
"
Now,
construct lines of force from
all
points
of the contour of a surface-element
dS on A.
They will determine a surface-element dS' on The region bounded by the lines of force B. FIG. 63. and the two elements dS and dS' may be If the density is o- on dS and a-' on called a sphondyloid.
FIG. 64.
dS',
we may
= 0. prove, as in the discussion following LVIII. (b), that a-dS a-'dS' The surface-densities on the two charged conductors and are
therefore
inversely
proportional
to
the
surfaces
limited
by
the
sphondyloid. If the conductor

tricity,
is
is
and
if
the surface of
charged with a quantity Q of positive elecA is cut into Q parts, each one of which
charged with contours of the
unit quantity, the lines of force drawn from the cut the surface also into Q parts, parts on
each one of which

tricity.
is
charged with unit quantity of negative

is
elec-
If a conductor
""P,
A BCD
charged in any manner to the potential

it
its
the equi-potential surfaces about which are great in comparison with
are spheres, at
all
distances
dimensions.
If
1),
we
construct
nearest
the equi-potential surface, whose potential is ( the conductor at the points A, B, and (Fig. 65).
it
lies
At
these points
[LV.] the electrical force and the surface-density are greatest.
The
144
lines
ELECTROSTATICS.
of force also
lie
[CHAP. vn.
in
closest
proximity to one another at these
If the conductor has edges or points projecting outward, the density on them is very great; it will be infinitely great on a
points.
On this depends the so-called action of points ; perfectly sharp edge. the density of the electricity is greatest at these points, and therefore
the electricity flows out from
them with
especial ease.
FIG. 66. FIG. 65.
If
A
B
and
(Fig. 66) is a conductor charged with positive an insulated conductor without charge, negative
electricity,
electricity
will be present at all parts of
fall upon is equal to the of those proceeding from B. is Hence, the surface of divided into two parts with opposite charges. The parts are separated by a curve encircling the body B, along which the surface-density
;
proceeding from A. the number of the lines which of B
which are met by the lines of force Lines of force also proceed from the other points
number
a-
and therefore
also the electrical force are zero.
This curve
is
the
line of intersection of
is
and an equi-potential surface around A. Let ABC (Fig. 67) be a conductor on whose surface the potential constant and equal to and let A'B'C" be an equi-potential surface at which the potential is *P r We
,
suppose that the charge of each surface= dS, is moved element, for example of outward in the direction of the lines of
AB
force
and transferred to the surface A'B'C'.

is
it
If this surface
transferred to
a conductor, the electricity is in equilibrium. If the
and
fulfilled for all
potential within the surface A'B'C' is j, if it retains its former values outside
A'B' are
external points. and F' respectively,
of that surface, the condition If the electrical forces at
V^
is
we have from LV.
(f),
since
AB AB
and and
SECT. LX.]
FORCE ON CHARGED BODY.

lines of force,
145
.
A'B' are bounded by
AB F= A'B'
.
F'.
If
o-
and
a-'
and A'B' respectively, represent the densities at AB.a- = A'B'.a-'. therefore obtain F/<r = F'/(r'.
AB
we have
further
We
We
have, how-
ever,
F=irv
if
Hence,
and, therefore, also F' = 4Tra-'. we divide the surface of the conductor into elements, each
of which contains unit quantity of electricity, and if we draw lines of force outward from the boundary of the element, these lines bound
a tube.
The tube
conductor in such a
cuts the equi-potential surfaces surrounding the way that for all of them we have
F'/<r'
= F"/<r" =
...F/v.
we obtain a representation of the distribution of electrical force in the region. And also from the distribution of the lines of force we may distinguish between the
the form of the tubes of force
From
and repulsive forces. Two lines of force proceeding in the same sense repel each other, so that the repulsion maintains equilibrium with the tension which acts along the lines of force [cf. XXVII].
attractive
SECTION LXI.
ELECTRICAL ENERGY.
e
A
work
conductor charged with the quantity of electricity

in
can do
consequence of that charge
it
the charged surface succession the form of
ABC
(Fig. 67) is
If possesses electrical energy. extended so that it assumes in
its
equi-potential surfaces, the forces acting
on the
mined.
if
it
is
electrified surface
do an amount of work which can be deterIf the surface of the conductor has the potential ^, and
it
,
extended until
is
whose potential
ing
^r + d^r
.
the
coincides with the equi-potential surface work done is calculated in the follow-
dS carrying the charge crdS is acted represent by dv the distance of the The work done equi-potential surface V + cW from the conductor. on the element dS during its motion is ^Fa-dSdv. The total work
way
surface-element
on by the force i Fa-dS.
We
done
therefore ^^Fo-dSdv. the definition of the equi-potential surface [cf. LV. (e)] have Fdv = -d^f we therefore have for the total work done
is
From
we
If the
surface of the
equi-potential surface
at
body is extended until which the potential
it is
coincides with the

zero, the
work
done
(a)
is
W=
146
All the
"by
ELECTEOSTATICS.
work which can be done on the given conditions
is
[CHAP. vn.
represented
W, and hence it is The electrical energy
called the potential energy of the conductor. of the conductor can be geometrically repre-
sented in the following
way
whose potential
About the conductor L (Fig. 68), is we construct the M*",

whose potentials are
equi-potential surfaces
-3, etc., and -2, successively IP-I, we divide the surface of the body L in
such a
charge.
way
that
each
part
carries
unit
is
The space surrounding the body divided into e^f parts by the lines
starting
of force
from
the
boundaries of
the separate parts and by the equi-potential surfaces ; the number of these parts is
double the value of the

If
C,
electrical energy.
we designate the electrical energy by and the capacity by we have e^CY, and thus (b) JF-ÎVjC^-l^/a We have
is also
seen before that the energy
given by
I
/
W= \\ \FvdSdv =
If
is
Sir
\F\lSclv.
if
X, Y,
Z are
the components of the electrical force, and
dxdydz
a volume-element,
we
1
will
.
have
2 \(X + T- + Z*)dxdydz.
(c)
W=
/Sir
J J
67) are charged with the - e respectively, and have the potentials quantities of electricity + e and M^ and *F y we obtain their potential energy in the same way by
If the
two conductors
A EG and A'B'C' (Fig.
supposing the body ABC carrying the charge +e to be gradually extended so as to coincide with the equi-potential surfaces which
surround
it.
In this
way
the charge
e is finally
transferred to A'B'C'.
The
(d)
integral in (a) then becomes
W=
\ l**edV
= \e(^ -
2 ).
all cases. A system may of conductors whose charges are e v e 2 e 3 ..., and whose potentials are with respect to a conductor whose potential is "*?!, ^2, ^Pg, ..., have,
This method of treatment
be applied in
, ,
^PO,
the potential energy
<e)
W= K(*i - %) + &(* - *
sum
(f)
If the
of
all
the
charges
2 +
is
...
.
zero,
that
is,
if
el
e.
=
con-
we have
ductors
ir=%e l
brought
to
+ ie 2 l
the
Therefore,
the
if all
charged
is
are
same
potential,
electrical
energy
inde-
pendent of the value of the common potential.
SECT. LXI.]
ELECTRICAL ENERGY.
147
The expression
another way. is determined
coordinates
notation,
x,
The potential increases and diminishes proIf the density of the electricity is doubled at all portionally to p. points, the value of the potential also is doubled.
If the charge l/n.pdr
is
.
* = \pdr/r.
for the electrical energy may be derived in still In a system of conductors the electrical distribution if the density p is given at all points in terms of the The potential at any point is then, in the usual y, z.
removed from every volume-element, the

"*F.
potential becomes (n
)/n
In order to transfer the quantity of
electricity l/n. \pdr to a distant and is for instance to the earth, the
*,
work
very large body whose potential ) must be l/n. f/orfrC'P

.
done,
if n is a very large number. removed, the work required is
If the quantity l/n
\pdr
is
again
W which
if
If the
whole charge is done is

.
is
at last
transferred to the earth, the
work
W= l/n
Now, we
\pdr(
+ (n -
)/n
+ (n -
2)/n
+
.
...
l/rt)*
f pdr.
have
+(n-
n is very great (g) ^^pdr-^Q \pdr. If the quantities of electricity present is zero, we will have (h)
Since
W=
l)/n
+ (n- 2)/n+
...
+ l/n = n(n+ l)/2n, and

sum
of the
V 2 * = 32 */3x2 + VW/'dy 2 + 32 */os 2 = -4^, we

HV.'&VI'da?. dxdydz
.
W= ^^pdr.
have
Now,
.
= f J(* 3*/ae)
obtain
dydz
J { f
(3*/9z)
2
.
dxdydz.
Hence, by partial integration extended over the whole volume, we
= I /Sir \F*dr. 1 /STT {((3*/3z) + (d^j'dyf + (3*/^) )^r This result has already been derived for the energy in a good
2
<i)
W=
conductor.
SECTION LXII.
SYSTEM OF CONDUCTORS.
If several insulated conductors A v A y A 3 are given, and if a unit of electricity is imparted to one of them, say to A v while the others have no charge, then the potential of A^ becomes p lv while the potentials of A 2 and y etc., become pn and p l3 respectively. If A.2 were to
become charged with unit quantity while the other conductors were to remain uncharged, the potential of A z would equal p 22 and the
,
148
potentials of
if
ELECTEOSTATICS.
[CHAP. vn.
the
conductor
Av A A A is
s,
l 2,
4,
. . .
would be p.2v
p.2 A , p.2v
.
. . .
respectively.
e^,
,
Now,
charged with the quantity
the conductor
...
A2
with the quantity
e2,
ductors
Av A
A5
...
etc., the potentials M-^, 2 respectively will be expressed
of the con-
by
The
(b)
total
energy of the
electrical
system
is
W=
Hence,
(c)
If an infinitely small quantity of electricity Se l is communicated to one of the conductors, for example to A v the energy of the system will be increased by 8/iT= Êr 1 8e 1 This increment of the energy may
.
also be expressed
(d)
by the help of
(c),
since
we have
...
8fT= (p^ + |(p 12 +pê2 + $(p l3 +p 3l )e 3 +

since
)& r
...)Se r
Now,
first
is
in this case equal to
^f 1 8e 1
it
follows from the
of equations (a) that (e) paring the formulas (d) and
(e),
S?F= (^> 11 e 1 +^21 e 2 +^)31 e3 + we obtain
Com-
and in general pmn =pnm of the system may therefore be expressed as a homogeneous quadratic function of the charges by
Therefore,
(f) p.2l
=p lv p sl =^ 13
W,
The
electrical
energy
(g)
W = &n
*
2
i
+ \Pv e* + fc e 3 2 +
pmn are called
+Pi2 e i e 2 +Pi
coefficients
e.
where the
coefficients
of potential.
If equations (a) are solved for e v
2,
es ,
we
obtain
(h)
If the charge 8e l is communicated to the conductor 8e 2 to the conductor etc., so that the potential
A^
and the charge

is
increased
by 8 v while the other
potentials retain their original values,
we have
The increment
(i)
of the energy
is
therefore
8/
SECT. LXII.]
A SYSTEM OF CONDUCTORS.
149
From
(k)
If
equation (h) the energy
is
given by
is
increased
by 8W V we have
and
it
Comparing equations
energy
JF^,,
(i)
(1),
expressed in terms of the potentials,
The follows that (m) qmn = q nm is therefore given by

.
"
+028*^8+
The
which the indices are the same, are the capacities of the different conductors the coefficients qmia in which the indices
coefficients <?, in
;
from each other, are the coefficients of induction. The energy can therefore be expressed by the charges as well as by the potentials in the former case it is represented by in the latter by W^,. e
differ
The
If
if
significance of the coefficients qlv q^,

(Fig.
...
is
shown
as follows:
ev
69)
etc.,
A^ Ay
"*P
2,
an insulated conductor having the charge are connected with the earth, we have
is ei
and
= fti*!.
= q lz^r v
zero.
= q l3
The
...,
since
^F3
etc..
are equal to
coefficient
^n
is
the
under these conditions. capacity of the conductor l of a conductor is the quantity of electricity
which
it
Hence, the capacity
must contain in order that
its
potential
shall be unity, while the potential of all other
conductors
tricity
is zero. The quantity of elecinduced on the conductors A^ A 3
when connected with

by
<? 12 ,
the
is
earth
is
given
are
<? 13 ,
...,
if
A^
electrified to unit
<? 12 ,
potential.
negative.
The The
coefficients
ql3
from
Ac,,
A may
l
Ay
etc.
proceeding either pass to the earth or terminate on the conductors Since a positive charge is present at the points at
lines
of force
A v the points at which they fall upon the other conductors must have a negative charge. On the other hand, the coefficients p l2 p l3 ...p mn are positive. If the
which they leave
,
charges of the conductors
A2 A
,
3,
. . .
are
e2
= e3 = e =
. . .
= 0, we
have
î ~P\\ e
\i
^2 = Pi2 e v
-^ s
man y
lines of force enter the
uncharged
conductors
A A
2,
as pass out from them.
Since lines of force pass
from points of higher to points of lower potential, the potential of an uncharged conductor in an electrical field cannot be a maximum
;
150
it lies field.
ELECTROSTATICS.
between the greatest and
If the conductor
is
.
[CHAP. VH.
least values of the potential in the

electricity,
is
charged with the unit of

.
p n At a point infinitely distant the potential is zero. Further, Hence, we have p u >J9 12 in general pnn >p mn and pmm >p nm the value of pnm lies between p nn and zero, and since p nn is positive, pnm is also positive. The potentials of the two conductors are equal
its
potential
only when the charged conductor encloses the uncharged conductor. If one conductor does not enclose the other, we will always have
Pnn>Pmn
an(i
Pmm>Pmn-
SECTION LXI1I.
MECHANICAL FORCES.
;
Let us suppose a set of insulated conductors their charges will remain unchanged in quantity when the conductors are displaced. Their potentials depend on the charges in the manner given in LXII.
The
forces acting
in motion.
We
on the charged surfaces tend to set the conductors assume that all the conductors except A l retain
their relative positions; that can move in the direction of the l z-axis ; and we then determine the force which tends to move in l
this direction.
Let the displacement of A^ be 8.1: The energy e of the system will be diminished in consequence of this displacement At the end of the motion the energy is e + n and by X8x.
W W
. . .
hence we have
W.-X. 8x= W. + 8JT.,

we have
2
1 8/> 11
and
(a)
X=
-8J7f/8.v.
Now,
from LXII.
(b)
(g)
X = |e
/&c
+ %e 2 ~8p 22 /8x +
. .
e 2 8p 12 /Sj:
because the charges do not change during the motion, and are independent of the displacement 8x. This method may be always applied
if
the motion of the conductor is. one for which the mechanical work
done by the system may be represented in the form X8x.
We
will
now determine
the
force
with which one of the conductors
move
in the direction of the
.r-axis if
stant.
FIG. 70.
the potentials remain con... be the Let v 2 3
A A A
,
given conductors (Fig. 70). They are supposed to be connected by very thin wires with the very large ... conductors B v B 2 B3 ..., whose potentials are ^f 1 ô, 3 respectively, and which are so remote from the system of conductors A
, , ,
SECT. Lxiii.j
MECHANICAL FORCES.
151
If the conductor that they have no influence upon it by induction. is l displaced by Sx, the charges e v e 2 es ... increase by 8e lt 8e 2 8e3 ...,
,
,
and we have from LXII.
(h)
The
electrical
energy of the system thus increases by
SJr= ^tej +
&
Se 3
. .
But from LXII.
(n)
the energy
is
equal to W^,
+ + Sf^
. .
.
in the
new
configuration of the system,
where
The work done is JTSa;. The sum of the energy 7F^, originally present and the energy 8fF supplied is equal to the sum of the energy in the new position and the work done. We therefore have
tf* + 877=17^, + SIT* +
If
8x,
X.8x = 8fT - 8!^.

and
8JF^,,
we
substitute the expressions found for 8JF
we have
v + ^2^3^23 +
Hence, we obtain (d)
. .
X.8x = 8JF^,
to
or
X=8fTyjSx,
and further
twice as great
8JF= '2X
The
as
the
8x.
electrical
energy supplied mechanical work done.
the system is therefore

if
the conductors
from
lt
By B3
during the displacement of their potentials do not change, energy must flow etc. One-half etc., to the conductors A v A%, 3
Now,
of the energy SJF supplied is expended in doing the mechanical work, the other half in increasing the electrical energy.
SECTION LXIY.
THE CONDENSER AND ELECTROMETER.

1.
Parallel Plates.
If two bodies at different potentials are placed near each other, a relatively great quantity of electricity can be collected on the If and B are two such bodies, surfaces which face each other.
152
ELECTROSTATICS.
[CHAP. vn.
and Mfg respectively, and if the opposing whose potentials are surfaces of the bodies are planes, the electrical force in the interis everywhere constant, except near the edges of the If a represents the distance between the planes, plane surfaces. and if ^f l is greater than ^f y so that this force is directed from
vening space
to B,
we have from
VII.
(c), (a)
+ Fa and
J
F=(
2 )la.
The
surface-density on
471-0-
is
determined from
<r
=^
or
= (* 1 -'4
2 )/4ira.
If
represents the surface of the conductor have for the charge e l on S, (b) e 1 = S<r = (>
e2
A
l
which faces B, we
-V
2)
S/faa.
The
of the
charge
on
is
equal to
er
The
electrical
energy
W^
system
is
or
(c)
JT^ =
I/Sir.
(^-^^.S/a,
From
JFe =
in terms of the potentials.

(d)
(b)
where the energy is expressed and (c) it follows that
2irae l 2/S.
If the z-axis
is
and
if
it
is
perpendicular to the plane surfaces of the conductors, directed from to B, we have, representing the x-co-
ordinate of the plane face of of by x2 a = x2 -xl and
by xv and that of the plane
face
W* = 1/87T
The mechanical
ppj
S/(x2
xj
W. = 2we^(x2 - xJ/S.
[LXIIL]
force
which acts on
;
is
= - SWJSa^ = 2^/S
(e).
.
X = 2^ = $Fe v
l
This corresponds to LIX.
We
2)
further have
2
.
[LXIIL
.
(d)]
.
X1 = Sfr+ISXi = 1/87T (^ This agrees with LIX.

given for W^,, with LXI. (i).
(f).
S/(X2
Xrf-
= 1 1 Sir F*
-
S.
From
the expressions which have been

l/8-n-.
we
also have
W^,=
r
l
F
2
2
.
S(x<,
xj, which agrees
The
capacity
is
C=e
/(^
-^r
) 2 )-
if
we have C=S/4ira.
2.
Concentric Spherical Surfaces.
whose radius is R, is enclosed by the concentric spherical shell, whose internal and external radii are 7?2 and Rz and if A l is given the charge ev and A 2 the charge e 2 the inner
If a sphere
,
,
Av
surface of
the charge
SECT. LXIV.]
CONDENSER AND ELECTROMETER.

the
153
The
shell
potentials within are therefore " l

ex
sphere
A
.
and within the spherical

;
.
= eJP^ - el /R2 + (el + e2 )/E3

.
and hence
= R^(RZ - RJ
^-
= (e2 + el )jR3
JR2
f(Ra
RJ
/ and
The
potential
These equations agree with those given in LXII. in the space between the two spheres is
(h).
where is the distance of the point considered from the common The potential outside the spherical shell is centre of the spheres. ^P = (e1 + e2 )/r. The capacity C of the inner sphere is determined
/
is set equal to zero ; we have therefore C = R^RJa t 2 represent by a the distance between the surface of the inner sphere and the inner surface of the spherical shell.
by
if
el
= C^ v when
we
3.
Coaxial Cylinders.
Suppose two
each other.
coaxial cylindrical surfaces, Let their potentials be and
and
R respectively. Let a point in be at the distance r from the common axis of the cylinders. The 2x = for this space. Since potential ^f must satisfy the equation V F
the
surfaces
and A^ confronting and their radii Rl the space between A l and A 2
2,
equi-potential surfaces in the space considered are cylindrical coaxial with the equation V 2 ^" = lt may be given the form [cf. XV.] d*P/dr2 + 2lr.dV/dr = (), and we obtain by integration = , = c log r + c r For r = R^ we have = lf and for r = R^
therefore
*. = *!
(log
(log r
R
-
log r)/(log
log
RJ
is
+ V,
log ^)/(log R, log Rj).

cylinder, the potential
For a point outside the outer

where
the
r is the
distance of the
point considered from the axis of
The constant c cannot be determined from the cylinder. in the intervening space is The electrical force potentials alone.
F=
o-j
- <t9t jdr = - OP 2 - ""!)/ (log R2 and o- 2 on A l and A 2 are [LV.
log
RJ
1/r.
The
surface-densities
(e)]
2
- log
log
RJ
.Bj)
The charge on
or
a portion of the cylinder

e1
1
Av
whose length
is
/,
is
= //2.(Y -'P 2 )/(log^2 -log^ 1 ).
The charge on
154
the inner surface of A.2
ELECTEOSTATICS.
[CHAP. vn.
is equal and opposite to this. of a portion of the inner cylinder, whose length is /,
The
is
capacity
4.
Tlie
Quadrant Electrometer.
,
to be two metal plates whose potential is 1Ir 1 and l two similar plates whose potential is 2 (Fig. 71). 2 In the middle between the two pairs of plates there is placed a We assume that 1 <- P 2 <'Ir 3 If plate A 3 whose potential is 3 A 3 is displaced by the distance 8x in the direction from A z to A v and therefore in the direction of its length, the area b8x is displaced from right to left, if b represents the width of the
Suppose
AA
l
A A2
to be
>
If the distance of plate Ay and A 3 is acting between l
from
A.2 and
^4 3 is
^ = (3 - ^
lie
(i)
^=
("*F 3
"ty^/a,
and A 2 is a, the force and that acting between
2 )/a,
considered do not
near the edges of
on the assumption that the points A s or in the space between

,
the electrical energy is 7F=l/87r. \F-d-r. During the motion considered, the energy on the left side of the pair of plates is increased by
l
and
Ay
From LXI.
that on the right side is diminished The gain of energy is therefore
by
/ / 2 2 l/8ir. (M 3 -'*J 2 ) /a
2ab8x.
This expression does not fully represent the gain of energy, since no account is taken of the relations at the edges. We therefore set
SECT, LX.IV.]
CONDENSES AND ELECTEOMETEE.
155
left
is
The
force
which tends to move

l
A
1
from right to
then
[LXIIL
result
(d)]
X=k(V t -V ).(V i -Mp + VJ). We may
apply this
to the quadrant electrometer. If, in this instrument, the movable aluminium plate turns through the angle 6, we may set approximately 6 = aC*, - Yj) (^ 3 - C*-j + 2 ))
.
where
and
are the
potentials
of the
quadrants,
is
the
aluminium plate, and a is a constant whose value depends on the form and dimensions of the apparatus.
potential of the
SECTION LXV.
THE
that
DIELECTRIC.
the bodies
We
either
have assumed until
now
considered were
good conductors or perfect insulators, on which the charge was immovable. Experiment shows, however, that there are no
perfect insulators.
Electricity on
insulators
is
often
lost
the most part is due to the film of fluid But even if this film is removed the air.
by conduction, which for deposited on them by by careful drying, con-
duction
to
still persists. If a charge of electricity is communicated one part of an insulator, it is distributed after a considerable time in the insulator in the same way as it would be in a good conductor. Besides this, another action also exists which is instan-
When a movable insulator is brought into the neighbourhood of a charged conductor, the insulator sets itself C in the same way as a good conductor, from which it follows that an instantaneous distribution of electricity
taneous.
takes place in it. According to Faraday, insulators consist of very small conductors which are separated by
an insulating medium.
is
increased
insulator
The capacity of a condenser by replacing the air which serves as the between its surfaces by other insulators, such
(^
as glass, shellac, calc spar, etc.
and B (Fig. 72) be two conducting plates which Let are separated by the insulator CD. Let be brought to the potential ^f v and to the potential let the 2 ;
D
FIG. 72.
be a-, that on surface-density on In order to explain this, Faraday

fication exists in the insulator
is
then
<r.
particles
contained in
it
assumed that a peculiar electriCD, by which each of the conducting acquires negative electricity on its right
156 and
ELECTROSTATICS.
positive electricity on its
left.
[CHAP. vn.
Just as a mechanical force can
give rise to an elastic displacement, the forces proceeding from the plates of the condenser produce an electromotive action by setting
up a current
toward the
The of electricity in the particles of the dielectric. positive electricity flows in the particles toward the left, the negative
right.
By
this
process,
which we may
call
dielectric
displacement,
there
arises a polarization of all the particles.
The condition
in the dielectric can be
compared with the polarity
of the particles of a permanent magnet.
The quantity $) which flows through a unit of area parallel to and B must be equal to a-. A unit of area of the surface of the
ft
A receives the charge -a-, and that at B the charge + 0-. be the distance between A and B, whose difference of potential is The force in the intervening space is (a) F= (M^ - ^.2 )/a. x 2 If the quantity of electricity which flows through the unit of area
insulator at
Let
is
proportional to the force acting in the insulator,

)
we
can set
(b)
= #/47r..F,
. .
where
will
is a constant. Hence, the surface of A, whose area is S, A comparison have the charge (c) S3) = K/ir (\ - 2 )/a S. of this equation with LXIV. (b) shows how many times greater the
capacity of the condenser becomes if another insulator is used in call the dielectric constant ; for air, which is chosen place of air.
We
medium, we set K= 1. The dielectric constant of an insulating medium is the ratio of the capacity of a condenser having that medium as an insulator to the capacity It is, however, more of the same condenser when air is the insulator. correct to set K= 1 for a vacuum ; it has been shown that K for
as the standard
gases
is
little
greater than
1.
As examples
-
of the values of the
dielectric constant,
we have
Glass,
Paraffin,
for
#=5,836,34,
#=22,32,
#=3,84,
Sulphur,
Shellac,
-
#=33,7,
#=2,6, #=2,2.
Bi-sulphide of carbon, Oil of turpentine,
On
the whole, the results obtained by different observers are not
very consistent. Let us, as in

into
the
space
enclosed by the
LVIIL, suppose that the body metallic shell BC.
is brought Suppose that
SECT. LXV.]
THE DIELECTEIC.
the charge Q,
157
Q.
B
Q
receives
and C the charge
The quantity
of positive electricity flows outward through the closed surface 7> taken within BC. Hence, when the quantity Q is introduced through
the closed surface D, the same quantity flows out through the same surface. are therefore justified in assuming that the quantity enclosed by the surface is always zero. This holds for the closed
We
be drawn in the insulator surrounding BC, and thus we obtain the general theorem that the total quantity of
surface E,
which
may
electricity
contained within a closed surface

>,
is
equal
to
zero.
If the quantity of electricity which flows through a unit of area perpendicular to the direction of electrical force, is proportional to
that force at every point,
we
will
have
(d)
= Kjkir
F.
If /,
g,
and h are the quantities which pass through three units of area in an isotropic body taken perpendicular to the three coordinate axes, that is, if they are the rectangular components of the displacement ), and
if
X, Y,
f=K/4:Tr. X, g=K/4ir.Y, consistent with the relations

(e)
(f)
are the components of the electromotive force F, we have h = K/4:Tr.Z. These expressions are
Z=-3*/3ar,
Y=
-3*"/3y,
Z=
SECTION
LXVL
Suppose the closed surface AS' to enclose a portion of the electrical system, passing partly through the dielectric, partly through the will make use of our previous conclusion, that the conductors.
We
total
quantity of electricity within S is zero. If we represent by e the total quantity enclosed by S, and by )' the quantity which flows out through a unit of area in consequence of the displacement
in
the dielectric,
we have efo'.dS,
S
I,
directed outward
The normal to the surface makes angles with the axes whose cosines are
We have ^)' = K/îr. Fcose, if e is the angle between the TO, 7i. normal to dS and the direction of the electromotive force F. Since
we
obtain
(b) (c)
e
F cos e = XI + Ym + Zn,
=
1/47T
.
\K(Xl +
Ym + Zn)dS = \(fl + gm + hn}dS.

an
infinitely small parallelepiped,
If
we apply equation
(c) to dz,
whose
edges are dx, dy, and

it is
that the quantity which enters, fdydz + gdxdz + hdxdy, and that which leaves it
find
we
'/+
dydz +
g+
dydxdz +
dz
158
if
is
ELECTROSTATICS.
is
[CHAP. vn.
pdxdydz; now the total quantity of zero, and therefore
the volume-density, the charge contained in the parallelepiped electricity within it equals
fdydz + gdxdz + hdxdy + pdxdydz
= (f + ?fdx}dydz + (g + ^dy}dxdz + (h + fdz}dxdy. oz ox

\
oy
From
-and
this it follows that the volume-density p of the free electricity

[cf.
within the body
from
LXV.
(e)
LXVIIL] is given by we obtain
(d) p
= 'd/J'd
In terms of the potential, this becomes

<f) If
-o(K
3/az)/ae + -d(K. 3,%)/3y + 3(K. 3/3*)/3,? + 4rp = 0.

consider a surface
we
on which the surface-density
is
o-,
we
,
obtain by the same method as that used in LIV. (g) a- = 2) 1 + $) 2 if ) and are the polarizations in the directions of the normals ) 2 l
<
If the forces along the same normals N.2 where K^ are NI and JV2 we have (h) a- = KJiir + And K.2 are the dielectric constants on the opposite sides of the
,
.
to the surface drawn outward.
K^v
surface.
By means of this equation questions on electrical distribution and on the relations between density and potential may be solved. If
V + kirp 0. In a region K, the potential which arises from tb .a part of that which arises given charge p is equal to only the 1. In the latter case from the same charge in a region where
is
constant,
it
follows from (f ) that
K ^
2
where the
dielectric constant is
K=
ithe potential Hf' is
The
electrical
e.
determined by V 2 + 4ny) = 0, so that = V/K. If the force is also diminished in the same ratio.
'
charges e l and if the distance
AB =
and are placed at the points respectively, and r, the charges repel each other with the force E,
B-l/K.qiJA
SECTION LXVII.
MECHANICAL FORCE AND ELECTRICAL ENERGY THE DIELECTRIC.
IN
Suppose that the

sidered.
The
forces
dielectric constant is constant in the region conacting in the directions of the axes on the
parallelepiped dxdydz
= dr,
in
which the density
is p,
are
SECT. LXVII.]
MECHANICAL FORCE IN DIELECTRIC.

(e),
159
Using LXVI.
(X)
Since
we have
.
= l/4ir(X
(f)]
-d(KX)l^x +
forces
V(KY)rdy +
a
d(KZ)pz).
[LXV. XXVII. (b)

(X)
the
have
potential,
we
obtain
from
= K/8ir (d(X* -Y2 - Z 2 )/cx + 2^(XY)py + 23(A^)/3.?).

.
which acts on the volume-element dr may be considered Yy etc. [cf. XXVII. (c)], where as due to the stresses x
force
The
Xx = K/STT (X 2 - Y 2 - Z 2 ),
.
Y =ZU = A747T
Z
YZ,
Z = K/8ir
t
(Z
A' 2
2
),
X = Y = A747T
y
x
YX.
If the direction of the a;-axis
is
that of the electrical force,
we have
and the tangential components vanish. In the direction of the electromotive force F, there is a tension S, and in all directions perpendicular to the force F, a pressure T, such that (d) and If (Fig. 73) are two conducting surfaces
S=T=KF' /8Tr.
2
is
separated by an insulator whose dielectric constant a line of force, a tension S acts along that line, and a pressure T = S acts perpendicularly to it.
is
which are K, and if AB
surface-element at
is
under a tension
2
,
1/Sir.KF
acting
in
the
direction
of
the
normal drawn
outward.
When
K=
A
this reduces to the result
reached in LIX.
B be a hollow sphere of glass whose inner and For example, let outer radii are r l and r 2 respectively. Let the potential of the surface
and that of B be 0. The potential in the interior of the is determined from LXVI. (f when p = 0, we have ) V 2*P" = 0. Since the potential depends only on the distance r from the centre, we have from XV. d*/dr* + 2/r .d^/dr=0, and hence
be
spherical shell
;
^v
M*
Having regard to the boundary conditions, we obtain The forces 1 and 2 which act at the -r)/(r2 -r l ).y i /r. inner and outer surfaces are
W=r
= A + Bfr.
l (r 2
Representing the stresses on these surfaces by
p l and p v we
obtain
These
stresses
may be
regarded as pressures which act on the surfaces.
160
ELECTROSTATICS.
[CHAP,
vn
If d<f>/dr represents the increment of r
on the
surface,
.
we have from XXXI.
a = 3/(3 A + 2/0 (prf -pff)/(r* - r*) ;
which results from the pressure = âr+b/r2 where b = 1 /4/ r

(h) d<f>/dr
.
Pl
-pjr*
2 */(r s
rf).
From
this it follows that
If
we
set
K^^/Sir
3
.
fjfj/[(*j
**i)(^2
~ ri 3 )] = -^r we
w^
have
The volume contained by the hollow sphere

the action of the electrical force.
If
will
be increased by
we
represent by
3
47T/3.(r + d</e?r) 47r/3.r volume of the sphere, for
the increment of the unit of volume, we have 3 = 3d(^/rdr. For the (l+6 ), so that
which
= rv we
obtain
.
6 = 3(l/(3A +
If
* 2/0 + (r2 r-*)i(r, rj l/iprflN.
we
set r2
^==8, and
if 5 is
very small in comparison with rv

.
= 9JV. (A + /*)//*(3A + 2^), where H=K' l */8ir. 1/33 2 It thus follows, using XXIX. (d), that (e) 6 = 3/E8* K^/Sv. The increase of volume here considered has been observed for various
we have
.
condensers.
If a region,
in
which the
dielectric
constant
is
a function of
the coordinates, contains electrical charges, whose density is p, and is determined which give rise to the potential the energy
,
as in
LXI. by
(f)
W=\\f&dr.
by
If p is expressed in terms of the potential
we have
for the
energy W>
JF=-1/87T.
By
integration
by
.
parts,
we
obtain
2
pyy- + J J f tf((3/aB) + Cd where the integration is extended over the entire region, and assumed that the force and the potential vanish at infinity. represents electrical force, we have (g) JF=lj8ir.
1 1 Sir
W=
it
is
If
Electrical Double Sheets.
We have
seen in LVIII. that two conductors

different
which are very near each other, and are kept at the two
potentials
<r
îf
l
and
The surface-densities are oppositely charged. -a- of their charges are given by o- = (^r 1 where a 2 )/47r,
and
W^
SECT. LXVII.]
MECHANICAL FORCE IN DIELECTRIC.
161
is
the distance between the surfaces.

is
still
If a is taken infinitely small,

;
there
a finite difference of potential between the surfaces

V,
calling this difference
we have
(a)
a-
F/4?ra.
finite potential differfor example, it may be
Now,
ences
there are several
ways by which such

;
may
be established across a surface

or,
what amounts to the same thing, by contact. necessarily assume, as was first remarked by v. Helmholtz, that a double sheet of electricity is formed on the two surfaces which are near each other, in which, if the distance a is extremely small, the density o- must be extremely great if the potential When two such bodies are separated difference V is to be finite.
done by
friction
so,
This being
we must
from each other, provided they still retain the electricity thus disposed on them, they will both be very strongly charged. It is usually not possible to separate them without discharging them, but if one or
both of them are insulators a very considerable charge remains. V. Helmholtz thus explains the action of the rubber of the frictional
electrical
machine.
way v. Helmholtz explained several remarkable phenomena, for example the phenomena of electrical convection, studied Let us consider a capillary tube, by Quincke and Wiedemann.
In the same
of
circular
/.
cross-section,
whose
inner
radius
is
and
whose
length is If there
is
liquid is supposed to be flowing through this tube. between the liquid and the a difference of potential
wall of the tube, a layer of electricity forms around the liquid, whose Setting the radius of this density a- is determined by equation (a).
cylindrical electrical layer equal to
o-
r,
so that a = E-r,
we have
(b)
Let the velocity of the flow at the place at which The quantity of electricity which is carried this layer is present be w. on by the current in unit time through any cross-section of the tube is
= VIir(R - r).
Now, we have found [XLIX.]

')
t
that
and hence
We may
(0
where S
difference
in this equation set
E=
r,
and obtain
is
the area of the cross-section of the tube.
If the pressure at the
two ends of the tube

M*^
exists
is
of potential
^-
the same, while a

electrical
between them, an
162
force
ELECTROSTATICS.
[CHAP. vn.
F=
_ ~
will act within the tube,
and therefore a force
Fa-
on every unit of area of the electrical layer. The liquid will thus be set in motion. The velocity increases from the wall of the
will act
tube,
where
it is 0,
to the layer
a-,
where
it
may
be called
u.
the definition of internal friction [XLVIL],

If
or
we then have
F<r
By = p.~.
is
expressed in terms of the potential difference,
we have
(d)
VF u=
.
CHAPTER
VIII.
MAGNETISM.
SECTION LXVIII.
IT was very early
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF MAGNETS.
in Asia Minor, stones
to the Greeks that in the city of Magnesia, were to be found which had the power of attractIf such a stone, which consisted mostly of magnetic oxide ing iron. of iron, were thrown into iron filings, they would adhere with special
known
long magnet is especially active strength to it at certain points. If a bar magnet is in the vicinity of its ends, which are called poles. suspended horizontally, so that it can turn about a vertical axis passing
through its centre, it assumes of itself a definite direction which The end approximately coincides with the meridian of the place. of the bar which points toward the north is called the north pole, the
pole. Following the indication of this experiment, the existence of two magnetic fluids, which are separated If a in each particle of iron by the influence of a magnetic force.
other end the south
we assume
bar magnet
is
floated on a fluid at rest,
it
assumes a definite direction
to the influence of a magnetic force, but the force does not set the floating magnet in motion if the dimensions of the
when exposed
magnet are very small
in comparison with its distance
from the seat
conclude from this that the north and of the magnetic force. south magnetic fluids are present in a magnet in equal quantities. Let us represent the quantity of one fluid by + m, that of the other m, the north magnetism being conventionally taken as positive. by
We
Coulomb proved that the poles of two magnets repel each other with F, which is given by (a) F^m^^r^ where m 1 and m 2 are the quantities of magnetism at the poles and r is the distance
a force
between the
If a
poles.
is
magnet
broken into many small

163
pieces, each part is still a
164
magnet.
MAGNETISM.
[CHAP. vni.
Because of this fact, we conclude that every magnet is made up of a very great number of very small magnets. If a magnet is broken, positive magnetism appears on one, and negative magnetism on the other, of the surfaces formed by the
fracture,
and
their quantities are equal unless the magnetization is

it is
changed by the jar given to the magnet when
broken.
We
will
represent by + 0- the quantity of magnetism that is present on a unit of area of one of the newly formed faces. For each point on this face a- has a definite value, dependent on the position of the point
on the face and of the face

to this face
in the original
;
magnet.
Construct a normal
drawn outward <r then depends on the coordinates x, y, z of the point and on the direction of the normal, which makes angles with the axes whose cosines are /, m, n. Let ABC = dS (Fig. 74)
and
be an element of the positive face a point in the magnet infinitely
it.
near
A, B, C are points
in
which
the surface
dS
is
Ox, Oy, Oz parallel
met by the lines to the axes drawn

OBC, one of
through
0.
The
surface
the surfaces of the tetrahedron
OABC,
may
FIG. 74.
be considered as a negative face. Suppose that the magnet is magnetized with the components A, B,
in
the
directions
OA,
OB,
and
OC, the surface the surfaces OBC,
ABC
of the tetrahedron exhibits positive magnetism, etc., negative magnetism. Represent the surface-
each unit of surface of ; density perpendicular to the z-axis by OBC then exhibits the quantity of magnetism - A. The unit of surface of OA C and OB A will, in a similar notation, exhibit the
quantities of
magnetism
is
and - C respectively.
The
position of
the surface
determined by the cosines /, m, n of the angles which the normal to the surface makes with the axes we have
;
ABC
OBC = l.dS, OAC=m. dS, OBA =n.dS.

dicular let
fall
If h represents the perpenif
from
to the surface
ABC, and
p,
magnetism in the unit of volume is represented by of magnetism contained in the tetrahedron is
the quantity of the total quantity
(<r-lA-mB- nC)dS+ ^hpdS.

since the total quantity of the altitude h of the tetrahedron
Now,
magnetism in a magnet is is assumed to be infinitely

if
zero,
and
small,
we
have (b)
the surface-density on three perpendicular surface-elements passed through a point is known, the
o-
= Al + Bm + Cn.
Hence,
SECT. LXVIII.]
PROPERTIES OF MAGNETS.
is
165
deter-
density on any other surface passed through the same point
mined from
(c)
(b).
If
we
set
J* = A* + B* + C* and
1,
where A 2 + /* 2 + v-=
is
it
follows from (b) that
A=JX, B = Jp., C = Jv, a- = J(l\ + mp, + nv).
the intensity or strength of magnetization. The direction of the intensity makes angles with the coordinate axes, whose cosines are A., /*, v.
If we set l\ + mp. + nv = cos e, where e is the angle between the intensity of magnetization and the normal to the surface-element, we have 0- = J cose, that is, a- is the component of the intensity of
magnetization along the normal to the surface-element. The greatest value of o- is reached when = 0, that is, when the direction of the
intensity of magnetization coincides with the normal to the surfaceelement on which the density is o-. surface may be passed through
any point in a magnet for which the surface-density is a maximum. The direction of the intensity of magnetization / lies in the normal to this surface. For such a surface, whose normal coincides with the
direction of magnetization, cr = /; that on the unit of area of this surface is /.
t
is,
We
the quantity of magnetism construct a parallelepiped,
one of whose ends, dS,
lies in
perpendicular to the surface are ds moment of this parallelepiped. The

;
the surface considered, and whose edges J.dS.ds is called the magnetic
equal
intensity of magnetization J is of the magnetic moment of the magnet to its volume. The magnetic condition of a magnet is defined by the components The density o- on the surface of the magnet of magnetization A, B, C.
to the ratio
is
determined by
(b)
from these
Free magnetism components. may be present in the interior

If 00' (Fig. of the magnet also. 75) is a rectangular parallel-
epiped,
dz,
if
whose edges are dx, dy, taken within the magnet, and
A, B, C are the components
of the intensity of magnetization at the point 0, OA' will contain the quantity of
magnetism
FIG. 75.
-Adydz, and O'A the quantity (A + 'dA/'dx dx)dydz. Analogous expressions hold for the other surfaces. Representing by p the quantity of magnetism contained in the unit of volume, we have
.
('dA/'dx
+ "dBfdy + 'dC/'dz + p)dxdydz = 0,
166
since the total
MAGNETISM.
magnetism
in the parallelepiped
[CHAP. vin.
P=
-(dA/'dx + 'dBfdy + 'dCfdz).
Hence (e) is zero. While we may consider A, B, C as
the natural and direct expressions for the condition of a magnet, determine its free magnetism from the derived magnitudes p and or.
we
SECTION LXIX.
THE MAGNETIC POTENTIAL.
with which a magnet acts on a pole at which unit quantity of magnetism is concentrated is called the magnetic force. Its components are represented by a, ft, y. These are determined
force
The
from the potential in the same way as the components of the electrical Let the quantities of magnetism m, m', m", ... be present at force. given points; let the pole P, for which the potential is to be determined, be distant r, r', r", potential is then given by
...
respectively from those points.
The
F=m/r + m'/r'+m"/r"+..., and m + m' + m"+

If
...
= 0.
a north pole with magnetism (Fig. 76) and S a south - m, and if P is the pole with magnetism point for which the potential is to be determined, and whose distances
is
+m
^p
S/ f
from the north and south poles are r respectively, we have
and
V= m/r - m/r' = m(r

If the length / of the in comparison with r
2
,
r)/rr'.
magnet is very small and /, and if we set

(a)
we have
r=
;
90} = lm
is
called the
SNM
We
is
called the magnetic axis.
Its
moment of the magnet positive direction is that from
the south to the north pole. now determine the potential of a magnet whose components of magnetization A, B, and C are given. Let the coordinates with respect
A, B, C are then functions ; ?/, any point taken as origin be of these three coordinates. parallelepiped whose edges are d, will have the magnetic moment Adijd{.d, if, for the present, drj, d
to
,
we
consider only the magnetization determined
by A.
is
is r,
If the
co-
ordinates of the point P, for which the potential are x, y, z, and if its distance from the point 77,
,
to be determined,
we have
)/>-.
r2
= (x -
2
)
+ (y -
2
rj)
+ (z-
C)
.
cos
.
9 = (x .
The
arising from the compotential due to the element d% d^ d 2 - )>. B and C is, from (a), Addr]d/r (x ponent of magnetization
SECT. LXIX.]
THE MAGNETIC POTENTIAL.

2
.
167
2
.
)/r. Cdgdrjdflr give rise to the potentials Bdgdrjdflr (y rf)jr, The sum of these three potentials, integrated over the whole magnet, gives the total potential V,
(z
(b)
V= \\\\A(x = x-g, r'dr/'dx
Since
(c)
+ B(y - r,) + G(z = = rdrj'dy rdrfdz z-, we

)
fl^Whave
y%
V=
we
set
\\\(A .3(l/r)/3a; +
.3(l
If
^ = Jff^/r.deMt
we have
(d)
*,=
\\lBfr.
since the
F"=
^4,
-(3</' 1 /3a;
-6,
(7
+ 3i/'2 /3y + 3^3 /32),
components of
x, y,
magnetization the point P.
are independent of the coordinates
z of
equations, r 3r/3 by the use of which

.
Another more general transformation may be made by help of the = - (x - ), r 3r/3?/ = - (y - 17), r 3r/3= - ( - 0,
. .
we
obtain from (b),

.
V= \\\[A 3(l/r)/3 + B 3(l/r)/3, + (7. 3(l/r)/3f]^^df. (e) Let the normal to the surface-element make angles with the axes
.
whose cosines are

(f)
/,
m,
n.
.
By
dS (e),
integration
JJ
by
parts, it follows that

.
V= \\(Al + Bm + Cn)/r
(b)
and using LXVIII.

(g)
and
(f)
J(3^/3^ + 3/3ry + 3(7/30 dgdr)d{/r, becomes
r=JforfS/r+Jffpd^<*0r.
is
correctness of the last equation the meaning of <r and p.
The
immediately evident from
The components
(h)
a,
/3,
y of the magnetic force are expressed, as
in the theory of electricity,
by
a=-3F/3z, /3=-3F/3z/, y=-3F"/3z.

dv,
is
The force N, which acts in the direction of the element of length If the potential is F] inside the magnet and JV= -3F/3^.
outside the magnet, we have at the surface normal to a surface-element on which the density
i
Va
the
V =V
a.
If v t
cr
is
is
drawn
into
the magnet, and va the normal to the same element drawn outward, we have from the general laws of the potential [cf. XIV. (1)], which For every point are applicable here, (i) 3F /3vi + /3v + 47r<r = 0.
i
3F
2
(l
within the magnet,

for P given in
we have
(k)
V 2 F|- + top = 0,
i
or introducing the value

if
LXVIII.
(e),
(1)
V F = ^(dA/'dx + dB/'dy+aC/^z),
x, y,
ra
p and A,
J5,
are functions of
and
z.
Outside the magnet
we
by
have, on the other hand, (m)

its
V 2 F" = 0.
If
is
normal drawn outward, and
a closed surface, v
the total magnetism enclosed
168
MAGNETISM.
.
[CHAP.
vm.
the surface, we have from XIV. (c) 4irM = JJdF/3v dS, or designating by ^) n the magnetic force in the direction of the normal to the surface,
,
(n)
4irM=l\$ n dS.
(i)
The equations
and
(k) are special cases of this equation.
SECTION
If the
LXX.
THE POTENTIAL OF A MAGNETIZED SPHERE.
components of magnetization are given functions of the and are the coordinates of a point within the 77, magnet, we obtain the potential most easily by using the formula LXIX. (d). If A, B, C are constant, the problem is to determine the
coordinates,
,
potential of a
(a)
body of constant volume-density.
Hence we
set
The potential 3</y cty + C tyfiz). (b) (A -d^fdx + of a sphere whose components of magnetization are A, B, C is to be determined by means of this equation. Take the origin of the system
and obtain
.
V=
of coordinates at the centre of the sphere. The potential $ has different values, according as the point for which the potential is to
be determined
lies inside
or outside the sphere.
In the usual notation

i}> t
we
have,
from XIII.
is
(c)
and
(d),
^ = 47r^/3r;
V
= 2ir(It2 -r2/3),
the radius of the sphere. If we represent the magnetic potential for points outside the sphere by â> an(l for points inside it by iy we have
(c),
where
(d)
Va = 47T/3
^/r
3
.
(Ax + By +
Cz)
V = 47r/3
i
(Ax + By +
Cz).
be the intensity of magnetization, and let its direction make Let 6 be the angle angles with the axes whose cosines are A, /*, v. between the direction of J and the line r. We then have
Let
and
is
(e)
= Xx/r + fjiy/r + vz/'r cos = 47r/3 1PJ cos 0/r2 F; = 47r/3./rcose. Va

. ;
Hence, the potential outside the magnet is the same as that which set up by an infinitely small magnet, whose magnetic moment is
(a)].
3K = 4ir/3.W [LXIX
If the a-axis lies in the direction of magnetization, the potential in
inside the sphere

(f)
= 4?r/3 Jx. the interior of the magnet is i is therefore constant, and

.
is
The magnetic force expressed by
^)
$=-
-Air/3. J.
Outside the sphere we divide the force into two components, one of
SECT. LXX.]
POTENTIAL OF A MAGNETIZED SPHERE.

r,
169
which, P, acts in the direction of the line

to that line.
We
then have
.
P = 87T/3
From LXVIII.
If
</>
P= -Vrjdr, Q= -l/r .'dTJ'dQ, Wcos 0/7- = 2%R/r3 cos

3
.
the other, Q, perpendicularly or

;
Q = 47T/3 E3Jsin
.
0/r
= Wfr3
sin 0.
resultant forced is
is
The the surface-density is determined by cr = /cos9. 3 2 have further tgQ = 2Q/P. F^^ft/r .^/! + 3cos 6. the angle between the direction of the force and the direc-
We
tion of
r,
we have
tg<f)
= Q/P = \tgQ. THE FORCES WHICH ACT ON A MAGNET.
SECTION LXXI.
Let us suppose that the magnetic forces of a magnet, whose components we may represent by a, /?, y, are functions of the coordinates. Let us suppose also another magnet,
whose components of magnetization are A, B, C. its action on the first magnet

is
to be
determined.
Consider the
in-
finitely
small parallelepiped
is
00' within
the
face
second magnet (Fig.
OA' there
77) ; on the a quantity of magnet'
ism present equal to - Adydz, which is acted on by the force - Adydza in the
direction of the positive z-axis.
Flo
The
face
AO', on which
is the quantity of magnetism Adydz, is acted on by the force (a + 'da/'dx.dx)Adydz in the same direction. The resultant of these two forces is On the surface-element cta/dx dxdydz.
the quantity of magnetism - Bdxdz, and on BO' the The former is acted on by the force Bdxdz.a in quantity Bdxdz. the direction of the positive .r-axis, and the latter by the force
OB' there
is
+ B(a + 'da/'dy dy)dxdz in the same direction. The resultant of these two forces is B 'da/'dy dxdydz. For the surface-elements 00' and O'C,
.
form the sum of these 'daj'dz. dxdydz. three resultants, integrate over the whole volume occupied by the magnet, and obtain for the force X, which tends to move the magnet
obtain the resultant C.
in the direction of the z-axis,
(a)
we
We
X= \H(A
-dafdx
+B
3a/3y +
Va/c)z)dxdydz.
Analogous expressions hold for the forces Y and Z. If the magnetic force whose components are a,
/?,
is
due to
a system of magnets which give rise to the potential
Fat
the point
170
z, y,
z,
MAGNETISM.
we have a = -3F/3x, /3= -3F/3y, 7= -^Vfdz. = 7tyfdx, and hence "dafdz
[CHAP.
vm.
then
We
have also 9a/3y = 'dfi/'dx,

(b)
X= \\\(A
-dafdx
+ B Vpfix + C
.
Vy/-dx)dxd>/dz.
determine the moment of the forces which tend to turn the magnet about one of the coordinate axis, say the z-axis, on the assumption that the magnetic forces are constant. Let the coordinates
of the point
x-axis
(Fig. 77) be x, y,
z.
We now
The
force
which acts on the surface

the
BO' in the direction of the

.
z-axis has a
has equal to Bdxdz y. (y + dy). a moment with respect to the same axis equal to - Bdxdz .y.y. Neglecting small terms of higher order, the resultant moment is
moment with respect to The force acting on OB'
Bydxdz
dy.
rise to the
The forces acting on the surfaces O'C and moment - Cftdxdy dz. The moment L, which
.
OC' give tends to
turn the magnet about the z-axis,

(c)
is
therefore
L = \\\(By-C($)dxdydz.
of rotation
The moments
If the
axes, are determined
and N, with respect from analogous expressions.
to the
two other
only,
magnet is subjected to the action of the earth's magnetism the magnetic force may be considered as constant both in The components a, (3, y are then indemagnitude and direction.
pendent of x, y, z, and therefore of a magnet does not move under
X=F=Z=Q.
the
The
centre of gravity
action of the
earth's
magnetism.
The magnet
may
however, acted on by a moment of rotation, which be determined in the following way

is,
:
Let the magnetic moment of the magnet be 9)?, and suppose its direction with respect to the coordinate axes to be determined by We then have the angles whose cosines are I, m, n.
Wl = \\\A.dT,
-
mm = \\\B.dr, Wn = \\lC.dr,
-
and hence L = Wl(ym /3n) ; M=$tt(an yl) ; From am). Wl(/3l these equations, it follows that La + Mtf + Ny = and LI + + Nn = 0, that is, the resultant moment is perpendicular to the magnetic force and If the direction of the force also to the magnetic axis of the magnet.
-
N=
Mm
is
parallel to the or-axis,
and
if
the magnetic axis
lies in
the xy- plane
and forms with the

(d)
,T-axis
the angle 6,
we
will
have
Z = 0, M=Q,
N=
-2tta.sine.
magnet can turn about a vertical axis, the moment which tends between the magnetic axis and the magnetic to increase the angle meridian is -~9RlT.dll 6, where denotes the horizontal component
If a
SECT. LXXI.]
FORCES ON A MAGNET.
171
of the earth's magnetism. If w is the angular velocity of the magnet and / its moment of inertia, we have, from XXII. (c),
d(Ja>)
(e)
WH .s'mQ.dt,
or since
w = dQ/dt = 0,
je= -WlH.sinQ.
6 is very small, the period of oscillation of the magnet given by XXII. (e), (f) T
If the angle
is
SECTION LXXII.
POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A MAGNET.
By the potential energy of a magnet is meant the work which is needed to transfer the magnet from a position in which no magnetic
forces act in
is
on it to the position which the magnetic potential V. We will first consider an

small
parallelepiped
infinitely
(Fig.
78),
whose components of magnetization are A, B, C. In

order
surface
to
bring
to
the
magnetic
OA'
which the
the position in potential is V, the

.
work
done.
is
dydz
must
surface
be
The opposite
O'A
FlG 78
brought to the position in which the potential is F'+'dV/'dx.dx, and the work done on
it
is
dydz. (P'+'dT/'dx.dx).
.
The work done on
these
two
surfaces
If we obtain in like amounts to A 'dVj'dx.. dxdydz. manner the work done on the two other pairs of surfaces, we find that the whole work done in transporting the magnet is
therefore
(a)
W= \\\(A.^ Vfdx +B.3 Vj'dy + C

a,
/?,
9 Vfdz)dxdydz,
or since
y,
the components of the magnetic force, are
will apply this we have (b) JF= -\\\(Aa + B(3 + Cy)dxdydz. equation to the case of a magnet subjected to the action of the earth's Let its magnetic moment be 3ft, and let the magnetism only.
We
direction of its magnetic axis whose cosines are /, m, n.

.
make
angles with the coordinate axes
We
then have
dxdydz = m,
\\\B .dxdydz
= nm,
\\\C .dxdydz
= nW,
172
MAGNETISM.
,
[CHAP. vui.
and supposing its direction Representing the magnetic force by to make angles with the coordinate axes whose cosines are A, p, we obtain Wl^lX + mp + nv). Letting 6 represent the angle between the magnetic axis of the magnet and the magnetic force,
i>,
W=
we have
parallel
(c)
W=
3J?^)
cos0.
If the
direction
of the force
is
the z-axis, as in LXXf., and if the magnetic axis lies in the ay-plane, the work done in turning the magnet through the
to
angle
dQ
is
dW=
now
We
it
will
strong magnet. will turn so that the magnetic force.
sin 6 dQ. This agrees with LXXI. (d). + 9tf consider a very small magnet situated near a very If the small magnet has sufficient freedom of motion,
.
.
its
energy
W W= - 3ft$.
is
magnetic axis is parallel to the direction of In this case we have 6 = and its potential
Since the motion of the small magnet involves the loss of potential This occurs by diminishes. energy, it moves in such a way that
the last equation, when ^) increases ; the magnet therefore moves in the direction in which the magnetic force increases. particle of
a paramagnetic substance therefore tends to move towards the place where the magnetic force is greatest. On the other hand, diamagnetic bodies move toward the place where the magnetic force is a
minimum.
we
In order to find the magnetic energy residing in a system of magnets, proceed in the following way The potential at every point within
:
the system varies proportionally with the values of the components of magnetization. assume that the components of magnetization
We
change only in such a way

increase
that, in successive instants,
they always
these con-
by the same
fraction of their final
values.
On
ditions the potential increases in the same proportion. If the components of magnetization arc originally zero, the potential is also Let the final values of the components of originally equal to zero.
magnetization be A, B, C. At a particular instant during the increase of the components of magnetization, let these be represented by nA,
nB, nC, where n

at
is
a proper fraction.
At
the same time the potential
any point is equal to nV. If the components of magnetization increase by A.dn, B.dn, G.dn respectively, the potential at the If A, B, C increase by A dn, point considered increases by Fdn. B.dn, G.dn respectively, the work needed to accomplish this is,
.
\>y
(a),
\\\(A dn . ridF/dx + B.dn. ndVj'dy +C.dn. n

.
= n.dn\\\(A
SECT. LXXII.]
POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A MAGNET.

to
1,
173
Now,
done
(d)
or,
(e)
if
is
n increases from
we have
ndn =
^,
and the work
W= \\\\(A
-dVftx +
-dFj-dy
+C
VFj?)z)dxdydz,
force,
by introducing the components of the magnetic
W=
\\\\(A* + Bfl + Cy)dxdydz.
The energy of a magnetic system may be expressed in another The same method by which we before obtained an expression for the energy, shows that (f) W=*\\<r. V. dS+\\\\p. F.dxdydz,
way.
where
If
o-
cr
and
and p represent the surface and volume-densities respectively. its first differential coefficient vary continuously, we have
and W=\\\\p.V.dxdydz. 2 = -1 V( 3
Now, V 2 F+4/> = 0, and hence
/STT
JfJ
Vfdy?
+ 9 2 Vfif + 3 2 Vfiz^dxdydz.
we
obtain
By
integration by parts over the whole infinite region,
or (g) W=-\l&ir. ^\(a z
+ /3'2 + y 2 )dxdydz.
Similar expressions hold for
dielectric polarization [cf. LXI.].
SECTION LXXIII.
MAGNETIC DISTRIBUTION.
piece of soft iron brought into a magnetic field becomes magnetized by induction. "We assume that the intensity of magnetization at any point is a function of the total magnetic force acting at that assume that the intensity of magnetization is proportional point.
We
= kf3, C=ky, where k is to the magnetic force, or that (a) A=ka, a constant. The magnetizing force proceeds partly from the permanent magnets present in the field, and partly from the quantities
former
of magnetism induced in the soft iron. may be designated by V, that

so that
The
due to
potential due to the the latter by U,
A=
Now,
(e),
-k 3( F+ U)fix,
.
B=
-k 3( F+ U)fdy,
.
C= - k
3(
F+
U)fiz.
2 by permanent magnets, we have V F"= 0, and therefore 'dA/'dx + 'dB/'dy + 'dC/'dz^ -kV2 U, or since, from LXVIII.
in the space not occupied
= -(dAj'dx+oBj'dy + 'dCI'dz}, we have
is due to the components of Since the potential magnetization 2 + 4-rp = 0. A, B, C, the equation that holds within the soft iron is V
finally
V2 U-p/k = 0.
From p=
the last two equations we obtain (b) (1 + irk)p that is, there is no free magnetism present within the
= Q, and
soft iron.
hence
The
174
magnetism present
is
MAGNETISM.
[CHAP.
vm.
therefore situated on the surface of the iron.

cr
We
now determine the surface-density For this purpose we use the equation
will
va
of this distribution.
of the iron inward and
drawn from any point on the surface U and Ua are the outward respectively. values of the potential due to the induced magnetism inside and Now we have outside the iron mass.
where
and
vt
are the normals
3 Vfi Vl = - 3 F/3v
rt ,
and hence
outside
+3
.
7,/3v,
+ 3 UJdva = 0.
is
The magnetizing force -3(P"+ 7,)/3v in the

4
just direction of vt
is
the surface of the soft iron
The
cr
corresponding surface-element
therefore
magnetism on the .dS = k.'d(V+ U )/'dv .dS.

free
i i
Hence we have
(c)
4vk 3 F/'dvt +
.
+ 47r)3 U^v, + 3 Ujova =
The
relation (c) in connection with the equations (d)
V U = Q, V
2
t
f/
and serves to determine the potentials a As an example of the theory here presented,
t
.
we
will
consider
the magnetization of a sphere subjected to the action of a constant magnetizing force ^) which acts in the direction of the -axis. Let
a-axis be
the intensity of magnetization of the sphere in the direction of the the force due to the magnetization and acting in the ; From direction of the z-axis is [LXX. (f)] equal to -4TT/3.A.
equation
(a)
we
have,
therefore,
A = k(5g> - 4ir/3
this case
3
.
A),
(e)]
.
and
hence
^=&<p/(l+47r/3.&).
t
We
.
have in
;
[LXX.
.
U = 47T/3 Ax
These values
Ua = 4;r/3
since
satisfy equation (c),
R A cos 0/r2 V= -$gx.
SECTION LXXIV.
If
<^) n
LINES OF MAGNETIC FORCE.
represents the free magnetism within a closed surface, and the component of magnetic force in the direction of the normal
to the surface, If
we
have, from LXIX., (a) 4jr.3/=f ]") .dS.
lay a sheet of paper on a magnet which lies horizontally, and scatter iron filings over it, they arrange themselves in curves which are called lines of magnetic force. Let (Fig. 79) be a small
we
DE
surface of area dS; lines of force proceed from its perimeter which bound a tube of force. If D'E' represents another section cut through
the tube of force, equation (a) can be applied to the part of the Since the direction of the magnetic tube of force thus bounded.
SECT. LXXIV.]
LINES OF MAGNETIC FOKCE.
175
force coincides with the direction force over the surface of the tube
of the lines of force, the normal
ends
DE
and D'E'.
Let
acting at D'E'; let the angles between the direction of
is everywhere zero except at the be the force acting at DE and )' that and 6' be
<p
the force and the directions of the
normals to
Since
DE
is
there
and D'E' respectively. no free magnetism
present in the interior of the tube,
we have
)
.
(IS
cos
6+
)'
dS'
cos 9'
= 0.
If the sections
dS and
dS' are perpendicular to the lines of force,
we have
the
cross-section
drawn
The force is therefore inversely proportional to The lines of force may be so of the tube of force. that their distances from one another furnish a representation
^)/^)'
= dS'/dS.
of the magnitude of the magnetic force in the field. tube of magnetic force cannot return into itself or form a hollow ring. If this were not so, the work which is done by the magnetic
forces during the transfer of a unit quantity of
magnetism from any
point over a closed path back to the same point again would not be zero. If ds is an element of the tube of force, the work done
would be
direction
J^).cfc>>0, if the direction of motion coincides with the of the force. If the magnetic potential is V, we have, however, ^)= -dF/ds, and therefore, for a closed path,
since the potential

point.
is
a single-valued function of the position of the
Any tube of magnetic force must begin and end on the surface of a If the tube ends with the cross-section PQ (Fig. 80), so magnet. that a magnetic force is present in the tube TUQP, while
it is
zero outside the tube at

(a)
equation
force
to
acts
at
the region the surface
TUQSRP.
TU,
we may apply Since a magnetic but not in the region

and
S,
Jt,---,S
the surface integral taken over TUQSRP cannot be zero. Magnetism must therefore be present within
PQSB,
the
closed
surface,
which contradicts
our
assumption.
FlG
Therefore, any tube of magnetic force ends at the surface of a magnet.
forces,
In order to represent the magnitude and direction of magnetic Faraday used lines of magnetic force ; he assumed that the lines
176
MAGNETISM.
[CHAP.
vm.
His mode of repreof force are continued in the body of the magnet. If a magnet is broken, sentation has become of very great importance. and the surfaces exposed by the fracture are placed so as to face
each other and separated by only a small distance, a strong magnetic
FIG. 81.
force acts in the region (Fig. 81). to the free magnetism in the interior of the
surface,
faces.
PQEU
This force
is
due partly
its original
magnet and on
The
n
and partly to the free magnetism on the newly-formed surforce due to the former cause is directed from the north
s,
pole
to the south pole
that due to the latter from
to n.
The
latter force is in practice the stronger, so
that
we may
say with a
certain propriety that the magnetic tubes of force are produced through the interior of the magnet along the path D'F'FD (Fig. 81).
FIG. 82.
If
(Fig.
the
field,
82) is a closed surface lying outside all the magnets in and therefore containing no magnetism, we have from XIV.,
It is
integral J^) n
customary to express this result in the following way The dS which is extended over a part of the surface may be
:
.
SECT. LXXIV.]
LINES OF MAGNETIC FORCE.

.
177
divided into the parts $> nl
dS
lt
^) n2
dS2
etc.
Let them be so taken
that they are all equal, and let their common value be taken as unity. Since the product is constant for the same tube or line of ) n .dS
force,
the integral J.) n
dS
gives the number of lines of force which traverse
many lines of force entei' the surface as leave it. This holds for a surface which contains one or more magnets, for the sum of the magnetism in every magnet is zero. On the other
If
the surface.
this integral is zero, as
hand, the theorem does not hold
if
the surface cuts through a magnet.
Nevertheless, if the magnet is divided into two parts, (Fig. 81) and RSTU, and if they are situated infinitely near each other, the theorem holds for either of them if the surface considered contains
MNQP
one part, but excludes the other.
Now,
:
if this
mode
of division of
the magnet produces no disturbance in its magnetization, the theorem can be expressed in the following way represent the components of the magnetic force by a, (3, y.
We
In the part of the surface lying outside the cleft, no other magnetic is acting; on the other hand, the free magnetism +0- on the element dS of PQ (Fig. 81), and o- on the corresponding element
force
of
RU,
:
way
From
produce a force which can be determined in the following XIII. a surface on which the surface-density is o- exerts
27ro- on a unit of mass In lying very near it. the case of magnetism, the force lira- is a repulsion. If there are two parallel surfaces, on one of which the density of the magnetic distribution is o-, while on the other it is - o-, the magnetic force
an attractive force
If the normal to the surfaceacting between the surfaces is 47r<r. element dS directed outward makes angles with the axes whose cosines
m, n, we have, if A, B, C are the components of magnetization, = lA + mB + nC. The magnetic force in the direction of the normal is la + m/3 + ny. Since, in the case considered, the surface-integral must
are
/,
a-
be zero, we have {](Ai+Jit0+ny+4xv)d90,

\[l(a + lirA) + m(p +
or,
from LXVIII.
(b),
irB)
irB,
+ n(y + 4irC)]dS= 0.
c
We
(c)
set (b) a
= a + 4vA,
=P+
= y + lirC, and
obtain
f (al
+ bm + cn)dS = 0.
are the components of magnetic induction. If, therefore, the directions of the lines of force are determined by the directions of the resultants of the magnetic induction, it follows that
quantities
a,
b,
The
the lines of force
may
be considered as continued through the
magnet
(c)
itself,
and
that they therefore return into themselves.
Now, equation
shows
178
that as
MAGNETISM.
many
lines
[CHAP. vin.
it.
enter a surface as leave
If
we
consider an
arbitrary surface
so
drawn
as to pass through every point of a closed
curve
are
a,
5,
b,
and determine the magnetic induction whose components c, the magnitude N= \(al + bm + cn)dS is determined by the
s
boundary
lines of
of the surface S.
We may
say,
the
curve s encloses
magnetic force.
From
equations (b)
it
follows that
'da/'dx
+ 'db/'dy + 'dc/'dz = Vapz + Vppy + V 7 rdz + tor(dAfdx + 'dBj'dy + Wj'dz) = - V 2 VHence, we have
4ir/o.
SECTION
LXXV.
THE EQUATION OF LINES OF FORCE.

of the
is
We
will
develop the equation
lines
of force of a small
straight
magnet
NS
(Fig. 83)
which
magnetized in the direction
9
fl
FIG. 83.
Let and S of its length with the intensity of magnetization J. Free magnetism represent the north and south poles respectively.
is
have the area
present on the end surfaces S and N, supposed to be plane and to dA ; the quantity at the north end is /. dA, that at
.7 dA. Let the centre of the magnet be the origin the south end of coordinates, and the x-axis coincide with the length of the magnet. are to determine the components a and (3 of the magnetic force which acts at the point P, whose coordinates are x and y. If 21 is
.
We
the length of the magnet, and
a = q.(z-
Z)/r./
-q
PS = rv PN=r 2 J.dA = q, we + J)/V, ft = q y/ r * - q y/rf. (x

if
, .
have
SECT. LXXV.]
EQUATION OF LINES OF FOECE.

or
. .
.
179
line of force,
If dx
and dy are the projections of an element of the

dy/dx =
(x
f3/a,
.
we have
(a)
If
we
set
dy (x + l)/r^ dy = y/r/ dx y/r^ = Q v ^PNx = Q.2 we have ^PSx cose i = (x + l)/rl and cos 0, = (x - T)lrr
l)tr/
,
dx.
If x
and y increase by dx and dy

or
respectively,
cos0
will increase
by
2 s way d cos 2 = y /rz dx - (x - l)y/r/ dy. From equation obtain d(cosS l - cos6 2 ) = 0, or, if c is a constant, cos6 1 - cos0 2 = c. This is the equation of the lines of force.
In the same
(a)
we
SECTION LXXVI.
MAGNETIC INDUCTION.
are
The components of magnetic induction

If
similar to that of the
as components of flux, they have a property components of flow of an incompressible fluid XLI. (e)], for 'dal'dx + 'db/'dy + 'dcj'dz = 0, or, what amounts to the [cf. If 23 represents the resultant of same thing, ^(al + bm + cn)dS = 0.
a, b, c
we consider
a, b,
dS
and
in
the angle between 23 and the normal to the surface-element c, and of the closed surface S, we have (53. cose.
^=0.
Let
EF=dS
let
be an element of the surface of the magnet, the quantity of magnetism ar.dS be present on dS. Let the
(Fig. 84)
induction
outside
the surface
the direction
that
EE',
be 23
in
inside
surface,
;.
the
EF, and same
__E -----~4^L_ -^""^

'
gr
'
p'
direction,
be 23
f"
f"
Suppose perpenparallel
diculars erected
the
to
element
EF
on the perimeter of and the surfaces E'F' and E"F" drawn
EF.
We
then have
(S3 i
-S3 ).f^=0, or
re
23,
= 23
rt
Outside the surface, 93 a is the same as the magnetic force in the direcit will be 23 = tion EE' /3va if the potential outside the sur;
rt
-3F
is
face
is
Va
and the normal EE'
within the surface.
The
Let V. be the potential equal to dvn induction 23; is then [LXXIV.]

.
and we have,
therefore,
3F /3v + 3F"a /3va + 4jrcr = 0.

i
<
This
is
the same
180
equation as
MAGNETISM.
LXIX.
JB
(i).
[CHAP. vui.
is
If the
body considered
is k,
a mass of iron
whose
coefficient of
magnetization
we have
b
A=ka,
iron.
It follows that 'da/'dx
= kP, C = ky, fJ.= l+irk, a = pa, + 'dbl'dy + 30/^ = 1*. V2 Vi =

therefore,
= pP,
= /xy.
present.
within the mass of

is
Within that mass,

it,
no free magnetism
to the surface has
The magnetic induction perpendicular

value on both sides of
that
is
[cf.
the same
LXXIII.
(c)],
The magnitude
/*,
which
the magnetic force,

netic permeability}.
may
The
is the ratio of the magnetic induction to be called the magnetic inductive capacity (mag-
coefficient
equal to unity in vacuo, where k = Q diamagnetic bodies /*< 1.
of induction or the permeability in paramagnetic bodies /x ;
is
> 1,
in
SECTION LXXVII.
Suppose a thin
steel
MAGNETIC SHELLS.
plate to be magnetized so that one face is
covered with north magnetism and the other with south magnetism. At any point in the face (Fig. 85) draw a normal to the plate
which cuts the surface
at
B.
Let the plate be so magnetized
FIG. 85.
that -o- represents the magnetic surface-density at B, and +0- that = e, and call o-e = 4> the strength of the shell* at at A. set
We
AB
the point under consideration.

surface-density infinitely great, called a magnetic "shell"
If the plate
<f>
is
infinitely thin
has a finite value.
and the Such a plate is
The
way:
Let
potential of such a shell may be expressed in the following (Fig. 86) be the shell, dS a surface-element on its
LM
*
positive face,
BC the
normal to
this surface-element,
and
TB.
the point
In the original, the moment of the surface.
SECT. LXXVII.]
MAGNETIC SHELLS.
181
at
which the potential is to be determined. We represent the angle BC and BP by e. The potential at the point P, due to that part of the shell whose end-surface is dS, is [LXIX.]
between
dF=(r.dS.e.cosf/r
if
z
.
cos e dS/r2, the strength of the shell is constant, (a) Hence, J{ where the integral is to be extended over the whole surface. If
< .
.
V=
is
the solid angle subtended by
dS
e
at the point
called dw,
and
if
we
is
set
BP = r, we
r
have dS cos
.
= r^dw.
dp =or. e. e?w = <J?. dw, and hence (b) F=<&.<a, where w the solid angle subtended by the shell at the point P. may call W the apparent magnitude of the shell seen from the point P.
Therefore
We
If the point for which the potential is to be determined lies on the opposite side of the surface, say at P', and if w' is the solid = - * w'. angle subtended by the shell at the point P', we have
and P' approach each other until they are infinitely = & (47r- w), near, but on opposite sides of the shell, we have (c)
If the points
since
4?r
is
the
total
solid
angle
about a point.
Hence,
finally,
V-V' = \TT.<$>.
If PQP' (Fig. 87) is a curve which does not cut the shell, and whose ends lie infinitely near each other on opposite sides of it, the work done by the magnetic forces in moving a unit ---,. magnet pole over the path PQP' is equal to 4iri. This theorem holds even if other magnets are present in the field. They act on the pole with forces which have a single-valued potential, and the work done by them during the motion of the unit pole in the curve
PQP' is equal to zero ; for this curve may be considered as a closed curve, since and P' are infinitely
near each other.

After obtaining an expression for the potential of a
magnetic shell, we determine the force with which the shell acts on a magnet pole of unit strength. The normal to
the shell makes angles with the axes whose cosines are I, m, n; k e the coordinates of a point in the shell, and x, y, z let */> the coordinates of the point outside the shell for which the potential
is to
be determined.
cos
e
2
)
We
(x
then have
)/r
= I.
+ m.(y- ^)/r + n
2
)
.
(z
f)/r,
where
is
2 r'
= (x -
+ (y- rjf + (z.
From
rj)m
equation (a) the potential

dS.
r= &
_
J J [(,-
g) .1
+ (y _
+ (z -
f )]/r
182
Since 3r~
1
MAGNETISM.
/c3
[CHAP.
vm.
= (as-)/r
.
s
i
we
obtain
V= *f J(/
Br- 1 /^
+ wi
Br" 1 /^ + n
'dr~ l j'dt)dS.
Represent the components of the magnetic force in the direction of the .r-axis by a, we then have (d) a= -'dP'/'dx, and
because 3r~ 1 /3= -Br" 1 /^. If the shell does not pass through the point .T, y, 2, 7- will never become zero, and we have
(e)
+ BV-'/Bf 2 = 0, 3V-i/32 + 3V= + *. J J[TO.3 2 i-V3i/3 + 3 2 r-Y33 - l(Wr~ l l'dr

.
W
Y
.
From
f
the theorem of VI.
(f),
we have
\(X. d/ds
drj/ds
+Z
dC/ds)ds
+n
WesetJf=0,
(g)
Y=
a
+*.3r~ 1 /9t
and
(f)
.
2=
*?/<**
(3,
-^.'dr~ 1 /'dri
identical,
sides of equations (e)
become
-
by which the right and then obtain

,
= * {Br-VBf
=$
.
- Sr- 1 /^
dC/ds)ds.
Analogous expressions hold for

tiation,
/.
By
8
.
carrying out the differen-
we
obtain (h) a
is
J[(z
fl/r
diy/rfe
(y
3
1?)/?.
d{/ds]ds.
The force
magnetic
is
therefore determined by the contour
and
the strength of the
shell.
This result follows from the fact that the potential
determined by the solid angle and the strength of the shell. In order to find the geometrical meaning of equation (h), we use Let be the coordinates of the point the following method 77,
:
; Oy and Oz represent the directions of the y- and s-axes respectively. Let the element ds be parallel to the 2-axis, and represented by we then have drj = Q. Let the point P,
(Fig.
88)
OA=d;
for
in the y^-plane,
which the potential is to be determined, and let OP = r. We set

.
lie
The magnetic force and have y -rj = r sin 6. due to ds = OA is, (i) a = - * ds sin 6/r 3 it
.
Its direction may be determined perpendicular to the y.^-plane. in the following way If the right hand is held so that the fingers point in the direction of ds, and the palm is turned toward the pole P,
is
:
the
thumb
gives the direction of the force.
Finally,
we determine
from an
the
work which must be done
to bring a
magnetic
potential
shell
infinite distance to a place
where the magnetic
is equal to V. In order to bring the
surface-element
Let the shell be divided into elements dS. which carries the quantity
SECT. LXXVIL]
o-
MAGNETIC SHELLS.
.
183
.
o- dS V dS of south magnetism to its final position, work equal to must be done. In order to bring the corresponding surface-element carrying the same quantity of north magnetism to its place, work equal to (F'+dF'/dv. e)ar dS must be done, if v represents the normal to the surface-element dS. Hence the total work done is
.
A = f \dVldv .&r.dS=3>. \\dVldv

Now,
since
dS.
dVjdv = -
(la + mfi + ny), we
obtain for the work done
A=
If JV represents the
-3>.l\(loi
+ mp + ny)dS.
number
of lines of force contained by the contour
of the shell,
we have
A=
&
N.
CHAPTER
IX.
ELECTRO-MAGNETISM.
SECTION LXXVIII.
BIOT AND SAVART'S LAW.
electrical current exerts
OERSTED discovered
magnets
;
that the
an action on
the law of the magnetic force which is due to an electrical Let current was discovered by Biot and Savart. (Fig. 89) be a conductor traversed by a current which is
AB
S*P
measured by the quantity of

in
electricity flowing
/*
unit
time
through any
cross-section.
Let
0,-'
the quantity of magnetism p. be situated at the be divided point P, and let the conductor
AB
If CD = ds is an into infinitely small parts ds. = r, and infinitely small part of the conductor CP
the angle between r and the direction of the current in CD, the direction of the force will be
perpendicular to the plane determined by
and
ds.
is
If
hand points in the turned toward the magnet pole,

the right
direction of the current

the
and
the
palm
direction of the force exerted by the
current-element on the pole
is
is (a) K=fi i.ds/r2 sin0. magnitude of the force The magnetic force which is due to any system of electrical currents, whose direction, strength, and position in space are known, may be calculated from (a). If the current forms a closed circuit, and if the intensity of the current is the same at all points in the conductor, we may determine the force due to the current and also the potential which the current
. .
given by the direction of the thumb.
The
The force due to any current-element is equal to that produces. exerted by a line-element of the same length, which forms part of the contour of a magnetic shell, whose strength is equal to the current184
CH. ix. SECT.
Lxxviii.JBIOT
AND SAV ART'S LAW.

from
a
185
(a)
strength.
This
follows
comparison of equation
with
(b), the potential of a closed circuit of strength i, at the point P, is (b) V=iw, where w is the solid angle subtended by the circuit at P. If a, /?, y are the components of the magnetic
LXXVII. (i). From LXXVII.
force acting at P,
(
we
.
have, from
LXXVII.
(h),
.
=i
=*
f ((*
{)/rS
)/r3
d-nlds
-(y- n)li*
dtfds)ds,
(c)
=i J8
7
\((x
dflds
-(z-
f)/
(Fig. 90) is a conductor through which a current i flows in the direction indicated by the arrow, and if a unit magnet pole
If
ABC
moves around the current
in
the
direction
found by using the right hand in the manner before described, the work done by the magnetic
forces
path
i"
DFED
is,
during the movement over the from (b), equal to 4iri. If the
/j
path of the pole encircles several currents i, i', the magnetic forces due to these etc.,
currents
do upon it, during its motion, the work A, given by (d) A = 4ir(i + i' + i" + ...),
in
which
the
are
currents
to
which
flow
in
one
FlG
direction
be
reckoned
positive,
and
those
potential
which flow in the opposite direction, negative. Hence, the which an electrical current produces at the point F is
not determined only by the position of that point. If we bring a unit pole (Fig. 90) to over the path GF from an infinite distance, the work which is done will be equal to V, the potential at the If the pole then passes around the current over the path point F.
the work k-n-i will be done, and the potential at F becomes V+iri. If the pole passes n times around the current in the same way, the potential at F becomes V+ 47rni. Hence, the potential at the point F has an infinite number of values. The differential
FEDF,
coefficients
of the potential with respect to
x,
y,
z are nevertheless
completely determined.
If a pole of strength
done on
it is
iTrip; if a
returns to
its
original
^ passes once around the current, the work magnet passes once around the current and position, the work done is 47ri2/*, when 2/*
represents the sum of the quantities of magnetism in the magnet. But since for any magnet 2/* = 0, the work done is in this case equal
to zero.
186
ELECTRO-MAGNETISM.
[CHAP. ix.
may be replaced by a magnetic shell, obtain the magnetic moment of an infinitely small closed current. If i is the current-strength, the strength of the equivalent magnetic shell is a-e=--i. If dS is the surface of the shell, we have
we can
is
Since an electrical current
i.dS = <re.dS. The quantity of magnetism on one side of the shell <rdS, and the thickness of the shell is e. Hence, the magnetic
moment
of the
current equals the product of the

circuit.
current-strength
and the area enclosed by the
SECTION LXXIX.
SYSTEMS OF CURRENTS.
Let a conductor be wound around a cylinder, so that the distances of the separate turns from each other are equal. We may approximately determine the magnetic action of the system in the following
is the length of the cylinder, the number of turns, current-strength, the current flowing in unit length of the cylinder is Ni/L, and that flowing in the length dx is Ni.dxjL.
way
If
and
the
portion of the cylinder whose length is dx may be replaced by a magnetic shell, whose thickness is dx and whose surface-density = Ni.dx/L and o- = Ni/L. If this substitution is is a-, if (a) <r.dx
carried
positive
out for the whole length of the cylinder, the actions of the and negative faces of the substituted magnetic shells annul
each other everywhere except on the ends of the cylinder. If the current flows in the way shown in Fig. 91, exhibits negative and B positive magnetism. Such a system of currents is called a solenoid.
Outside the cylinder, the only magnetic forces which act are those which proceed from the poles A and B. If the length of the solenoid is great in comparison- with its diameter, the magnetic force outside
of
it
vanishes near
its
middle point.
The
force in the interior of

:
the solenoid
line
may
be determined in the following way
Let the
CD
be parallel to the axis of the solenoid (Fig. 91), let be perpendicular to
CF
its
and
sur-
DE
face,
and
let
the
line
FE
be
parallel to
CD.
We
assume that
FIG
91
the magnetic force y is parallel to the axis of the solenoid in its
force acts outside of
path
set
CDEF.
CD = dx.
interior, and that no magnetic Suppose a unit pole to traverse the closed The work done by the magnetic force is y d:c, if we From LXXVIII. (d), we have (b) y.dx=4ir.Ni.dxlL,
it.
.
SECT. LXXIX.]
SYSTEMS OF CURRENTS.
187
y = îrNijL.
N, we
of force
If we represent the number of turns in unit length by have y = irNl i, that is, the magnetic force (number of lines
per square centimetre) in

is
the
interior
of
the
solenoid
and
\ecir its middle point

into the
number
We
will
now
by the product of the current-strength i of turns per unit length of the solenoid. determine the magnetic force of a sphere on whose
given
is
surface a conductor
wound.
It,
Suppose that a conductor

of
is
wound
on a sphere of radius
so that the planes
the turns are parallel and separated from each other by the distance a. Suppose that
ABCD
If 92) are two of the turns. the current-strength is i, a single turn may be
and
EFGH
(Fig.
is
replaced by a magnetic shell whose surface-density if as = i. For points outside the sphere, s,
action
the
of
will
the
positive
magnetism
on
the
surface
be nearly annulled by the action of the negative magnetism on the surface EH; the only effective part of the two surfaces is the
circular ring,
EG
"
FlG 92
whose width
this ring to
is
BE.
Suppose the
<r,
magnetism on
the zone
be distributed with the density
over
BFGC.
We
have then
or
<r/s
BE .s = BF.v,
if
= BE/BF= cos 9,
6 =
is
to
a-
the
the angle between the radius OB, and the line OP perpendicular plane of the coils. Using the relation as = i, we obtain
From LXX. (e), (f) the magnetic potential for points i/a. cos 6. = 47r/3 RHja cos 6/r2 since i/a is outside the sphere is given by a equivalent to the intensity of magnetization /.
we must remember
In determining the magnetic force in the interior of the sphere, that the magnetic lines of force due to the currents
are continuous, and that the magnetic force in this case is the same as the magnetic induction of the equivalent magnetized sphere [LXXIV.].
is
find it, we suppose, as in that section, that the magnetized sphere divided into two parts by cutting out an infinitely thin section perpendicular to the lines of magnetic force, and that the unit pole
To
is
subjected
It will then be placed in the opening between these two parts. to the force '2-n-s directed toward the north end of the
magnetized sphere due to exposed on one face of the

force
the
repulsion
of the
2-n-s
north
magnetism
cut, to the force
due
to the attraction
of the south face of the cut and in the same
f Tri/a, [LXX.
(f)]
direction, and to the due to the distribution on the outside of the
188
ELECTRO-MAGNETISM.
[CHAP. ix.
The total force sphere and in the opposite direction. = 4iri/a - iri/a = ^ni/a. the pole is therefore
acting on
If the
whole number of turns

i
is
N, we have F=ir.Ni/R, that

,
is,
the force in the interior of the sphere is proportional directly to the current-
strength
of the sphere.
ization
number of turns A7 and inversely to the radius It get the same result if we consider that this sphere behaves like a magnetized iron sphere whose intensity of magnet-
and
to the
We
is
J=i/a.
In this
may
set up an almost constant magnetic field, which be applied in the construction of instruments used to determine
way we can
current-strength. If the solenoid forms a closed ring,
we
is
which has many applications.
Let
let
AB
R
(Fig.
obtain a system of currents 93) be a circle whose
centre
be the distance
centre
and whose radius is r, and between the and a straight line CD,
the plane of the circle. rotates about the axis
which
lies in
If the circle
CD, it describes a circular ring. Suppose that on this ring there are JV turns of wire, through which the current i flows. We replace the separate turns by magnetic shells, and determine the magnetic force in the interior of the ring.
~j)
We
reach
this
circle
result
on a
most simply if we suppose a unit pole to move of radius R about the axis CD. The work done by the
magnetic force ^), which acts in the interior of the ring, when the unit pole has completed one revolution, is 2-n-IiQ. This work is also
equal to ItrNi
it
is
equal to zero
Hence we
the path of the pole is in the interior of the ring if the path is outside the ring. have, in the former case, 2irB> = faNi and ^) = INifR
if
in the latter case, ^p
= 0.
SECTION
LXXX.
THE FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS OF
ELECTRO-MAGNETISM.
Up
to this point
we have considered the path
of the electrical current
as a geometrical line.
In reality the current always occupies space, and is determined by its components along the coordinate axes. For example, if dy dz is a surface-element perpendicular to the z-axis,
.
and
if
the quantity of electricity u.dy.dz. dt passes through
it
in
SECT. LXXX.]
EQUATIONS OF ELECTRO-MAGNETISM.
u
189
the positive direction in the time dt, in the direction of the re-axis. The
is the component of current components of current in the If Oy directions of the two other axes are represented by v and w. and Oz are drawn through the point (Fig. 94),
x,
y,
z,
parallel
to the cor-
responding coordinate axes, and if the rectangle OBDC is constructed with the sides dy and dz,
the
OBDC.
current u.dy dz flows through the element If the components of the magnetic force
.
are represented by a, p, y, and if a unit pole moves about the rectangle in the direction OBDCO, the work done by the magnetic forces will be
(3.dy
+ (y + 'dy/'dy
dy)
.dz-(p + 3/3/3z ,dz).dy-y.dz

.
This
is
[LXXVIII.
(d)] equal to 4?r
u dy
.
dz.
Hence, we obtain
the equations
(a)
4iru
= (dy[dy-'dpfdz),
4m = (da[dz-'dy[dx)
4irw = (d(J/'dx-'da/'dy).
These equations express the current in terms of the magnetic force. In a = region where there is no current we have u 0, v = 0, w 0, and
therefore
o y /3y = 3/3/32,
da/32 = 3y/3z,
'dfij'dx
= 3a/3y,
no
or a. dx +
p.dy + y.dz= -dV.
Therefore, in a region where there is
current the magnetic forces have a potential.
In this case the forces arise
from magnets.
From equations (a) the magnetic force is not determined only by If u, v, w are given and a, p, y so deterthe components of current. mined that equations (a) are satisfied, these equations will also be
satisfied if
we
replace
a,
p,
y by
where
The potential due to the magnets is an arbitrary function. present in the region is V. will now consider a few simple examples
We
(a)
Suppose the direction of the magnetic force to be parallel to the 0-axis, and its magnitude to be a function of the distance r from. this axis (Fig. 95). We then obtain from equations (a)
47TM
+dyjdr.y/r,
4irv
-dy/dr.x/r,
w = 0.
r.
The current
is parallel to
the zy-plane and perpendicular to
The
current-strength
J is J= u cos (uJ) + v cos (vJ), J
-u.
= y/r + v x/r
.
l/4?r
dy/dr.
190
If
ELECTRO-MAGNETISM.
is
[CHAP. ix.
(Fig. 95),
constant in the interior of a cylinder whose radius is l and equal to zero outside a cylinder of radius r.2 the current
,
OA=r
is
in the unit length of the cylinder
dr = -
dr
which agrees with

(b)
LXXIX.
(b).
If
the
we
v
FIG. 95.
can
current-strength is given, find the magnetic force by

(a).
integrating equations
Let u
and
then
be zero, and
r
be a function of the
^-axis.
distance
from the
(a)
We
have from
These equations will be

a and
(3
satisfied if
we assume
that y
and that
Suppose that the magnetic force is resolved into two components, one of which, R, acts in the direction of the prolongation of r, and the other, S, is perpendicular --= R We then obtain a = R x/r - S and to r. +S fl
only.
.
are functions of x
and y
y/r,
yjr
.r/r,
therefore 47rw
= dS/dr + S/r =l/r. d(Sr)/dr.
If the conductor is a tube
radii are
if
,
and
2,
and
if
are constants, of these equations holds for the interior, the second for the conductor, the third for the space outside the conductor. From the nature we therefore of the problem, Sl must have a finite value in the axis
.
Cv C2 C3
bounded by two coaxial cylinders whose is constant in the conductor we have, Sl r=Cv 2Trwr2 + C.2 = S.2 r, S3r=C3 The
first
have C\
,
= 0.
when
Since the magnetic force changes continuously, r = Rly and therefore C.2 = - 2-n-wR^, S.2 = Airier -
we have
Since irw(R.22 -
R^) we have S3 = 2i/r.
is
equal to the current-strength
in the conductor,
Therefore, an infinitely long straight linear current exerts a magnetic

force at a given point, which point
is
inversely pi-oportional to the distance of that
from
the current.
SECTION
LXXXI.
SYSTEMS OF CURRENTS IN GENERAL.

and the components of magnetic
force
The components
(a)
of current
are connected by the equations

4?rM
[LXXX.
(a)]
= 'dyj'dy - 'dfi'fdz,
ITTV
= 'da/'dz - 'dy/'dx,
lirw
= 'dft/'dx - 'da/ay.
SECT. LXXXI.]
SYSTEMS OF CUREENTS.
191
From
these equations it follows that (b) This equation corresponds with the equation of continuity in mechanics, and asserts that the total quantity of electricity contained in a closed region is
constant.
It thus appears that the current, whose components are u, v, w,
moves
like
an incompressible
fluid.
There
is
never any accumulation
This apparently conof electricity, but only a displacement of it. tradicts experience ; in order to be consistent with our method of
treatment we assume with Faraday that an
electrical polarization
or
an
represent the components of If one of the components, say /, increases this displacement by /, g, h. by the increment df in the time dt, df/dt=f represents the quantity
electrical
displacement
occurs.
We
of electricity which passes in unit time through a unit of area perpendicular to the z-axis, in consequence of the change of polarization.
If p,
q,
r represent the components of the electrical current which
is
due
(c)
to the flow of electricity through the body,
we have
u=p + df/dt,
= q + dg/dt, w = r + dhjdt.
These quantities, u, v, iv, are the components of the actual current, which is made up of the current conducted by the body and the current
arising from the change of polarization or the electrical displacement. If the components of the current are finite, the components of
magnetic force vary continuously when no magnets are present in the

region.
The components
if
magnets,
any are present,
of force perpendicular to the surfaces of the is in assume general discontinuous.
We
that currents of infinite strength do not occur in practice ; however we sometimes consider the flow in a surface, in which case we must
assume that the components of current in the surface are
infinite.
In this case the components of force parallel to the surface vary discontinuously on passage from one side of the surface to the other.
and a 2 represent these components of force, and J the quantity of electricity which flows through a unit of length perpendicular to the components, we have from LXXVIII. (d) 47r/=a 2 -a 1 may
If a :
.
We
obtain the same result from (a) as follows whose equations are z = c l and z = cy
We
consider two surfaces

first
We
.
obtain from the
two
equations (a)
477
.
Fu
dz =
33
c.
.dz-
+ fi
/"*
dz = a
-<L- f*33fc
dz.
Pi and
p.2 are the components of the magnetic force in the direction and a.2 have similar of the y-axis on both sides of the plane surface ;
meanings.
If
=c
/
is
infinitely small,
/
and u and
v are infinitely
great, the integrals
udz and
vdz are the quantities of electricity
192
which flow in a
ELECTRO-MAGNETISM.
[CHAP. ix.
The integrals on the right side vanish surface. simultaneously, and we obtain the value given in (d) for the difference between the components of magnetic force on the opposite sides of the surface.
SECTION LXXXII.
THE ACTION OF ELECTRICAL CURRENTS ON EACH OTHER.
(Fig. 96), carrying the currents
The work which must be done upon two conductors A and E i and i', in order to bring them nearer
each other, can
following current
be determined in the
way
Let the position of the
A
it
toward
be fixed, while B is brought from an infinite distance.
FIG. 96.
be replaced by a magnetic shell whose surface-density is o- and whose thickness is e. Suppose ODE to be a straight line, normal to the shell, which cuts it on its negative face at
B may
its positive face at D. surface element dS' at C carries the quantity of magnetism - <rdS'. If represents the potential which produces at C, the work done upon the element dS' at C is - Fa- dS'. Setting CD = dv, the work done upon the
C and
on
with
it
element dS' at
from
Hence the work arising (F'+'dF'/'dv .dv).a- .dS'. this portion of the shell is But dv a- = i', and 'dF'j'dv .dv.a-. dS'.
is
.
hence the work done upon the whole shell
is
(a)
W=i
ri,
\\dVfov.
If
dS'.
The
force acting in the direction
CE
/',
is
-'dF'/'dv.
CE makes
angles with the axes whose cosines are

(b)
m',
we have
W=
quantities
a,
(3,
- i'
Jf (I'a + m'p + riy)dS'.
The
y are determined
in
LXXVIII.
(c),
and may
be put in the form

a
= i\(dr~
/dy
l
d/ds - 'dr^/dz
drj/ds)ds,
= i \(drft
y = tj(3 r
l ldz dg/ds dr~ /dx d/ds)ds,

.
.
-1
fa
dri/ds
- Vr~ l fdy
dg/ds)ds.
From
the theorem of VI.
(f)
we have
.
\(X
dx/ds'
+ Y. dy/ds' + Z
-
dz/ds')ds'
z)
+ m'(dX/dz
dZ/dx)
+ n'(dY/dx -
dX/dy)]dS'.
SECT. LXXXII.]
MUTUAL ACTION OF CURRENTS.

Y= J'/r
+ drj/ds
.
193
We now
set
Jii'/r
.
X=
dg/ds .ds,
dij/ds .ds,
Z= Jii'/r
.
dQds
ds,
and obtain
ii'\\(d/ds dx/ds
.
dy/ds'
+ dflds
.
dz/ds')dsds'/r
drj/ds)
= f J jM'PX^-Vfy
+ m'@r- l fdz + n'(dr-i/-dx
or
ii'\\(dg/ds
. .
.
dt/ds
Vr-ifdz
- dr^fdz d/ds) - 3r~V3y drj/ds d/ds)]dsdS',

dg/ds
.
. .
dx/ds'
+ drj/ds dy/ds' + d(ds dz/ds')dsds'/r = \\i'(l'a + m'p + riy)dS' = - W.

.
.
Hence from
(c)
(b)
W=
ti\\(dlds dx/ds'
+ drjjds
dy/ds'
+ dflds
ds'
dzlds')dsds' /r,
where ds
is
an element of one conductor and
of the other.
If we represent the angle between two elements ds and ds' by c, we obtain F. E. Neumann's expression for the potential energy of two
(d) -w'JJcose/r. dsds'. represent the magnetic force which is perpendicular to an arbitrary surface containing the circuit B by ^), we have from (a), - i' dS' = -i'N, if (e) represents, in Faraday's nomenJ^)'
electrical currents,
W=
If
we
W=
clature,
the
number of
lines
of force
enclosed by
the
conductor.
Therefore the potential energy of a current equals the negative pi'oduct of

ductor.
and the number of lines of force enclosed by the conHence it follows that a current always tends to move so that the number of lines of force enclosed by it shall become as great as possible. The positive direction of the lines of force is the direction in which a north pole moves under the action of the current The above theorem has only been proved on the [cf. LXXIV.] assumption that the magnetic force ^p is due to another current. But because currents and magnets are equivthe current-strength
alent, the
law
is
surface
containing
true generally. the circuit
Since the
the energy depends only on the contour of the circuit.

arbitrarily chosen,
B may
be
The
force
which
the
acts
on
an
element
(Fig.
AB = ds
may
that
of
current
ABO
97)
:
be determined in the following way moves so Suppose that the conductor
ABC
AB
is
displaced
to A'B'
in
such a
to
manner that
A A'
and BB' are perpendicular
AB.
If
AA' = dp,
194
ELECTEO-MAGNETISM.
increases
[CHAP. ix.
the area contained by the conductor
by ds.dp.
If the
magnetic force at A is equal to ), and if its direction makes the angle a with the normal" to the surface ABB' A', the component of the
force
normal
to the
surface
is
K=^>cosa.
Hence the increment
of
'= -iK. the potential energy of the conductor is, from (e), ds.dp, if i is the current-strength. In order to cause the motion here described,
dW
a force
X
is
must
act
on ds
in the direction
A A',
which
force
is
determined
acts
by X.dp = -iK. ds.dp, on the current-element

element
free to
X=
-iK.ds.
Hence the
its
-IK.ds
in the aforesaid direction,
and
is
if
the current-
move, the direction of

is
motion
perpendicular
to the direction of the magnetic force as well as to its
own
direction.
The
direction of the motion

[cf.
determined by laying the right hand
on the current
It follows
LXXVIII.].
further that the force which acts on an element ds of
i is perpendicular to the plane determined by the current and the direction of the magnetic force Q. If we represent the angle between the direction of the force and the direction of the current
the current
by
<, this force will equal $>i
ds
sin <.
SECTION LXXXIII.
THE MEASUREMENT or CURRENT-STRENGTH OR
THE QUANTITY or ELECTRICITY.

(a)
Constant Currents.
sisting
constant currents we generally use a galvanometer conof parallel circular conductors carrying the current whose strength is to be determined. magnet whose dimensions are small
To measure
in
comparison with the radius of the
coils, is
suspended in the centre

coils are
of the apparatus,
which
is
so placed that the
parallel
to
the magnetic meridian. The current sets up a magnetic force whose value is Gi perpendicular to the direction of the earth's magnetic force,
whose horizontal component

struction of the galvanometer.
is
called
H.
depends on the con-
constant in the region in which the magnet moves, the angle by which the magnet is turned from its position of rest by the current is determined by
If
is
<
(a)
tg<t>
is,
= GilH,
is,
= H/G.tg<j>,
that
the current-strength
in this case, proportional to the tangent of
the angle of deflection.
SECT. LXXXIII.]
MEASUREMENT OF CURRENT-STRENGTH.
(b)
195
Variable Currents.
very difficult to determine the strength of currents of short duration at any instant. may, however, easily measure the total quantity of electricity Q which flows through the conductor. From'
It is
We
LXXI.
(d)
the
moment which
tends to turn
the magnet about a
- SCfta sin 0, if 9JJ is the magnetic moment of perpendicular axis is the magnet, a the magnetic force, and the angle between the direc= Gi, where G is the galvanometer tions of 9Ji and a. Setting a
and assuming Q = ^TT, the directive Jwee exerted by the current on the magnet is equal to 0J6ri. The total moment caused by the current is therefore \^llGi.dt = ^lG.Q, if we write Q = \i.dt. Q is the
constant,
quantity of electricity which passes through the conductor during the discharge.
If .7 is the
moment
velocity, Ju> will be its
of inertia of the magnet, and <o its angular thus obtain the moment of momentum.
We
equation (b) *$lGQ = Jo>.

is called
(c),
T,
If the
period of oscillation of the magnet

(f),
we
have, by
LXXI.
(d)
T=
Tr.Jj/WH and
therefore
Q = Hr^/Gir 2
kinetic energy which the magnet receives from the impulse 2 given to it by the current is |/w in consequence of which it turns through the angle 6. Its potential energy thereby increases from
,
The
-WlH
to
therefore have iJo) 2

.
-WlHcosQ; the work done on = 29JlH"sin 2 (0/2), or, if 6

there is no
is
it
is
9Ji#(l -cos0).
(e)
We
is
very small,
G-TW/TT
and Q = Hr/TrG 0, that is, if and if its angular displacement

ment of
the magnet.
damping
to
action on the magnet,
small, the quantity of electricity flowing

is
through a section of the conductor
proportional
the
angular displace-
(c)
Damping
Action.
magnet generally diminish rather rapidly in consequence of what is called damping or damping action. Damping arises from resistance of the air and the action of currents induced
oscillations of the
The
by the motion of the magnet

is
.
in neighbouring conductors. If there no damping, we have from LXXI. (e) and (f), when the oscillations are small, d'2 Q/dt 2 = - 7r 2 /r 2 0, T is therefore the period of oscillation
of the
is
undamped magnet.
We may
assume that the damping action
proportional to the angular velocity dQ/dt. Taking the damping into account, we have, to determine the deflection 0, the differential
+ 2?w0 + 7r 2 /r 2 .0 = 0. The factor equation (f) depends on the size and character of the oscillating magnet, on the density of the air,
196
ELECTRO-MAGNETISM.
[CHAP. ix.
in
and on the size, character, and position of the masses of metal which currents are induced. If we set TT/T = n and 6 = e at we have
,
a2
in which
it
+ 2ma + n- =
and a = - m
\/n
- m?*J -
2 2 n- T we Setting (g) / i 6 = (A sin (rtfa) + B COS^/T^) e~ mt If = at the time / = 0, at the time / = 0, and we obtain Q A e~ mt sin (irf/Tj). dQ/dt = To find the magnitude of the therefore 1 */ .tf^"*..nn(vl/T1 ), If TO is deflection we set dQ/dt = Q, and obtain (h) tg^/Tj) = 7r/wrr the smallest root of this equation, the successive roots are TO + TJ, TQ + 2rv .... The oscillations are therefore isochronous. If we reprewe have sent the deflections by 3 ..., U 62
is
assumed that n
> m.
n2 -m 2
>
have
<*>
9r
>
.e- mr <>. sin (^TO/TJ),

.
m(To+ Ti>
.
sin (TT^/TJ ),
<T o+2Ti)
sin (*-TO /TJ ).
If the position of equilibrium is designated
by
the
the
first
point
of reversal by
oscillations
A v the second AA* and A.A is

obtain
(i)
by A.2
etc.,
ratio
between the
(ej-e^Ôg-e,) and
(e 1
-e2 y/(e 3 -e 2 )=e"- r

2 )/ '(0 3
'.
We
set
w-rÂ, and
A = log nat [(e x -
6 2 )].
is
the logarithmic decrement, which can be very exactly determined from a series of oscillations. From (g) the period of oscillation TI} is
= T Vl + A'2 --. Therefore the period of oscillation is increased by the damping action. If we set T = TO in equation (h), we have
(k) TJ
.
tg( 7rro/ T i)
= v l mri and
7rT
o/
Ti
sm(irr
= arctg(ir/X), mr = A/V = l/Vl+A2/ir2. /T1 )

.
arctg(7r/ A),
Hence we have further

(1)
fc)
.
:
.
= T^/TT
g-V*-.arctg(ir/A)
i/^/j
+ xay^-'
a nd
= TrOj/T! Vl + A*/JT* W"
arctg (x/X),
.
We obtain from (d) and (k) Q = Hr^jGir- w/(l + A2/jr 2 ), and using x r 1TO * 0r/ x >. l/Vr+A^. equation (1), (m) # = e i .fir1 /GV. / In order to determine the quantity of electricity sent through a
-
conductor by an electrical current, whose duration is small in comparison with the period of oscillation of the magnet, we must determine the logarithmic decrement and the period of oscillation of the magnet.
is
then determined from these quantities,

intensity
if
we know
the
in addition
the
of the
earth's
magnetism
and
constant
of
the
galvanometer.
SECT. LXXXIII.]
MEASUREMENT OF CURRENT-STRENGTH.
If
197
= ^7r-x we have tg.r = A/7r. Setting arctg 7r/X we have x = X.jir and arctg (jr/A) = \TT A/TT. If is insignificant, we can neglect higher powers in
the exponential
is
very small,
the damping action the series in which
may
be developed, and obtain

2
and Q =
SECTION
LXXXIV.
OHM'S
LAW AND
JOULE'S LAW.
have up to this point assumed the existence of the electrical current and have not discussed the question of the way in which it
is
We
started
and maintained.
This
mode
of treatment in
many
respects
lacks clearness.
We will therefore state such facts as are well established

The
so-called galvanic
by observation.
elements can establish and
maintain an almost constant current.
In order to maintain a constant
current in a conductor, an electromotive force must act in the direction of the current. If u is the quantity of electricity which flows in unit
the
time through a unit of surface of the #>/-plane in the direction of the .r-axis, we can set w=C.X, if C is the conductivity and
component of the electromotive force in the direction of the o-axis. C depends on the nature of the conductor, and may be supposed to have the same value in the conductor in all directions. If the components of current and of force in the other two directions are v, w, and Y, Z respectively, we have (a) u = CX, v=CY, w=CZ. Hence
'fafdx + 'dordy + 'du;l'dz=C('dX[dx
+ 'dY[dy + 'dZ[dz). If the steady state of the electrical current has been reached, the left side of the equaIf tion equals zero, and hence the right side is also equal to zero.
the electromotive forces have a potential V, we have (b) V 2 F~=0. This equation states that no free electricity is present within the conductor-
The electromotive forces must as soon as the current becomes steady. therefore arise from the free electricity on the surface of the conductor.
Suppose
ABC
'
(Fig.
consider a portion
cross-sections
of
A A = S and BB' = S,
If
We will 98) to be an electrical conductor. it which is bounded by the infinitely small

separated
I,
from each other by the distance

also
infinitely small.
which
is
______
AB
is
parallel to
the
./--axis, the component of current u equals CX, and therefore the quantity of electricity
^
If
i
^r-
__
]b
-7-
FlG- 98'
flows through the cross-section S. and the potentials at respectively, we have
= uS=CX.S
V
.
and V" are

.
=C S
V-
198
and further
tional to
(c)
t
ELECTRO-MAGNETISM..
[CHAP.
ix. SECT.
LXXXIV.
I!
is
= (Vto
P)/(//(7S)
= (F- V")/K
directly proportional
the length of the conductor
The and
resistance
inversely propor-
its cross-section,
and
to the
conductivity of the substance constituting
the conductor.
The
difference of potential
between
to
and
is
V-
V.
Equation
(c)
contains
Ohm's law,
according
which
the
current-
strength is directly proportional to the difference of potential and inversely proportional to the resistance. The quantity of electricity i dt flows through the cross-section A'
.
and passes from A to B under the influence of the The work done is therefore electromotive force X.
in the time dt
The work done

forces in
in
this
is
part of the conductor by the electromotive
unit time
(d)
A = i(V-
V) =
i'
This work
is
trans-
formed into heat in the conductor.

developed in a conductor
is
Therefore the quantity of heat
proportional to the square of the current-strength
and
the resistance of the conductor.
This theorem was proved experi-
mentally by Joule and deduced theoretically by Clausius.
CHAPTER
X.
INDUCTION.
SECTION
LXXXV.
INDUCTION.
is
FARADAY was
the
first
to demonstrate that a current
set
is
up
in
a conductor if a
magnet or a conductor carrying a current

F. E.
moved
in its neighbourhood.
Neumann
discovered the laws of these
Faraday himself afterwards described a method of determining the strength and direction of the induced current which possesses great advantages, because it makes it possible to
induced currents.
visualise
Suppose ABO to be a closed process. and DE, D'E', etc., the lines of force Let us designate an element enclosed by it. *"* of a surface bounded by the conductor by
the
(Fig. 99),
conductor
dS,
components of the magnetic force a, /?, y, and the angles which the normal to dS makes with the axes by I,
the
(cf.
LXXI.) by
An electromotive force m, n. conductor if the interal

(a)
arises
in
the
changes its value. If magnetizable bodies are enclosed by the circuit which have a greater permeability for lines of force than air, the components of force must be replaced by the components of magnetic An electromotive force then arises in the conductor if induction.
bm + cn)dS changes its value. An the integral (cf. LXXIV.) \(al + induced current arises if the number of lines of fwee enclosed by the conductor
is
N=
If the change in the number of lines of force is changed. an increase, the induced current tends to diminish the number of the enclosed lines of force, for the direction of the induced current
is
such that
its
own
lines of force are opposite to the lines of force
formerly existing.
If the direction
indicated in the figure by the
200
arrow
is
INDUCTION.
[CHAP. x.
taken as positive, the induced electromotive force acts in

to
a negative direction.
According
tends,
Lenz's law, the current induced by the motion of a circuit

action,
to
by
its
electrodynamic
oppose the
motion, by which
it
is
induced.
force,
In order to determine the magnitude of the induced electromotive we suppose that the current-strength at a given instant is
i.
equal to
If
we move
.
the conductor in the magnetic
field,
we
must, by
LXXXIL, do
.
2 quantity of energy Ei once - i dN= EP dt, and therefore, because Ei equals the electromotive force e, (b) e = - dN/dt, that is, the induced electromotive force
.
the work -i.dN, and, at the same time, the dt is transformed into heat. "We have at
is equal to the decrease in unit time of the number of lines of foi'ce enclosed by the circuit. The induced electromotive force depends on the value of the
magnetic induction, whose components are

force,
a, b, c,
not on the magnetic

is

if
a,
/3,
y.
If there
no magnet near,
the coefficient of magnetization of the region is & = (cf. LXXVL), the induction and the magnetic force have the same value, and a, b, c may be replaced by a, /?, y.
and
For example,
if
the circuit
ABC
at the time
carries a current of
strength i, the number in the positive direction

if
N of lines
is
of force passing through the circuit N=Li. L is the number of lines of force
the current-strength is unity. It is called the coefficient of selfIf the current diminishes there arises an electromotive induction.
force (c) e
d(Li)/dt.
According to Ohm's law we have
= 7iV.
if
we
represent the resistance by E, and therefore

(d)
Ei = - d(Li)/dt = - L
flijdt,
This provided that the coefficient of self-induction L is constant. coefficient depends on the permeability of the region and also on
the form of the conductor.
If
i
is
the current-strength at the time

therefore diminishes
= 0, we have
(e)
=i
e~ R!L -'.
The current-strength
resistance
the
more rapidly
the greater the
and
the smaller the coefficient of self-induction.

(c)
We
obtain from
=
J"eidt
-Zp.di
= Ui
2
.
From LXXXIV.
is an expression for (d), the left side of this equation Hence we the work done, which appears as heat in the conductor. obtain for the electro-kinetic energy T of a conductor whose self-induction
SECT. LXXXV.]
INDUCTION.
carries a current of strength
is therefore
i,
201
(f)
is
and which
T=^Li
2
.
The
electro-kinetic
energy of the circuit
equal to half the product of

i.
the coefficient of self-induction
and
the square of the current-strength
If
ABC
and A'B'C'
(Fig. 100) are
two
conductors carrying currents whose respective strengths are ^ and i 2 the current
,
sets
up a number
i<,
l l
of lines of force
which pass through the conductor ABC.

also sets up lines of The current and the number of them which
force,
pass
through
i . 2l 2
ABC may
The
total
be
number
is
represented by of lines of force
enclosed by
(g)
ABC
therefore
N^L^ + Mrf*
N=
2
The number of lines of force enclosed by A'B'C' is (h) From LXXXII. and the discussion at the beginning we have, in the usual notation,
of this section,
=*
COS
er dS^
'
n l c 2 )dS1 = i 2 \ cos
e/r
The integral with respect to dS2 equals i^f^, that with dS equals i 2 2l From LXXXII. we have
1
respect to
M M =M
12
2l
12
2l
= | cos e/r
ds^dsy.
is
the coefficient of
If
and
mutual induction of the two circuits. are the resistances of the conductors ABC and A'B'C'
respectively,
we have
Rfr = 6l =
-
R 2= 2=
t ,i
dN2 /dt =
dNJdt = - L l dijdt - L. 2 dijdt

.
M M
2l
di 2/dt,
12
dijdt.
Hence we have, for the electro-kinetic energy ductors which carry the currents z t and i 2
T
,
of a system of two con-
T=
For the
find in the
(i)
Jî,
e 2 i 2 )dt
= SLj* +
l2 ij 2
+ \L^.
we
electro-kinetic energy
T
...
of any system of conductors,
same way,
l
T=i(L
If
2
l
+ L 2i 2^ + Ls
3
...
+2M, 2i
1,
l 2
+ 2Ml3i l i 3 + 2M23i 2 i,+

so
that,
...).
Nv N N
2,
denote the number of lines of force enclosed

conductors
...,
respectively
1
= L l i1 + M2l i2 + M3l i 3 +
by
the
2,
3...
for
example,
the
the
*'
energy
becomes
(k)
r=(JV +
1 1
expression for the A~2 2 + JV 3 3 + ...) =

'
electro-kinetic
pM,
that
is,
202
electro-kinetic
,
INDUCTION.
energy of a system of currents
is
[CHAP. x.
to the
equal
sum
of the pro-
ducts of the
number of
lines of force
enclosed by each conductor'
and
the
strength of the current present in the conductor.
Electrical currents arise not only if the neighbouring currents change but also if they change their position, so that 7l/12, 13 In all cases vary, and also if the conductor itself changes its form.
in strength,
. . .
the induced current
is
lines of force enclosed
determined by the change by the conductor.
in the
number
of
SECTION
LXXXVI.
COEFFICIENTS OF INDUCTION.
In the investigation of variable electrical currents flowing in wire coils, the coefficients of induction between different turns in any one
coil
and between separate
coils are of
importance.
efficients is in
The
calculation
great of these codifficult

;
most cases very
we
consider only one simple case. suppose two circular conductors whose radii
will
We
are r:
and
b.
r.
common
distance
axis,
(Fig. 101). They have a and are separated by the We have to Suppose r 2 >r 1
2
.
calculate the integral

.
cos
e.
We
FIG. 101.
first
evaluate the integral m,
We
have
r-
m = ^dsjr cos = b 2 + r22 - 2r 2

.
e.
?'
cos
+ 1\ 2
If
is
the shortest and q the longest distance between points of the
two conductors, we have
and
m=2
ra
cos
dtj*ffP
+ (q* - p'z ) sm 2
If a is a small angle, so chosen that qa is very great in comparison
with p, we can set
m= 2
deJP +
.J/i
+ 2 f. *,
-a
df
(1
2 sin 2 |e)/? sin it.
f/2 sin
.
sin ^
efeT
[Iog(2r1 a/p) [log(8r 1 //>)
- log(a/4) 2]
2],
J9 ) 1/
= 2[log(8r
2].
SECT. LXXXVI.]
203
= 47rr2 (\og(8rl /p) - 2). With this value for m, we obtain 2 = assumptions which have been made we may set r = 2 R,
l
.
On
the
r.
so that
(a)
Mn = Ê(\og(SE/p)-2).
coefficient of induction
is is
The
logp
(b)
turns
n^
and
?i.>
respectively,
is
between two coils, the number of whose and for which the mean value of
given by
J
expressed by logP,
= 4rJl%7r ??(log (8^/P)-2). 12
the same assumptions the coefficient of self-induction single coil, if n is the number of turns, is given by
(c)
On
of a
L = 4irn 2E(\og(8B/P) - 2).

;
will not go further into the calculation of coefficients of induction most cases they are determined experimentally by one of the following methods
We
in
Methods of Determining
(a) If
is
the Coefficients of Induction.
the coefficient of mutual induction
M of two
coils
Z x and
L.2
known, we may determine in the following way the coefficient of mutual induction M' for two other coils Z/ and L.2 Let Zj and L.2 (Fig. 102) be the coils whose coefficient is known, and L and L.2 those which are to be investigated. A current is
'.
FIG. 102.
passed through the coils

coils
Z/ and
L.2
from the voltaic
cell
E.
The
are joined by conductors, and conductors are joined from the points a and b to the galvanometer G. If the current /
L.2
Z 2 and
which passes through L^ and Z/
is
suddenly broken, electromotive
204
forces e
INDUCTION.
and
e'
[CHAP. x.
arise in L.2
and
L.2 '.
If
/2
and
'
J.2
are the strengths
of the currents induced in L.2 and L.2 \

e
we have
'
d(L^J2 + MJ)/dt,
= - d(L.2 'J.2 + M'J)/dt,
L.2 and Z- 2 represent the coefficients of self-induction. Applying KirchhofTs laws to the circuit L.2 G and L 2 G, it follows that
where
d(L.2 /2
2
- d(L
if
+ M J)/dt = R2 J2 + G(J2 - J2 J2 + M'J)/dt = R2'J.2 - G(J2 - J2

r
'),
'),
the resistance of the galvanometer is designated by G, and the resistances of the coils L2 and L 2 by E.2 and R2 respectively.
We
multiply these equations by dt and integrate from t = to t = T, where T is a very small time-interval. If the current / is broken at the
instant
t
= 0,
T,
a current
is
induced in the circuit L.y'GL 2 which, in
motion in the circuit L.2 the quantity of electricity C2 in L2 the quantity C2 and therefore in the galvanometer the At the time t = Q, J=J and J.2 = J.2 = C2 = C2 = 0, quantity C2 -C2 and at the time t = r, J=0 and the induced current has also vanished,
the time
,
sets in
'
'
so that
J2 = /2 = 0.
'
Hence we have
).
MJ= E
- G,'), M'J= R 'C 2 C, + G(C2 2 G(C2 - C2 2 C2 - C2 = J(M/E2 - M'/R2 )/(1 + G/R2 + G/R2 ).
C2 - C2 is the induced quantity of electricity which flows through the galvanometer, that is, the total current. The galvanometer shows no deflection if the resistances satisfy the equation M'/M=R2'/R2
.
The comparison between two coefficients of self-induction can be carried out in the following way Let A BCD (Fig. 103) be a
(b)
:
FIG. 103.
Wheatstone's bridge- with a galvanometer inserted

L^ and
at
in
L2
are
two
coils
inserted in the arms
AB
the arm BD. and BC, whose
coefficients of self-induction are to
be compared.
itself in
The current entering

the conductors, and Let the resistances
and passing out at C distributes
causes a deflection of the galvanometer needle.
SECT. LXXXVI.]
in
205
&L,
Ry
Sj_
and S2
AB, EG,
AD
and
DC
respectively, be so adjusted
;
that no current passes through the galvanometer
we then have
When
the circuit
in
:
is
by induction
and
broken at E, an electromotive force arises L2 in consequence of which a current of

,
'
Let strength g flows through the galvanometer. tively be the current-strengths in the conductors
lt
yv
y. 2
respec-
AB, BC, AD, DC.
They
are connected
by the
relations
= yv
= 7o-
We
then have
Gg.
- d(L. i = = (E2 + S2 )i 2 d(L&)ldt (Rl + Sfo + Gg, 2 2 )/dt
At
the instant
i
= 0, when
the circuit
;
is
broken at E, the same
current
was
l
in
AB
and
BC
whence
L,i
LJQ = (R + SJ f\ .dt+GTg.dt; Jo Jo
= (Rz + S2 ) l\ .dl-oTg. dt,

Jo
>>o
where r denotes a very short time.

galvanometer by the current g
Since
if
I
No
deflection is caused in the
g.dt = Q.
^=
i.
we have 2 + g
= i2
if
no current flows through the

:
galvanometer, and hence in that case LJL 2 = (El + <S'1 )/(-K2 By the use of the relation R l :fi.2 = Sl S2 it follows that
,
that
is, the coefficients of self-induction of the coils are in the same ratio as the resistances of the two arms in which the coils are introduced. If therefore the needle of the galvanometer is not deflected either
by a constant or a variable current passing through the circuits Z : and L 2 we have a means of determining the ratio between the coefficients of self-induction L and
,
.,.
SECTION LXXXVII.
MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE.
is
The strength
by
its
of the electrical current in a conductor

;
determined
magnetic action
the electromotive force
is
determined by
the change in the number of lines of force contained by the conductor. The resistance in the conductor may then be determined
by the help
are in use.
of
Ohm's law.
Many methods
of measuring resistance
We
will confine ourselves to the description of
some of
the simplest. In one of these, used by W. Weber, the essential part of the apparatus is a wire coil which can rotate about a vertical axis. This coil is
206
INDUCTION.
[CHAP. x.
set perpendicular to the magnetic meridian and is then turned through 180. The coil is in connection with a galvanometer; the total
resistance of the circuit
angle
<
If the plane of the coil makes an is R. with the magnetic meridian at a particular instant, the
number of lines of force passing through the coil is sin <. if <S' the horizontal intenrepresents the area enclosed by the coils and If L denotes the coefficient of selfsity of the earth's magnetism.
SH
H
i
induction of the coil and galvanometer and
the current-strength,
we have
Since
(a)
</>
-d(SHsin
tfi/dt
-d(Li)
dt
= Ri.
^TT, changes, during the rotation of the coil, from + i~ to i is zero both at the beginning and at the end of the motion, we have (b) 2SH= RQ, where Q denotes the total quantity of electricity which flows through the conductor. If Q is measured
and
since
by the method described
in
LXXXIIL, we have
The absence of
to
know
from this expression shows that it is not necessary the intensity of the earth's magnetism in order to determine
the resistance.
Sir
William Thomson's (Lord Kelvin's) Method.

w,
If the coil
above described turns with a constant angular velocity

(a)
.
we have by
tion
SHw cos
.
<
di/dt
e~ A cos(^-a). is i = i a considerable time, the exponential term vanishes and need be no To determine A and a, we have longer considered.
KiL
(c)
integral of this equaIf the rotation is continued for
= Ri.
The
A=SHt/(Rcosa + Lwsma); tga^Lu/R,

therefore
and
A = SHu/Rjl + LW/R* = SHu/R

It thus
cos
a.
appears that
104) the line
is
the self-induction appar-
ently increases the resistance.
If
ON (Fig.
if
the magnetic meridian

is
perpendicular to it, the coil acts on a magnetic needle at its centre with the force Gi, whose direction is
that of the line
and
OM
OP
perpendicular to the
of this
plane of the
FIG. 104.
coil.
The components
force are
.
OM= a = Gi
cos
<
and
SECT. LXXXVII.]
MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE.
207
Let a a and
a,
bl
denote the mean values of these forces.

1
We
then have
d<f>.
/2ir
Now
I
*
<
.
Gi cos
.
<f>
d<k
ft,
/2-n-
Gi.sin<f>.
Jo
cos (<f>
a)
cos
fl
d(f>
= TT
cos
.
a,
cos (<f>
a)
sin
</>
d<f>
= TT
sin a,
and hence
= - \GA
cos
a,
1^=- \GA.sm a.
The magnet at the centre of the coil turns from the meridian in the same sense as that in which the coil rotates. If its angular
displacement
is
represented by B,
we have
= tg 6
or,
= !/(# + bj)
GA cos a/(2H- GA sin a),
2 - GSw sin a cos a). = introducing the value of A, tg 6 GS< cos a/(27i This equation, in connection with (c), serves to determine the resistance
R.
If a is very small
we have B=GSot/'2tgQ.
L. Lorenz's Method.
Suppose that a metallic disk (Fig. 105), whose radius is a, turns with constant velocity about an axis passing perpendicularly
through
its
ABC
centre.
Around the rim
of the disk, and concentric with
FIG. 105.
there be placed a coil EF, through which flows an electrical it, current of strength i, arising from the voltaic battery H. This current sets up a magnetic force, whose component perpendicular to the
let
plane of the disk may be set equal to mi, where m is a function of the distance from the centre of the disk 0. If the disk turns
from
to
A, and
if
electromotive force induced in the disk

to the periphery.
the current flows in the same direction, the is directed from the centre
is
spring
placed at the point B, and
is
connected
208 by the conductor

centre.
INDUCTION.
[CHAP. x.
its
BGDEO
with a rod which touches the disk at
DE is
the conductor whose resistance
is
to be determined.
If the current from the
battery also flows through the conductor
DE, we may
current flows
disk.
so adjust the angular velocity of the disk that no with the through the conductor which connects
When
is
this
condition
If the
e,
is
attained,
the
shows no
disk
deflection.
electromotive
e
galvanometer needle force induced in the

i
represented by
we then have
= Ei, where
denotes the
To determine e, we consider current flowing through the resistance. and a straight conductor OA. the disk replaced by a ring The circuit OAGDEO is divided into the two circuits OAB and
BAC
BGDEOB.
The number of
lines of force passing
through the latter
circuit is not
changed during the motion.

the circuit
.
number passing through

/
OAB
.
the other hand, the increases in unit time by

dr.
On
mino dr = iw I mr
JQ
Jo
This change
in
the
number of
lines
of force gives the induced

-a
electromotive force.
We
therefore have
,-a
Ei = i<ol mr.dr,
Jo
E=wl
Jo
mr.dr.
the disk
in
If
is
the
number
o>
of revolutions
made by
dr.
one
second,
we have
= 'lirn and
n
.
2irr
The
integral gives
the coil
EF
the coefficient of mutual induction between and the disk ABC, or the number of lines of force
if
coil.
which pass through the disk Hence we have E = nM.
a unit current is flowing in the Therefore to measure the resistance
we determine the number of revolutions per second which must be given to the plate in order that no current shall flow through G.
SECTION LXXXVIII.
FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS OF INDUCTION.
We
have hitherto determined the electromotive force induced in
s by the change in the number of lines of force which are enclosed by s. represents the number of lines of force which pass through an arbitrary surface containing the conductor S
the conductor
determined by the conductor alone. Hence three quantities, F, G, H, can be so determined that the line integral
it is
therefore
l(F dx/ds +
.
dy/ds + H. dz/ds)ds
SECT.
LXX xvm.]
EQUATIONS OF INDUCTION.
N=\\(al + bm + cn}dS.
c
209
It is necessary
is
for this,
(a)
equal to the surface integral by VI. (f), that
= a#/3y-3fiya?,
= 'dF/'dz--dH/'dx,
We may
element
also obtain these equations
of condition
for example,
by the assumption that, dS is equal to the surfacewhich

106).
is
di/dz,
represented by
line integral
OB DC
(Fig.
The
then becomes
dz)dy
- Hdz
FIG. 106.
is
= (dH/dt/-'dG!'dz)dydz.
Since the surface integral in this case of equations (a).
If these equations are
(b)
a dydz,
.
we
obtain the
first
supposed solved for F, G, H, we have

.
N= ^(F. dx/ds + G
= - dNjdt = - \(dF/dt
set (d)
dy/ds + H. dz/ds)ds.
If the part of the region considered is at rest, the induced electromotive force e is determined by
(c)
e
.
dx/ds + dG/dt . dy/ds + dH/dt dz/ds)ds.

.
If
we
Q,
P=
-dF/dt,
Q = -dG/dt,
R=
-dH/dt, we
may
consider
E, as the components of the electromotive force (, and if the integration is extended along the whole conductor, we obtain
P,
as
(e)
an expression
for the total

e
induced electromotive force
= $(P.dx+Q.dy + R.dz).
also be determined directly
These components
may
by
variation of
a,
b,
c.
the value of the magnetic induction, whose components are thus obtain from (a) and (d)
We
(f)
da/dt
db/dt
= ?>R[dy - VQfdz,
Suppose
LXXXI.,
which
are p,
is q,
electrical current, as has been remarked in of two parts, namely, the current of conduction, proportional to the electromotive force, whose components
that
the
is
made up
r,
polarization,
and the current due to the changes in the electrical whose components are /, g, h. Then for the components
of the total electrical current,
we
v=q
obtain
u =p + df/dt,
+ dg/dt, w = r + dh/dt.
o
210
If
INDUCTION.
[CHAP. x.
C represents
'
the conductivity,
we have
(g)
p = CP, q=CQ, r=CR
and
f=kP/4v, g = kQ''ir, h = kR/4Tr, where k is the dielectric constant measured in electromagnetic units. Hence we have
(h)
(i)
u=CP + k/4ir.dP/dt, v=CQ + k/ir.dQ/dt, w=CR + kjlir .dR/dt.
From LXXVI.
the components of the magnetic induction 33 and the components of the magnetic force ^p are connected by the equations = p.a, & = ju/3, e = /ry, where p. is the magnetic permeability of (k) a
the substances.
(1)
We have already found the following equations connecting the magnetic force and the components of current (cf. LXXX.) = 47Ttt = 4 4-n-w =
:
3y/3y-30/3s,
'dafiz
"dy/'dx,
3/3/3a;
"daffy.
SECTION
LXXXIX.
ELECTRO-KINETIC ENERGY.
By LXXXV.
ductors
obtain
is
(k),
the electro-kinetic energy of any system of con-
expressed by
T=^Ni.
.dy/ds
T=^\(Fi.dx/ds + Gi
By using LXXXVIII. + Hi. dz/ds)ds. If u, v, w,

,
(b)
we
are the
components of current, a current i, in a conductor whose cross-section 2 2 A, may be expressed by i = A. -Ju + v* + w and we have also = If we set dxdydz = A.ds, we obtain i.dx/ds uA, etc. T= $ J J JCFw + Gv + Hw}dxdydz. (b)
is
If u,
v,
are here expressed

(1)],
by the components of the magnetic
force
[LXXXVIII.
we have
.
T= 1/87T
If the separate
is
J Jf |7(3y/3y
3/3/3)
+ GCdafdz - Vy/dx)
.
+ HCdfi/'dx - 'da/'dy)]
dxdydz.
terms are integrated by parts, and the integration extended over the whole infinite region, it follows, since at the
this
boundary of
order, that
f
region
a,
(3,
y are infinitely small of the third
\\H
3a/3?/
dxdydz = -
f J fa
^Hffy dxdydz
.
and
G Jf f
Vafdz
a dxdydz = JJJ
VGfdz dxdydz.
.
Analogous expressions hold for the other
integrals.
By
(c)
reference to
LXXXVIII. we
therefore obtain
T= I/Sir
no magnets or no
f f f (oo
+ /3b + yc)dxdydz.
can
acquire
If
bodies
which
an
appreciable
b
magnetization are present in the region,
we have a = a,
= f3,
= y,
and
(d)
T= I/Sir. Hl
SECT, xc.]
ABSOLUTE UNITS.
SECTION XC.
211
ABSOLUTE UNITS.
In Physics
units of length,
we
generally take the centimetre, (/mm and second as mass and time respectively. These are the units which
are used in
the theory of electricity. will now proceed to express in terms of them the most important electrical and magnetic quantities. They are designated by the symbols L, M, T respectively
(cf.
We
Introduction).
(a)
The
Electrostatic
System of Units.
In electrostatics the force
y,
with which two quantities of electricity

(cf.
^ and
where
e
e.
act
r is
on each other, is expressed by the distance between the quantities.
LIII.)
1
^=
,
2/
r2
If
= e2 =
we have
e
= r J$, and
hence the dimensions of a quantity of electricity

[e]
are
= [LL*M*T-*] = [tfM*T-*].
,
The electrical force F, which acts on a unit quantity of electricity, has the dimensions of the quantity e/r2 and therefore
TJie
electrostatic potential
(cf.
LIV.) has the dimensions of the

1
quantity e/r, and therefore [] = [L^M^T^/L] = [L*M*T~ ]. The capacity C [cf. LV. (g)] has the dimensions of the quantity /", and therefore [] = []. The capacity, therefore, has the dimensions
of a length. The surface-density
cr
(cf.
LIV.)
is
the quantity of electricity present
on the unit of
= [Liflf* T~ l /Lz ] = [L-*M*T-*]. [<r] The dimensions of surface-density are the same as those of electrical force [cf. LV. (e)]. Since the electrical displacement or polarization
surface,
and therefore
(cf. LXV.) is the quantity of electricity which passes through unit of surface in the dielectric, its dimensions are also [lT^M^T~1^, The ratio between the electrical displacement and the electrical force
is
expressed by KJ^TT, where
is
the dielectric constant.
is
there-
fore a
mere number.
The electrical energy LXI. (a)] is measured by the product [cf. of the difference of potential and the quantity of electricity. Hence = [/AMT~ 2 ]. These are also the dimensions of all other forms [JF]
of energy.
(b)
The Electromagnetic System of Units.
Two magnet
and
f* 2 ,
poles which contain the quantities of magnetism /^ 2 repel each other with the force [cf. LXVIII. (a)], /'=/* 1 /* 2 /r
212
INDUCTION.
[CHAP. x.
Hence quantity of magnetism has the same dimensions in the electromagnetic system as quantity of electricity in the electrostatic system. This relation holds throughout between the two systems for corresponding quantities in electrostatics and magnetism not consider each case separately.
;
we
will therefore
The dimensions of the strength of the electrical current are determined from Biot and Savart's Law (cf. LXXVIIL). According to this law the force K, with which a current -element ds acts on a magnet
2 pole containing the quantity of magnetism p., is K=p. ids. sin0/V Since is a mechanical force, the dimensions of the current-strength
.
are
Since the quantity of
electricity
of current strength and time,
q may be considered we have [q] = [ZA/lf*].
as a product
The
electromotive force e
[cf.
which
arises in a closed conductor has
been
defined
by e= -dNjdt, where N=\\(al + bm + cm)dS. Since magnetic induction, by definition, has the same dimensions
(b)]
LXXXV.
as magnetic force, the dimensions of electromotive force are
conductor
In this system the electromotive force per unit of length of the may be considered as the measure of the electrical force,
P, Q, R.
Hence the dimensions of
electrical
According to Ohm's law the resistance is equal to the ratio between the electromotive force in the conductor and the currentstrength
;
the dimensions of resistance are therefore
that
is,
the dimensions of resistance are the
same as
those of velocity.
Surface-density of electricity
and
electrical polarization
have the dimen-
sions of a quantity of electricity divided
by an
area,
and are therefore
By LXXXVIII. (h) the dielectric constant k in this system has he same dimensions as the ratio between the dielectric polarization
and the
electrical force, or
2 [L-*M*/L*M*T-*] = [L^-T ].
SECT, xc.]
ABSOLUTE UNITS.
(c)
213
Comparison of the Two Systems.
If
we measure a quantity of electricity

for
torsion balance
two values
is
electrostatically by Coulomb's and electromagnetically by a galvanometer, we have In the first system this quantity the same quantity.
e
.
expressed by
[I$M*T~
],
in the second
is
system by q [L^M?]
.
the
ratio
[LT~ ]. This ratio is therefore a velocity. It was first measured by Weber and Kohlrausch. Its value, as found by them, is F=3,1.10 10 which is very closely the velocity 3,0. 10 10 of light in air. Subsequent experiments have made it probable that V is actually the same as the velocity of light. It is thus shown that an electromagnetic unit
.
between these expressions
V= e/q
of
electrostatic units. electricity is equal to If a certain quantity of electricity flows through a portion of a conductor it produces heat in the conductor, which, considered as
AB
energy, must be independent The energy in electrostatic

q*Pmi where
""P,
of the system of measurement employed. units is e ^,, in electromagnetic units

.
and represents the difference of potential between in electrostatic units, "*Pm the same difference of potential in electromagnetic units.
e=
is
Vq,
Hence we have e^f, = cflf m We have shown that and therefore ^r m = ^ft V; that is, an electrostatic unit of potential
. .
equal to electromagnetic units of potential. If Ave designate electrical force in the electrostatic system by n in the electromagnetic system by m the difference of potential
between two points, which are distant from each other by dx, is in the first system *Pt = Ft dx, in the second system *P m Fm dx. Since "*P m = ty, V we have Fm = V Ft Hence one unit of electrostatic force
.
.
is
equal to
V units
of electromagnetic force.
(
is connected with the force F. by equation LXV. (d) )=K/'ir. n if the electrostatic system is used. In the electromagnetic system this equation takes the form and / are quantities of electricity divided by /= k/4ir m Since
The
dielectric
polarization !)
the
areas,
and since
= qpr we have
,
Vf.
Since
Fm
is
an
electrical
force
measured in electromagnetic
k
units,
we have
.
= tirf>Fm = 47r)/ V*F. = K! V 2
system the equations connecting the components of dielectric polarization with the electrical force are
Hence
in the electromagnetic
We
of light in a
thus obtain ground for the assumption that V\<J]L medium whose dielectric constant is K.
is
the velocity
214
(d)
INDUCTION.
Practical
Units.
[CHAP. x. SECT. xc.
In practical work these absolute units are often discarded in favour
The unit of current-strength in this of others, called practical units. 1 practical system is the ampere, equal to 10" electromagnetic units of current. The unit of resistance is the ohm, equal to 10 9 absolute units of resistance. The ohm is nearly equal to the resistance of a
column of mercury, whose
is
cross-section
is 1 sq.
mm. and whose
length
106,3 cm.
is
The
unit of electromotive force then follows from
Ohm's
law; it motive
called the wit,
and
is
s equal to 10 absolute units of electro-
force.
of electricity is the quantity which flows one second through any cross-section of a conductor in which the The This unit is called a coulomb. current-strength is an ampere.
The
unit of quantity
in
capacity of a condenser, one of whose coatings is charged with one coulomb when the difference of potential between its coatings is one
volt, is called
a.
farad;
it is
1 8 9 equal to IQ~ /IQ = 10~ absolute units
whose capacity is unity in the absolute electromagnetic system must be charged with unit quantity of electricity in order to reach unit potential. These quantities are the same as the quantity of electricity V and the potential \/V in the electroof capacity.
static
A body
system.
It follows
The
from
electrostatic capacity of the

this that a farad
is
body
is
therefore
9
V-.
static
equal to
F^/IO
electro-
of capacity. Since this capacity is very great, the millionth of a farad or a microfarad, is generally used as the practical unit of capacity.
units
CHAPTER XL
SECTION XCI.
IF a conductor
is
OSCILLATIONS IN A CONDUCTOR.
traversed
by alternating
currents, that
is,
by currents
which reverse their directions at regular intervals, we say that electrical oscillations exist in the conductor. Such alternating currents may be
produced by induction, as in the well-knoAvn experiments of Feddersen. Let (Fig. 107) be a condenser whose plates are joined by con-
AB
ducting wires to two small metallic spheres C and D. If the condenser is so charged that has the and B the potential zero, and if the potential
distance
CD is sufficiently diminished, a spark will Careful investigation has proved pass from C to D. that this spark consists of a series of sparks, which correspond to currents in opposite directions. Hence
electrical oscillations will
be set up by the discharge.
But
the current-strength i varies in the conducting wires and DB, an electromotive force will be
if
AC
induced in them, which, from

.
LXXXV., is equal to L di/dt, where L is the coefficient of self-induction. If we represent the electrical resistance in the conducting
by
r,
wires and
in the spark-gap
(a)
the current-strength
is
given by
V-L.di/dt = r.i.
in
t
If c is the capacity of the condenser charge q of the condenser at the time

is
is
electromagnetic units, the c*P; at the time t + dt, it
c*P
+ c d^/dt
.
dt.
Hence we have
(b)
=c
(b)
it
+ c d^jdt .dt + idt;

.
= -c
dV/dt.
.
From
(a)
and
follows
is
i
that Lc d-i/dt 2 + cr di/dt + i

.
= 0.
An
are
integral of this equation
= A.
e mit
+B
e"^\
where
and
m2
215
216
the roots of
the equation
[CHAP. xi.
Lcm 2 + crm +1 = 0.
2
The
roots
of
this
equation are
roots
m=
- r/2L
*/r /4:L-
will
be imaginary and
we
If r is sufficiently small, the l/Lc. 2 2 will have, neglecting r /4Z ,
Using the
real part
and the
real coefficient of the

i
imaginary part
as particular solutions
i
we
.
can then express

1
.
by
= e-*
[A
sin(//VZ<J)
+V
cos(*/VZc)].
Hence
time.
the current-strength changes periodically
and diminishes with
the
This equation shows that the period T of the oscillation is Therefore as the capacity given by T/jLc = 27r and hence T=2irsjLc.
)
of the condenser
is
diminished, the period
diminishes
also.
oscillations is proportional to e~ rt/2i ; it thereThe ratio between fore diminishes continually as the time increases.
rt/2Z coefficient, is e~
The amplitude of the
the amplitudes of two successive oscillations, the so-called damping = e rT/2L The damping is therefore increased g -*+*)/
'
as the resistance of the connections
is
increased,
period
eirrVw..
it
is
diminished as the self-induction
is
and with a given If we increased.
substitute for
its
value
T= 27rx/Lc,
Hence the
effect of
the damping coefficient becomes damping on the oscillations is diminished

is
when the
of
capacity of the discharging conductor
diminished.
Instead
generally deal with its natural logarithm, the so-called logarithmic decrement 8. have 8 = rT/2L = irr Jc/L. H. Hertz obtained very rapid oscilla-
making observations on the damping

.
coefficient itself,
we
We
tions
by the use of the apparatus represented in Fig. 108. It conf equal size at ^ two ^ ar e s P neres s ^ sts B /^~x.4 C T) ( QO ^ j A and B, which are fastened on the ends The of the copper rods AC and BD. other ends of the rods AC and DB carry
^^
FlG
m
A
.
small spheres, separated by a distance of The spheres are about 1 centimetre. the charged by the induction coil
EF
'
If at discharge occurs in the gap between the spheres C and D. a definite instant a current of strength i passes from to B, and if the potentials of and have respectively the values '*P 1 and
then ^r l - 2 - L di/dt = ri. If the capacity of each of the large "2, spheres is represented by c, we have c l d^PJdt = -i, c l d^2 /dt = i, or by using c = \c v i= -c. d( ir l The current-strength is 2 )/dt.
. .
t
therefore given by the same differential equation as before, and obtain from it the same expression for the period T.
we
SECT, xcn.]
CALCULATION OF THE PERIOD.

SECTION
217
XCIL
In order to determine the period,

coefficient
we must
first
determine the
The method of determining coefficients of of self-induction. self-induction for closed conducting circuits has already been given. In the present case we have to deal partly with actual currents in
the cylindrical conductors, partly with polarization or displacement currents in the surrounding dielectric. The principal effect must
be due to the induction in the conductor
itself,
since in it the distance
between the inducing and the induced currents is least. The full treatment of the question would be very difficult, because the currentstrengths in the different parts of the cross-section are not equal. will therefore neglect these differences in the subsequent dis-
We
and calculate the coefficient of self-induction L in a cylinder on the assumption that the current-strength in all parts of the crosssection is the same. According to F. Neumann, the electromotive force E induced in a conductor s' by the action of a variable current i flowing through another conductor s, is determined by the variation of the integral Li, where L = ^cose/r.dsds'. In this integral, which
cussion,
is
angle between ds and
to be taken over all the elements of both conductors, e denotes the ds', and r the distance between ds and ds.
Let
with
AB
and
CD
AC and BD form
be two parallel lines (Fig. 109) which together = l, and CF=s'. a rectangle. We set
AB=CD
In the present case the integral which

/
-'o |
is
to be evaluated becomes
ds.ds'/r, because (Fig.
109) cose
I
= l.
In order to find
first
the
ô
value of the integral
P=
I
ds/r
and AB, and write
FG = a.
ds/r,
If
we draw FG perpendicular to CD AG = b v BG = b 9 FA = r FB = r.2

1,
,
we have P =
ds/r
where
s is
the distance of any point on
AB
we
from
G.
Now
since
obtain
= Ids/Jat + s* = log nat(s/a + Jl+sz/a z ) \dsfr P = \ogna,t[(r + b )(r2 + b 2 )/a2 = log nsA[(AF + AG)(BF+ BG)/a?].
l l
']
218
If a
is
very small in comparison with
[CHAP. xi.
we may write = GB = l-s', AF=AG=*' and FB

I,
and have /> =lognat[4s'(^ -s')/ the integral \P.ds and obtain
P.ds'
2
].
We
then calculate the value of
= 2l.
[log nat(2//a)
1].
We
circular
will
calculate the coefficient of self-induction of a wire with Let cross-section. (Fig. 110) be the cross-section of a
now
AB
R.
cylindrical conductor, of length
and radius
current-
Let the current-density u be constant
throughout the cross-section. strength i is then given by

to a filament
The
i
= r-iru.
is
We
due
ds;
will first consider the inductive action
whose
cross-section
this filament is
supposed to act on a line
which
FIG. 110.
is
parallel to the axis of the cylinder,
the inductive action
is
p asses through the point c. If DC=a, obtained by the variation of the integral
an(j
u.dS.
2/(log nat(2//a)
-l)
= u.dS. (M+Nlog nat a),
for
where, for the sake of conciseness, we use the quantities Jl/=2(lognat2i-l) and
:
and
as symbols
N=-'2l.
We
must
distinguish between two cases than OC=rv First let r>rr

as to
OD = r may
be either greater or less The elements dS may be taken so

is
form the surface of a ring whose area
2irr
dr.
From
the
demonstration of XIII. log a equals the logarithm of half the sum of the greatest and least values which a can take. These values are
respectively r
logr.
+ rl and r - rr The mean value required Hence we have the integral

-'
is
therefore
[ *'2irr dr
.
(M+ N\og nat r) = mt{M(Sr - rtf

+ N[R 2 log nat R - r* log nat r - $(R2 - r-f)] }.
x
For that part of the cylinder whose distance from the axis is than 1\ the mean value of the greatest and least values of a Hence the integral for this part is equal r r u
I
less
will
Jfcw
dr
z (M+ N\og nat r = Tru(Mi\2 + Ni\

:)
log nat r x ).
The sum of both
integrals
is
SECT, xcn.]

mean value
of this quantity for
all
219
the filaments
rx 2,
In order to obtain the
composing the cylinder, we need only find the mean value of

since all the other quantities are constant.
But
since
it
follows that the
mean
value sought
is
iruR2 (M + .ZV(log.E -
J)}.
If
we introduce
into this equation the values
M= 2J(log 21-1)
and
set
and
N=
We
21
obtain for the quantity, the variation of which therefore obtain for the gives the self-induction, 2/i(log(2?/^) f ). In Hertz's investigation, 1=150, quantity L, f). '2l(\og(2l/E)
iruR
i,
we
L=
.#
= 0,25 and
therefore
Z=1902, where
all
lengths are expressed in
centimetres.
In order to calculate the period of oscillation, we will next determine the capacity of a sphere with a radius of 15 cm., such as Hertz used. If Q is its charge and >F its potential, the capacity C in electrostatic
is C=Q/y. Eepresenting the charge and the potential in " 10 10 electromagnetic units by Q' and respectively, and using V=3. = 7^". The the velocity of light in vacuo, we have Q=7(^ and = C/V2 capacity c in electromagnetic units is therefore c=Q'
units
The period
then given by T=2irjLC/V. Using the symbol introduced at the end of XCL, we have c = ^c v where Cj is the capacity in electromagnetic units of each of the two
of oscillation
is
Hence we must set large spheres. =15/2, and obtain seconds. The corresponding wave length in air is
8 10 2,5.10- .3.10
r=2,5/10
SECTION XCIII.
THE FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS FOR ELECTRICAL

INSULATORS OR DIELECTRICS.
it follows, as a consequence of his theoretical views of the nature of electricity, that a change in the electrical The polarization of the dielectric can set up electrical oscillations.
Maxwell shows that
results
some of them
which he obtained are so important that we will consider here. For this purpose we will follow Hertz in substituting in the fundamental equations of LXXXVIII. electrostatic
be measured in electromagnetic units.
units for the electrical quantities, while the magnetic quantities shall The quantity of electricity
which
is
displaced by the electrical force at a point in the dielectric
220
[CHAP. xi.
through a surface-element which stands perpendicular to the direction

of the force, is, according to LXV., equal to K!TT multiplied by the magnitude of the force F. Representing the components of the
displacement by /, g, h, and the components of the electrical by X, Y, Z, we have f=KXJ^ g = KY/4ir, li = KZ^. If the increases by dx in the time dt, the quantity of electricity component df flows through unit area in the direction of the z-axis the comelectrical
force
ponent u of the current-strength in the dielectric and we have

(a)
is
eqiial to dfjdt,
u = K/ir.'dXI-dt,
v=K/4ir.c)YI'dt,
w = K/4ir
-dZfdt.
(a) express the fact that the work done by the magnetic forces in consequence of the movement of a unit pole about the current is equal to the current-strength multiplied by 4?r.
The equations LXXX.
If the current-strength
(b)
is
measured
in electrostatic units,
we have
4irM/F=3y/3y-a)8/as, 4ir/F=3a/3-3y/aB, 4irw/F=3/3/az-'9a/3y, since the electromagnetic unit of quantity of electricity equals V
electrostatic units.
The electromotive force induced equals - dNjdt, if represents the number of lines of force enclosed by the circuit. Since the electromotive force in electromagnetic units equals the electromotive force in electrostatic units multiplied by F, we have from LXXXVIII.
(f)
and
(k)
f
(c)
(
- >*/ F. da/3/ = ?)Z - -dY/-dz /-dy - * F =

,*/
.
3(3^
-dXfdz
'dZ/'dx
/*/
V.
obtain
'dX/'dt
'da/'dz
From
(a)
and
(b)
we
KIV.
Jf/F. -dYpt =
If
we now
2
fj.K/F'
set J='dX/'dx + ?>Y/'dy + ~dZfdz, we obtain from (c) and (d) .d 2X/'dl 2 = V2X-'dJ/ox. If we are dealing with a region in
which
is
constant,
K/4ir
/= ?//3.c + 'bgj'dy + "dhfdz.

we
have, from
If there
(d),
is
no
electrical distribution in the region,
LXVI.
J=0;
and hence
(e)
2 2 pKIF*.&XIW=V*X', pK/r*.&Y/df = V*Y; nK/r .VZ/-dP = VZ.
These equations, in connection with equations

(f)
f
(c)
and
(d),
.
give
at
2 2 2 2 2 2 iK/F^.â/'df = V a- (JiK/F .-d pfdt* = r-p; nKj V*- 3 y/^ = V y. the same time 3o/daf-f dj9/3y+dy/d*0 from LXXVI., if u is
constant.
SECT, xciv.]
PLANE WAVES IN THE DIELECTRIC.

(g),
221
From LXVII.
(g)
the electrical energy

.
is
expressed by
W= l/8ir
+ Y* + Z*)dxdydz. J Jf K(X*
The
(h)
electrokinetic energy T, according to
LXXXIX.
(c),
is
2 2 2 T=l/8ir. J{jM(a + p + y )dxdydz.
SECTION XCIV.
PLANE WAVES
IN
THE DIELECTRIC.
investigate the movement of plane waves in a dielectric. Let the plane waves be parallel to the ys-p\&ne. The components of the electrical force are then functions of .r only, and from the
will
We
now
equations XCIII.
(e),
we have
At the same time
also 'dXj'dx
+ VYfdy + 'dZ/'dz = 0.
Since
and
are independent of y and zt we have 'dX/'dx = 0, and since, in this The direction case, the only forces which occur are periodic, X=0.
of the electrical force is therefore parallel to the plane of the wave. By a rotation of the coordinate axes we can make the y-axis coincide
with the resultant of the components

.
and
Z.
We
.
therefore need
to discuss only the equation /JT/F 2 3 2 7/9^ = 3 2 F/3a;2 of this equation is (a) Y=bsin[2Tr/T (t - a;/o>)], where
.
The
integral
T is
the period
of oscillation
is
and w the
velocity of propagation.
The
1,
differential equation
;
satisfied if
w=
F'/Jp-K.
For vacuum /*=
K= 1
hence
V is
the
For velocity of propagation of plane electrical oscillations in vacuo. ordinary transparent bodies, /*=!. The velocity of propagation in
such bodies
is
therefore
V/\/K.
Maxwell assumed that

It has
electrical
been shown by experiment that o> = V/N, where represents the index of refraction of the dielectric. The electromagnetic theory of light gives w = Vj^K;
oscillations are identical
with light waves.
inductive capacity of a medium The fact that this index of refraction. theorem holds for a large number of bodies is a strong confirmation of Maxwell's hypothesis. From this hypothesis almost all of the pro,
hence we have
is
K=N
that
is, the specific
equal
to
the square of its
perties of light can be deduced. According to XCIII. (c) we have,
under the above conditions,
= 0,
13
(b)
= 0, and = 7b/u> /*y
sin [27T/J
(t
ar/w)]
is
= Nb sin [lirjl
of the
(t
to
x/u)].
the
The
the
direction
of the magnetic force
therefore parallel
plane of
wave and perpendicular
to the direction
electrical force.
222
[CHAP. xi.
We will supplement this discussion by the following examination of the relation between the electrical and the magnetic forces. Let an electrical force act in the y^-plane, parallel to the axis Oy (Fig. Ill),
&
and suppose
,7
zero to
it
to increase uniformly from
YQ in
one second.
In consequence
is
of this an electrical current v
set
up
in
the same direction, and because 'dY[dt=
we have from XCIII.
(a),
This electrical current will set up magnetic

r IG. 111.
forces,
___
We
.__
Avill
which are parallel to the ^-axis. assume that the magnetic force
.
increases
uniformly from zero to y
In
consequence of this an
electromotive force will be induced in the surrounding region. will assume that the electrical and magnetic actions advance in one
We
second over the distance
O.r = w (Fig. 111). The magnetic force decreases uniformly from ;c = to x = u; the same statement holds for the electrical force OD=Y The electrical current, on the other hand, has the same strength everywhere between
.
is explained by remarking that the electrical force whose distance from x equals l/n. Ox, has acted only during Ijn seconds, and has, during this time interval, increased from
x.
and
This
at a point F,
to l/n. n ; its increase in one second is therefore equal to Let a unit pole move in the rectangular path OzBxO (Fig. 111). The magnetic force y acts only in the path Oz and acts in the
.
direction of motion
equal to y
units,
Oz.
The quantity
.
hence the work done by the magnetic forces is of current, measured in electromagnetic
.
we have
which the unit pole has encircled, is v/F~. Oz. Ox. From LXXX. therefore y OZ = TTV. Oz Ox/F~, or because OX = (D, we
obtain (d) Fy = 47rz;w. The electromotive force, measured in electromagnetic units, which is induced by the motion about a closed path, is e = - dNjdt, if A We represents the number of lines of force enclosed by the path.
7
"
have therefore JV=

force in the direction
ê
dt.
The mean value

. .
of the electromotive
The | F V, in electromagnetic units. value of the^ before-mentioned integral, extended over the rectangular path 0>/Cx, is |F F. Oy. The mean value of the magnetic force perOy
is
pendicular to the surface OyCz magnetic induction is \ fj.y

. .
is
Jy
hence the mean value of the
We
therefore have the equation
SECT, xciv.]
PLANE WAVES IN THE DIELECTRIC.

(e)
223
and hence
FT = /ry w, NYQ = p.y

F'/w.
()
if
the index of refraction

it
is
substituted for
In this connection
must be noticed that the

that on our assumpand that
-axis.
wave
is
propagated in the direction of the
.r-axis,
tion the electrical force acts in the direction of the y-axis,
then the magnetic force acts in the direction of the

the right
Hence
if
held so as to point in the direction in which the wave is propagated, with the palm turned toward the direction of the electrical If we force, the thumb will point in the direction of the magnetic force.
hand
is
NF= pM.
and the electrical force by F, represent the magnetic force by From (c) and (d) it follows that Fy = -KT w. Substituting 2 1 = in (e) the value of y we obtain Hence the velocity of /JTu>
,
M
V
and (b) it follows that the relations (e) electrical and magnetic forces hold also in the case of plane waves. In vacuo both forces have the same
propagation
is
w = VjJp.K. between the
From
(a)
numerical value.
SECTION XCV.
THE HERTZIAN
OSCILLATIONS.
H. Hertz succeeded in producing very rapid oscillations in a straight conductor, which also caused oscillations in the surrounding dielectric. can form some idea of the nature of these oscillations in the
We
following manner, due to Hertz Let the middle point of a conductor coincide with the origin of The coordinates, and let the oscillations take place along the 2-axis. magnetic lines of force are then circles, whose centres lie on the
:
-axis.
The
electrical
lines
of force have a
more complicated form.

(f)
We
start with the differential equation
XCIII.
for the
magnetic
forces.
We
(a)
For the sake of conciseness we set VjKp- = w. first investigate an integral of the differential equation
2
l/o>
.c> 2 w/3/
= V%,
on the hypothesis that u is a function of t and of r = >Jx2 + y2 -j- z*. We have then, from XV. (1), V% = 1/r 32 ()/3r2 and therefore 2 2 2 = If we set k=2Tr/T and J = 2jr/7w, where 92 (?-tt)/3r 2 l/o> .3 (rM)/3/ - lr) is a u= sin I is a constant, then
.
(b)
a/r
(kt
of the differential equation.

coefficients
The function
u, as
particular integral well as its differential
differential
force
a,
/?,
taken with respect to x, y and z, therefore satisfies the equations XCIII. (f) for the components of magnetic In the case under consideration y = 0, and hence we y.
have
'da/'dx
+ 'dft/'dy = 0.
As
the simplest solution of the differential
224
equation
we
obtain (c)
[CHAP. xi.
a= t
entiation with respect to

calculation.
From
(c)
we
= ûfdfdx, where the differintroduced for use in the subsequent = obtain a = x/r.
fPu/'dfdy, /3
is
'd-uj'dfdr .yjr; (3
'd-u/'dfdr
The
resultant magnetic force
is
therefore
.
M= a*M/a/3r
where
is
Jx 2 + f/r = Wupfdr
sin 6,
the angle between the radius vector from the origin and The force is the s-axis. perpendicular to the plane which contains the point considered and the .e-axis.
If
we
set
kt-lr =
<f>,
we have
M=
ka(l. sin </r

l/7
- cos </r2 )
have
.sin 6.
If
r is very small in
comparison with
= o>r/27r, we
that
is,
the force is determined by Biot
and
Savart's law, the oscillations
in the conductor acting like a current element.
For greater distances the magnetic

(d)
force
.
is
M= 4*-%/rW
will
sin [2-rr/T
(t
r/o,)]
sin 6.
Hence the magnetic waves proceed forward

of light.
in space
with the velocity
We
(d)
now
calculate the electrical forces.
From
(c)
and XCIII.
we
obtain
Since u depends only on r and
f,
the carrying out of the differentiations

,
xz/r
2
;
(e)
KZI F= 3
The
from
electrical force
(e),
t*/3r
E
.
in the direction r is
'duf'dr
.
KRj V= 2/r
+ z2 (Xx +Yy + Zz)jr, and hence If cos 6 = - 2a(l cos </r2 + sin ^/r3 cos G.
2 2
.
(r
- z2 )/7-2 +
cto/'dr
(r
tangent to a sphere whose radius is Ir. Let the next spherical determined from the equation tg(kt Ir) = - Ir'. From this it follows wave have the radius r' ; then
the electrical force
is
# = 0,
tg(kt
Ir)
= l(r' - r)/(l + 2rr'). If the radius of the waves is very we may set l(r' - r) = But since = 277/X, where = T<a, we large have r' - r = |X. We thus obtain at last equidistant spherical waves.
that tgl(r' -r)
I ir. / A.
SECTION XCVI.
POYNTING'S THEOREM.
to B through Let there be an electrical current i flowing from a long cylindrical conductor (Fig. 112) of circular cross-section. There is then a magnetic force acting at every point in the region around
SECT, xcvi.]
POYNTING'S THEOREM.
.
225
= OC, the conductor, given by the equation 2?rr 47ri, where r therefore the distance of the point from the axis of the cylinder. have M=2i/r. The equipotential surfaces of the electrostatic field
We
of force within the conductor are planes perpendicular to the axis of the conductor. Outside the conductor they s
are likewise perpendicular to the axis, at least in the vicinity of the conductor. The equipotential surfaces of the magnetic field of force
are
planes which, like the
plane
OF, contain
force
both the direction of the

the axis of the conductor.
electrical
and
Let the
electrical
force in the surface of the conductor
and
in its
If we designate vicinity be F'. cross-section of the conductor, and
by S the by C its conductivity, we have from Ohm's law i/S=CF'. The heat produced in the conductor during one
is
A
^ IG 1^.
-
second
determined as follows
If the quantity
of electricity i flows through the conductor, whose length we may call /, the electrical force does work equal to F'il. If / represents the mechanical equivalent of heat, the quantity of heat thus developed
equals F'iljJ.
F'il
The work done by the electromotive

this
force is therefore
= \.MrFl,
Poynting assumes that
its
Now
quantity of energy enters the
conductor through is to be considered
That portion of the surface which is equal to 1-xrl. The quantity of energy which enters the conductor through unit area on its surface is therefore
surface.
IjlTT.F'M. This quantity of energy moves in the direction CO, which is determined by the intersection of the electrical and magnetic equipotential
The relation of the direction in which the energy is propagated to the directions of the electrical and magnetic forces is determined in the same way as that given for the propagation of
surfaces.
waves in XCIV.
The electrical force is here measured in electromagnetic units; if we express it in electrostatic units, and represent it by F, then F' = VF. The quantity of energy which enters in one second through
a unit area of the surface, which is parallel to the directions both of the electrical and of the magnetic forces, equals V/lir.F.M. will now treat a more general case. Eepresent the magnetic
We
force at a point in the region
by M, the
electrical force at the
same
point by F, and the angle between the two forces by (M, F).
We
226
[CHAP. xi.
assume that the quantity of energy passing in one second through and F, is unit area, which is parallel to the directions of
The
direction
in
coordinate axes whose cosines are

I
which the energy flows makes angles with the /, m, n. We have then
= ( y y- pZ)/MFsm (MF)
m = (aZ- 7 X)/MF sin (MF) = ((3X - aY)/MFsin (MF), n

;
if a, p, y,
are the components of the magnetic force
M, and X,
these
l'
Y, Z,
the components of the electrical force F. it follows that la + m/3 + ny = (); lX +
From
is
equations
mY+nZ=0;
+ m2 + n 2 =l.
Hence the energy
flows in a direction which
perpendicular to the
directions both of the magnetic If we represent by x , E^
and of the
electrical forces.
energy in
components of the flow of the directions of the coordinate axes, we have

the
Ea
Ex = F/47T MFsin (MF)

.
Hence we obtain the equations
Ex =T^7r.(yY-^Z}; Ey = F/47T
The energy present
increases, in the time
dt,
(aZ
yX)
E._
= V\hr ((BX-aY).
.
in a parallelepiped,
whose edges are

to
dx, dy, dz,
by an amount equal
- (dEJVx + VEJ-dy + VEJ-dz)dxdydzdt.

which a unit of volume receives increase of energy in the unit of time, is -(dEJ'dx + 3EJ'dy + 'dEt/'dz). If we sub-
Hence the
A=
stitute in these equations the values previously given for
E& E^
E,,
we have
A = T/47T
[X(dyfdy
o/3y)]
- 3/3/3*) + Y(dafdz - 3y/3a;) F/47T

.
[a(dZfdy
'dY/'dz)
- VZ/'dx) + yCdY/Vx -
aX/3y)].
this
By
the help of equations
(c)
2
and
(d) of
XCIIL, we obtain from
A = KjSir
On comparing
sents the total
d(X
+Y
this expression
for the electrostatic
with those given in (g) and (h) XCIIL and electrokinetic energies, we see that A repreincrease of energy which the unit of volume receives
Poynting's Theorem is thus proved, provided not in motion. The demonstration can easily be
if
in the unit of time.
the dielectric
is
extended to the conductor
we
use the developments of
LXXXVIII.
SECT, xcvi.]
POYNTING'S THEOREM.
227
and remember that a part of the energy absorbed by the conductor

is
transformed into heat.
will now apply Poynting's theorem to a simple case. According XCIV., we may, in the case of vibrations in a plane, express the electrical force there F= b sin Y,
We
to
F,
designated by
by
[2ir/jP. (t
z/w)],
and the magnetic force M, there designated by Fb/nw sin (t
y,
by
M=
[2ir/r
*/)].
During any complete vibration there passes through unit area the quantity of energy
F^/^TT/tw
.
r in
s
-0
[2;r/r.
(t
x/o>)]dt
= F^r/fywrw.
We may
set F=o> and /* = !, and obtain for the quantity of energy which passes in one second through a unit area perpendicular to
the plane of the wave, the quantity F6 2 /87r. The quantity of heat which a square centimetre receives in one
minute from the light of the sun
is equal to about three gram-calories. This quantity of heat corresponds to the energy 3 4,2 10"/60 de10 we have 6 = 0,04. veloped in one second. If we now set F=3. 10
.
.
Since the unit of electrical force in the electrostatic system equals 300 volts, we obtain for the maximum electrical force of sunlight
12 volts per centimetre.
The maximum magnetic
force
is
0,04,
and
amounts therefore to a
magnetism
in
fifth
of the horizontal intensity of the earth's
middle latitudes.
statics
The experimental basis for the mathematical treatment of electrowas given by Coulomb. Poisson handled a number of problems in electrostatics and gave the general method for their solution. Sir William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) also treated the same problems in part by a new and very ingenious method his papers are specially recommended to the student (Reprint of Papers, 2nd Ed., 1884).
;
Faraday (1837) developed new views of

placement.
electrical polarization or dis-
the foundation of these concepts, Maxwell constructed his development of the theory of electricity (Treatise on Electricity
On
and Magnetism, 1873). Helmholtz treated electrostatics in a different His papers may be found in way and solved new problems. Wiedemann's Annalen.
electrostatics.
The theory of magnetism advanced parallel with the theory of The same authors, and sometimes even the same
works, deal with both subjects.
228
ELECTEICAL OSCILLATIONS.
[CHAP. xi. SECT. xcvi.
in his Thforie MatMmatique des Phe"nomenes Electrodynamiques, This work 1825, discussed the theory of electrical currents. forms the foundation for all the recent development of that theory. The new concepts of the magnetic and inductive actions of electrical
Ampere
Paris,
currents,
by Maxwell
developed by Faraday, were given a mathematical form in his work Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, 1873.
:
We
On
have followed Maxwell's methods in dealing with these

the other hand Gauss,
topics.
W. Weber,
F. E.
Neumann,
Kirchhoff,
and
Lorenz, proceed from Ampere's theory. are indebted to William Thomson and G. Kirchhoff (Poggendorff's
We
Annalen, 121) for the theory of electrical oscillations in conductors.
Maxwell and Lorenz showed that

in the dielectric.
electrical oscillations
may
also exist
the investigations of H. Hertz, the theory of electrical oscillations has been given such extension and significance,
By
that no one can predict the consequences to which
it
may
lead.
CHAPTER
XII.
REFRACTION OF LIGHT IN ISOTROPIC AND TRANSPARENT BODIES.

SECTION XCVII.
INTRODUCTION.
As
and
the
number of
facts discovered
by the study of
light increases,
as additional relations are found
between light and other natural
it becomes increasingly difficult to construct a theory of light. According to the emission theory, which in its main features may be attributed to Newton, and which was handled mathematically
phenomena,
is transferred by minute bodies, called light corpuscles, which pass from the luminous to the illuminated body. It was supposed that these light corpuscles carried with them not only
by him, energy
their kinetic energy but also another kind of energy, to
which the
luminous
In the last century the emission theory was sufficient to explain the phenomena then known. But its development could not keep pace with the advances of experimental knowledge;
effects
were due.
became evident early in this century in connection with the great discoveries in optics which were made by Young, Fresnel and Malus. In opposition to this theory, Fresnel developed his first form
this
the
of the wave theory, which originated with Huygens theory, the light waves were supposed to
in this
form of
be
longitudinal.
illuminated bodies
According to the wave theory, the space between the luminous and is filled with a material medium. By the action
of the particles of this
medium on each
is
other, the energy
from the luminous body

in
propagated
emanating from particle to particle
through this medium to the illuminated body.

the
other.
Hence energy
resides
medium during the transfer of light from one body to the The wave theory has many advantages over the emission
theory. Notably the phenomena of interference are explained by it It succeeds also in explaining some of in a perfectly natural way. But the explanation of the the phenomena of double refraction.
229
230
REFRACTION OF LIGHT.
[CHAP. xn.
polarization of light by this theory offered difficulties which could be overcome only by the assumption that the direction of the light vibra-
Since Fresnel tions are perpendicular to the direction of the rays. retained the idea that the medium in which the light vibrations
are propagated, the
resistance to his
ether,
is
new form
of
a fluid, he encountered an obstinate the wave theory ; Poisson rightly
fluid.
maintained that transverse vibrations can never be propagated in a Although the wave theory, in its original form, was some-
what open to
that,
light,
criticism,
and
in
it
many
respects
was
insufficient, in
among other
phenomena of optics cannot be explained on the assumption that light is due to vibrations in an elastic medium, not even when this medium is supposed to be a solid, we must endeavour to explain them in another way. Among recent efforts
this direction, the electromagnetic theory of light, developed by Maxwell, has special advantages. In Maxwell's view, light is also a wave motion, but it consists of periodic electrical currents or displacements, which take the place of the etherial vibrations of
yet it Since the
could not explain the dispersion of was a decided advance on the emission theory.
matters,
in
Maxwell determined on this assumption the theory. velocity of light in vacuo and in transparent bodies, and reached conclusions which agree very well with the facts. Polarization
Fresnel's
and double refraction can also be readily explained by Maxwell's theory, and it has even been applied successfully to the study of
dispersion. Since Fresnel's formulas are of great importance for our subsequent study, we will develop them at the outset. may here recall
We
isotropic and The knowledge of these laws is necesperfectly transparent bodies. sary for the deduction of Fresnel's formulas, but is not sufficient.
briefly
the principal laws
of light which
hold for
I. Light is propagated in any one medium with a velocity which depends on the wave length of the light, but not on its intensity.
The
velocity of light has different values in different media. If a ray of light falls on a plane surface, separating two different media, both refraction and reflection occur at this surface.
II.
All three rays that is, the incident, the refracted, and the reflected lie in the same plane, which is perpendicular to the refracting
surface.
If
a represents the angle of
incidence,
ft
the
angle
of
and y the angle of reflection, we have 7 = 0. and sin a/ sin (3 = N. The index of refraction is constant for homogeneous
refraction,
light.
SECT, xcvn.]
INTRODUCTION.
231
the medium conIII. If co represents the velocity of light in taining the reflected ray, and w' its velocity in that containing the refracted ray, we have JV= to/to', and therefore sin a/sin /2 = w/w'. the ether. IV. Light can be considered a wave motion in a medium, called It is a matter of indifference whether we here consider
the bodies themselves, or an unknown substance, or perhaps changes in the electrical or magnetic condition of the bodies. wish
We
only to indicate that the luminous motion may be expressed by one or more terms of the form a cos (2irt/T +<(>), where a is the amplitude,
the period of vibration,
<f>
the phase, and

.
the variable time.
The
intensity of light is
then expressed by a2
V. The motion of the ether is perpendicular to the direction of the ray of light; that is, the vibrations are transverse. Either the motion takes place always in the same direction, in which case the
ray is rectilinearly polarised, or two or more simultaneous rectilinear motions may give the ether particles a motion in a curve, which is
Rays of light of this sort are said to be If the path of the ether particle is a circle, the light is circularly polarised. Fresnel's conception of natural light
in
general an
ellipse.
elliptically polarized.
was that
the
its vibrations were also perpendicular to the direction of ray and rectilinear, but that they changed their directions many times, and on no regular plan, in a very short interval of
time.
SECTION XCVIII.
FRESNEL'S FORMULAS.
Suppose the plane surface OP (Fig. 113) to be the surface of represent the separation of two transparent isotropic media. velocity of light in the medium above the surface of separation
We
OP by
w,
and that
in the
medium below
the surface by
w'.
If
represents the index of refraction of the ray of light in from the first to the second medium, we have w = JVw'.
its
passage
select
We
the bounding plane as the origin of a system of rectangular co ordinates, and draw the z-axis perpendicularly upward and the y-axis in the plane of incidence, that is, the plane passed
the point
in
through the normal to the surface at the point of incidence and
The 2-axis is therefore perpendicular to the the incident ray SO. plane of incidence. Further, let SO be the incident, OT the reflected, and OB the refracted ray. We designate the angle of incidence by a, the angle of refraction by ft. The amplitude of the vibrations
232
KEFRACTION OF LIGHT.
,
[CHAP. xn.
of the incident ray may be called wa and that of the vibrations of The planes the refracted and reflected rays u 2 and u 3 respectively. of vibration of these rays make angles with the plane of incidence,
which are represented by <f> v 2 <f>3 respectively. The components of motion along the coordinate axes are 1? tj v {v for the incident ray ; 2 rj y 2 for the refracted ray ; 3 ?; 3 3 for the reflected ray.
< , ,
It is further
advantageous to introduce symbols for the components
lie in the plane of incidence and are perpendicular to the direction of the rays. These components of motion for the three rays are designated by s v s y ss respectively. then obtain the following equations
of motion which
We
(a)
= -s3 sma,
must make
77 3
= s3 cosa,
,
VV +
,
Cii
tg'fcj
= W sv
in terms of s l and ^, we s 3 , and 2 3 certain assumptions with regard to the behaviour of the light at its passage from one medium to another.
In order to express s^
I.
Fresnel assumed
the
first,
that no light
is
is lost
by reflection
and
refraction,
or,
sum of
the intensities of the reflected
and
refracted light is equal
to that
of the incident.
This law
conservation of energy in a particular case, it
only a statement of the law of the being merely the assertion
that the kinetic energy of the incident ray is equal to that of the reflected and refracted rays. Let OPSS' (Fig. 113) be a cylinder, the area of whose base OP is A, and whose slant height SO is equal
to w, the velocity of light.
If
we represent the density
of the vibrating
SECT,
xcvm.]
p,
FEESNEL'S FOEMULAS.
the kinetic energy
.
233
medium by
of the light contained in the

.
cylinder considered is L^ = J p o> cos a u^. After the lapse of a second this kinetic energy is divided between the reflected and refracted rays. The kinetic energy L3 in the reflected ray is L3 = \ p w cos a u32 and the kinetic energy L2
.
.
in the refracted ray is L2 = \p o> cos ft u 22 when p represents the density of the vibrating medium below the bounding surface.
.
.
Therefore, on the assumption
made by
<a
Fresnel,
.
we have
.
L = L2 + L3
l
or /3w(w 1 2
w 3 2 ) cos a = pV u2 2 cos (3.
Taking into account the
relations
= N.to and
.
sin a
= N. sin /?, we
may
{b)
give this equation the form
(u-^
u32 )
sin a
cos a
= p'u 22
sin
/3
cos
f3.
If the vibrations of the ray lie in the plane of incidence, u l
= sv
and we obtain
{c)
p (s^
.
-s
2
.
3 )
sin a
cos a
=p
s2
2
.
sin (3
cos
/?.
But
if
the vibrations of the ray are perpendicular to the plane of
incidence,
we have
p(i
2
u^
= v and
2
hence
(d)
II.
3 )
sin a
cos a
=p
2
.
sin (3
cos p.
Fresnel assumed, secondly, that the components of the vibrawhich are parallel to the bounding surface, and on either side of it, If the vibrations lie in the plane of incidence, we have, are equal.
tions,
on
(e)
this assumption,
^ + ^3 = ^
(s l
2'
or
.
+ s3 ) cos a = $2
cos
[I.
But
we
the vibrations are perpendicular to the plane of incidence, I fe follows from (c) and (e) that obtain (f) Ci + Cs = &
if
= s 2p sin a cos a/(p sin a cos (3 + p cos a sin [3), s = 3 s^p. sin a. cos (3 p. cos a. sin /3)/(p. sin a. cos (3 + p'. cosa. sin f3),
r
and from
i
(d)
and
(f)
.
that
. .
=d =d
-p sin a cos a/(p sin a cos a

.
+ p'
sin
(3
cos
(3),
(p- sin a. cos a-p'. sin/3, cos (3) /(p. sin a.
cosa + p. sin (3. cos (3).
III.
was compelled
elasticity
Since the relation between p and p is entirely unknown, Fresnel to make a third assumption, so he assumed that the
of the ether
is
everywhere the same,
but that
its
density differs
that
in different media.
On
the other hand, F. E.
Neumann assumed
its
the density of the ether is the

different in different media.
same in
all
media, but that
elasticity is
Fresnel's assumption was natural, because he considered the ether as a gaseous body, but this is not justified, as has already been remarked. He further assumed that w and w'
234
way
[CHAP. xn.
can be expressed in the same

[cf.
as in the theory of elasticity

'-
and therefore set w = V/Vp, w/ = vV'//3 Now, on 2 Fresnel's assumption, p. = p, and hence, (i) p'/p = <a 2/<a"2 = By the use of the third assumption the equations (g) and (h) can be given the form
XXXV.
(k)],
s.
=s
2 cos a
& = Ci
2 cos
sin /3/(sin(a sin /3/ sin (a
+ (3) cos (a -
These formulas are due to Fresnel.

It follows,
Experiment alone can decide as to the value of these formulas. from the expression for s3 that $3 = 0, if a + ft = îr or if = N. Brewster showed that the light which is polarized pertga.
,
pendicularly to the plane of incidence, according to the definition of Malus, is not reflected when tga = N. This value of the angle a
is
called the angle of polarization.
It is that at ivhich the reflected
and
refracted rays are at right angles to each other.
This conclusion agrees
with experiment, if we make the assumption that the vibrations of On the polarized light are perpendicular to the plane of polarization. whole, Fresnel's formulas agree very well with the results of experiments on the intensity of the reflected light.
incident ray
In the notation already employed, the plane of vibration of the makes the angle <^ with the plane of incidence, the
(f>
.
tg< 3
Brewster found that corresponding angle for the reflected ray is 3 = tg< : cos(o, - /i?)/cos (a + (3). This follows from Fresnel's formulas, since tg< 3 = 3 /ss = fi cos ( a ~ P)/s \ cos ( a + /*) = gî cos ( a " /*)/cos ( a + /*) This agreement argues for the correctness of Fresnel's formulas.
.
fc
Fresnel assumed that the elasticity of the vibrating medium is the same on both sides of the refracting surface. have seen that this assumption is to some extent arbitrary. On the other
We
hand
F. E.
Neumann assumed
(g)
that p
= p.
We
obtain on this latter
assumption from
f
(1)
and
.
(h)
.
J
[
= 2 sin a cos a Sj/sin(a + /3), = 2 sin a. cos a. / sin (a + /3) cos (a -J3), 2 = sin(a-/3). 5l /sin(a + ^, & = tg (a-/3). 53
s9
^/tg (a
+ /3).
These
equations agree with the results of

that the vibrations occur in the
experiment, on the
assumption
plane of polarization, as well
as those of Fresnel.
We
will
now
during the passage of light from one
consider the components of motion along the normal medium to the other. This
SECT, xcviu.]
FEESNEL'S FORMULAS.
is
x
235
3,
component above the bounding surface It follows from (a) and (g) that
j
that below
it is
gy
4-
= 2/>'. sin a = 2p
.
cos a sin
.
ft )6
s^(p sin a cos

.
(3
(3
+p
cos a
sin
/3),
(3).
sin a
cos a
sin
it
s-^Kp
sin a
cos
+ p.
cos a. sin
-
From
these
equations
follows
that
assume with Neumann that p
= p, we
to
have
the
= i2 i + gs + 3= 2 x
P/Pi
If
i g>
we
^ a^
ê
components of vibration perpendicular above and below it. On the other
hand
bounding surface are equal we obtain from Fresnel's
assumption (m)
= N2
,.
Fresnel's equations agree
fully
with experiment only when the

it is
index of refraction
is
about 1,5;
in this case only that
s3
at the angle of polarization. In other cases S3 is a minimum, but does not vanish. Several attempts have been made to explain this
Thus, for example, Lorenz assumed that the passage of the from one medium to another occurs through an extremely thin intervening layer of varying density, and that therefore the change
fact.
light
of density
is
not discontinuous.
SECTION XCIX.
In
in
THE ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY OF
LIGHT.
was proved that electrical vibrations are propagated vacuo and in a great number of insulators with the velocity of
it
XC1V.
light.
This fact suggests the assumption

vibrations.
It
that light
consists
of
is
electrical
was also shown
that,
when the wave
In plane, the electrical and magnetic forces lie in the wave front. the most simple case the electrical force is perpendicular to the magnetic force M. If the permeability //, of the medium is equal
to
1,
which
(a)
is
(XCIV.),
M=NF,
approximately the case for most dielectrics, where is the index of refraction.
we have
We will now develop the usual expressions for the reflected and transmitted light, considering first the boundary conditions. Since no free magnetism is present, and since the electrical current
is everywhere finite, the magnetic force varies continuously during the passage from one medium to another. "\Ve take the
strength
refracting surface as the y^-plane, and the z-axis a$ the normal to it. Hence if a, /3, y are the components of the magnetic force on one side of the refracting surface and a', /?', y those on the other side, we have
(b)
= a',P = (3',y = y,
236
electrical force arises
[CHAP. xn.
partly from induction and partly from Let a- denote the on the refracting surface. density on this surface, X, Y, Z the components of the electrical force immediately above, and X', V, those immediately below this surface. We then have, from LXVL,
The
the free
electricity
4ir<r
= X-KX', Y=Y', Z=Z.
The components of the electrical force which are parallel to the refracting surface vary continuously during the passage from one side of the surface to the other.
Let SO, OB, and OT (Fig. 114) be the directions of the incident, and reflected rays respectively. Suppose the direction of the magnetic force to lie in the plane of incidence, and therefore the
refracted,
electrical force
to
be perpendicular
to
that plane.
The
direction of the
FIG. 114.
FIG. 115.
electrical force
may
be found by the rule given in XCIV.
Since
the magnetic force varies continuously, directions indicated in Fig. 114.

(d)
(e)
we
obtain,
by
referring to the
M M
cos a
sin a
M M
a s
cos a
sin a
= Jl/2
cos
(3,
= M2 sin /3.
we have
Since the electrical force also varies continuously,

(f)
Fl + F3 = F2
(a)
But from equation

is
M^ = Fv
M =F
3
3,
and
M = NF N =
2
2,
if
sin a/ sin ft
the ratio between the velocities in the
first
and second media.
SECT, xcix.]
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY OF LIGHT.

(e)
237
(f)
Hence equations
and
(f) are identical.

.
We
obtain from
and
(d)
/ \ P3 =- F1 sin(a-/3)/sin(a + /?).
2
.
F
J
= Fl
2 cos a
sin /3/sin (a
+ (3)
If the
Now
let
the electrical force be parallel to the
plane of incidence.
electrical forces are positive in the directions indicated in Fig. 115,
the positive directions of the magnetic forces the rule given in XCIV.
may
be obtained by
The boundary conditions

(h)
(i)
are
F
l
cos a
+ F3
l
cos a
s
= F2
2
.
cos
/?,
In this case also

J
M =F
l,
M -M = M M = F M = NF^,
3 3, Z
so that (k)
Fo
= ^1 .cosa.sin/3/sin(a + /3).cos(a-/3) and F3 = -Fr tg(a-p)/tg(a + (3).

Equations
(g)
and
(k) correspond to Fresnel's equations
XCVIII.
(k).
Hence,
is
the electromagnetic theory of light leads to the
same
results as those
electrical force
which are contained in Fresnel's formulas, provided that the
parallel to the direction of the vibrations assumed by Fresnel.
We
from
can further show, by the help of Poynting's theorem (XCVL),
that the energy which in a given time is transported to the refracting surface by the incident ray is equal to that which is carried away
it
in
electrical
and magnetic
the reflected and refracted rays. Since in this case the forces are perpendicular, the energy passing
r
through unit area equals VMF\Tr.
the quantity of energy 1/47T. P l Fl S cos a. in unit time. may write similar expressions for the energies of the reflected and transmitted rays, and have the relation
.
The bounding
surface
receives
We
1 4vr
,
VM^
-
cos a
.
l/4;r
VM.2 F^ .S.cos(B +
.
l/47r
VM F
3
.S.cos
a,
or
(M^ M F
3
S)
cos a
= M.2 F2
cos
/3.
By
.
reference to the relations
between the
electrical
(^2
It
if
and magnetic forces, we obtain _ a = NF* cos /3.
^CQS
appears from equations

is
(g) (k) that this equation is satisfied either perpendicular or parallel to the plane
and
of incidence.
SECTION C.
EQUATIONS OF THE ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY OF

LIGHT.
at first consider only bodies in which there is no absorption of light, and in which the velocity of light is the same in all directions,
If
we
238
EEFRACTION OF LIGHT.
have, from XCIII.
2
.
[CHAP. xii.
we
(e),
the differential equations of the electrical

2
.
force,
t l/o>
WXfdt* = VIST,
1/w
3 2 F/9 2 = V-Y,
l/w2
wzrdP = V
Z,
-dXfdx + ^Yj-dy
+ VZ/Vz = 0.
by remarking that the components of the electrical and magnetic forces parallel to the bounding surface are equal on both sides of it. Therefore, if the z-axis is
conditions are obtained
The boundary
perpendicular to the refracting surface,

<b)
we have
The
last
Y=Y', Z=Z'; /? = /?', y = y'. two conditions (b) may be put in the form = / -dXj-dz -dZfdx VX'fdz
[XCIII.
(e)],
FIG. 116.
Let us suppose that a plane wave moves in a direction which makes angles with the axes whose cosines are I, m, n. Let the electrical force / at the origin be expressed by f=F.cos(2irt/T). The
electrical force at a point
x,
y,
z is then
/= F. cos[27r/r(^ If the direction of the electrical
(Ix + my + n)/o)].
force
makes angles with the axes
we have X=\f, Y=pf, Z=vf. These expressions satisfy the equations (b) that they may also satisfy the last of equations (a) we must have l\ + mp. + nv = 0, that is, the direcwhose cosines are
A.,
p.,
v,
tion of the electrical force is perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
Let OP (Fig. 116) represent the refracting surface, and SO, OB and OT the incident, refracted, and reflected rays respectively. The
SECT, c.]
EQUATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY.

is
239
For
lies
system of coordinates
drawn
in the
same way
as in
XCVIII.
the incident wave, in which the direction of the the plane of incidence, we can set
I
electrical force
in
X=
= - cos a, m = sin a, = cosa, sin a,

ju,
n
v
= = 0.
We
have, for the reflected rays,

/
cos a,
m = sin a,
fji
n=
i/
A=-sina,
and
for the refracted rays,
I
= cos a,
= 0,
A
If
= - cos (3, m = sin /?, n = = sin /?, fi = cos f3, v = 0.

v
the direction of the electrical force is perpendicular to the
plane of incidence
we have A = 0, M = 0,
If
Fv F F
2,
are the electrical forces in the incident, refracted,
and
reflected rays, when they lie in the plane of incidence, and if v z, z are the electrical forces in the same rays when they are perpendicular
Z Z Z
to the plane of incidence,
we have
,
/ \
X=F
.sina.cosTl
Y= F
cos a. cos
Fv Z = Z
.cosF'l
= [27T/T .(t-(-xcosa + ysin F!

if w' is
a)/a>)].
We
obtain for the refracted ray,
the velocity of light in the
second medium,
(d)
= ^2 .sin/3.cosF2 F= F2 cos /3 cos rr = [27r/r.(^-(-a;cos^ +

,
. .
,
T Z=Z.cosT
2,
ysm/3)/o>')].
For the
1
reflected ray
we have
r
^= [2-ir/T
j
=^
.cosr3
(t
(x
cosa + y sin
a)/o>)].
To
(f)
simplify the calculation
we
(
replace the trigonometrical form

a)/o>)
cos(^(g)
final
- z cos a + sin y
by the expression
In the
^(M-scosa+ysineO/a^ where i = \/- 1 and k=%Tr/T' result we use only the real part of (g), namely (f). Both
expressions satisfy the same differential equation, and therefore in calculations one of them may be replaced by the other. If the refraction occurs at a plane surface, we may replace the expressions (c), (d) and (e) by the following
:
X=F
(b)
.$ina.
*,<
240
,
EEFEACTION OF LIGHT.
[CHAP. xn.
X=F
.s\n(3.eki (
-<--* coa l3 +y
(i)
F3
sin a
**{*-(*
( t
Y=F
3 3
.cosa.e ki
*
-<-XC(iS
a+y sin
{X=
sin a/a>
gki(t-(xcosa+ysin
These equations express the components of the the incident, refracted, and reflected rays.
electrical
force
for
In order to satisfy the conditions (b) and (c) it is necessary that = sin /3/w'. Since the velocities of propagation w and w' are
constant,
we can
set
N= sin a/sin
we have
(3,
where
N
1
is
the index of refraction.
From
(1)
equations (b)
(Fl + F3 )cosa = F.2 .cos(3;

(c)
Z + Zs = Zy
.
From
(m)
we
3
obtain
2
(Fl
(1)
-F )siu/3 = F
.sina-
(Zl
Z3 )cosa. sin/? = ^2
sin a. cos
(3.
and (m) we obtain Fresnel's equations [XCVIII. (k)] for The problem is solved when (3 the reflected and refracted waves. is not imaginary. /3 becomes imaginary when sin /?> 1, and therefore when sin a > N. In this case we must use the complete expressions
From
(i)
and
If the
(k).
electrical force
is
perpendicular
to
the
plane of incidence, the
reflected
(n)
wave
-
is
determined by the real part of the expression

.
Sin(a
/3)/sin(a
+ /?)
e i-i(<-(xcosa+ysina)/
W)
>
We
(k).
get this expression
by the use of the last of equations XCVIII.

12
But
since cos(3
(o)
= Jl - siri2 a/N'\ and therefore Ni cos /3 = Jsirfa-N

.
we have
If
sin (a
- (3) /sin (a+(3) = (cos a + i*Jsin?a set
N )/(cos a - K/sin-a 2
.
,/V
2
).
we now
obtain
(p)
cos a
=C
cos Jy,
J sin 2 a - N'2 = C
sin |y,
we
(q)
(r)
tg | y
= N/ sin'2 a -
N /cos
2
a,
C?=l-N
2
;
-sin(a-/3)/sin(a + ) = ^.
real part of the expression (n) is
Hence the
(s)
Z^ cos [k(t -(xcosa + y sin a)/w)

.
+ y].
In this case the
reflection is total,
since the
component
appears
in the expression for the incident as well as in that for the reflected
SECT, c.]
EQUATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY.
241
wave. But while, in the case of ordinary reflection, no difference of phase arises between the two waves, we have in this case a difference of phase 7, which may be determined from (q).
If
the electrical forces
incidence,
(t)
we determine
-
far the incident wave are parallel the real part of the expression
to the
plane of
tg(a
(o),
/3)/tg(a
+ /2)
ett(-Cscosa+3/sina)/w).
Using equation
tg(a
If
(u)
we have
.
/2)/tg(a
set
+ /3) = (TV 2
2
cosa
we
JV~
.cosa
2
so
that
we
= Vsin' a (v) tg 8 obtain (x) tg(a- /3)/tg(a

(t)
is
N /N
2
cos
.
a,
+ p) = e iS
Hence the
real
part of the
expression
8
cos[k(t- (zcosa + ysina)/w) + S]. The reflection is therefore total. To determine the difference of phase between the reflected and incident waves, we may use equation (v).
(y)
1
-F
We
is
obtain from (q) and (v)
the limiting angle of

(z)
total reflection
= sin 2 a - 2/ sin a tg a. If a tg |(8 y ) = sin <x or critical angle, we have
and hence
Since 8
tg|(8- y) = N/sin(a + a ). sin(a-a )/smatga. and y are not equal, a linearly polarized ray of
light, in
which the vibrations make any angle with the plane of incidence,
is
elliptically polarized after reflection.
If

is
is
perpendicular
to
the plane
of incidence, the
transmitted light
(a)
determined by the real part of the expression
Z.
2cosa
(p),
Referring to
we have
/?/
2 cos a sin
sin (a
+ /?) = 2 cos a/ C
(ix-Jsinâ -N
2
and
- x cos /? + y sin = fB)/<o'

real part of (a) is
.
+ y sin a)/o>.
o/u)
.
Hence the
(/3)
2 cos a/(7
e tov/sini!a
-^/w
cos [k(t
- y sin
.
+ ly].
t
Since
C =
2
- JV
2
,
we
obtain 4 cos 2 a/(l
the intensity of
the transmitted light,
- JV2 ) Z* (**#/***>- W\ for where X denotes the wave length.
The expression shows that, in this case also, a motion exists which corresponds to the refracted ray in the case of ordinary reflection; it is, however, appreciable only within a very small distance from
the refracting surface. Similar results are obtained in the investigation of the refracted ray if the
electrical force
of the incident light
is
parallel to the plane of
242
[CHAP. xn.
Remark: In order to obtain the real part of an expression of the form (n) we may use the following method. The expression (n) is
thrown into the form
(A + Si) 0* = (A + Bi)(cosV + i sin ). Now if we set part of this is R--=A cos^- B. sin^. A = C.cosy, B = C.siuy, we have (y) li= C. cos fF + y), where and y are determined by
.
The
real
|tgy=
The expression
(n)
.
then takes the form
Z^
If
(cos a
+ iv/sin 2 a - JV2 )/(cos a - ijsin'2 a - N'2
).
In the case considered, therefore,
A+Bi = Z
+ i and
i
(cos a
+ i\/sin 2 a _ JV 2 )/(cos a - z'v/sin-a - N'2

N'2 )/(cos a + iv/sin 2 a-
).
are interchanged, AVC obtain
A
By
From
- Bi =
^(cosa
- iv/sin-a
multiplication of the two expressions (8) it further follows that
we obtain
2
C~
tg y
= 2 cos o\/sin 2 a
N /(co&
2
a - sin 2 a
(q).
+ N'2 )
This equation
may
be also obtained from
SECTION CI.
REFRACTION IN A PLATE.
We will consider the case of a plane wave of light falling on a plane parallel glass plate, whose thickness is a and whose index of refraction is N. We can determine the intensities of the reflected
and transmitted
choose one surface light in the following way. of the plate as the y^-plane, and draw the positive a-axis outward from this surface. Let a represent the angle of incidence, /5 the angle of refraction, w and a/ the velocities of the light inside and outside
We
the plate. part of the refracted ray is reflected toward the surface at a point of the surface B. This part is again divided at the
surface A, a part of it passing through that surface in the direction FG, while the other part is again reflected toward B. The light
is
bounded on both
thus reflected within the plate repeatedly. Since the plate is sides by the same medium, the angle of exit is Now plane waves which move equal to the angle of incidence a.
in the same direction
may
be compounded into a single plane wave.
SECT. CI.]
REFRACTION IN A PLATE.
we have
243
Besides the incident wave
to consider four others, namely,
the wave reflected from A, the wave passing through B, and two waves in the plate itself.
I.
We
will first consider the case in which the electrical force of

is
the,
The component perpendicular to the plane of incidence. is expressed as in the former paraof the electrical force outside
incident
wave
graph by
FIG. 117.
force in the plate,
Similar expressions hold for the component Z' of the electrical which are obtained by replacing a by /?, u> by to',
and introducing the new constants Z^ and Z.

Z'
Thus we obtain
= Z2
gW(-(-*M|8+y8iij8)/w')
+ Z^
gKft-fccos/S+if sinjSyW).
We
have
for the
component Z" of the transmitted ray

Z" = Z3
.
l l(l
'
- - x cos -+y sin a >/ w ( ).
The boundary
Similarly Z'
condition Z=Z' when = Z" when x= -a, or

2
= Q,
w/
gives (a)
Z + Z3 = Z + Z4
l
Z
Now
if
.e~ kia
.
cos
jS/w
+Z
e kia cos
.
we
set ka
cos /5/w'
?/,
ka cos a/w
.
condition in the form (b)
We
have, further,
'
when x = 0,
.
= Z6 .e~ kia cos a w = v, we can write the last + Z eui = Z5 e~ ?>Z'/'dx = 'dZ/'dx, and similarly, when
/3/
/
.
vi
These equations of condition give (c) (Zl Z3 ) cos a sin /? = (Z2 - Z4 ) sin a cos /3 and (d) (Z2 e~ ui - Z eui ) sin a cos ft = Z5 e'". cos a sin /?. It follows from (b) and (d) that
'dZ'/'dx
. .
.
x = -a,
= 'dZ" fdx.
ZJZ.2 = e-
2i
".
sin (a
/3)/sin(a
+ /5),
244
EEFEACTION OF LIGHT.
+ /3) =
2 4
,
[CHAP. xn.
or if sin(a-/3)/sin(a
ZJZ^ = t
2
e~*
ui
.
From
(a)
and
(c)
we
have also
(e)
Z /Z = (- eZ + Z )/(Z - fZj, Z /Z, = - (* - O/(V

3
l
and therefore
*
ui
Oset
].
If
is
greater than
1,
.
is
always
/[(!
real,
and we may
(1
ZJZi = 2w
sin
)cos M +
e )f
sin
,
Designating the intensity of the reflected light by by the method indicated at the end of C.,
C 2 we
obtain,
C* = Zl *. 4e 2 sin 2
.
/[(l
2 2 )
+ 4e 2
sin 2 tt].
/3
.
But because k =
/
= -2ino/\ and 2-!r/T

.
u=
2-nr
N.
.
cos
a/A, it follows that

2 2
)
(C Z = Z*.
f)
4e 2 sin 2 (27rJV. C os
2
. .
/3
a/A)/[(l
.
+4
is
sin 2 (27rAr cos

if
is
a/A)].
.
Hence no light whole number.
reflected
2-n-N cos
.
/3
a/A =pr,
where p
is
This result
of special importance in the study
of Newton's rings. On the other hand,
if
N<1
(3
and at the same time
sma>N,
(f).
[3
will
be imaginary. then have [C.
In this case
(o)]
we can no
longer use equation

,
We
Ni
cos
ui
= >/sin 2 a - N'2 and

.
hence
= 2ira/X.
{
*Jsiri
a-N
2
.
If
we
set
m = ui
and e= -e+ 7
[C. (r)], equation (e) takes the
form
Z3 /Z, - (e-- e-)/(e>"-v -
-*+*);
light,
2 Designating by C the intensity of the reflected the same wajr as before,
we
obtain in
(g)
C 2 = Z*.
1/[1
+4
sin 2 y/(e
m2 e-) ],
.
where tg |y = >/sin 2a - 7V2/cos a and m = 27ra/A. Vsin 2 a - JV 2 The relations which we have here considered occur in the case of two transparent bodies which are separated by a layer of air. If
.
the thickness of the layer of air is very much greater than the wave length of the light, total reflection will occur. This is in accord
with equation (g), which in this case gives C 2 = Zl 2 On the other hand, if a is small in comparison with the wave length, all the light In consequence of this a black spot passes through the layer of air.
.
is
seen if the hypotenuse of a right-angled glass prism is placed on the surface of a convex lens of long focus. If the angle of incidence a in the glass prism is less than the critical angle, a dark spot appears surrounded by coloured rings ; but if the angle of incidence is greater
than the
critical angle,
the rings disappear while the spot remains.
SECT, ci.]
KEFRACTION IN A PLATE.
245
The spot is larger for red than for blue light. This result is contained also in the expression for the intensity of the reflected light. The transmitted light is complementary to the reflected light.
II.
to
If
the direction of the electrical force of the incident light is parallel
the
plane of incidence, the disturbance outside the surface
is
determined by
X=F
-
Sin a
e i-i(-(-*>sa+y 8 ina)/ W )
F Y= F
The disturbance
s
l
Sin a
gK(t-(*coea+y
e ki (t (
sinetf/w),
COS a
- * cos
a+y sin o)/w)

sln
4 7^ 3
~ cos a eki ( l
.
(x cos
a +y
a )M.
inside the plate
is
given by
sin 3)/W) /
X'
= FZ
-
Sin
Sin
ft
(-(-* cos p+y sin 0)/w)

6('-(* cos/3+y
**(
)
F4
1*2
ft
F=
COS
-<-* cs/3+y
sin/3)/u>')
)/&>')
.
+ /^
and outside the surface
COS
.5
/3
(*-(*
cosp+y
sin
by
.
X" = FK
Y" = F-
Sin a
gti{-(-arcoso+y sinoyw^
COS a
^('-(-^cosa+J/sinaVw).
We
x=
(h)
must now determine the constants

the boundary conditions give
F= F,
^
or
cos
J^,
jF4 ,
Fb
When
(^ + .F3 )
when z= -a,
.
cos a
= (F2 + F4 )
.
/8.
Similarly,
,F2
cos
ft
e~ kia co80/w
+ ^4
e~ ui
cos
ft
e kia
pl"'
= F5 .cosa.
.
e~ kia
cos a / w .
Using the same notation as before, we have

(i)
F We
cos
ft
+F
cos
ft
e ui
= f5
cos a
e-"'.
have, further,
when # = 0,
sin a.
or (k)
(^ - F3 ) sin ft = (F2 - Fj The same condition holds when x = - a, or

(1)
We
But
- .P4 sin a f^ sin a e-" obtain from equations (i) and (1)
1
. . .
e'"
=^
sin
ui
ft
.
r.
FJF2 = e~we
if
we
set
It follows
= ( - e' + e' e- a ")/(l - '2. e - 2 '), (h) and (k) that ^/^ Mi ui We thus obtain the or (m) ^3^= -(e -e- )/( 1 /'"* -e'.e~ )Z> 2 of the reflected light in the same way as we obtained intensity
from
.
tg(a-/3)/tg(a
!(i
+ /3) =
e',
tg(o-j8)/tg(a + )8). will have FJF2 = ^.e~
the expression
(f)
from
1
'
(e),
..
2 2
)
e'
+ 4e
a
.
sin a (2^V cos /3a/ A)'
246
If sin a
[CHAP. xn.
>N
and
if (3
is
therefore imaginary,
we
obtain the in:
tensity
of the
reflected
= tg(a- /?)/tg(a + f3) =

JV 2 If
.
light in the following e 8i , if, as in C. (u), we set

.
way
We
have
cos a
= Z)
cos JS,
it
2 >/sin a
-N'2 = D.
sin |3.
we
further set
ui = m,
follows that
The
(o)
intensity
of the reflected light

Z> 2
is
= FS
l/(
+ 4 sin 2 8/(
then w - e~ m
f-),
in
which expression
tg
|<5
= x/sin 2u - N'2 /N 2 cos a, m = '2-n-a/X

(o) for
The expressions (n) and when the direction of the
the intensity of the reflected light electrical force is parallel to the plane of
incidence, lead to essentially the same results as equations (f) and (g), which hold when the direction of the electrical force is perpen-
only remark that, from plane of incidence. In this case the if e' = or (a + /2) = |TT. angle of incidence is equal to the angle of polarization.
dicular to
the
We
equation
(n),
D- vanishes
SECTION CII.
DOUBLE REFRACTION.
to this point we have assumed that the value of the dielectric constant is independent of the direction of the electrical force.
Up
Boltzmann, however, has shown that the dielectric constant of crystals has different values in different directions, and depends on the
direction of the electrical force.
of the dielectric constant in

are
those of the
(a),
Let JT3 represent the value v 2 three perpendicular directions which coordinates a;, y, z. Then in place of equations
,
K K
XCIII.
(a)
we
l
use
v
u=
K /4v.'dXI'dt,
(d)
= K2/4ir .'dY/dt, w = K3 /4ir

(c)
'dZ/'di.
Equations XCIII.
and
become
A'2/ V.
KJ V. 'dX/ot = 3y/3y - 3/2/3,2,
3 Yfdt = 3a/3^ 3a/3y,
K
and
if
3/
V.
'dZj'dt
= 3/3* -
we
set the
magnetic permeability
/*
1,
we have
-\\V. 3/?/3* 3JST/32 -\\V. 3y/3* = 3F/3.C -
- *dZfdy - 'dY/'dz, I/ V. 3a/3* =
SECT, cn.]
DOUBLE REFRACTION.
if
247
Further,
we
set
we
(b)
obtain
f I/a
2
. -
1/42. 327/9*2
We
will consider
equations apply.
Its direction
a plane wave moving through a body to which these of propagation is determined by the
angle whose cosines are I, m, n; the direction of the electrical force is determined then by the angle whose cosines are A, /*, v.
We
have
(c)
X=\f, Y=rf, Z=vf, f=F.cos[2ir/T.(t-(lx + my + nz)/u>)'].

is
constant, and the velocity of propagation w depends only on the direction in which the wave is propagated. It follows from (c) that V 2A"= - 47T 2 A//T 2 <o2 and if cos 8 = /A + m/* + nv, we obtain
,
(d)
/= L>7r/ro) F
.
cos 8
first
We
2
obtain from the
This equation and the two

(e)
(Ix + my + )/)]. of equations (b), (d') A - I. cos 8 similar to it take the forms
sin
[2ir/r (t
w 2 A/a 2 .
.
(a
<o
)A
= a2/
cos
2
8,
(b
or)/*
= b2 m
cos
2 8,
(c
)v
= c2 n
cos
8.
We
use
these
a,
equations
b,
//,
to
obtain
magnitudes
c.
If
w = a we
physical have either 1 =

1
the
meaning of the
or cos 8 =
also
1
0.
In
the latter case
=v=
and
A=
and therefore
= 0.
Hence
a plane wave parallel to the x-axis is propagated with the velocity a when the electrical force is parallel to the same axis. The meaning of the magnitudes
optical
b
and
is
obtained in a similar way.
By
the
of elasticity we mean the three directions in a body which have the property that a plane wave, in which the electrical force or the direction of vibration is parallel to one of the axes,
axes
for
example
a,
is
propagated with the velocity a in
all
directions
perpendicular to the axis a. We can find the velocity of propagation and the direction of the force from equations (e) and (d), in connection with the relation
A 2 + p. 2 + v 2 = 1. If equations (e) are multiplied by /, m, n, and added, it follows from (d) that a2Z2/(a2 - w2 ) + 6 2 m 2/(Z> 2 - w 2 ) + c% 2 /(c 2 - w2 ) = 1. For brevity we will write because a 2 = a 2 - w 2 + w 2 we
,
respectively,
for this equation also have
2a 2
2
)
/(a
- w2 = )
But
- w2 )
= 2/ 2 + 2a>2 / 2/(a 2 -
a>
1.
248
Since 2Z 2
(f )
= 1,
it
I 2
[CHAP. xn.
follows that
2
/(a
(o
2 )
+ m2 /(i2 - o>2 + %2 /(c 2 - or) = 0.

)
Since two of its roots of the fourth degree in w. are numerically equal to the other two but of opposite sign, the electrical wave has two velocities of propagation, u^ and 0)3.
This equation
is
We may
2
give equation
2
(f)
)
the form
(g) <*-(l (b
+ c 2 ) + m2 (a2 + c2 + n 2 (a2 + b 2 ))u 2 + I 2 b 2 c 2 +

is,
mW + n
2
a 2b 2
= 0.
If
= 0,
that
if
the plane
wave
is
parallel to the z-axis,
we have
The
roots of this equation are w 1 = a, o>2 = *Jm c + n b This result can be represented by drawing lines in the yz-plane from the point (Fig. 118), which are
2 2 2
.
proportional to the velocities of propagation. The ends of these lines then lie
on two curves, one of which is given by w 1 = a, and is a circle; the other is given If a > b > c, the by w 2 and is an oval.
,
minor semi-axis
o>
c
FIG. 118.
"
c of the curve given by the y-axis, and its major semiThe relations of the axis b in the -axis.
2
lies in
and
119 and 120.
(Fig. 119).
plane waves which are parallel to the y-axes respectively, are given in Figs.
in
The
relation
the axz-plane
is
<a
l
especially peculiar
In that case,
we
have, for
m = 0,
= b,
o>
= v /-c- + 7i 2a2
7
tax.
FIG. 119.
and
+ n?=l.
and
The
o>
direction
is
of
propagation in which
the two
velocities Wj
are equal
given by
;
/=
2 2 2 2 J(a -b )/(a -c )
=--
J(b
c'
)/(a
- c2
).
SECT,
cm.]
VELOCITIES OF PROPAGATION.
249
SECTION CIII.
If Wj
DISCUSSION OF THE VELOCITIES or PROPAGATION.
the two velocities of propagation of the 2 represent same plane wave, we have [CIL (g)]
and
o>
(a)
{
2 2 w 2 = We2 + m2a?c2 + n2a2 b2 2 = (I 2 (b 2 + c 2 ) + m 2 (a 2 + c2 + n 2 (a2 + b 2)) 2
Wl
and
2
(
Wl
o>
2 2 2 )
If
4(/W + m2a2c2 + n-a2 b 2
).
we multiply the last term on the 2 2 2 I + m + ri = 1 we obtain

1 '
right side of this equation
by
c )
2
- c2 ) 2 + m4 (c2 - a2 ) 2 + 7i4 (a 2 - b 2 ) 2 + 2m 2 n 2 (a 2 c 2 )(b 2
b 2 )(a 2
- a2 ) +
2l 2
m2 (c2 - a2 )(c 2 - b
2
).
If a
>
-
b
o>
>
c,
it
follows that
(M^
or
2 2 2 )
= l*(b 2
-
2 2
)
2l 2 n 2 (b 2
+ m*(a 2 - c2 ) 2 + n\a 2 - b 2 2 + 2m2n 2 (a 2 - c2 )(a2 - b 2 + 2l 2m2 (a2 - c2 )(b 2 - c 2 ),

) )
b 2 )(a2
c2 )
2
(
Wl
o>
2 2 2 )
= (I2 (b 2 - c2 ) + m2 (a 2 - c 2 ) + n2 (a2 - b2 )) 2
(b) ^
-^v-^xs
velocities
-^
),
Hence the two

2
of the wave normals.
and w 2 are equal for certain directions This equality exists when m = and either
2 2 2 2 - s= 6 0. Ijb - c + nja?^b' = 0, or ijb2 These conditions are satisfied by m = Q and Z/= J(a'2 -b-)/(b 2 - c 2 ). These equations represent four directions, which are parallel to the If we rc^-plane and perpendicular to the axis of mean elasticity b.
^ W
represent the cosines of the angles made by these directions with w the coordinate axes by 1 we have
,
(c)
m = 0,
call
=j(a
-b 2 )/(a 2 -c2 ), n =
J(b
- c2
)/(a
-I2).
the directions in the crystal, defined by equations (c), the There are two such axes, since each of these equations optic axes.
represents two opposite directions. If Oa and Oc (Fig. 121) represent the axes of greatest and least elasticity a and c, and if OA l is one of the directions in which w x
We
and w 2 are
OB
equal, they are equal not only in the opposite direction but also in the directions OA 2 and OB2 if OA 2 makes the same
,
angle with Oa as that
made by
OA r
250
We will now express the velocity of propagation in any direction in terms of the angles made by this direction with the optic axes OA l and OA 2 The cosines of the angles which the direction of propagation
.
of the plane wave makes with the axes are

f
(c')
Z,
m,
?<.
We
then have
c 2 ),
cos
E =
l
V(a
2
6*)/(tt
- c2 + n V(& 2 - c2 )/(a 2 )
.
From
this it follows that
1 2
(21 = (cos E l + cos Ez ) = E - cos E )

(cos
l
2
.
>/(a
.
c 2 )/(a
2
2
- c 2 ).
and
J(tf^
FIG. 121.
If
we
eliminate
from equation
(a)
P + m2 + n'2 =l,w6
which we
(e)
obtain o^ 2 + o> 2 2 = 2 + c- obtain by use of equation (d),

<a*
by the help of the equation 2 2 - c2 ), from (a b-) + n-(bl'
From
2
equations
c2 ) c
2
)
.
(c')
2
+ o>22 = a 2 + c2 - (a 2 - c2 ) we obtain
c2
2
cos
cos
(a
sin 2
sin
2
^=a
2
- Z 2 (a 2 2 2
2
ft
- w2
(6
- c2 ) .
= a - c - / (a - 6 ) c 2 ) + 2/n 2 2 = 2 1 we also have Further, since Z + m + ri 2 2 2 2 2 - 2 Z c ) + m 2 (a 2 - c 2 ) + n 2 2 - i 2 ) = a - c - ^(a (6

(a
2 2
2
.
- n 2 (&2 -
2
ft
(rt
rc
(6
- c 2 ).
By
(f )
help of these relations
we
obtain from the

.
first
of equations (b)
w/
- w 2= 2
(a-
- c2 )
sin
sin
2,
and from
.
(e)
and
(f ),
= a2 + c 2 - (a 2 - c 2 ) cos(^1 - E2 ), / \ 2o>22 = a 2 + c2 - (a 2 - c 2 cos (E^ + E.2

2 Wl 2
)
.
).
The
greatest value of the velocity of propagation is a and the least c. = 2 and l + 2 = 7r. If the normal to This follows if we set l
the waves
is
l
parallel with
we have
E =
one of the optical axes, for example OA lt and cos \E.2 = / and hence Wl = o> 2 = b. The velocity
,
of propagation
is
then equal to the axis of mean
elasticity.
SECT, civ.]
THE WAVE SURFACE.

SECTION CIV.
251
THE WAVE SURFACE.
Suppose a plane wave to start from the origin of the system of coordinates, in the direction in which its normal makes angles with the axes whose cosines are I, m, n. After the lapse of a unit of time,
the distance of the wave from the origin is co. If about each of the points of the plane wave we construct a wave surface as it would appear after the lapse of unit time, the plane wave thus propagated If x, y, z are the coordinates is the envelope of all the wave surfaces.
of a point of the plane wave in

(a)
Ix
co
its
new
(o,
position,
we have
+ my + nz =
and
(b)
is
determined by
Z
/(a
co
2
)
AVe have, further,

planes
(a)
(c)
+ m 2/(b 2 - co2 ) + n 2 (c 2 - co 2 ) = 0. + m 2 + n2 =l. If m, n, and

I,
co
vary, the
envelope a surface, which is called the wave surface. Hence if we consider all possible plane waves passed through a point, and if we determine the position of the same waves after unit time, the wave surface
is
the envelope of all the
investigate
(a),
(c),
the
(b),
We will now plane waves thus determined. AVe obtain from equation of this wave surface.
x dl + y
.
and
(d)
(e) (f )
I
I 2
.
dm + z dn = rfto, dl + m dm + n dn = 0,
. .
.
dl/(a
co
2
)
+m
z
dm/(b
co
co
2
)
+w
2
2
.
dn/(c
2 2
)
to
2
)
+ Fu
co 2
da>
= 0,
where
If
(g)
F= Pj(a
e?co
2 2
)
+m
/(&
to
+ 7i
/(c
2
)
.
we
eliminate
by means of
(d)
2
from equation
(f),
we have
[Ftax
+ //(a
- a> 2
2 - ta 2 - u2 = 0. )]dm + [Fva + n/(c )]d/ + [F<ay + m/(b )]dn
add, to the left side of this equation, equation (e) multiplied by a factor A. Since dl, dm, dn may be considered as arbitrary quantities,
We
we have
00
If these equations are multiplied in order by we obtain, by reference to (a) and (b),
r
/,
added,
A=
m, n respectively and - Fur. Therefore
a2 _ W2j
= Fu(lu - x),
2
n/(c
to
2
)
2 - to 2 = m/(b' Fn>(mo) y), = Fwtyw - z).

)
If
(g),
we square both sides of these equations, add them, and use we have 1 = /V(co 2 - 2co(c + my + nz) + r 2), in which r- =
:
equation
252
Further,
by reference
a1 o>
[CHAP. xn.
to (a)
we
obtain (k) F<^(r2

(i)
- w2 ) = l.
F may
now be
eliminated from equations

2
)
= Z<o(a 2 - r2
),
y(V-
by means of k, and we have - to 2 ) = mo>(Z> 2 - r2 ),
the
These equations enable us to determine the point of contact between wave surface and the plane wave, and therefore the direction of
of the ray.
Z,
propagation
The plane wave moves

(1)
in
the direction
m, n. If we multiply both sides of equations and add, we have

z2 (a 2 - w 2 )/(a2 - r2 )
determined by
by
x,
y, z
respectively,
+ y z (b* - o>2 )/(6 2 - r2 ) + z 2 (c 2 - w 2 )/(c 2 - r2 ) = o>2 + my + nz = w. This equation may be written in abbreviated form 2z2 (a2 - w 2 )/(a2 - r 2 ) = w2 or in the form Sr2 (a2 - a> 2 )/(a 2 - r2 ) = 2* 2 (a 2 - r2 + r2 - a> 2 )/(a 2 - r2 )
,
since
by
(a)
Ix
the
But
since in this notation

2
2z2 = x2 + y2 + z2 = r 2 we have
,
finally
(r
2 2 2 - w2 = )(l+2z /(a -r ))
0.
?%e equation of
the
wave surface
is
therefore
- r-) + 1-0.
But because
2
Sa^/r
and
2(x /(a
r2 )
+ z 2/r2 ) = 2a 2
wave
.c
/(a
r2 )
we may
(m)
also write the equation of the
surface in the form
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 aV/(a - r ) + &y/(6 - r ) + c% /(c - r ) = 0.
We
(n)
can easily transform this equation into
(aV + jy + c 2*
)r
-(6
+ c>V- (a 2 + c 2 )&V-(a 2 + 6 2 )c 25 2 +
therefoi'e
i 2c 2
= 0.
In
7%g equation of the wave surface is order to investigate this equation

substitution
it
of the fourth degree.
we
set
x=fr, y = gr, z = hr.
By
of these values in
the
equation of the wave surface,
becomes
2,-
(a /
+ bY + c% 2 ) get
2
[(fr
+ c> 2/2 + (a 2 + c2 )6 2^ 2 + (a 2 + 5 2 )c 2A 2 ] =
R,
From which we
B* =
[(a
- c2
c
2
x [(a 2
2 )&V + (afJW^c* + 2 )6V + (a/v/^^c -
Hence a
straight
line
drawn from the
origin of coordinates
cuts
the surface in two points, which coincide

(o)
.9
when
R=Q
or
when
and f/h =
c/a.
2 2 2 J(a'-b' )/(b' -c ).
SECT. CIV.]
THE WAVE SURFACE.
253
In this case
2 f=e/b. V( 2 - &2 )/(tt 2 -~c~2 ), h = ajb *J(b 2 - c2 )/(a 2 - c ). There are therefore four such points in the wave surface, all of Hence the wave surface is a surface of which lie in the o^-plane. the fourth degree with two nappes. The four points which the two nappes have in common are called umbilical points. To exhibit the form of this surface we will determine the curves formed by the intersection of the wave surface, and the coordinate
.
planes y
yz, xz,
yx.
If,
for this purpose,
we
2 2
Z>
set in equation (n) z
= 0,
= 0,
successively,
we
obtain
= 0, ^ Q, 2) W) = 0,
c c
2
)
Hence the curves formed by the

with the coordinate axes are
figures
intersection of the
wave
surface
circles
and
ellipses,
as represented in
122,
123,
and
124.
The curves
in
the
o^-plane
are
of
b
FIG. 122.
c b
FIG. 124.
FIG. 123.
radius
The equation zz + x2 = b 2 represents a circle of The equation c2 2 + a?x2 - a?c 2 = represents an ellipse whose semi-axes are a and c. On the assumption that a>b>c, the
special
interest.
b.
circle
and the
ellipse intersect at a point P,
and
this point is
one
of the umbilical points.
Equations
(1)
and
(h) serve to determine the coordinates of the
point of contact between the wave surface and a plane moves in a direction determined by I, m, n.
wave which
The
equals
case in which the wave
is
the optic axes is of special interest.

b,
propagated in the direction of one of In this case [CIIL], the velocity

is
and the direction of propagation
given by the equations
since
we
here consider only that optic axis which

z-
lies
(1)
between the
then become
positive directions of the

2
and
a:-axes.
),
Equations
c~)
z(a
b 2)
= lb(a 2 - r2
z(b*
= nb(r 2 - c 2 ).
254
If
we introduce in these equations the we have 2 - 2 6 )(a2 - c2 ) = b(a2 - r2 ), W(& 2 xj(a
in
[CHAP. xn.
/
values for
and n given
above,
(p)
c'
)(a*
c-)
= b(r* - c2
).
These equations represent two spheres,

lie
whose lines of intersection the points of contact of the wave plane and the wave surface,
the
therefore in this case
plane of the wave touches the wave surface in

this
(c),
circle.
We
(q)
may
also obtain
result
use of equations GUI.
we
in the following way. give (p) the form
By
the
x = b(a*-x2 -f-z*)/l (a 2 -c>-), z = b(x* + y 2 + z'2 -c2 )/n (a 2 -c 2 ). The curve represented by these two equations is a plane curve
because
(r) xl
+ zn = b.
new system
of coordinates with the
We
now
introduce a
same
origin ; suppose the ?/-axis to coincide with the y-axis, while the To effect this, we set axis coincides with the optic axis.
(s)
z
(r),
ra
+ $o>
y=
>?,
z=
-S/o +
fV
(t)
to
The equation
that
is,
which represents a plane, then becomes

is
=b,
the
first
the
plane of the curve of intersection
perpendicular
direction
of the optic axis and passes through its end point. of equations (q), by the use of (s) and (t), takes the form
The
(u)
f + ^Vo(rt
-<;2 )/Z' + '? 2 =
= 0, represents a circle, which passes through the point = 0, and =&, or through the end point of the optic axis. The *7 radius r of the circle is r = >J(b 2 - c 2 )(a 2 - b'2 )j 2b, and the coordinates
This
of
in
its
centre are =?', t] = 0, = b. Thus the circle is determined which the plane perpendicular to one of the optic axes at its
surface.
end point touches the wave
SECTION CV.
Let
THE WAVE SURFACE
(continued).
(Fig. 125) be the normal to a plane wave; the direction of the normal is determined by the cosines /, m, n. Let OPl and OP2 be the two velocities of propagation of the wave considered.
ON
Let Ql and Q2 represent the points of contact between the plane wave and the wave surface. We then have OQl = r l and 0$ = ?V
We
represent the coordinates of the points

, ,
and x2 y2
z 2 respectively.
fall
If
Q and Q2 by x v y v z^ Ql Pi =p and Q.f^p^ are the perl l
pendiculars let
propagation,
from the points of contact on the directions of
we have
SECT. CV.]
THE WAVE SURFACE.

direction of the normal
255
and the points
The connection between the

of contact
is
given by equations (1) CIV. We will investigate more The projection particularly the directions of the lines p 1 and p 2 If we of PQ on the a-axis is ul-x.
.
p makes
will
A'
represent the cosines of the angles which with the axes by A.', /*', v', we
have
= (wZ - x)/p, p! = (<am - y)/p, v' = (wn-z)/p.
x, y, z,
Introducing in this equation the values of given in CIV. (1), we obtain

(a)
A'
= lo>p/(a? - w 2 ), fjf = mupf(b 2 2 - w2 v' = ). n<apj(c

,
to
2
),
and
In order to find the angle between P2 Q.2 we determine its cosine
PQ
l
=
A
FIG. 125.
But because [CIL
(f)]
2
2/ 2/(a
wj
)
.
we
also
have
(w x
-w 2 2 )
co
3
2/ 2 /(a 2
to
and 2/ 2 /(a 2 z -m
^)(a
o> u>
2 2 ) 2 2 )
= 0, = 0.
Hence,
if
the values of
and
are different,
we have cos(Pl Ql P2 Q2 )
and P2 Q2 a right angle. equal to zero, and the angle between But if w 1 equals o> 2 the points Pl and P2 coincide, as we saw in CIV. In this case, there is an infinite number of points of contact which lie on a circle passing through the wave normals.
,
P^
P Tl and P2 r2 are drawn from Pl and P 2 perpendicular OQ l and OQ 2 respectively, and if we set Pl T1 = q l and P2 7 2 = j2 we have q:p = a)-.r, and therefore q=p(ojr. Further, OTâPjr. If
If the lines
1
to
A,
/j.,
v are the cosines of the angles

.
which q makes with the coordinate
axes,
(b)
we have A = (coZ - OT x/r )/q, etc., and hence [CIV. (1)], 2 2 = 2 = co co Ia 2pjr, p.(b 2 mb 2p/r, v(c2 - co 2 ) = nc 2pjr. A(a ) )
we compare
Y,
Z,
this result
If
with the expressions in CIL

electrical force F,
is
determine the direction of the

are X,
(e), which whose components
we
see
that the electrical force
parallel to
q.
If
introduce in the equation CIL (d) the values for A, /*, v given Since above, and notice that Ix + my + nz = to, we have cos 8 p/r. there are two directions of q, namely q l and q 2 there are two direc,
we
tions, q l
and
q2
of the force in any plane wave.
These
lie
in
two
256
EE FRACTION OF LIGHT.
[CHAP. xn.
There are two values for 8, planes perpendicular to the plane wave. namely, ÔQ 1 P 1 and L.OQ.,PZ ; these angles are equal to Ll^P-fl and
t-T^PÔ respectively.
The
electrical forces
X, Y,
cause an electrical polarization, whose
variation
may be
looked on as an electrical current.
The components
of current [OIL (a) and (c)] are
= KJtir VXî = Kj_ A/47T 9 Upt,

.
etc.
If
A.
/x
the direction
are the cosines of the angles of the current, we have A
made by
:
the axes with

2
:
/*
= A/a2
- w2 ).
2
:
/z/5
v/c
But we
obtain,
by the help of OIL 2 w2 p v =

Q
:
(e),
//(a
m/(b*
a>
2 )
:
n/(c
directions, corresponding to the two values equation (a) the same ratio holds between the cosines of the angles which p makes with the axes as between the cosines determining the directions of the current. Hence the two directions
Hence the current has two

w.
of
From
of the current are parallel to p { and p.2 respectively. In order to determine the direction of the electrical force and the
current,
in the following way. If a plane wave moves determined by the normal ON, we construct two planes which touch the wave surface and are parallel to the plane wave. These planes are those constructed at Q l and Q2 We then
.
we proceed
in the direction
draw Q l Pl and Q2 P2 perpendicular to the wave normal. The electrical currents, which are in the wave planes, are parallel to $iA and Q2 P2 The corresponding velocities of propagation are OP l and OP2 There are two directions of current in every plane wave, which are perpenThe electrical forces, which are connected with dicular to each other.
. .
these directions of current, are parallel to P^T^ and
P2 T2
SECTION CVI.
THE DIRECTION OF THE RAYS.

propagated in an isotropic medium, the wave coincides with the direction of
When
a plane wave
is
direction of the normal to the
the ray. In doubly refracting media, the direction of the ray is in will general different from the direction of the wave-normals. now determine the direction of the ray. Let (Fig. 126) be the
We
MN
surface of a doubly refracting
body on which the cylinder of rays
perpendicularly. By Huygen's principle, the separate points in the bounding surface OP may be considered as centres of luminous disturbance. The luminous disturbance is propagated
falls
KOPL
257
through the body in such a way that, after unit time, it reaches the wave surfaces which are constructed about the separate points of the bounding surface OP. Therefore, if the wave surfaces RA, SO,
etc.,
a plane
are constructed about 0, P, and the intervening points, we obtain ES which touches every wave surface and is congruent to
and similarly situated with OP. The direction OR or PS is then the direction of the rays. If from the point we let fall a perpendicular OB on the plane US tangent to the wave surface RA, OB = u is the
If /, m, n represent the direction velocity of propagation of the wave. cosines of the normal to the wave surface, o> is determined by
equation
(a)
GIL
(f)
/
/(a
2 2 2 - "2 ) + m 2 - 2 co 0. l(W w ) + n /(c )
The
surface
(b)
position of the point of contact of the plane
US
and the wave
RA
2
is
given [CIV.
(1)]
z
from the equations
x(a
- r 2 ),
y(b
where
its
= r is x, y, z are the coordinates of the point desired, and OR distance from the origin of coordinates. OB represents the velocity
the velocity of propagation of the ray. of propagation of the wave, Instead of the wave surface itself we may sometimes use to
OR
Let advantage another surface, called the reciprocal wave surface. be the centre of the wave surface, a part of the surface itself, and BR a plane which touches the wave surface at the point R. From
AR
we let fall the perpendicular OB on the tangent plane. The point B', in the perpendicular OB produced, is determined in = OB, and s is constant. such a way that (c) OB' = r' = s 2 />, where The reciprocal wave surface is then the locus of the points determined This surface, like the wave surface, is a surface of two by (c).
the point
<i>
nappes.
Its equation is
obtained in the following way.
If
I,
m, n
258
EEFRACTION OF LIGHT.
[CHAP. xii.
represent the direction cosines of OB = to, and x', y', zf the coordinates of the point B , we have (d) x' = lr\ y' = mr', d = nr'. But because
1
/(a?
- w 2 + w 2 2 - w 2 + n 2 2 - w2 ) = 0, ) /(6 ) /(c
(d) that
it
follows
by
x'
(c)
2
and
2
r'
/(a
- s4) +
2rY(6V
c'
s )
+ *' 2/(cV 2 - s4 ) = 0.
equation of the
We
(f )
set (e) a'
=s
/a,
2 b' = s jb,
=s
/c,
and obtain the
reciprocal
wave surface in the form

a' x' 2 /(a'
2
2 2 2 - r"2 + b' 2 2 r' c'-Y 2 /(c' 2 - r' 2 ) = ) y' j(b' ) +
0.
This surface differs from the ordinary wave surface [cf. CIV. (m)] only in that its constants a', I', c' are the reciprocals of the constants
a,
b,
of the
wave
surface.
If
we draw through
wave
to the reciprocal
the point B' (Fig. 127) a plane tangent surface FA', we can show that the plane
B'R
perpendicular to the prolongation of OR, and that therefore = u>, Ofi = r, we have perpendicular to B'R. Further, if = s2 /r. This follows by the same method by which we have (g) w' can also prove it directly. passed from one surface to the other.
is
OR
is
OR
We
If the direction
OR
'
[CIV.
(1)]
(h) z'( a
determined by the cosines -to' 2 ) = r to'(a' 2 -' /2 ) etc.

is
I',
m',
n',
we have
and
The equations
(h)
determine
l'
w',
I,'
m',
n'.
Setting
u/
2
s'
/r
= xfr,
(d),
m' = y/r,
ri = z/r,
x(a?
and using equations w2 ) = Zo(a2 - r2 ),

those in CIV.
(1),
(c),
etc.
it
(e), (g), equation (h) takes the form Since these equations are identical with follows that the point of intersection of
OR
SECT, cvi.]
259
and the wave surface is the point at which the tangent plane touches the wave surface. It follows further from (e) and (g) that = ra> or OB .OB' = OR .OR. In order to determine the direction (i) r'to
of a ray
until
it
from
the reciprocal
wave
surface,
we produce
the
wave normal
cuts that surface.
The direction of
the ray is then perpendicular
to the tangent
plane at the point of
intersection.
SECTION CVII.
If
UNIAXIAL CRYSTALS.
two of the constants a, b, c are equal, for example if b = c, the equations become much simplified. The bodies for which this relation
holds are called
uniaxial
o>
crystals.
In order to find the velocities of
we apply equation CII. (g) which is transformed into (a) to4 - [b 2 + r-b 2 + (l- / 2 )a 2 >2 + b 2 [l 2 b 2 + (1 - I 2 )a2 ] = 0. From this equation we obtain (b) o^ 2 = b 2 o>2 2 = I 2 b 2 + (1 - 2 )a 2 Hence
propagation w1 and
2,
,
l'
the velocity w x is constant ; the velocity o> 2 depends on the direction of the wave normal, or on the angle which the wave normal makes with the axis of elasticity a. This axis is called the optic axis; it
coincides with
the
principal axis of the crystal.

is
In the direction
of this optic axis there
only one ray velocity. normal and the optic axis by Hence, a plane wave, on
uniaxial
only one wave velocity, arid therefore also If we designate the angle between the wave
e,
we have
(c)
o>
2
2
sin 2
+ 6 2 cos 2
e.
medium,
is
passage from an isotropic to an divided into two waves, one of which is propagated
its
with a velocity o^, which is independent of the direction of the wave normal. This wave is called the ordinary wave. The velocity of the
other or extraordinary wave changes with the direction of the wave normal.
AVe obtain
the
for
wave
surface
(n),
equation of the uniaxial crystals

setting b
from CIV.
2
by
c.
We
thus obtain
<d) (r
b2
2 2
)(a
+ b2 (y 2 +z2 ) - aW) - 0.
Hence, the wave surface consists of a sphere whose radius is b, and an

ellipsoid of revolution
equatorial axes are
whose polar and 26 and 2a respecFlG

-
tively; the sphere and the ellipsoid touch at the extremities of the polar axis.
In Fig.
128,
represents the polar or optic axis,
AE A
1
a plane section through
260
EEFRACTTON OF LIGHT.
[CHAP. xn.
the sphere and A 1 a plane section through the ellipsoid. be the normal to the plane wave POQ, B^D and B^R.2
AR
Let
,
OB^
two
planes tangent to the wave surface, which are both perpendicular to the wave normal. OR^ and OB.2 are the velocities of propagation
in the direction of the
wave normal.
We
call
such a plane section,
which contains
principal
section.
the
optic axis as well as the wave normal, the The direction of the rays of the extraordinary
,
wave
is
represented by OR.2
.
if
the plane
2 R. 2
touches the ellipsoid
The direction of the electrical force is given by at the point R.2 The direction of the rays and U. which is perpendicular to OR.2 2
.
the
wave normal
of the
is
of the electrical force
= polar axis l axis 2a ; the crystals for which this occurs are called positive crystals. If a>b, the crystal is called negative. The sphere can enclose the
The
ellipsoid or inversely
;
AA
ordinary wave coincide, and the direction perpendicular to the plane of the figure. 2b (Fig. 128) is greater than the equatorial
crystals of the first
kind are called

is
positive, those
of
the
second
is
kind
negative.
Iceland
spar
negative
S
crystal,
quartz
If
is,
a positive crystal.
set
o>
we
=5
in
OIL
(e),
we
obtain
(e)
\ 1 = Q and
wave
is
= ^TT,
that
the direction of the electrical force in the ordinary
perpendicular
to the optic
axis as well as to the
wave normal
it is
therefore perpendicular
to the
In
principal section. order to obtain
the
direction
of the electrical force in the

it
e,
extraordinary
for
<o
waves from CIL (e), we introduce in = = given in (b), and notice that I cos e, m sin
_
a2 cos6 2
the value
n=
0.
We
then obtain
^ /2
~(a2_^) COS
**2-
& 2 cos8.2
2 (a* -b' ) sine
V v ~~
_Q
Hence
parallel
the
to
direction
the principal
of the electrical force in the extraordinary wave is It follows from the last equation section.
,
that l/cos 2 82
(f )
= (a4 sin 2 e + &4 cos 2 e)/(a 2 -& 2 ) 2sin 2 ecos 2

tg 82
and hence
e
(a sin e
+6
cos e)/(a
& )sin
cos
We
thus obtain the equations
a2 sine/Va
(g)
,
= 0.
SECT. CVIH.]
DOUBLE REFRACTION OF A CRYSTAL.
261
SECTION CVIII.
DOUBLE KEFRACTION AT THE SURFACE OF A

CRYSTAL.
falls on the plane surface of a doubly refracting medium both reflection and refraction occur. Let the x-axis of the system of coordinates be parallel to the normal
When
a ray of polarized light
to the surface drawn outwards, and the -axis perpendicular to the plane of incidence ; the ?/-axis is then parallel to the line of intersection between the plane of incidence and the refracting surface. For
the components of the electrical force of the incident ray

as in C.,
(a)
or,
we
have,
X,
= A/;,
Y = pji,
t
Zt = v/i,
f = fjCospir/T. (t - ( - xcos a + y sin a)/0)],

t
+ atoBJWl. In these using only the real part, (b)/=JP^-(-* equations a is the angle of incidence and fi the velocity of the light outside the crystal. In addition to these equations we have the
condition that the electrical force of the ray.
angles
(c)
TT
wa
is
perpendicular to the direction
Hence, since the direction of the incident ray makes the - a, - a and |-TT |TT with the axes, we have
AjCOS a
+ /AjSin a = 0.
for the reflected ray
.
In the corresponding notation

(d)
we have
i>
A; = X rfr
Y=
r
/z r
/r
Z = fr f = Fr ew
r
(irx+
ry+r*)/n].
That the
the ray,
electrical
force shall be perpendicular to the direction of

(e)
fracted ray,
(f)
6
we must have we have

6,
Xrlr + p,rm r +
vr n r
= 0.
Finally, for the re-
A>A / Y = nJ Z = JM
b b, b
(g)ft =
F^-**++W.
bounding
surface, for
w depends on
lb ,
refracted wave.
isotropic bodies.
n b or on the direction of the propagation of the The boundary conditions are the same as those of
b,
,
which x = 0,
We have everywhere Y +Y =YM or

t
in the
Since this equation must hold for

(h) sin a/0
values of y and z, we have 6/w. By the last equation = 7i r = 7i M that is, the wave noi-mals of the reflected and refracted waves It follows from (h) that w r = sina, that lie in the plane of incidence.
all
= mr/0 = m b /o> and
(i)
= nr /l =
is,
the angle
of reflection
is
equal
to
the angle
of incidence.
Therefore
the direction of the reflected ray is determined in the same in the case of reflection by an isotropic body.
way
as
262
If
(3
represents the angle of refraction,
lb
b
[CHAP. xn.
we have
b
therefore from (h) of the wave normal
= - cos ft, m = sin j3, n = 0, If we determine sin a/12 = sin /3/w.

by the
the direction
the axes of elasticity,

(1)
/
we
a)
cosines of the angles which it makes with have, to determine w, the equation
/(a
2
)
+ TO 2/(6 2 - w 2 ) + rc 2 /(c 2 - w2 ) = 0.
If (xa), (ya\
etc.,
and the coordinate axes, we have

Introducing here the values for
c
denote the angles between the axes of elasticity l = l cos(xa) + m b cos(ya) + n cos(za).
t> l>
lb ,
t,
etc.,
given above,
.
we
obtain
(m)
= - cos (3 m = - cos (3
I
cos(za) + sin /3
cos(a$)
cos(ya)
cos(yb)
+ sin /3
-j
\.
n=
-cos/?, cos(zc)
+ sin ft. cos (yc).
By
of
(3.
the help of equations (m) and (1), w can be expressed in terms The equation thus obtained in connection Avith (k) determines
In general the angle of refraction. or both of which may be imaginary

is
we
;
obtain two values for
f3,
one
if this is
the case the reflection
total.
can find the direction of the wave normal and that of the ray by a construction given by Huygens. About the point (Fig. 129) as centre construct the sphere PD, whose radius is OD = Q, where 12
denotes the velocity of light in air. If the incident ray is produced, it meets the sphere at the point D.
We
The plane which the sphere touches

at
cuts the refracting surface in
a straight line, whose projection on the plane of the figure is Q.
The plane QR containing this is drawn tangent to the wave

129.
line
sur0.
face
i
FR, whose centre

from
is
is
at
The perpendicular OB = QR. The normal to the

if
is
let fall
refracted
wave
on the tangent plane then OB and L'OB = (3,

is
LOL'
is
the normal to the surface.
Now OB=<a
the velocity
of propagation in the direction OB, and also OQ = OD/sina or fl/sina = w/sin/:J, so that equation (k) is also satisfied.
= OI>
sin(3,
direction of the
wave normal of the
refracted wave,
OB is and OR
the
the
Since the wave surface in general has two nappes, two planes tangent to the wave surface can be
direction of the corresponding ray.
SECT, cvni.]
DOUBLE EEFEACTION OF A CEYSTAL.
263
drawn through Q. The construction therefore determines two wave normals and two ray directions.
refraction;
This construction really serves only as a representation of the it cannot be used for the determination of the direction
is
of propagation so long as the construction
confined to the plane,
because the point of contact does not lie in the plane of incidence ; we can, however, obtain the direction of the wave normal by a
construction in the plane of incidence given by MacCullagh. If we draw through (Fig. 129) the line perpendicular to
DE
the refracting surface, the point of intersection B'. of = OD 2 for wave normal OB is so situated that OB
.
DE
and the
OB
we have
OB = OQ.sinf3, OB' = OE/sin(3, and further, as may easily be seen from Fig. 129, OQ. OE=OD 2 From this follows the relation
.
But we have OB = u,
(n)
r'
OB.OB' = OD\ OD = Q, and if we set OB' = r',

lies
is
it
follows that
= 12'2 /w.
Therefore the point B'
on the reciprocal wave

z
2
surface
whose equation
a' 2 x /(a'
2 2
[CVI.
(f)]
c'
r2)
+ b' 2f/(b' 2 - r 2 ) +
c'
2 2
/(c'
r2 )
=
In this
if
the coordinate axes are parallel to the axes of elasticity.

a'
equation
= fl 2 /a,
as
b'
= ^ 2 /b,
2 /c.
If
we
set
JV^fi/a,
^2 = ^/6, JV3 = 0/c,

velocity of light
fi
and choose
the unit of length the surrounding medium, it follows that

(
in
the
o)
is
N^KN^ - r
the
is
2
)
+ N 2y*l(N 2 - r2 ) + N3 2 z2 /(Ns 2 - r 2 ) = 0.
It follows equation of the reciprocal wave surface. further from the discussion of CVI. that the direction of the rays
This
OR
perpendicular to the plane tangent to the reciprocal wave
surface at the point B. can therefore construct the
wave normal in the following way. We as centre with unit radius we construct the circle About the point PD about the same point we draw the curve of intersection between This curve is represented the plane of incidence and the surface (o).
;
point
e then produce the incident 29) by B'F'. ray to the lying on the circle, and draw the straight line DB' perpendicular to the refracting surface and cutting F'B' at B'. OB is then
in
(Fig.
wave normal, while the direction of the ray perpendicular to the plane tangent to the surface F'B at We can easily derive the condition for total reflection the point B'.
the direction of the
OE
is
from
this
construction.
It
can also be applied to the reflection of
light within the crystal itself.
264
DOUBLE REFRACTION
IN
[CHAP. xn.
SECTION CIX.
UNIAXIAL CRYSTALS.
Using the same notation as in CVIIL, we have, to determine the

angle of refraction of the
(a)
wave normal, the equation

sin a/0
= sin /?/a>.
>
In the case of uniaxial crystals

[CVII. (b), (c)] o) 1 angle of refraction
2
,
w has the values w : and w2 which are

2
= i'2 w 9 2 = a'2 sin 2 e +

/3 1
cos 2 e.
In the
first
case the
is
obtained from the equation

sin /^
sin a
= JV
where NQ = &/(O V
The corresponding directhe so-called ordinary index of refraction. tion of the electrical force is perpendicular to the principal section.
wave normal makes the angle /3 2 with the normal to If we represent the angles the surface, we have sin a/fl = sin /?2 /w.,. made by the axis of the crystal with the coordinate axes by (xa), TT - (3 (ya), (za) and notice that y |z- jS^ |TT, are the angles made by the refracted ray with the coordinate axes, we have
If the second
cosc= -cos()cos/?2 + cos(?/a)sin/3 2

Hence, for the calculation of
fl
2
/3 2 ,
Z>
we have the equation

)(cos(.ra)cos
/3 2
sin 2 /32 /sin 2 a
= a2 - (a2 -
- cos
(ya)sin
is
/3 2 )
The corresponding
direction of the electrical force
parallel to the
If the optic axis lies in the plane of incidence principal section. set cos(:ra) = cos \f/, cos (ya) = sin ^, and then obtain
J2 2
we
sin 2
2 2 /sin
J
= a 2 - (a2 - 6 2 )
cos 2 (^
+ /3 2 ).
If
^=a
sin 2 r/'+6 2 cos 2 ^,
we have From this

(b)
A-C
follows
= aW2
B = a 2 cos 2 ^ + 6 2 sin 2 ^, (7=( 2 -6 2 )sin ^cos f, and I2 2 /sin 2a = A cotg 2/?2 + 2(7 cotg /3.2 + H.
- C+ v
A cotg /3 =
2
If the axis of the crystal
have
(xa)
= (ya) = ^TT,
perpendicular to the plane of incidence, we = Q.ja, is from which sin a = JV^sin /?2 where e
is
,
the extraordinary index of refraction. If a and b are expressed in terms of N, and we have from (b)
(A^sin ^ + JV^cosV) cotg
/3 2
JV JVeX/sin--'a( JV^sin 2 ^
= - (N 2 - N*) sin ^ cos $ + ^Ve -'cos 2 ^) - 1

.
In order to obtain the equation of the reciprocal wave surface,

set
fl
we
= l, and
surface.
substitute
N,
for
a,
for
b,
in the equation for the
wave
(d)
(r>
Thus we obtain [CVII. (d)], 2 + + *2 -
N*%N& N %
Q
NJN*] = 0,
SECT, cix.]
DOUBLE REFRACTION IN UNIAXIAL CRYSTALS. 265

wave
surface referred to the axes of
as the equation for the reciprocal elasticity as coordinate axes.
We
2
obtain
3
the
.
same
result
from
CVIIL
(o),
if
we
set
N^N.
and
N =N =N
In Fig. 130,
OP
supposed to
lie
is the refracting surface, in the plane of incidence ;
and
OA
and
AM
the optic axis, AM.2 are the
curves in which the plane of incidence cuts the reciprocal surface. AM^ is a circle with
radius
wave
N AM
Q,
e.
an
ellipse
whose
equals and whose semi-minor axis

equals radius
semi-major
axis
OA
N
OM
N We
OD =
The
1
,
draw a
circle of
which cuts at
the prolongation of the incident

ray.
line
ED, perpendicular
FIG. 130.
to the refracting surface, cuts the reciprocal wave surface at the
and B.2 The normals to the refracted waves are then points l OB l and OB%. For the ordinary wave the direction of the ray coincides with the wave normal OB l for the extraordinary Avave it
.
is
perpendicular to the plane tangent to the ellipsoid at the point B.2 If the crystal is immersed in a fluid whose index of refraction is
.
greater than that of the crystal, the circle circle of greater radius, for example PD'.
PD
is
replaced
by another
If this circle cuts the
prolongation of the incident ray at D', the directions of the wave normals are determined by the point of intersection between the reciprocal wave surface and the line UE', perpendicular to the
refracting surface.
In this case total reflection can occur.
If
HE'
does not cut the reciprocal wave surface there will be no refraction; if UE' cuts only one curve, there is only one refracted ray. If, as
in Fig. 130, D'E' touches the ellipse at a point C, refraction will occur ; the direction of the ray is parallel to the bounding surface OP.
Our presentation of optics as an electrical vibration.

basis
is
based on Maxwell's conception of light more extended discussion on this same

Lorenz.
has been given by H. A.
Glazebrook published a
discussion of the
Report for 1885 of the British Association for the Advancement of Science,
light in
most important
optical theories in the
von Helmholtz has lately given a theory of the dispersion of which he employs the electromagnetic theory of light.
CHAPTER
XIII.
THERMODYNAMICS.
SECTION CX.
THE STATE OF A BODY.
IF the particles of a system are in motion and exert force on one The energy of another, the system possesses a certain energy U.
a system of discrete particles is made up of their kinetic and potential The former depends on the velocities of the particles at energies.
instant, the latter on their distances apart, or on the configuration of the system ; together they determine the state of the body. Thus the energy at any instant depends only on the state of the system
any
at that instant,
and
is
independent of
its
previous
states.
The
principle of energy has been proved only for a system of discrete particles ; we make the assumption in the mechanical theory of
heat, that the
same principle or a corresponding one holds

is
for all
systems of particles.
certain
amount of energy
its
call its internal energy, since
we
energy which arises from
This inherent in every body. take no account of that part of mutual actions with other bodies.
we
its
By
the possession of this internal energy the body is in a condition to do work ; thus variations occur in its form, volume, temperature
etc.
if
The energy
is
determined solely by the state of the body

if it
the body in a certain state possesses the energy U, and subjected to any variations of form, magnitude, etc., and
returns
to
its
is
finally
original
state,
the
internal
energy will
be
again
equal to U.
Boyle's and Gay-Lussac's laws the state of an ideal gas is completely determined by its pressure and volume. The temperature is given if these two quantities are known. Boyle's and Gay-Lussac's laws furnish an
To determine the internal energy of a body it is know the quantities which determine its state. From
necessary to
equation which expresses the relations between pressure, temperature,
CHAP. xni. SECT, ex.]
267
aud volume
we call it the equation of state of a gas, because it enables us to determine the state of an ideal gas under any conditions, if it is known under definite conditions, for instance, at
;
C.
and 760 mm. pressure.
The behaviour
of real
gases
cannot
be accurately represented by an equation embodying Boyle's and Gay-Lussac's laws, but conforms to other equations which include these laws as a limiting case. The state of a fluid is in general determined by the same quantities it depends to some extent on the form of the surface and the nature of the bodies in contact
;
with
it.
The
actions of electrical
and magnetic forces may come
into play in both gases and fluids. As a rule the knowledge of a great number of quantities is required to express the state of a The solid, especially if it is subjected to the action of forces.
equation which unites all quantities which determine the state of a body is called the equation of state.
Since the state of a gas only depends on the pressure p and the v, it may be represented by a point in a plane with the coordinates p and v ; a series of such points, or a curve, represents
volume
a series of successive states.

is
The
t'-axis
of this system (Fig. 131)
drawn horizontal
and the
^?-axis
vertical. represent the volume and pressure of the

its
;
We
gas in
original
is
state
by
J)
and p
its state
by the point A.
its
then given If the gas ex-
pands under constant pressure,

state
is
represented
by a
to
horizontal line
AB,
is
parallel
the v-axis.
curve
curves
This
called
the
of
constant pressure.
constant
The
are
FIG. 131.
of
volume
If heat vertical straight lines. is communicated to the gas whose original state is given by A, at constant volume r , the variation of the state of the gas is represented If the temstraight line AC, and its pressure increases. perature of a gas remains constant during its successive states, we = const. Hence the curves of constant have, from Boyle's law, v.p
by the
temperature or the isothermal lines are rectangular hyperbolas whose asymptotes are the coordinate axes. In order to change the state
of a
there
gas
is
in
such a
way
that
its
temperature
remains constant,
required either compression with abstraction of heat or expansion
268
THERMODYNAMICS.
[CHAP. xin.
If a gas whose original state is represented with communication of heat. is subjected to compression with abstraction of heat, or to by
expansion
with
communication of heat, in
its
such
way
that
its
temperature remains constant,
by the hyperbola DAE.
We
successive states will be represented may suppose the gas enclosed in a
receptacle put in connection with an infinitely great source of heat, whose temperature is equal to that of the gas at the point A. If
we change
the volume of the gas,
the source of heat sometimes
takes up heat and sometimes gives it out, but the gas retains the If the gas is enclosed in an envelope temperature of the source. through Avhich heat cannot pass, it is heated by compression so
that
its
temperature
rises,
or cooled
by expansion
so that its tem-
In this case the changes of state are called adiabatic perature falls. and the curve which represents them is called an adiabatic or isentropic
curve.
The
since
state of a solid cannot in general be represented in a plane,
depends on more than two variables. by which the state of a body is altered in any manner, and which is such that the body finally returns to its original
it
A series of changes
it
state, is called a cyclic process.
If a
body goes through a

is
is
cyclic process
the energy which
receives from surrounding bodies
which
it
gives
up
to them.
The steam-engine
which periodically returns to the same state. action of the steam-engine, that heat and work are similar or equivalent quantities, which can be transformed into one another, and are both,
This conclusion has been established by therefore, forms of energy. The quantity of energy produced in the one accurate experiment. form is always proportional to that applied in the other form. This
equal to that a system of bodies It appears from the
law of the
equivalence of heat
and energy was
first
Mayer
(1842).
The
later observations of Joule
formulated by K. and others have shown
that the quantity of work which is equivalent to a unit of heat, or to the quantity of heat which will raise the temperature of a gram
of water
by
C.
is
This result
stated
:
is
called the first law of thermodynamics.

;
7 equal to 4.2.10 absolute units of work (C.G.S.). It may be thus
heat and heat from work.

If the quantity of heat
Heat and work are equivalent work can be obtained from The work equivalent or the mechanical
equivalent of the unit of heat is designated
dQ
is
by J. communicated to a body
it
receives the
This goes partly to increase the internal energy of the body, partly to do the work dW. We then have
energy
dQ.
(a)
J.d
SECT. CX.]
269
it
This equation is called the first fundamental equation. We will apply is done by expansion to the case in which the work against
dW
external pressure. consider the body
We
ABC
(Fig.
132),
which
is
hydrostatic pressure
The normals AA', BB' expands its volume drawn from the surface- element AB = dS to the new surface. We A A' = v and obtain for the work done by the body,
\vp
.
at every point becomes A'B'C'.
on
its surface.
subjected to the When the body

are
set
dS=p^v
dSp
dv,
where dv denotes the total increase in volume of the body. Equation = dU+p .dv. If the state of a body is (a) then becomes (b) J .dQ determined by the independent variables p and v, the definite values p^
JL
FIG. 132.
FIG. 133.
'
and
v l correspond to a point Suppose the body to (Fig. 133). pass through a series of states represented by the curve ACB; the then have from (b) values p.2 and v.2 correspond to the point B.
We
(c)
JQ=Ut-U
is
p.dv.
change of
state,
Q
/2
the quantity of heat introduced during the

ZTj
the increase of the internal energy, and
dv the work done.
The increase U2 - Ul is determined by the initial and final values of p and v, or by the position of the points A and B. The external work
is
measured by the area of the figure A' ABB' A
this
work therefore
depends on the process by which the change from one state to the other is Since is a function of This holds also for Q. effected. p and v, we
obtain (d)
J.dQ = 'dU/'dp.dp + ('dUj'dv+p)dv.
If the function
is
known,
possible to find the quantity of heat necessary to produce is determined from any change in the state of the body. equation the quantity of heat received by the body and the (c), by measuring
it is
quantity of work done by

still
it.
Our knowledge of the quantity
is
very limited.
270
THERMODYNAMICS.
SECTION CXI.
[CHAP.
xm.
IDEAL GASES.
Clement and Desormes and subsequently Joule showed that the temperature of a gas which expands without overcoming resistance, that is, without doing work, remains unchanged.* The initial and final states of a gas which expands without doing work lie on the
same isothermal, that is, its temperature only, and
the internal
is
therefore
energy of a gas is a function of independent of its volume if
and the volume
If we take the temperature the temperature remains constant. v of the gas as independent variables, we have
J.dQ = 'dUJW .de + 'd Ufdv

3 Ufdv =
dv +p
dr.
and therefore J.dQ = 'd U/W .d6+p. dv. If the mass Now of gas contained in the volume v is equal to unity then ?>U/'dO = Jcn where c, denotes the specific heat of the gas at constant volume, that is, the quantity of heat which must be communicated to its unit of mass in order to raise its temperature one degree in such a way that, while its pressure changes, its volume remains constant. If the
specific heat
of the gas at constant volume
is constant,
its
internal
energy
must
a linear function of its temperature. For ideal gases the equation giving the relation between pressure, volume and temperature is pv = R6, where If is a constant. and v
be
are the independent variables of the gas, we have (a) J.dQ = Jc,.d6+p.dv. From the observations of Regnault, c, is independent of the pressure
and temperature of the gas. If 6 and p are chosen as the independent variables, v must be considered as a function of them, so that
dv = "dvfde dO +
.
'dvj'dp
dp,
-and substituting this in equation (a)
we have
.
/.
dQ = (Jc, +p 'dv/Wfie +p
.
"dvfdp
dp.
From
the equation pv = E6,
it
follows that
v
.
'dv/W - R and
'dv/dp
= - v, and J.dQ = (Jc, + B)dO -
dp.
In order to obtain the
at constant pressure, specific heat cp
that
is,
the
quantity of heat which must be communicated to the unit of mass of the gas to raise its temperature one degree, in such a way that,
while
its volume changes, its pressure remains constant, we set dp = and obtain cp = c, + ElJ, (b) J.dQ = Jcp .dO-v.dp. If p and v are
*More
its
slightly cooled.
exact measurements show that the gas, in these circumstances, is From this it follows that there are attractive forces between
separate particles.
SECT, cxi.]
IDEAL GASES.
we have
dO = 'dOj'dp
.
271
dp +
chosen as the independent variables,

It follows
Wfdv
dv.
from pv = R0 that
R.o0/'dp =
v,
R.Wj?)v=p, R.d0 = v.dp+p.dv,

.
and from (b) that (c) R.dQ = c,v.dp + cpp dv. If therefore the specific heat cp and the constant R are known, the equation (c) enables us to
determine the
heat for any change of state in the vp-p\a.ne. number of values for a given state in the t^-plane, depending on the direction in which this change of state takes place.
specific
The
specific
heat has an infinite
If The expressions (a), (b), (c) show a noteworthy peculiarity. one of them, say (a), is divided by 0, we obtain by the use of the fundamental equation pv = R9, J .dQ/0 = Jc,.d0/9 + R.dv/v. If, for (Fig. 133) to the state B, example, the gas passes from the state and if the temperatures and volumes at these points are 6V vl and
v 2 respectively,
we have by
integration,
(d)
/. \dQjO = J.c.. log^flj)
+ R log(Vi).
Therefore, while the integral
passes
from one
state
to
which the gas ^dQ depends on the path on another, the integral ^dQ/d does not depend on
this path.
is
This concept Clausius called the quantity S = J .\dQjO the entropy. of great importance in the theory of heat. If a body passes from one state to another the change of the entropy is determined by the coordinates This theorem of the initial and final points. a gas, but holds also for all bodies.
is
here proved only for
If the change of state of a gas occurs along an isothermal curve, we have from (a) J.dQ=p.dv. Using the equation of state and integrating,
(e)
we
obtain
JQ =
we
dv =
Rd log(^ 1 ).
.
All the heat communicated

ture constant.
If
is
therefore used in keeping the temperafor
set v2 equal to fivv fj?vv p?vv etc., in succession,
where ^
is
any number, the corresponding values
are
Q = R0/J.logp, 2R6/J. logp, SRe/J.logp,

If the
etc.
ii
change of state occurs along an isothermal curve, and

of heat introduced
are
in
the
the
quantities
arithmetical progression,
volumes, according to equation (e), are in geometrical progression ; at the same time the pressure changes proportionally to the density. If the change of state occurs along an admbatic curve, we have from
(c) c v logp
+ cp log v = c r
Setting cp /c,
= k we
obtain (f ) pv*
= c, where
c is
272
constant.
THERMODYNAMICS.
[CHAP.
xm.
The equation (f) is the equation of the adiabatic curves. Comk~l = = c. bining this with the equation pv B6, we have from (f) Bdv If we introduce in this formula the density 8 = M/v of the gas, where
denotes its mass, it follows that its temperature is proportional to the (&-1) power of the density when the state of the gas changes along an adiabatic curve.
Further we obtain the relation [CX.
(b)]
fp.dv=Ul -
U.2
The
work
therefore done at the expense of the internal energy, if the change of state is adiabatic.
is
SECTION CXII.
CYCLIC PROCESSES.
all changes occur in such be effected under the same circum-
A simple reversible
a
cycle
is
one in which
way
that
if
reversed they
may
body.
The body which performs the cycle is called the working In the performance of a simple reversible cycle the working body must be associated with two others, one which communicates In a gas engine heat to it, and another which receives heat from it.
stances.
the working body is the gas in the cylinder in a steam engine it is The gases of the fire and the walls of the boiler the water or steam. The gas or give up heat, the water in the condenser receives heat.
;
steam passes through a

returns to
its
original state;
same
process.
some machines, then in condition to repeat the Since the value of the internal energy at the
series of states and, at least in
it is
beginning and end of the process

(a)
is
the same,
we have [CX.
(a)]
JQ=W,
is
where Q
given up.
the difference between the heat received and the heat
up
The quantity of heat received by the working body and not given If the to the colder body is the equivalent of the work done. = The working body is a gas, we have for the cycle JQ ^pdi:
entropy of a gas depends only on the coordinates and therefore has If S } denotes the same value at the beginning and end of the process.
the entropy at the starting point, the entropy at any instant during the process is equal to Sl + If the integration is extended over \dQjQ. the whole cycle, the entropy returns again to its value Sv and we
have therefore \dQ/B = 0.
We
Carnofs
will
discuss
more
is
cycle,
which
particularly a special case, the so-called of great importance in the theory of heat.
SECT. CXII.]
CYCLIC PROCESSES.
273
Suppose a gram of gas to be in the state represented by the point

(Fig. 134) in the vp-plane.
The curve representing the cycle is in this case composed of two isothermal curves BC and ED and of two adiabatic curves CD and BE. The gas first expands at the constant
temperature Or
the
infinitely
This
is
accomplished by keeping
it
in contact with
lt
at the temperature great body l regulating the external pressure on the gas that it passes to the state C along the path
and by so
BC.
During the change of

of heat
state
BC
the
the
1
quantity
Ql
is
absorbed and
work represented by the surface BCC'B is done. The gas then expands adiabatically, in the manner represented by the adiabatic curve CD, and its temperature falls to 2 Then the gas is brought in contact with an
.
4
FIG. 134.
if
infinitely great
2
body
;
Me, at the temperature
and compressed during this process it up to M.2 the quantity of heat Q. Its state is represented by E. Finally the gas is further compressed without communication of heat
gives
it returns to the The integral ^p dv, extended original state B. over the whole cycle, equals the area BCDE, and represents the work done by the gas. We have [CX. (a)] (c) J(Ql - Q2 ) = W.
until
When
QI/OI
;
it
by
Q.2/Q-2
the gas expands from B to C, its entropy is increased by remains constant along the path from C to D, is diminished to E, and again remains constant along along the path from
the path from
Since the gas on same entropy as at the outset we have

to B.
its
return to
has the
From
(c)
and
(d) it follows that
Therefore the work done by this cyclic process is proportional to the quantity of heat Q } absorbed and to the difference of temperature
Ql
at
is
and is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature Olt 6. 2 which the heat is absorbed. The heat received from the source l
,
not wholly transformed into work, but is divided into two parts, one of which is transformed into work, and the other transferred to
of the Carnot's cycle is the ratio of the heat transformed into work to that communicated to the gas. have
efficiency
The
We
274
Hence the
gas
efficiency
THERMODYNAMICS.
we
[CHAP. xin.
0.2
depends only on the temperatures d l and

If
of
the sources of heat.
first changes along BE quantity of heat from M*, and has a certain quantity of external work done upon it along the path DC. The heat received and the work
consider the reversed cycle, the state of the it receives a certain ; along the path
ED
done transformed into heat are given up by the gas to the body M^. along the path CB. In the case of the cyclic process first considered heat is transformed into work ; in the reverse process work is trans-
formed into
heat.
SECTION CXIII.
It
CARNOT'S AND CLAUSIUS' THEOREM.
the preceding section that ^dQ/d = Q for any reversible cycle, when the body describing the cycle is a gas. will now see if this theorem holds when any other body is used
was shown
in
We
as the
working body instead of a

is
gas.
Let us take the simple
case in which the process
BC and ED
(Fig. 134),
and
carried out along two isothermal lines two adiabatic lines CD and BE. Suppose
the change of state to take place in the sense given by the letters BODE. If the body at the temperature O l expands from B to C,
it
receives
to
and
it
E EB
it
the quantity of heat Q^ ; when it is compressed from gives up the quantity of heat Q.2 Along the paths CD heat will neither be received nor rejected. In this process
.
the total quantity of heat received by the body is Q l - $ Since returns to its original state, the quantity of heat Q 1 - Q2 is Q.2 ). equivalent to the work done, which is therefore J(Q l
Carnot published, in 1824, a work on the motive power of which he proposed an important theorem on the connection between heat and work. He was of the opinion that heat was a
S.
heat, in
fundamental substance whose quantity remained invariable in nature. Applying this view to explain the action of the steam-engine, he
supposed that the steam gave up a quantity of heat Q 1 at the higher temperature 6 V that this heat was transferred to the condenser at
the lower temperature
and that the motive power of the heat 2 was due to its passage from the higher to the lower temperature. The work thus done by this passage of heat from a higher to a lower temperature was considered analogous to that done by n
,
falling fluid or
by any falling body. This latter is proportional to the weight of the falling body and to the distance which it falls. Hence for the work done by the heat Carnot proposed the expression
SECT, cxin.]
CAKNOT'S
AND CLAUSIUS' THEOREM.
275
KQ
and
where is a function of the absolute 2) temperatures O l This conclusion of Carnot was confirmed by experiment, but did not agree with the mechanical theory of heat in so far as
l
(O l
it regarded heat as an invariable quantity. If for the present disregard this error, we have for the cycle just described
we
Since K must be independent of the nature of the body doing the work we have, if the body is a gas [CXIL (e)], (b) K^J/0^ It therefore follows that (Q l - Q^/^ - 2 ) = Q /6l and hence Ql /0l = Q2 /02
1
,
that
is,
if a body traverses
a Carnot's
cycle
any number of
times, by being
placed alternately in contact with two infinite sources of heat, the quantities of heat which it receives from one source and gives up to the other are
in the same ratio as the temperatures of the sources. There can be no doubt that this theorem holds for a cycle of the kind considered. The application of the theorem in many
departments of physics and chemistry has led to no results which are as yet contradicted by experiment. Several attempts were made
of which
to give a direct proof of the theorem, the first and most important is due to Clausius, whose method may be presented in
:
the following way Suppose a gas to traverse the cycle BCDE (Fig. 135) composed of the isothermal curves BC and DE, which correspond to the
absolute temperatures O l and 2 and of the adiabatic curves CD and BE. During its expansion from B to C, the gas takes
,
the quantity of heat Q l from an infinitely great source M-^ whose temperature O l is
constant.
It then expands from without communication of heat.
to
D
://
It is
then brought in communication with the
whose constant, and by comtemperature pression is made to give up to it the

infinitely great source of heat M.>
is
'
FIG
135
quantity
of
heat
Qy
Finally
it
is
During the cycle the gas brought back to its original state B. the quantity of heat Qv which has received from the source l
is
One of these parts is transferred as a divided into two parts. quantity of heat Q 2 to the source M.2 the other is transformed
,
represented in amount by, the area BCDE. Suppose B'C' and E'D' (Fig. 135) to be the two isothermal curves corresponding to the temperatures 6 l and 9.2 for another body, say
into
work and
is
276
for water vapour.
THERMODYNAMICS.
C'D' and B'E' are
[CHAP. xni.
two adiabatic curves so chosen
that the surface
If the waterequals the surface BODE. vapour is subjected to a process similar to that just described for the gas, the heat which it will receive while in contact with the source
BC'D'E
M
Q2
is
Q l + q, and during
its
with the source

'.
passage from
to E', while in contact
2,
it
The work done by
gives up to that source the quantity of heat the vapour is equal to that done by the gas,
is
l
because the surface

therefore have
BCDE
'
equal to the surface B'C'DE', and

,
Ql + q -
Q.2
= Q - Q2 and
therefore
Q2 =Q.2 + q.
we The
vapour in expanding along B'(J receives the quantity of heat Ql + q, and gives up the quantity Q 2 + q along the path D'E'.
The cycle described can also be performed in the opposite sense. For example, the water-vapour can expand along the isentropic curve
it may then be brought in contact with the source of heat and expand from E' to D', during which expansion the quantity of heat Q2 + q is taken from It may then be compressed along 2 the isentropic curve Z^C", and lastly along the path (7-6', while in
B'E';
2,
contact with the source of heat

gives
cess,
v During this compression it the quantity of heat Q l + q. To carry out this proa quantity of work must be done which is equivalent to the heat
up
to
this
is represented in Fig. 135 by the surface B'C'HE'. consider finally two engines, one of which is a gas engine, in which the gas performs the cycle BCDE, and the other a steam-
work
We
engine, in which
the
steam performs the reversed cycle B'C'D'E'.
The work done by the one is equal to that supplied to the other, if we neglect friction and other resistances. The gas engine in
each revolution takes from the source the quantity of heat Q l l and gives up to the source M.2 the quantity Q.2 at the same time the steam-engine takes from the quantity of heat Q2 + q and 2 Hence, in these circumstances, gives up to M^ the quantity Q l + q.
;
the source of heat at higher temperature receives during each revolution the quantity of heat q, while the source at lower temperature the same quantity of heat this transfer of heat q from 2 gives up
the lower to the higher temperature being effected without the doing of work.
By this process, therefore, heat can be transferred from a colder to a hotter body. This Clausius declares to contradict experience. While heat invariably tends to flow from hotter to colder bodies,
in the process described above the opposite occurs. The objection has been raised to this conception of Clausius that a thermoelectric
SECT, cxin.]
CARNOT'S
AND
CLAUSIUS' THEOREM.
277
in which one junction is at the temperature 100 and the other at 0, can produce a current which will heat a platinum wire red hot, so that heat passes from a colder to a hotter body, that is, to
circuit,
the red hot platinum. Clausius answered this objection by asserting that this transfer of heat to a higher temperature is' compensated for by the heat generated at the points of contact.
from a
this theorem Heat can never pass body without the expenditure of work or the occurrence of some change of state. Hence, by this principle of Clausius, = 0, and therefore for any cycle of the sort described, whatever 2
Clausius
therefore
to
proposed
colder
hotter
body
is
used in
We
any
can
= Q 2 /Q2 it, we have (a) Q l /0 l now show that a similar theorem

.
holds for a cycle of
body proceeds from along the curve EG (Fig. 13G). If the isothermal curve BD passes through B and the adiabatic curve CD through C, we may replace
sort.
Suppose that the change of
state of a
the path
BC
by the path BDC, that
is,
the body
may
first
expand
at constant temperature along and then at constant entropy, that If is infinitesimal, is, without communication of heat, along DC.
BD
BD and DC
are so also, and the change of state
BC BC may
be replaced
by the two changes
BD
and DC.
On
both paths the body receives
FIG. 136,
FIG. 137.
the same increment

in the one case
is
dU
of internal energy.
in the other
BCC'B,
The external work is BDCC'B. But since B'C' = dv
infinitely small, while
B'B=p
remains constant, the surface
BDC
vanishes in comparison with the surface BCC'B. If dQ represents the quantity of heat supplied, we have J.dQ = dU+p.dv along the path BC, as well as along the path BDC.
Let
curves,
BCPDEQ
(Fig. 137)
etc.,
be any
cycle, Be, Cc',
and BE, CD,
adiabatic curves.
Ed, Dd' isothermal Let the body receive
278
the quantity of heat
THERMODYNAMICS.
[CHAP.
xm.
dQ along EC, As we have already along DE. by a change of state along Be the give up along dE the same quantity = cycle BcdE, dQ l /6 l dQ.2 /62 if 6l and
,
seen,
and give up the quantity dQ.2 the body would receive same quantity of heat dQ v and Therefore we have for the dQ.2
.
are the absolute temperatures In the same way we corresponding to the isothermals Be and Ed.
2
have for
If
Cc'
Q and
P denote
curves,
we
etc., dQ^/O^dQ^/0^ dQ 1 /0 l dQ/l0 2 etc. the points at which the cycle touches two isothermal have by addition (b) \dQ1 /0l = Je^/0 2 where dQ 1 is the
i
and Dd',
"
"
quantity of heat received along an element of QBCP and 6 l the corresponding temperature, dQ.2 the quantity given up along an element of PDEQ and 0., the corresponding temperature. If the heat received
is
considered positive
and
that given
up
negative,
tJie
sum
of all infini-
tesimal quantities of heat received during the performance of

cycle,
reversible
each divided by the absolute temperature at which
it is
received, equal*
zero,
that
is,
(c)
^dQ/0
(c)
= 0.
This
is
the second law of thermodynamics.
which Clausius first expressed in this form may be given in another way. Let ABCD (Fig. 138) represent a cycle,
so that
J A BCD A
The theorem
= f dQ/6 Q.
We
divide the integral into
two
parts,
of which the
first is
extended from
over
to C. the second from
over
to
Aj and have
If,
state
FlG
13g
body passes from the the state C, the value of the integral \dQ/6 is independent of the If 6 l and i\ are the coordinates path.
therefore, the
to
of the point A, and 62 and v2 those of the point C,
we have
Clausius introduced a special symbol for the entropy
by
setting
dS = J. dQ/e, from which jCdQ/6 = S2 - Sr

the entropy of the body
at
;
The
function
represents
any
instant,
and
is
it depends only on the state of the body independent of all previous states.
SECT, cxiv.]
APPLICATION OF THE SECOND LAW.

APPLICATION OF THE SECOND LAW.
(a)]
279
SECTION CXIV.
We
(a)
have already obtained [CX.
the equation
J.dQ = dU+p.dv.
state
If the
of the body
v,
is
variables 6
(b)
and
equation (a)
determined only by the independent may take the form

.
/.
dQ = (VUfdff). dO + ((3 Ufdv) e +p)dr,
where the indices attached indicate that the quantities which they If S denotes the represent remain constant during differentiation.
entropy,
we have
. i
dS = J. dQ/6 = 1/6 (3 UfiO), .dO+(l/e. (d Upv) g +p 'B)dv. Since S is here a function of v and B, we may set
(3S/30),
= 1 JO
(3 7/30),
(dSf'dv),
1/6. (dUfdv), +p/0.
But
for the
same reason we have
also
and further
3(3S/30),/3t;=l/0. 3(3 tf/30),/ 30,

2
.
3(3S/3)9/30= 1/0. 3(3C7/30) e/30- 1/0

follows that (c) (3Z7/30) e = a function of and v only, and
Whence
it
2
.
3(p/0),/30,
since
is
also
The internal energy must satisfy the differential equation (c). The second law furnishes the means of determining the internal energy.
It follows
from equations
(c)
and
.
(b) that
(d)
J.dQ = (3//30X d6 + (<BFd(pl&)Jde +p)dv.
Hence if the equation of state and the specific heat c,= l/J. (dU/W) f are known, the quantity of heat required for a given change in the state of the body may be determined by equation (d).
The quantity of heat which a body has received is not determined by the state of the body at any given instant, and therefore cannot be
considered as a function of the coordinates.
(e)
We
can, however, set
J(dQ[d0).
.
= @Uj-dO) n
J(-dQ/-dv) e
= (-dU/-d-v) e +p,
dO is the quantity of heat which is used in raising the temperature by dd, while the volume remains constant, and (dQj'dv) e is the quantity which is absorbed during an increase in volume by dv
since (dQ;"dO),
at constant temperature.
But 'd-QjWdv
is
not equal to
From
equation
(c)
we
obtain
- l/J.
280
THERMODYNAMICS.
[CHAP.
xm.
The
differential equation (c) is applied to the relations of this relation (dUj"dv) e

t
an ideal
agrees
gas, for
which p/0 = E/v. From with the results in CXI.

If the energy of a
= Q which
body
its
volume,
its
equation of state, from
at constant temperature is independent of will have the form (c),
P /e=f(v).
SECTION CXV.
THE DIFFERENTIAL
COEFFICIENTS.
There are, a rule the equation of state of a body is unknown. however, many bodies for which, within narrow limits, we know approximately the relations of volume, pressure, and temperature.
As
Within these
of the form
limits, therefore,
(a) f(v, p,
an equation of state
If the pressure
may
be constructed
0)
= 0.
is
constant,
we have
f(p, v
+ dv,
+ d6) =
is
and 3//3
is
dv
+ 3//30 .d8 = Q.
.
The
ratio
between dv and dO
written in the form (c3f/3$)p
The
volume
v of the
body
generally given in the form
where t=0-273.
(St;/30),
Hence we have
...)/(!
= i;(a + 2/3(0 -273) +
+a(<9-273)+
...).
If
= very small, we obtain (b) (dv/c)6) p va. used even when a is a function of 6.
/3 is
This formula can be
If the temperature
is
constant in equation (a),

.
we have
dp + 'df/'dv .dv = 0. From this equation the change of volume due to change of pressure Since the volume always at constant temperature can be determined.
"dffdp
diminishes
when the pressure increases, (dv/'dp) g is negative. the theory of elasticity (cf. XXIX.) we have found that
XVv/v
From
-'dp and
6 = "dv/v = -
(1
-2k)3?>p/E,
in the case of fluids and solids respectively.

(c)
Therefore
(3r/3p) a
=-r/X.
It follows
from the equation of state of an ideal gas that

(dv[dp) e
-v/p,
and hence \=p.

volume of the body is constant, the pressure is increased by dp If by the rise of temperature dO ; we obtain in this way a third quantity Besides these differential coefficients we must also notice
the
SECT, cxv.]
THE DIFFERENTIAL COEFFICIENTS.
281
three others, Wj'dv, ty/'dv, and 30/3p, which are connected with those already mentioned by the following relations
:
(d)
(B/30),. (30/3^=1, W9p)..(3p/3).=
l,
(3p/30)..(a0/3p).=
l.
139) represent two isothermal curves corthen have responding to the temperatures 9 and 6 + d6.
Let
LM
and
NP
(Fig.
We
(3j9/3#)
if
fl
= tg AEv,
tangent at the
is
0.
AE
A
is
the
point
is
of the isothermal curve

If
whose parameter
parallel to Ov,
BAD
perpendicular to Ov, and ^46'
we have
tgAEv = -AD/DE= -AS/AC,

and hence
(3p/3r)
fl
= -AB/AC.
Further,
we have
and hence we obtain (e) (3p/3w) 8 (dvfd6)p (d0/ty). = -1. Equations (d) and (e) show that if we know two of these differential coefficients which are independent, the others are also known. Equa.
.
tion (e) may be derived in the following way If p is considered a function of v and 6, we have dp = (3p/3v) e dv + (dp/W), d8. Assum:
ing the pressure constant, so that dp
= 0, we have
fl
dv/d6
= - (3p/30)./(3p/di;)
The quantity dv/dQ in this equation is that which has already been designated by (dv/?>6)p we therefore again obtain equation (e). For gases we have (dppv) e = -p/v; (dvpO)p = E/p (deity), = v/R
;
These values satisfy equation (e). For liquids and solids we have (dvj^>Q\ hence by equation (e), (f) (ty/W) v = aX.
= av,
(dvfty)e
v/X,
and
SECTION CXVI.
If 6
(a)
LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS.
and
v are
the independent variables,
we have [CXI.]
.
J.dQ = (3 U/W). .dO+((d U/dv), +p) dv. From the second law of thermodynamics we obtain as in CXIV. (c), = 6 2 3(^/0),/30 = Hence equation (a) (b) (dU/c;v) g (ty[d6),-p. takes the form (c) J.dQ = (pU[b9\. d6 + 6.(dp/W),. dv. If we designate
. .
282
THEEMODYNAMICS.
cv
[CHAP.
xm.
.
the specific heat at constant volume by
we have
ca
(d)
/.
cv
= (dU/'d0') v
.
Equation (c) then becomes [CXV. (f)] (e) dQ = follows from equations (b) and (d) that
(f )
.d0 + 6aX
dvfJ.
It
/.
3c,/dt>
= 3 2 Upv'dO = 6
3(3p/30X/30,
and therefore from CXV. (f) that (g) .7.3e,/30=0.3(aA.)/30. This may be obtained also from equation (e) by the use of the second law. Equation (g) shows that c, is independent of the volume if
aA. is
independent of the temperature. In order to express the dependence of the quantity of heat comits
municated to a body on
pressure and temperature,

. .
we
set
dv = (dvfdff)p dO + (do[dp) 9
dp,
and then obtain from
(c)
.
j.dQ={(d Z//30), +
or
e (dppe), (dvpe)p }d0

.
e (dppo), (3^/3/4 dp,

.
.
[CXV.
If
c
(e)], (h)
J.dQ=
{Jc
0.(3?>/30)*/(30/3p) }<Z0e
6.(dvjW)p .dp.
p is
the specific heat at constant pressure,
we have
Now since 'dv/'dp is always negative, cp is greater than 30/30 is not equal to zero; the case in which 30/30 = by water at 4 C.
CXV., we obtain
(i)
cv,
so long as
is
exhibited
Introducing the values for the differential coefficients found
in
J.dQ={Jc, + a?X.v8}d6-av6.dp and

a fluid or of a solid
(i)
(k) cp
= c, +
The temperature of
If
we
set
dQ =
in equation
is
the increase of pressure dp

ture rises with
changed by compression. the rise of temperature dd due to dO= +av6{cpJ.dp, that is, the tempera-
is
expands when
increasing pressure if a is positive, that is, if the body heated ; if a is negative the temperature falls ivith increasing
SECTION CXVII.
THE DEVELOPMENT or HEAT BY CHANGE OF

LENGTH.
If the pressure p is exerted on each unit of surface of the ends of a solid cylinder, each unit of length of the cylinder is shortened by If / denotes the original length of the p/f, where e is a constant.
SKCT. cxvii.]
THE DEVELOPMENT OF HEAT.
283
cylinder at
pressure p,
(a)
if
and under the C., its length L at the temperature the limits of elasticity are not exceeded, is
L = l.(l-p/t). (1 +(0-273)),
(3 is the coefficient of expansion. If the length of the body increases by dL and its temperature rises by dO, the quantity of heat dQ must be supplied to it ; the work done by the elongation is is the cross-section of the p dL, if
where
cylinder.
ture
(b)
is
represents the mass of the body 6 and the length L, we have

If
.
when the temperadL.
J.dQ = M.'dU/W.d8 + (M 3 Z7/3L + Ap)

this expression
.
Applying the second law to

-d(M/0 3 7/30)/3
.
we
obtain
= -d(M/6 3 UfdL + Aplff)fdO
or
= 0*-.A. "d(pl8)JdO. (d U/3L) g

.
Hence
If 6
J.dQ = M.(dUfd8) L .d6+8.A. (op/W) L

as the independent variables,
. fl .
dL.
and p are taken
we have
dL = (dL/W) p d6 + (3Z/3p)
dp and
J.dQ = [M.
(dUfd8) L + B
Since the deformation
is
very small, we have, representing by
the specific heat at constant pressure,

(c)
since
If the
J.dQ = JMcp .dO-BA. (dL/W) p dp, by analogy with CXV. (e) (dpfd6) L (30/3^
. .
(3/3/>) e
= -
pressure on the ends

is
is
increased
is
by
dp, so that the total
pressure
A.dp = P, and
if
there
no communication of heat, the

,
temperature of the body increases by d9 = 6PL^!JMcp the mass of unit length, by dd=B/3P/Jmcp If the
.
or,
if
is
cylinder
is
stretched by the force
a corresponding cooling will occur.
SECTION
CXV III. VAN DER
WAAL'S EQUATION OF STATE.
The equation
curve
is
therefore
of state of an ideal gas is pv = B&, and its isothermal a rectangular hyperbola. Real gases, however,
at low temperatures and under high pressures, do not conform to this equation. Suppose that a certain quantity of gas at a given
temperature has the volume OC' (Fig. 140) and
is
under the pres-
284
sure CO'.
THERMODYNAMICS.
[CHAP. xni.
constant, the
If the pressure is increased while the temperature remains volume will be diminished. At last the space in which
the gas
is contained becomes saturated with it ; let the corresponding DD' is then the pressure of the saturated vapour or pressure be DD'. If the volume is still the vapour pressure at the given temperature. further diminished, the pressure remains constant, while a part of
is
At last all the vapour the vapour passes over into the liquid state. transformed into liquid; let the corresponding volume be OF.
So long as the vapour and liquid are in the same space, the isothermal curve is a straight line parallel to the axis Ov. If the volume of the liquid
now diminished, the pressure increases very rapidly ; the corresponding isothermal curve is represented by FG (Fig. 140). Andrews found, by experimenting with carbon-dioxide, that, as the temperature
is
PG
the line DF becomes shorter, and that, at a certain temperature, which he called the critical temperarises,
ture,
it
the
temperature of the dioxide remains constant,

represented
abscissas
in
If disappears altogether. carbonits state
changes along curves which are

Fig.
141.
The
represent volumes, the
let
^~>
ordinates pressures. For example, us examine the isothermal
TV
~,
curve
to
ABCD,
the
temperature
which corresponds 15'1C. at

;
the point
still
the carbon-dioxide
is
in the gaseous state; at it may be considered as saturated If the compression is continued, condensation begins, and vapour.
that
the pressure remains constant until the substance has become liquid, From C on, the pressure is, until its state is represented by C.
increases very rapidly as
the volume
is
diminished.
At the tem-
perature 21-5C. the condensation begins at B, and the horizontal At 31'1C. the horizontal part of the part of the curve is shorter.
isothermal curve vanishes

reached.
the critical temperature has

to
now been
Isothermals
;
corresponding
continuous curves
it is
higher temperatures are therefore impossible to reduce carbon-dioxide
to the liquid state at a temperature higher than 31-1C. temperatures than this there is no apparent difference liquid
At higher
between
its
and gaseous states. The liquid, at the has the same density as the saturated vapour.
critical
temperature, gas can be reduced
SECT, cxvni.]
to the
VAN DEE WAAL'S EQUATION OF

when
its
STATE.
is
285
lower than
fluid state by compression only
temperature
the critical temperature.
James Thomson substituted

a continuous curve
for the isothermal curve here described
(Fig. 140); the part DHEJF corresponds to an unstable state. It appears from various investigations on the relations between vapours and their liquids at the boiling
CDHEJFG
point, that it is possible to obtain a
vapour
in the states represented
FIG. 141.
by
DH
and FJ, while the
states
represented by
unstable, since
in these states the pressure
HEJ are always and volume change in
the same sense.

J.
these isothermals which
Clerk Maxwell called attention to an important peculiarity of may be deduced by applying the laws of
If a gas traverses the cycle FEDHEJF, in passing along the straight line from F to D it receives the quantity of heat
thermo-dynamics.
286
L,
L'
THERMODYNAMICS.
[CHAP.
xm.
in passing along the curve gives up the quantity Since the gas the temperature is the same along both paths. has traversed a complete cycle, we have \dQ/0 = L/0 - L'/O = 0, and
;
and
DHEJF
therefore
L = L'.
Therefore, since no heat
is
used in this cycle, no

to the surface
work can be done, and hence the surface
is given, the DEE. Thus, if the isothermal maximum pressure of the vapour can be determined, by determining the line FD so that the surfaces FJE and DHE are equal.
FJE is equal curve CDHEJFG
der Waals has proposed an equation of state for gases, which more exactly than the simple one, the behaviour of the gas and which permits the calculation of the critical temperature. The volume of a gas is determined not only by the external
represents,
Van
pressure but also by the attraction of
its
molecules
we may think
of this attraction as replaced by a pressure p added to the external Since the attracting and attracted molecules approach pressure p.
one another as the density increases,

to
p' must be directly proportional square of the density, and therefore inversely proportional to the square of the volume. Hence we set p' = a/v*, so that the
the
free to
total pressure of the gas is p + a/v 2 Further, the molecules are not move everywhere in the region v, for they themselves occupy
.
part of the region.

fluid
Van der Waals assumed
that the volume of a

particles losing
cannot
fall
below a certain limit without the
In place of the apparent volume v, he used, as the true or effective volume, v - b, where b is a very small quantity,
their freedom of motion.
though much greater (about

molecules of the gas.
We
4-8 times) than the volume of thus obtain the equation of state
all
the
If the volume v is very great, this equation becomes the equation of state of ideal gases. The positions of the points and / (Fig. 140), at which the
tangents to the isothermal curves are parallel to the r-axis, are obtained from the equation dpfdv Q or (b) p + a/iP 2a(v fc)/t'3 = 0. This is the equation of the curve which passes through all points
at which the tangents to the isothermal curves are parallel to the axis Ov. All these isothermal curves correspond to temperatures at which the body can be either liquid or gaseous. When the two
But since the two coinpoints coincide we reach the critical state. cident points must have a line joining them parallel to the axis Oi; we introduce the condition for the critical state by setting dp/dv,
obtained by differentiating the foregoing equation
<c)
(b),
equal to zero, or
6rtv
- bv* -
4rtV 3
= 0.
SECT, cxvui.]
VAN DER WAAL'S EQUATION OF

is,
STATE.
287
If v l denotes the critical volume, that
the volume of unit mass
of the gas or liquid at the critical temperature,

last
we
obtain from the
equation (d) vl
pressure p lt at a temperature which
temperature 6 V and the critical which must exist in order that the fluid shall not boil
critical
is
= 3b.
The
temperature, are (e) 1 = l/E.8a/27b, obtained by introducing the value of
lower by an infinitesimal than the critical 2 These values are pl = a/276

.
t\
in (b)
and
(a).
Choosing v v
pressure,
v
:,
and p l as units of volume, temperature, and
we may
V*i
set
3b,
= V.
p = PPl = P. fl/27ft
(P +
2
2
,
e=
T6 l = T. 8aj27bR,
and thus give to the equation of state the form

(f)
3/r )(3F-l) = ST.

:
From
is
obtain the following law If the critical pressure taken as the unit of pressure, the critical volume as the unit of volume,
this equation
we
and
the absolute critical temperature as the unit of temperature, the isowill now consider some applicathermals of all bodies are the same. tions of formula (f).
We
(a)
Equation
(f)
may be
written in the form
The following table shows how when the temperature is constant

:
the product
PV
depends on
The
is
results of this table
may
the abscissa and
PV
be represented by a figure, in which P the ordinate ; in the neighbourhood of the
288
THERMODYNAMICS.
[CHAP. xin.
is very variable, and the departures critical temperature T=l, from the ordinary laws are in consequence very considerable. As
PV
the temperatures rise the relations change rather rapidly, becoming has a minimum value, which in The product nearly constant.
PV
PV
some
is
cases
is
is
minimum
reached only when the pressure is negative. determined by dPVIdF=3/V*-8T/(3V- 1)2 = 0.
This
PV
therefore a
minimum
,
if
3F-1/FW8T/3.
by
The corresponding values of P and F", which we may designate P m and Vm are, by the use of the equation of state, equal to Vm = l/( Pm = 3(2v/8773 - 3)(3 9.
and hence Pm F m =6 x/8f/3 Hence we obtain lor
T=l-0
1-5
2-0
2-5
3-0.
Pw =l-09
As an example of the
3-00
3-00
3-35
2-72
6-49
1-37.
4-86
7-97.
the following table has been calculated for
application of the relations here developed, 18C. or 0=291

:
The product
of pressure and
volume therefore diminishes as the
If pressure increases, if the pressure is less than 102 atmospheres. the pressure is greater than this the product increases with the pressure. is called the coefficient of pressure (b) The coefficient a,, which
(formerly called the coefficient of expansion at constant volume), and which denotes the change of pressure for a rise of temperature of 1 C. at constant volume of the gas, is determined in the following
way
We
a.
have
1/p . -dp/W
= 1/^P VPfdT=
.
1/0!
8/(3PF- P)
SECT, cxvin.]
VAN DER WAALS' EQUATION OF

.
.
STATE.
289
For very great values of V, a, = 1/6*, corresponding to an ideal gas. Further a, 6 l = l/(T- f 1/F+ 1 1/F 2 ). Van der Waals defines carresponding states as those in which the volumes, temperatures and pressures of both gases are in the same ratio to the same quantities in the critical state, that is, in which
.
= &/e{ = T, BIO I where the quantities v', /, p', etc., refer to the second gas thus we have <i,6l = a,' 6^ or a,/a,' = & 1 '/B l Hence the coefficients a, and a,' in
v/v,
- *//< -
r, p/Pl
= P 'ip = P,
f
corresponding states are inversely as the critical temperatures. which represents the increase (c) The coefficient of expansion ap
,
of
volume
for a rise of temperature of
1C.
at constant pressure, is
defined in the following
way
With increasing values of F", ap approaches the value a r If the bodies are in corresponding states, we have ap dl = ap'6 l If the basis for this method is sound it should find application in the expansion of
'.
liquids
by
heat.
the volume of liquids,
Since changes of pressure have only slight effect on it is sufficient to compare the coefficients of
The calculations made expansion at corresponding temperatures. by van der Waals have shown that this law is in essentials correct for liquids whose critical temperatures are known.
To determine the pressure of (d) The pressure of saturated vapours. saturated vapours we use the above-mentioned theorem of Maxwell, which states that the surface F'FEDD' (Fig. 140) is equal to the surface F'FJEHDH, that is, setting
OF'=TV OD'=Vv
we have
and
F'F=D'D = PV
*P d V.
.
F!
F =
Effecting the integration and using the equation of state that

(g)
fs
(f) it
follows
For the points

(P l
If F!
and
the following equations hold
+ 3j F1 2 )(3 ri -l) = 8T and (Pl + 3/ F22 )(3 F2 -
= 8T.
are eliminated from these equations, a relation is obtained between the pressure Pl of the saturated vapour and the tempera2
and
ture T.
for different bodies the absolute temperature
Waals that If same multiple of the critical temperature, the pressure of their saturated vapours -is also the same Similar laws hold for the relation multiple of their critical pressures.
:
We may
therefore conclude with van der

is
the
290
THERMODYNAMICS.
its
[CHAP. xin.
between the volume of the saturated vapour and
pressure and
temperature. On the basis of van der Waals' investigations, Clausius has presented a slightly altered form of the equation of state, viz.,
This equation represents the actual relations better than the other, but leads to essentially the same results. Starting from the equation
(h)
J.dQ = (dUfdO)je + ((dU/'dv) e +p)dv, and

obtain the relation
applying
the
.
second
law we
[CXIV.
(c)],
(3
From
(i)
Clausius' equation p/0 = E/(v
U/^ = P
3(^/0)./30.
-&)- a/ (P(v + {$}-, and hence
(dU/Vv) 6 =2a/6(v + W.
If the temperature increases
by dd and the volume by
dv, the internal
energy increases by
(k)
dU=Jc,.dO + 2a/e(v + py2 .dv,

is
where Jc, = (3 UfdO),

is
an unknown function of 6 and

slight, c,
v.
If the
changes of temperature are
may
,
be considered constant, as
shown by observation.
+ A0,
(1)
while v increases from

is
If the temperature increases to v.2 the increment
from
to
A?7 of the
internal energy
approximately equal to
A U= Jc, A0 + 2a/B .(Ifa.
l/
2 ).
If the gas
constant.
expands without resistance the internal energy remains in equation (1), we have Hence, if we set A 7 =
A0 = 2a/Jc,0 (Ifa (m) In this case the temperature falls.

.
l/v2).
SECTION CXIX.
If the
SATURATED VAPOURS.
volume of a gram of a certain substance, or its specific volume, when it is a vapour and v.2 when it is a liquid, the volume v occupied by a gram of liquid and vapour is (a) v = v l x + v 2(\-x), if the volume contains x grams of vapour and therefore (1 -x) grams
is
called v l
If is the internal energy of the vapour, of liquid. the liquid, the internal energy of the mixture of the two
(b)
that of
is
U=UlX +UJl-x).
So long as the vapour is saturated, its internal energy and pressure depend only on the temperature; the pressure and volume of the liquid are also determined by it. Hence, for a mixture of
SECT, cxix.]
SATUEATED VAPOUKS.
291
liquid and saturated vapour, we have (c) p=f(Q), where p is the pressure of the saturated vapour at the temperature 0, and consequently 6 is
the boiling point of the liquid
under
the pressure p.
That quantity of heat which is needed to transform one gram of liquid into vapour at constant temperature 6 and under the correThis heat sponding pressure p is called the heat of vaporization L. is partly used in increasing the internal energy, partly in doing
external work.
If
the vapour, at the temperature
U.2 denotes the energy of the liquid, U-^ that of 6, the internal energy is increased by
/!
U.-,
by the transformation.
is
I
Since the pressure
is
constant,
the external work
pdv =p(vl
v2 ).
The work needed
to evaporate
a gram of
its
liquid is (d) If a mixture of liquid
J.L=U
U^+p^-v^.
also changes
and vapour receives heat and

of internal energy,
since
volume, the
is
increase
and x both
vary,
<e)
dU=(U
dv =
(i\
U.2 )dx
(a),
2 )dx
+(
.
Since, from equation

(f )
it
- v.
+ (x
follows from the equation J. dQ = to the mixture is determined by

(
dU+p. dv
that the heat imparted
/.
dQ = {x(dU
/W+p
set
S^/30)
Vi
+ (1 - x)(dU2 /W+p
U.2 -pv.2 }dx.
\
If in this equation
we
it
we
obtain equation (d).

dx,
dd = Q, and integrate from x = to If equation (g) is brought into the
x=\,
form
J.dQ = Q.dd + X.
= 1/0.
follows,
(JT/0)/30.
from the Carnot-Clausius theorem, But we have
(3 UJV0
= 1/0 c>(Z/0)/c>0
+p (3 UJW +p
and Hence it follows that (h) U^ - U^(v^ - 2 ) 3p/30 -p(v1 2 ), thus the difference between the internal energy of the vapour and that of the fluid is determined.
. .
We
Now we know
obtain from equations (d) and by observation that ^

is
(h),
(i)
JL = (v -vz )B
l
'dp/W.
>v
so that 3p/30
t)ie
is positive.
The boiling point
therefore higher,
the higher
pressure.
We may
that case
i\
also apply
In process of melting. denotes the volume of the liquid, v z that of the solid.
equation
(i)
to
the
We
must here distinguish between two kinds of substances, those
292
like
THERMODYNAMICS.
[CHAP.
xm.
wax, whose volume increases during melting, and those like ice, For the former i\ > r.2 whose volume diminishes during melting. and therefore 'dpI'dB is positive; for the latter l <r.2 and therefore
,
i'
3^/30
is
negative.
For
those substances
whose volume increases during
melting, the melting temperature rises as the pressure increases.
For
those
substances whose volume diminishes during melting, the melting temperature

falls as
tlie
pressure increases.
volume is always filled with saturated vapour only, it follows from (g), since =1, that (k) J.dQ = (dU1 l'd6+p.'dr l fd6)d0. Hence dQ is the quantity of heat which must be imparted to the vapour that its temperature shall increase by dO while it remains
If the
saturated.
From
equation (d)
we have L\- U^ = JL~p(vl -v2 ).
If c denotes
the specific heat of the liquid, and if k is a constant, we If we consider v2 as constant, it follows that
may
set
-p
From
and
equations (i) (k) Designating by h the quantity of heat which must be used in raising the temperature of the vapour by 1C. while it remains saturated,
we then have dQ = (dL/d8- L/6 + c)d8.
we have
(1)
h = dL/dO - L/6 + c.
SECTION
CXX.
THE ENTROPY.
The methods which have here been applied to the discussion of the equilibrium of a fluid and its vapour may be used to advantage in many other cases, especially in connection with chemical problems. = for a cyclic All the methods are based on the equation Jd$/0
process.
M. Planck has given general formulas by which treatment The bodies whose chemical of such questions is much facilitated. at equilibrium is to be investigated are contained in the volume the temperature 6, and are subjected to an external pressure.
change in the chemical composition, or in the proportions of the mixture, is accompanied by a change of volume </Fand a change of
temperature dO, and at the same time the quantity of heat
dQ
is
received from surrounding bodies. If S denotes the entropy and the internal energy of the system, we have (a) dS=(dU + P.dV)jO^ The state of the system of bodies is determined by the pressure
If, P, the temperature 6, and certain other variables n, n^ n. etc. for example, the space contains water and saturated water vapour
SECT, cxx.]
THE ENTROPY.
293
and
the whole mass equals M, we may call the quantity of vapour and the quantity of liquid Mn r where n + n 1 = l. If we are dealing with a case of dissociation, we may use n for the number of molecules of the original gas, while n^ and n2 are the numbers of the dissociated molecules. Hence the state of a system depends generally on the quantities 0, P, n, n v n 2 ... and we have
if
Mn
(b)
[
dV= -3VIW dO + -dVj-d dS = 3S pB .dd + 'dS /oP .dP + 'dS fdn

.
From
the definition (a) of the entropy
we have
l/e.(dU/W +P. l/0.(dUfdF+ P

since
and P are independent. 6 and P do not depend on n, n v

'dS/'dn
.
It follows
n. ..., 2
from
(a)
and
(b),
since
that
If
we
set (c)
& = S-(U+PF)/Q,
.
this equation takes the

.
form
(d )
3*/9n dn + 'd^fdn l dn^ + ?&l'dnz

.
dn,2
. . .
= 0.
we have
be obtained
If the quantities n,
nv
n. ... 2
are independent of each other,

.
3^/d/i
and analogous directly from (a).
= 'dSj'dn -l/6.(d Uj'dn + P 3F/3w) equations, which may also in this case
In general, there will be some relation
among
Mn
the quantities n, n v n.^ ____ As an example of this method, we will consider the problem of the change of state. If a quantity of vapour and a quantity of liquid Mn^ are enclosed in a given volume,
we have
where
as above
n + it l =
l.
Then the following equations hold
S = Mns + Mn^,
$, it,
U = Mnu + Mnî^ V= Mnv + Mn^,
v denote the entropy, the internal energy and the volume vapour respectively, while s v u v and i\ denote the same From equation (c) we then have quantities for the liquid.
of the
<
and
= Mn(s - (u + Pv)/0) + Mnfa - (w + PvJ/6) = M(s - (u + Pv)/0)dn + ^/(^ - (MJ + Pv

a l
}l6)dn r
(e) l s^ r the quantities in this equation depend only on P and 0, it may take the form P=f(0). Hence the equation (e) states the way in which the pressure of the saturated vapour depends on the temperature.
In addition, we have dn + dn^ = the vapour and the liquid if
0.
Hence equilibrium exists between - u - Pv sO - u -Pv = Since
294
If the unit
THERMODYNAMICS.
mass of the substance
temperature
0,
[CHAP. xin.
is
transformed from liquid to
vapour
at the
the entropy increases
by
(f)
s-s l = JL/0.
We
P
therefore obtain from equation (e) JL = u-ul + P(v-vl ), as in CXIX. (d). If equation (e) is differentiated with respect to 0, and
considered as a function of
6,
.
and
if
we
.
use the equations

;
= 1/0 = 1/0
we
obtain the relation
(3tt/30
.
+P
30/30)
.
(3MJ/30 +
1
3rj/30)
J.L = (v-v
)6.'dP/W.
We may
consider the
in a certain tendency in accompanied by the development of heat ; hence energy seems to be especially inclined to assume the form of heat, and heat tends
method here described as having its basis nature. Almost all natural processes are
to pass
In
it
from bodies of a higher to those of a lower temperature. such transformations the total energy remains unchanged, but loses more and more the capacity of transforming itself into kinetic
all
energy.
is
body which contains a quantity of heat Q l and whose

is
temperature
02,
P while the temperature of
all
surrounding bodies
- 2 )/0 r Hence yield [CXII. (e)] the kinetic energy ^(0a remains the lower the less the kinetic energy yielded, if 2 1?
may
constant.
Clausius expressed this principle in the statement that the entropy always increases and tends toward a maximum. For example, if a quantity of heat Q passes by conduction or radiation from a body at the
higher temperature 6l to one at the lower temperature 2 the increase of entropy is &S=Q/d2 -Q/O r The entropy remains unchanged only
,
in the case of a cycle, in which the bodies receiving the heat have the same temperature as those giving it up, and in which the whole
is in neutral equilibrium, since after the performance of this = or A=0. This is also the case at any instant \dQ/6 during the cycle, if we take into account not only the entropy of the working body, but also that of surrounding bodies ; if the first
system
cycle
receives
the quantity of heat dQ, the second gives up the same since the temperature of both bodies is the same, the entropy remains unchanged. This holds, however, only for ideal cycles; in any actual movement of heat, the heat passes from a
quantity;
higher to a lower temperature,

increase.
and
the
entropy must
therefore
Hence the condition
for a
change in the state of a system
is
an
increase of the entropy; changes in which the entropy diminishes are impossible. The state of a body in equilibrium is such that if
SECT, cxxi.]
it
DISSOCIATION.
995
undergoes a small change, the entropy will either increase or remain constant.
We
thus return to the conditions of equilibrium
(a).
By
the
communication of the quantity of heat dQ the entropy of the body considered diminishes by dS; hence the increase of the total entropy hdS-dQ/6, and this must be equal to zero. Since dQ = dU+P.dV
we obtain dS-l/0.(dU+P.dF) = 0.
SECTION CXXI.
If a
DISSOCIATION.
compound gas is separated into two or more constituent gases, by heating or by diminution of pressure, it is said to be dissociated the extent of the dissociation depends on the pressure and In order to determine it, we must determine the temperature. If n denotes the number of molecules function (a) 3? = S - ( U +PV}jQ. of the original gas, n1} n 2 ... the numbers of molecules of the proeither
;
ducts of dissociation, we have, as an expression for the total internal energy U, U=nu + n l ul + n 2u2 + ..., where u, u v u 2 denote the energies
its specific
If m is the mass of a molecule, and c, of the separate molecules. heat at constant volume, we may set the internal energy at 6 C.
equal to Jmc,0 +
c,
/t,
when A
is
a constant.
If
....
we
Jmc, by
we have
(b)
U=n(cO + h) + n l (c l Q + h 1 ) +
represent If v denotes
the volume of a molecule of a gas and p its pressure, we have pv = E6, where R does not depend on the nature of the gas. For the sake Since the gases are uniformly disof simplicity Planck sets R=\. tributed throughout the whole volume, we have nv = n l v 1 = ... = T, and therefore pV= n6, p l V= rÔ, etc., (c) PV= (n + 1^ + n2 +. .)(?. By this equation V is given as a function of P, 0, n, n l ....
.
of the system is equal to the sum of the entropies of the gases, so that S=ns + n ls l + n2s 2 + ..., if s denotes the entropy of the molecule. Using c with the meaning given above, the entropy of a molecule equals [CXI. (d)] c log + log v + k. Here nv = V, and
The entropy
all
therefore
by the use of equation

s
(c),
=c
log e
+ log(e/P
(n
+ n 1 + n2 +
n.2
..)/)
+ k.
(7+ C^
If
we
set +...), etc.,
we have
(d)
296
THERMODYNAMICS.
the use of equations
f
[CHAP. xin.
By
(b),
(c),
and
(d),
(a) takes
the form
+ l)(log 8-I)-\ogP-logC + k- h/ff] + njfa + l)(log - 1) - log P - log C, + - V*] +

n[(c
jfcj
. .
But we have 3(. logC+i^ AogC1 + ...)/3/i = log<7, and further = (c + 1 )(log e~l)-logP-logC+k- h/e. cX/cto (f )
Similar expressions hold for the other differential coefficients. ducing these values in the condition of equilibrium
Intro-
3*/3
it
dn + t&rdn^ dn^ +
.
. . .
= 0,
we know
the relations
follows that the problem
may
n,
be solved
if
existing
If
among
the quantities
n lt n 2
the dissociation of hydriodic acid of the gases in the
:
we
investigate, for example,
into
hydrogen, the proportions mixture can be represented in the following

iodine
and
way nJH, n-^H^ .*/.>. two molecules of hydriodic acid form one molecule of hydrogen and one of iodine, hence the ratio between dn, dn v dn.2 1. the is - 2 1 If we set generally dn dn-^ dn.2 ... = v v l v 2 condition of equilibrium becomes
By
dissociation
. .
(g)
oQ/dn +
(f)
Vl
From
(h)
equations
2[v(c
and
(g)
3*73^ + v 2 3*/3 we obtain

.
. .
= 0.
l)(log 6
1)
v log
P-
v log
C+ vk - vh/ff] = 0.
To
is is
simplify the calculation Planck assumed that the atomic heat constant even in the compound gas, and that the molecular heat
is
sum of the atomic heats ; experiment shows that this approximately true in all cases. If a, a 1? a 2 denote the number of atoms in the molecule of each gas, we may set
equal to the
C
= ya,
is
= yav
is
c.
= ya.2 ....
dissociation, the
Since the whole
number of atoms
...
sum na + nl al + n2a2 +
Consequently also va Further if we set
v
unchanged by constant, and hence

. .
a.dn + a l dn^ + a 2
dn.2
. .
= 0.
vc
+ v^ + v 2a 2 4...
. . .
and
+v
+ v.2 2 +
c.
= 0.
+ v l + v.2 + v3 +
=VQ
vh + v1 h l
+ vji2 +
...
it
follows from (h) that
SECT, cxxi.]
DISSOCIATION.
297
Hence
for hydriodic acid

v
we have
l
= 0, and C Cz IC z = k .h.
set free
1
no hydrogen or iodine is present except that sociation, we have n l = n 2 and therefore Cl = C.2 and
If
,
by
dis1'
C /C=-Jk
is
.h
e
.
Now
(7
/C'=n 1 M.
Hence the degree of
dissociation
of the pressure, but increases with the temperature. however, the dissociation can never become complete, since, for
independent In this case,
= o>
we have Cl /C=Jk^. From equation (i)

This
is
dissociation if the total
the pressure has no influence on the degree of volume remains unchanged by the dissociation.
v
the case
when
= 0.
If,
on the other hand, the volume
increases during the dissociation, any increase of the pressure will lessen the degree of dissociation. This occurs in the case of nitrogendioxide,
into
N 4 in which one molecule is broken up by the dissociation two molecules NO 2 Hence v= - 1, Vj = 2, and therefore
,
.
This
equation,
together with
c^/c=k .h^.e/p. Cl + C=\, determines
the degree of
dissociation.
dn,
In order to occasion the dissociation determined by the quantities dn v dn2 at constant temperature and at constant pressure, the
,
quantity of heat
dQ
is
required, which
is
determined by
or,
from equations
-ir
= 0,
= 2(c0 + h)dn + 6 *2dn. Since (b) and (c), by J dQ the quantity of heat required for the dissociation determined
. .
by the quantities
(k)
v,
vv
...
is
determined by
v
J.Q = vh + v
hl
+ vJi 2 +... +
reach the same result from the equation with the relations (d) and (h).
We
0=v 8-logh J.dQ=B.dS

.
together
CHAPTER
XIV.
CONDUCTION OF HEAT.
SECTION CXXII.
FOURIER'S EQUATION.
IF the temperatures of the different parts of a body are different, a gradual change goes on until the temperature of all parts of the body is the same, that is, until equilibrium of temperature has been
reached.
In this statement
it
is
assumed that the body neither
receives heat from surrounding bodies nor gives up heat to them. The rate at which the condition of equilibrium is reached depends
Without upon the facility with which the body conducts heat. making any assumptions on the nature of heat, we may say that heat flows in a body until a state of equilibrium is reached. We define the rate of flmv of heat in any direction, as that quantity of
heat which passes in unit time through unit area perpendicular to that direction.
Hence, if Q represents the rate of flow of heat through an area dS within the body, the quantity of heat which will pass through If Z7, V, that area in the time dt is Q (IS dt. are the components
.
coordinate axes, the quantities of heat which pass through the elementary areas dy dz, dx dz, dx dy, in the time dt, are U.dy.dz. dt, dx dz dt, and W.dx.dy.dt
of flow in the directions of the
.
.
respectively.
for
Using the general equations (XIV.) of fluid motion, we obtain Q (a) Q = lU+mV+nll ', where /, m, n are the direction cosines of the normal to the elementary area dS. Let 00' (Fig. H2) be a rectangular parallelepiped, whose edges OA = a, OB = b, and 00 = c are parallel to the coordinate axes. If
f
U, at
V,
represent the components of flow at the point 0, those
are
U+'dU/'dx
a, b, c so
a,
F+^Vj'dx.a,
W+'dWJ'dx.a
first
respectively,
supposing
small that only the
terms in the expansion
CHAP. xiv. SECT, cxxii.]
FOUEIEE'S EQUATION.
299
The parallelepiped receives the quantity of heat time dt through the surface OBAC, and loses the quantity (U+'dU/'dx. a)bc. dt, which flows out through the surface AC'O'B' in the same time. The parallelepiped gains, on the whole,
need be retained.
U.dt.bc
in the
the quantity - 9 U/'dx a.bc.dt. If we take account of the other surfaces, the quantity of heat which remains in the parallelepiped
.
is
-(Bl7/aa;+3F/3y+a#7a).a6e.&J or, if we set a.b.c = dv, - (d U/dx + "d Vj-dy + 3 Wfiz)dvdt.
This quantity of heat raises the temperature of the parallelepiped d6, which, if c denotes the specific heat of the body, and p its density, is determined by the following equation,
by
(b)
cp
dd = -
holds only if the heat received is used solely in causing change of temperature and does not produce any change in the state of aggregation or any chemical change. Sometimes, too, heat exists in the interior of a body which has not penetrated
This equation
into
it
in the
electrical current in the
form of heat, but is produced by friction or by an body and to this the above equation does
;
not apply.
The components
of flow
U,
V,
W depend
on the distribution of
heat in the body and on the nature of the body. If the body conducts heat equally well in all directions, that is if it is isotropic,
we may determine the
rate of flow in the following way. Let and B be two points within the body infinitely near each other, in which the temperatures are respectively 9 and &, If dv denotes the distance between the points A and B, and k the conductivity of
the body for heat, the rate of flow of heat in the direction
AB
is
300
CONDUCTION OF HEAT.
[CHAP. xiv.
= Hence the condi.i<-tint>/ is the quantity of given by Q k(0- &)/dv. heat which flows in unit time through unit area of a surface in the
body, parallel with and between two surfaces whose temperatures differ by 1, and which are distant from each other by one centimetre.
Now
since
& = 6 + ddjdv
manner
dv,
we have
also (c)
Q=
-k.dOldv.
U,
V,
IV,
We
the
obtain in like
for
the components of flow
In -k.W/Vx, -k.'dBj'dy, fT= -k.'dO/'dz. expressions (d) but for the sake actual cases the conductivity k is a function of obtain from of simplicity we will assume that k is constant.
U=
V=
We
(b)
(e)
and
(d)
cp
.
2 2 2 2 Wfit = k(d-epx + 3 0/9/ + 3 0/3z ).
given by Fourier, and is therefore called heat c, the density p, and the conductivity k are functions of 6; we will, however, consider them constant. Fourier's equation may also take the form
This equation was

Fourier's equation.
first
The
specific
(f)
30/ctf
z (g) K
= K 2 (9 2 0/9z2 + 3 2 0/3/ + 92 0/^2 ),
where
= k/cp.
In the following table the values of k and K for several metals at the temperatures and 100 C. are given from the experiments of
L. Lorenz
:
SECTION CXXIII.
STEADY STATE.
is
The
state of the
body with respect to heat
called steady, if the
temperatures of the different parts of the body are different, but do not change with the time. In this case each particle gives up
on the one side as much heat as

temperature
is
it
receives on the other,

t
independent of the time
and the and dependent only on

equation CXXII.
(f)
0.
For the steady x, y, z. 2 = 3 2 0/d.c2 + 3 2 0/3/ + 3 2 flow are expressed by equations CXXII.
the coordinates
becomes
(a)
state,
2
V #=
(d).
The components of
whose
faces
Flow of
lieat
L and
M are
in a phite.
We
.
will consider a thin plate
parallel to the yz-plane.
The temperatures
of the faces
are respectively 6l and This being so, the flow of heat is parallel 2 to the .r-axis, and the temperature in the vicinity of the .T-axis
SECT, cxxin.]
STEADY STATE.
x,
301
2
depends only on
so that from (a)
we have d
0=px + q.
If the distances of the faces
and
2
M from
=pb + q,
a).
0jdx
= 0.
Hence
are a and b respectively,

6 = (bO }
If
we have
z )f(b
=pa + q,
the y^-plane and further
- a0
-a)-
- 8 (6 1 2 )x/(b
we represent the distance b - a between the faces by of flow of heat U between them is (c) 17=^-0^/6.
e,
the rate
Every integral of equation (a) corresponds to a steady state of heat. If 8=f(x, y, z) is an integral of (a), and 2 =f(x, y, z) 1 =f(x, y, z)
are the equations of
isothermal surfaces,
two surfaces of constant temperatures, or of two If the body is where O l and 2 are constant. bounded by the surfaces which are determined by l and 6.2 and if 6 is a temperature which lies between and 2 0=f(x, y, z) is l
,
the equation of any isothermal surface. The flow of heat in a sphere. If and
are constant, and
if
r2
is
= x2 + y 2 + z2
a solution of
(a).
Therefore
= m/r + c = m/rl + c, setting l

,
= m/r.2 + c, we
>-^-^
as the equation of the system of isothermal surfaces, which in this in the direction r, case are spheres. For the rate of flow of heat
we have
(e)
U=
-k. d0/dr = k(0l -
2 )r l
r 2 /r2 (r<i
1\).
The temperature
and flow of heat
whose internal and external and 2 respectively, are also surfaces are at the temperatures l given by equations (d) and (e). The total quantity of heat which flows out through the hollow sphere is ^Trr2 U=4irk(0 l - 0.2 )rlr2 /(r2 - ra ). The flow of heat in a tube. If c and c are constants and if r2 = x2 + y-,
in a hollow sphere,
we we
(f )
have, from XV.,

set 6l
= c.\ogr l +
c',
= clogr + as an integral of = c log r.2 + we obtain 2

c'
.
(a).
Therefore, if
c',
8 = (0 l -
2 )log /-/(log r,
log rz )
+ (^log r 2 -
2 log
r 1 )/(log r z
log r,}.
The rate of flow U in the direction r is The quantity of heat which flows out through a tube is (g) 2irrCT=2^(0 1 -02 )/(log3-logr1 ).
U=k(8 l - 82 )/r(\ogr 2 -\ogrl ).

unit length of the
SECTION CXXIV.
THE PERIODIC FLOW OF HEAT

DIRECTION.
IN
A GIVEN
If the temperature of the
body depends only on one coordinate,

'dO/'dt
say on
x,
Fourier's equation becomes (a)
= K2
'd
0/'dx
We
will
hereafter investigate in
what way
this
equation can be integrated.
302
For the present we
CONDUCTION OF HEAT.
will consider special integrals
[CHAP. xiv.
which correspond
to simple yet important cases.
and
The temperature of the earth changes during the year it rises The time at which the falls with the temperature of the air.
;
maximum
or
minimum temperature
at
any point
is
reached
is
later
In the following disas the point lies further below the surface. cussion we will not take into account the internal heat of the earth.
If the temperature at the earth's surface
is
given by (b)
= sin at,
we may express the temperature at a point in the interior of the earth by (c) 6 = P sin at + Q cos at, where P and Q are functions of the distance x of that point from the earth's surface. If we substitute for 9 in (a) the expression (c) we have
.
Pa.
cos
at-Qa.
sin at
*c
= K 2 (sin at
2
2
d^P/^x
+ cos at
2
d^Q/dx
z
2
).
= - Qa and K*.d Q/dx = Pa. Now if we set e 2 = a/* 2 we have (d), (e), d*P/dx* = - e 4 P and Q = - 1/c 2 d 2 P/dx?. In order to integrate equation (d) we set P = Ae px and obtain p = f$J - 1. The integral of equation (d) then takes the form
Hence we must have
,
d P/dx
'
Since
must equal
when x = GO
we have
A=B =
Q,
and hence
We
obtain from equation (e)
Q=
(C- 1 + V ^* X V *- J)e(-l1
But from equations (b) and (c) we have P and therefore C=D = Hence we obtain
.
and Q =
si n
when
x = 0,
p = e - ex/v/r
and
Substituting for
e
cos
(^2)
/^
value,
e
Q=-e- /^
sin (at
6 = eits
ee,>/2).
we have
.
6=
-*/
sin (at
- *//*).
The difference between the highest and lowest temperatures at the xV K This difference depth x below the surface is therefore 2e~ The faster the temperature changes depends on the value of a. at the surface the smaller the influence of this change on the tem-
perature in the interior.

at the
surface
For example,
if
we
set the
temperature
= 8in(27r2/r), the difference between the equal to K and this is x highest and lowest temperatures is equal to '2e- ^^l very much greater when T is a year than when it is a day.
,
SECT, cxxv.]
A HEATED SURFACE.
303
The temperature relations within the earth are actually different from those here described, because the temperature at the surface cannot be expressed in any simple way. The main features of the phenomena, however, are similar to those deduced in this discussion.
SECTION
CXXV.
HEATED SURFACE.
Let the temperature in an infinite body at the time t = be everywhere zero, except in a plane in which each unit of area contains Fourier showed that at the time t the the quantity of heat o-.
temperature 6 at a point at the distance x from the heated plane
given by
~
is
where k
is
We
will
now examine whether

W/dt =
K2
.
the conductivity and K the quantity defined in CXXIL (g). this expression for 6 satisfies all the
conditions of the problem.
We
.
will first
(a)
consider the
differential
equation
(b), (c),
32 0/3x2
From
we
obtain
(d)
from (b) and (d) that the differential equation is satisfied. Since the function ze~^ approaches zero as its limit if z becomes = we have = 0, for all values infinitely great, it follows that for /
It follows
of a-, with the exception of the value x = Q. If 6 is determined by the equation (a), we can further show that each unit of area of the heated surface S contains the quantity of heat cr at the time t = 0.
The total quantity of heat which by the expression
is
present in the body
is
given
But because
(e)
e~**dq
the quantity of heat present at any time must be So-, and since this quantity is present on the infinite surface 8 at the time 2 = 0, the
unit of surface at that time must contain the quantity for t = as well as for It follows from (a) that 6 =
fore there
o-.
<x>
there-
time
is
must be a found from
certain time at
(f)
which 6
sponding value of
is (g)
= 0, which gives 6 = \/\/2ire a-fcpx. It

.
maximum. z 2 t = x The /2K

is
This
corre-
appears from equation
304
(a) that
CONDUCTION OF HEAT.
[CHAP. xiv.
is the heat is propagated with an infinite velocity, since everywhere different from zero as soon as t has a finite value. We will now determine the temperature at any time in a region in which the original distribution of heat depends only on one of the coordinates. Let 0=f(a) when / = 0, where a is the distance
from the y^-plane.
two
parallel planes for
The part S of the region which is bounded by which x = a and x = a + da, contains the quantity
o-
of heat So- = S.da. pc ./() Therefore the quantity in the unit of area of this sheet is a- = da pc ./().
.
which
is
present
If the temperature of the rest of the region is zero, the heat flows out from this sheet on both sides, and at a point whose distance from the f/2-plane equals x, and which therefore is at the distance
x-a
from the
shell,
the temperature by (a)
is
,70
-JL
^fr
All other similar sheets emit heat according to the we therefore have
same law, and
If
we
set
(i)
q = (a-x)/2K,Jt, 6=
1 / /TT N
.
we have
+ [
The expressions (h) and before us. If we set
(i)
t
contain the complete solution of the problem in equation (i) and make use of (e), it
is
follows at once that 6=f(x). For example, if the initial temperature within the portion determined by -I
<x< +1,
is
constant and equal to but equal to zero

effected
outside these limits, the integration in (h) limits, so that
between these
SECTION CXXVI.
THE FLOW OF HEAT FROM A

1
POINT.
Let us suppose that, at the time

infinitely
= 0,
is
the
great
body
is
everywhere equal to
zero,
temperature in an except at one
point,
in
which the quantity of heat
concentrated.
We
will
investigate the distribution of heat in the
body
at
any subsequent
SECT, cxxvi.]
THE FLOW OF HEAT FROM A
POINT.
305
time
t. This problem was first handled by Fourier, who found that the temperature 8 at a point whose distance from is r is given by
(a)
= m K 2/k
IjlK^tY
~ 5 */4
*\
We can show that this expression satisfies all the conditions of the If the point which contains the quantity of heat is at problem. the origin of coordinates, Fourier's equation
Wfdt takes
is
/c
(3 0/3a;
the
form (XV.)
(b)
+ 3 2 0/3y2 + 320/as) = * 2 (3 2 0/3r2 + 2/r 30/3r), 30/3<

2
.
because
a function of r only.
This equation
-d(r6)pt
may
.
be given the form
(c)
= K*d*(rO)pr 2
/
We
(d)
obtain from (a)

(
3(r0)/3<
J 9(r0)/3/(
= - 3/2t + r 2/4jc 2 2 ) r0, = (l/r-r/2/c 2 0.r0, 3 = - 3/2* 2 + r2 /4K 4 2 ) 3*(r0)/3r (

(
.
r0,
and by the use of these values prove

is satisfied.
first
present
is
///,
= when t = 0. The Further, since the total quantity of heat at any time
r2
.
that Fourier's equation quantity of heat originally

is
given by
"
/
dr pcd
.
=
Jo
4*1* dr
.
(l
Jo
If
we
set q
= r/'2i<^Jf,
the integral takes the form
find by integration by parts, and by the use of the value of the integral is m.
We
CXXV.
(e),
that
The time
/,
at
from the equation
which B reaches = 0, and is from

is
its
(d),
3
maximum value, is obtained = r2 j6K 2 The corresponding

.
maximum
value of
3
.
0=(l/\A|7re) .'m/e/w
SECTION CXXVII.
THE FLOW OF HEAT EXTENDED BODY.

with
the
aid
IN
AN INFINITELY
We
will
now
investigate,
of the
results
already
obtained, the flow of heat in an infinitely extended body, when the Let 0=/(a, b, c) distribution of heat at a particular time is given. at the time / = 0, where a, b, c are the coordinates of a point referred
to a system of rectangular axes.
The quantity
of heat contained
2
.
by a volume-element da db dc
.
.
is
dm =f(a,
u
b, c)
k/K
dadbdc.
306
If this quantity
rise of
is
CONDUCTION OF HEAT.
propagated through the body,
(a)],
it
[CHAP. xiv.
produces the
temperature [CXXVI.
dO=(ll2K,JrtFe-K
If
x -<tf+<y- b y+<*- e W* lft
.f(a,
b,
c)dadbdc.
of all increments of temperature which arise from the distribution of heat considered, we obtain for the tempera-
we
take the
sum
ture
(a)
at the point x, y, z, +" +* + 2 2 g-[(*-) ^-*>) +(e-c)W < .y( a> 6 = (1/2/cv/^) 3 f f [ J QO J-oo J-oo
2
)dadbdc.
This expression for B

(b)
is
an integral of the differential equation
2 2 2 Wf-dt = K (3 0/3.r
+ 3 2 0/3/ + 3 2 0/3z 2
.
).
notice that the integration of this equation depends on that of the simpler equation (c) 'dX/'dt = K-3 2 JT/3x 2 is a function For if
We
of x and
of
y,
t
tt
which
z, z,
t
satisfies
equation
(c),
and
if
Y and Z are functions

We
have
and
respectively,
which
satisfy
equations analogous to
(c) for
y and
the equation
.
= XYZ
satisfies (b).
.
YZX+ XZY+ XYZ= K\YZ

It follows
9 2JT/3z 2 + XZ
^Y/^f + XY. ^Z/^).
from
is
(c)
this equation
satisfied,
and the analogous equations for y and z that from CXXV. (a), by X= l/Jt. g -C*-W,
hence the expression
is
\IJt.e-b- W*^ .Ijjt.e-to- *> .\IJt.e-toan integral of equation (b). Therefore, also,
e
^
b,
'
K 2f
= Cf
/ "I
"T"{
^
a,
3
'
e- {(x a ? +(>J b ? +(*- c
KU
-/(a,
c,)dadbdc
b,
is
an integral of equation
b,
(b).
c.
C
we
is
a constant, and /(a,
c)
an
arbitrary function of
a
it
If
set
= (a-x)l-2K^t,
+X
/3
= (b-y)/2 K Jt, y = (c-z)!'2 K ,Jt,

~ at
follows that
= ( 2K ) 3C f
If
f^f^
z
t
~^-^f(x +
Znajt, y
'2><PJt,
we now assume
If f(x,
= Q,
e
+ 2 K -yJt)dad/3dy. we obtain by the help = (2 K )*.C(j7r)*f(x,y,z).
of
CXXV.
(e),
y,
z) is
,
an expression for the temperature when
= Q, we
set C'=l/(2K >/7r) 3
and obtain
The expressions
(a)
and
(d) are identical, as
may be shown by
the
substitution already employed.
SECT, cxxvin.]
THE FORMATION OF
ICE.
307
SECTION CXXVIII.
THE FORMATION OF
ICE.
Suppose that the temperature of a mass of water is everywhere that the surface of the mass is in contact with another surface whose temperature is 6 may be either constant or A sheet of ice will be variable, but must be always below zero.
= 0, and
formed under
time
of
t
t.
this
surface,
whose thickness
surface.
is
a function of the
is
The temperature
Q of the mass of ice
itself a
is
function
and of the distance x from the

(a) ice
For x = e,
always
equal to zero. The equation within the mass of ice. New
Wfftt**K*&Ofdx* holds everywhere will form continually on the bound-
The quantity of heat which flows ing surface of the ice and water. outward through unit area of the lowest sheet of ice is given by k~dd/'dx.dt. During the same time a sheet of ice, whose thickness
is
de, is formed, and the quantity of heat where L represents the heat of fusion of ice x = e, we have
set free
thereby
is
Lpde,
arid p its density.
When
(b)
kWfdx = Lpd/dt,
or
We may
write for 6 the expression
As may
satisfies
it
the condition that
easily be seen, this expression satisfies equation (a). = when x = e. In order to find
It also
whether
satisfies
the condition contained in

x,
(b),
we
differentiate (c) with
respect to
and obtain
When
=e
this
becomes equation
(b).
it
Since, at the surface,
6=
follows from (c) that
If the thickness
time
given,
t,
#
it
is
may
of the sheet of ice is given as a function of the is be easily determined ; on the other hand, if in general difficult to determine e.
See also
Stefan,
*This solution was communicated to the author by L. Lorenz. Wied. Ann., Bd. XLIL, S. 269.
308
If
stant.
is
CONDUCTION OF HEAT.
constant, the right side of equation (d)
is
2
//c
[CHAP. xiv.
This condition
(d)
fulfilled if
= 2p 2
t,
must where p
also be conis
constant.
From
we then
obtain the equation
a finite form,
which serves to determine p. In order to put the we form from (e)
series in (e) into
and thus obtain d(cd /Lp)/dp =

is
+ cBJL.
If the
The
integral of this equation
(f)
cejL^pTe-^-^^da.
constant,
it
thickness
t,
of the
is,
sheet of ice
q
increases in direct ratio with the time

is
that
if
= JK/, where
new
follows from (d) that

rAft
ô/
If
e
n6fS 2
^+fVr
we
6
dt.
.
"'' or (g)
cOJL = f-\.
is
very small,
e2
obtain from
(d)
c6
/L=
1/2/c
if
d(?/dt,
and
hence (h)
= 2k/Lp
This result also follows
we
set the
to kdjt, in which, however, we assume that the temperature in the ice increases uniformly from its upper surface downward. On this assumption, the quantity of heat kO^.dtje. flows upward through the ice in the time (It. In the same time a
flow of heat
upward equal
sheet of
whose thickness is dt, is formed, and the quantity of This set free. Hence we have kOQ dt/t Lp de. If is conequation leads to the result we have already obtained.
ice,
heat Lp.de
is
(}
stant, it follows that
(i)
= j2
SECTION CXXIX.
THE FLOW OF HEAT
IN
A PLATE WHOSE
SURFACE
is
KEPT AT A CONSTANT TEMPERATURE.
It is in general very difficult to determine the variations of temwill discuss a few cases in which perature in a limited body. it is possible to solve this problem. Suppose that the temperature
We
in the interior of a plate
bounded by parallel plane faces is 6 =/(), where x denotes the distance of the point considered from one of
the faces of the plate. From the time t = on, the surfaces are supposed to be in contact with a mixture of ice and water, or to be so conditioned that their temperature is kept at zero. The law
SECT, cxxix.]
THE FLOW OF HEAT IN A PLATE.
309
according to which the temperature changes in the interior of the plate is to be determined. Designating the thickness of the plate
by
a,
we have
for
t
for x
= 0, 0=f(x) = 0, = 0;
for
for x
= oo =
,
= 0; = 0.
is
The
rate at
which the temperature changes at the surface

is
infinitely
great; just outside the surface it it, at one face, it is equal to /(O).
outside the plate
is
equal to zero, while just within At the other face the temperature
it f(a).
also zero,
and within
The function
must
satisfy not only these conditions, but also the differential equaK 23 2 0/2te2 tion (b) 'dd/'dt integral of this equation is
An
(c)
6 = e~ m
(a)
'
K2t
(A sinmx + Bcosrnx).
mx.
From
B = 0,
so that (d)
= Ae~ mVt sin
This value of
satisfies
is also not only equation (b), but also vanishes for x = 0. Since zero when x = a, we must have sin ma = 0, and therefore ma= pir,
where p
(e)
is
a whole number.
Hence we have
.
= Ae-#****l<*
we
notice further that 6=f(x)
sin (pxirja).
^
If
(f )
when
= 0, we have
= A sin (pTTX/a). f(x)

In general, the function /(x) can not be represented by this expresTo solve the problem we use the following method. Since the expression (e) is an integral of Fourier's equation, the
sion.
is obtained by taking the sum of the similar expreswhich are obtained by giving p all values between 1 and oo The terms which correspond to a negative value of p differ from those terms for which p is positive only in sign, and can therefore be considered as contained in the latter. Hence we set
complete integral
sions,
(g)
8=
sin fax/a)
- **&!*
+ A 2 sin (2vx/a)
for
~ 2ViA/a*
+ _
When t = Q, we
(h)
have
=/(), so that
l
0<x<a
...
.
f(x)
will
=A
$in(Trx/a)
+ A 2 sin (2Trx/a) +
is f(x), arbitrary within the given limits, can be represented by a trigonometrical For this purpose we choose instead of the series of this form.
We
now
investigate whether a function
which
infinite series (h)
another series with (n - 1) coefficients A v A^... A H _ V which coincides with /(x) at (n-}) points, namely, at the points
a/n ,
x = 2ajn,
...
x=
(n-l )a/n.
310
CONDUCTION OF HEAT.
then obtain the following n 1
[CHAP. xiv.
We
equations
f((n
l)a/n)
= A l sin((w -
I)TT/TI)
+ A 2 sin((n -
1)2*
..
+ A n_
If
sin((n- l)(n -!)/).
we multiply
sin(27r/?i),
the
by
etc.,
of these equations by sin(ir/), the second and add the right and left sides of the equations
first
thus obtained,
we have
/)
sin(27i
+
/w)
...
+f((n
. . .
l)a/)sin((w
l)ir/w)
sin 2 ((n
l)w/)]
+ sin ((n - 1 )w/) sin ((TO -
)2ir/)]
. . . .
Now
sin 2 a
+ sin 2 2a +
. . .
+ sin 2 ((?i -
)a)
...
=
But because
jf"n-l -(cos2a + cos4a+
+ cos((2/i-2)a))1.
we have
sin 2 a
+ sin 2 2a +
...
+sin 2 ((%- l)a) = |[wits
cos%a. sin(%- l)a/sina].
Substituting for a
value
irjn,
we have
. . .
sin2 (7r/-n)
+ sin 2 (27r
-
sin 2
((n
)ir/n)
= w/2.
Now we
can give the factor of

|[cos(7r/?i)
the form
cos(37r/n)
+ cos(27r/n) - cos(6ir/)...
Applying the
factor
etc.,
is
+ cos((n- l)w/n) - cos((n - 1)3>)]. above given summation formula, we

way
.
find
that
this
In the same equal to zero. vanish, and we obtain finally
the factors of
3,
Av
A = 2/n. \_f(a/n) sin

l
(77/71)
+/(2a/n) sin ( 2ir/n)
. . .
+f((nIn general
l)a/7i)sin((n- l)r/)].
we
have, for
.
0<m<w,
.
j 1
A m = 2/n
\_f(a/n)
sin(mir/n)
.
+...+/((-! )o/n)
sin
+/(2a/) sin(2m7r/w) -1
.
((
)wir/)].
SKCT. cxxix.]
THE FLOW OF HEAT IN A PLATE.

is
311
Hence
it
that f(x) and of x between

will the
possible to so determine the coefficients v v ... the trigonometrical series coincide for (n - 1) values and a. The greater the value of n, the more values
in
two functions have
common, and when n =
GO
one function
be replaced by the other between the limits considered. The two functions are not, however, necessarily identical, for their differential coefficients may be entirely different. One of them is related to
may
the
other in the same
whose
We
way as a straight line to a zig-zag line, irregularities are infinitely small. will now assume that ?i=oo and write the equation (i),
A m = 2/7T
Setting
(k)
Tr/n
[f(a/n)
sin (rmr/n ) +f(2a/n) sin
+f(rajri) sin (rimr/n)
...].
= y, r-rr/n
= dy, ir/n
= rafn ay ITT,
.
it
follows that
A m = 2/7T
if
f/(ay/7r)
-0
sm(my)dy.
Further,
(1)
we
set
x = ay/ir, we have
A m = 21 a
/fa) sin (rmrxla)dx.
The same
result is obtained in another
way
in
XXXVII.
(c).
Therefore, within given limits,
we can
for
replace the function f(x]
by
a trigonometrical
f(x)
series,
and
set,
0<<a,
= 2/a
[sin(n-x/a)
+ sin(27ra;/a).
o
Introducing the values for is solved, and we obtain

[
Av A2
.
...
contained in
(g),
the problem
\aQ
= sin (iTxê-****"*
[ /(or) sin (irx/a)dx
(n)
For example, and equal to
if
,
the initial temperature of the plate
is
constant
we have
I
6 sin(nnrx/a)dx = (l
cos mrfaOJmir,
and therefore
(o) \TrO
t
When
(p)
= 6 siu(7rxla)e- *Kla} + sin(37ne/a) g- <"*/)*'+ .... = 0, we obtain, for 0<x<a, = sin (irxja) + ^ sin (3irx/a) + ^ sin (5irx/a) + ... ^TT
(
*- t
312
CONDUCTION OF HEAT.
CXXX.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF FUNCTIONS SINES AND COSINES.
[CHAP. xiv.
SECTION
IN SERIES OF
As shown
(a)
in the foregoing paragraph,
we may always
...
,
set
f(x)
=A
(1)]
l sin(Trx/a)
+ A 2 sin('27rx/a) +
in
(b)
which [CXXIX.
A m = 2!a
I /(a) sin (mira/a)da,

.'o
is replaced by a. This development holds only for < x < a ; and a, except when f(x) itself is does not hold for the limits The right side of (a) is an odd function, equal to zero for these limits.
where x
it
which changes its sign with .r. The series (a) holds then within = the limits -a<a;<0, when/(z) is also odd. Setting /(.r) .r, we have
A m = 2/a
and further
(c)
a sin (iwra/a)da
2a cos (mir)fmir,
|
is
irx/a
= sin (irxja) - i
sin (2irx/a)
+J
sin (3-.r/)
Since x
if it
an odd function, the
series holds for negative values of x
x=Q,
holds for positive values. it holds within the limits
Further, since the series holds for
-a<x< + a.
.
Setting
Trxja
= y, we
have for
(d)
ir<y< + \y = sin y
TT,
Further,
if
we
set
(e)
sin 2y + J sin 3y - .... = E + B cos (irx/a) + B.2 cos (2irar/ f(x)

.
)+...,
multiply both sides of this equation by cos(rmrx/a), and then integrate from to a, it follows, if in and n are whole numbers, that
[ cos (mirx/a) cos (mrx/a)dx =
and
j eos (nnrx/a)dx
=l/a.
= \a.
Hence
(f )
for
m>0
BQ
a.
we
a
.
obtain
f(x)
.
Bm = 2/a
obtain
to
cos (mirxla)dx
and
["/(zjdx.
We
from
limits
by multiplying both sides of (e) by dx and integrating If f(x) is an even function, the series holds within the
since the cosine
is
-a<x<a,
x.
series
does not change

series
(e)
its
sign
with
But
if /(.r)
an odd function, the

a.
holds only
within the limits
and
We
\a.f(x)
therefore obtain the result (g)
= sin(/a)
f/(a)sin(;ra/rt)r/a
+ sin(27r.c/fl) ^ /(a)sin(27ra/rt)f/a +
. .
SECT, cxxx.]
THE DEVELOPMENT OF FUNCTIONS.

.f(x)
313
=J
f(a.)da
+ cos(Trx/a)
|
|/(a)cos(?ra/a)dfa
(h)
+ cos(2;r:c/a)
f(a)cos(2Tra/a)da
An
sines
and
arbitrary function f(x) can also be developed in a series of cosines, so that the development holds within the limits
-a<x<a.
in
To
effect this,
we
+f(
set
f(x)
=i
is
[f(x]
which %[/(%)+ f(
-x)~] is
x)] + \ [f(x] -/( x)], an even function, because it remains un.
changed when x
cos(mirx/a")
is
replaced by
-x.
This function
series.
can therefore be represented by a cosine
The
[f(x)+f( -x)] coefficient of
=I
f(a)cos(mira/a)da
is
/(
a) cos (nnra/a)da.
is
If in the last integral a
replaced by
a,
the integral
coefficient
transformed
into
/(a)cos(w7ra/rt)rfa,
and
the
sought
becomes
i/
/(a)cos(w7ra/a)e?a.
Hence we obtain
+
-'-a
/\
J < )
(
I
[/(*)
+/(
-)] =
+
r+
/
CO& (ira/a)da /()^ + cos(^/a) J-a f f(a)
+ cos(27rx/a)
/(a)cos(2iro/a)rfa+
.
....
On
the other hand, the function J

it
[/(x)
-/(
x)] is
an odd function.
because
sign with x; therefore, by using (g), we can The coefficient of sin(imrx/a) represent this function by a sine series.
changes
its
is
l/( a ) -/(
a)]sin(w7ra/a)da
=^
If
/(a) sin (rmra/a)da
f(
a)sm(mira/a)da.
it
is
we
-i.
replace
I
a by a
in
the
last
integral,
transformed
into
f(a)sin(mTra/a)da, and the coefficient becomes

r+ i
J.j f(a)sm(nnrala)da.
We
<k)
therefore obtain
f i
[/(*)
-/(
*)]
- sin(7r.r/)
/
f/(<z)sm(7ra/ya
+
....
+ sin (2mc/a)
/(a) sin (2ira/a)da
314
CONDUCTION OF HEAT.
the addition of equations
(
(i)
[CHAP. xiv.
By
and
+
(k)
we
obtain finally
.f(x)
+ f(a)da
COS
C ( f(a) osU(x
a^da
0)
[
+fj(a)
(2Tr(x-)/a)da+...,
or,
for
-a<z<a,
= 1 /a
is
.
(m)
f(x)
**[
+ cos (ir(x - a) /a) + cos ( -lir(x - a)/a) +

It
.]/(a)da.
This series
due to Fourier. + f(a)da+l/
may
also be expressed in the
form
(n)
f(x)
= l/2a.
We may now
if
/
ascribe
any value
to
a.
If a
is
infinitely great,
and
f(a)da. is finite, the first
term on the right side of the equation
(n) vanishes,
and we obtain
f(x)
= 1/ir 2>/o m=l

.
/(a)cos(m7r(2 J -a
7r/a
a)/aVo.
follows that
Now
(o)
setting wi7r/a
= A, and
I/TT
.
therefore
+
= dX,
-
it
/() =
jf
A(a; dx|_ /(a)cos(
a))^,
of this equation one of the two which are obtained from (g) and
a;
where -co
< <
ao
Instead
we may
(h).
often use
The general
term in
(g) is
sin (mirx/a)
f /(a) sin (mira/a)da,
and hence
f(x)
= 2/7T
IT
sin (mirx/a)
/(a) sin (mTra/a)da.
Now
(P)
if
we
set mir/a
= A, and
.
therefore via
= d\, we
have for
< x < oo
= 2/7T /(*)
(h)
l"d\.
sm(Xx)j /(a)sin(AaXa.
From
(q)
we
obtain in the same
way
.
for
<x<
oo
/(*)
= 2/7T
{d\ cos(Aa;)
[7(a)cos(Aa)â.
SECT, cxxxi.]
APPLICATION OF FOURIEK'S THEOREM.
315
SECTION CXXXI.
THE APPLICATION OF FOURIER'S THEOREM
TO THE CONDUCTION or HEAT.

If the temperature in a certain region
depends only on the
x-co-
ordinate, the temperature 6

(a)
must
satisfy Fourier's equation

.
2 2 2 30/3* = K 3 0/3a;
From CXXIX.
expression
for
(c)
6 = e~ x
A,
* K2:
(A
sin
Xx + Bcoskx)
is
an integral of
also give the
equation (a) where

9
A,
are constants.
We may
.
form 6 = e~^K2t cos (\(x - a)) /(a), where /(a) is an arbitrary function of a, and A. and a are constants, which may take all possible values. Any sum of such terms satisfies the equation,
the
and as the integral

(b)
is
=
it
+
I/TT
.
7(a)cos(A(z
a))da
JÂe-^'[
such a sum, we have
will
also satisfy the equation.
But when
= 0,
6>=1/7T.
{d\f*f(a)cos(\(x-a))da,
from which, by comparison with CXXX. (o), we obtain 6=f(x). The formula (b) contains the solution of the problem, to determine the temperature in a body at any time t, when the temperature is = 0, by 6=f(x). This problem has already been given, at the time
solved in another
way
in
CXXV.
(h)
and
(i).
We
proceed to show
that the solution hero given is identical with the former one. + *** cos = 1/ Since (c) J(a)da /" ( X(x a))d\,
.
we
first
determine the value of the integral
If
we develop
cos
(A(z- a))
in a series, this integral is represented
by
It follows
by integration by parts that

/
V XU%
A*V*A.
= (2n -
l)/2*
and by continued reduction
316
But because
CONDUCTION OF HEAT.
e~ fdq
[CHAP. xiv.
= \,Jir
we
obtain
of the integral sought
is
The value
therefore
or
-2*^
we
replace the integral in (c)
If
by
this value,
we
obtain
This expression for 6
is
identical with that given in
CXXV.
(h).
Fourier's theorem to find the law of penetration of heat into a body. For this purpose we will consider the
will
We
now apply
simple case in which the body is in contact over a plane bounding surface with another body whose temperature is constant and
Let the original temperature of the cold body be zero. given. If we proceed as before and use CXXX. (p), we obtain
B=
+ 2/?r
"dX sin ( Aa-)<r X2K2
<
.
/"/(a) sin ( Aa)da.

if
This expression for 6
satisfies all
conditions
only
we
have,
when t = 0,
=
This condition
is
+ 2/7r.
f<Usin(Aa:). [ /(a)sin(Xo)da.
-0
-0
fulfilled
[CXXX.
(p)]
is
when
/(a)
= -
Hence the
solution of the proposed problem

(e)
contained in
x ^'
.'
6=
- 20
/ir
f"d\
sin ( \x)e~
J'sin
(\a)da.
(c) is
Using the same formed into (d),
method of reduction
as that
by which
trans-
we
obtain
from which
B=
-^ VTT
1
-!
J-*tevi
(V*W?
.
"
l"e
*2
dq }
Jxftni/t
and therefore
6=
/Jir
J-XpKVt
fê^'dq }
SECT, cxxxr.]
APPLICATION OF FOURIER'S THEOREM.

an even function, we obtain
317
Since e~
q~
is
or
by the help of
CXXV.
e
(e),
(f)
Let
and
the surface
B be F are
two points within the body, whose distances from xl and x2 respectively. The temperature & which
/,
attains after the lapse of the time
is
& = '2BJJir
e~ g2dq.
/.
B attains
Jr^-'KVti
the same temperature after the lapse of the time
equation
0'
= 20JJir
f
. I
"
given by the
that Xil*Jtl
points
the.
= xz l,Jt
/VbV1
t>
e~ g2dq.
2/t l
Comparing the two

2
l
,
integrals, it appears
or
t.
= x2 2/x
that
is,
the
times required for two

to
to
attain
the
same temperature are proportional
the
squares of
distances of the points
from
the heated surface
F.
AVe will
the cooler
now determine
(f)
the
body through unit area

(f),
quantity of heat which flows into in unit time. For this purpose
we give the equation

which follows, by
= 20J,jTr. [f(ao ) -f(x/2K,Jt)], from the form zt: - kW/'dx = = kOJitj^t e~ ^. Setting x 0, we
.
find the quantity of heat
By Two
= k6 / K-Jiri. desired, (g) the help of equation (g) we may solve an important problem. bodies L arid L' are in contact over a plane surface, the tem-
If perature of one of these bodies being T, that of the other T. the two bodies are brought in contact, one of them is heated and
the other
is
cooled.
We
of the surface of contact. of heat which
Assuming that T
is,
can also determine the temperature 2\ is constant, the quantity
receives in unit time
from
(g),
given by
U=k(T
~T)lKj*t,
In the same time, L' receives the quantity of heat
U'=k'(T,-T')/ K '^t,
have the same meaning for L' as k and K for L. But since the infinitely thin bounding surface can contain no heat, U+U' must equal zero, or k/n (T - T) = k'/K (T - T ), from which
where
k'
and
K'
It is thus shown follows (h) * T = (Tjkcp + T*JJMji)l(Jkcp + */kVfi). that the assumption is correct, that the temperature in the bounding
surface between
two bodies which meet
in a plane surface is constant.
Strictly speaking, the bodies in contact

* L. Lorenz,
must both be
178.
infinitely large,
Lehre von der Warme.
S.
Kopenhagen, 1877.
318
CONDUCTION OF HEAT.
[CHAP. xiv.
but the formula (h) may also be applied to small bodies if we only consider them shortly after they are brought in contact. may show from (h) that the temperature of a heated solid is very little diminished by contact with the air ; this holds for the metals and
We
for
good conductors
in general.
It
follows from equation (h) that
If T represents the temperature of the solid, p is always very much Hence T is very much greater than T - T greater than p. especially since k is also greater than k', while c and c' are not very
-T
different
from each other.
SECTION CXXXII.
THE COOLING OF A SPHERE.
Let us suppose that the temperature at a point in the interior of a sphere depends only on the distance of that point from the In this case [CXXVI. (c)] Fourier's equation centre of the sphere.
takes the form (a) 3(r0)/a* = K 232 (r0)/3r2 constants, an integral of equation (a) is
.
If m,
A,
are arbitrary
rO e-" (A sin (mr) + B cos (mr)). But since this equation leads to the conclusion that = oo when r = 0, B must equal zero, and we obtain as the integral of equation (a)
.
<b)
r0
= A.e- a**.Bm(mr).
immersed
is
We
of
ice
will first consider the case of the sphere
in a
mixture
and water, or so situated that

If
its
surface
kept at the tem-
by any means. perature by R, we have = when

if
we
represent the radius of the sphere
is
and therefore sin(w7?) = 0. Hence, an arbitrary whole number, we must have mli = p-. We
set
r = E,
can
now
...are determined by the help of the temv 2 Let peratures of the different parts of the sphere at the time t = 0. these temperatures be given by/(r). then have
The constants
We
r .f(r)
= A^
sin (lerfR)
+ A 2 sin (2wr/.B) +
. . .
From CXXIX.
<d)
(1)
we
obtain for
Am
A m = 2/fi.
'rf(r)aiu(mirrjE)dr.
SECT,
cxxxn.]

and equal
to # at the time
t
319
If the temperature is constant
= 0, we
have
R
rsin(mirr/R)dr, aud hence
Am =
- 20 R/mir cos (rmr).

.
Using these values we obtain

I
finally
.
6=2R6
/irr.
.
[sin(7rr/R)
e-<
-i
sin (27rr/R)eis
.
*"
sin (STr
The mean temperature &

(f )
& = 60
/,r2
{-</*)* + |
This equation may be applied to a thermometer which is immersed in a fluid cooler than itself. The temperature of the thermometer
is
then given, to a close approximation, by the
first
term of the above

.
equation.
The
rate of cooling
is (g)
dO'/dt
= Tr 2 kO'/cpR 2
consider another important case, that of a sphere in vacuo losing heat by radiation. suppose the temperature of the region, or rather of its boundary, to be 0. suppose the
will
We
now
We
We
radiation to take place according to Newton's law, and therefore to be proportional to the temperature on the surface of the sphere. From (b) the integral takes the form (h) rO Â me~ mt>ft sin (mr).
.
represents the coefficient of radiation, the quantity of heat which radiates in unit time from an element dS of the surface is
If
dS. E6.
We
will
assume that
is
constant.
The same
surface-
element dS receives from the interior of the sphere in the same time Since the quantity of heat the quantity of heat -k.dS.dO/dr.
which dS receives must be equal to that which

(i)
it
emits,
we have
h = E/k.
-k.dO/dr = E6 or -d6jdr = h6, where,
for brevity,
we
set
Hence, for r = R,
2^
or
TO
<r
mV2 <
.
(m cos (mR)/R
m f e- ^
.
sin
(mR)/R?)
= - KSA n e~ aAft sin (mR)/R,

hR)sm(mR)] = 0.
t,
Â m
[mRcos(mR)
(1
If this equation is to hold for every value of

(k)
we must have
mR
cos (mR)
= (l-hR).
sin (mR).
We set mR = x and obtain This equation must be solved for m. = If we further set y l = tgx, yl and x may be contg z z/(l -hR). sidered as the rectangular coordinates of a curve (Fig. 143). This
(1)
curve has an infinite number of branches, oa, irb, 27rc..., to which the straight lines X = ^TT, x = %ir... are asymptotes. Further, if we set i/.2 = x/ (I - hR) this equation represents a straight line, such as opq, which passes through the origin of coordinates.
320
CONDUCTION OF HEAT.
is
[CHAP. xiv.
and its value must lie between and GO then y.2 = x, and this equation where h = represents the straight line opq which touches the curve oa at the The abscissas 0, x v x 2 ... are point o, and cuts irb at p, "2-rrc at q, etc.
The constant h
positive,
First consider the case
roots of equation
l
(1).
We
;
have further
ir<x <3ir/2
2?7
< z < 577/2

2
...nir<x
tt
<(n + ^)ir.
Besides n increases xn approaches the superior limit (?i + i)ir. its positive roots equation (1) has also negative roots, which are equal in absolute value to the positive.
As
FIG. 143.
Next suppose that 0<h<l/R, so that 0<l-hlt<l, and hence y 2 >x. This represents a line such as oa/3 (Fig. 143) which cuts the curve at o, a, /3. The abscissas 0, x^, x 2 x3 ... of these points are
'
',
roots of equation
(1),
and we have
2ir
Q<X
'<îr;
77
<.,'< 377/2;
the angle
<xs '<5Tr/2
...
(n
'
l)ir<xn <(n
$)TT.
approaches the angle ITT, and the If h = l/R, we have x = Q, and roots approach their superior limits. Now if l/E<h<<v, we have the roots are 0, \ir, 3^/2, 5:7/2,....
increases,
aoir
?/ 2
As h
= -xj(hR-\).
we
The
straight line then has the position
ofi'y'.
If
represent the roots of equation (1) by 0, a^", x2"..., we have ^jr<x l "<ir- 37T/2 <z./<27r.... As h increases, the roots And if h = oo we obtain ,T I " = TT approach their superior limits.
in this case
,
SECT,
cxxxn.]

now
from them.
321
We may
determine
consider the roots of equation (1) as known and The values of corresponding to the
several roots are 0,
neglect the negative roots, because the terms in (h) corresponding to them may be considered as included in those arising from the positive roots. therefore
m.2 ,....
mv
We may
We
m*'K* sin mi t sin = .... (m) rd A-i e~ (m^r) + A 2e~ (m.-,r] + ture at the time t = is given by 6=f(r), we have
set
'*"'*
If the tempera-
(n)
r.f(r)
let
= A l sii\(m l r) + A.2 sin(m 2r) +

It
....
Now
to
(o)
ma
and
be two roots of equation
sides of equation (n)
by sin(mar).
(k), and multiply both follows by integration from
that
,-R
/
r.f(r)sin(m ar)dr
= 'S,A b
[R
sm(m br)sin(m a r)dr.
Now
r
I
a sin (m b r) sin (mar)dr
= \ sin [(m - ma )R]/(mb - ma ) - \ sin [(m. + ma )R]l(m b + ma ) = [ma sin (mb R) cos (ma R) - mb cos (m b R) sin (ma R)]/(m b2 - wa2 ).
b
.
But because we have from
(k)
b
and
or
m a R = (1 - A.R) tg (m a R), m R = (l-hR)tg (m^R), ma tg (m R) = m tg (m a R), therefore = m sin (wa.R) cos (m R), a sin (?%Z?) cos(m a R)
b b
7??
. .
/K
whenever
sin (m, br)
sin
(ma r)dr = 0, But

if
ma
and
7W 6
are different from each other.
they are
find the value of the expression (p) equal, (p) is indeterminate. = a + e, where e is a small quantity. in this case by setting b reach the same result more simply if we investigate the value o
We m
We
the integral
r
=2
[R
I
L [i
"~
cos(2mar)]dr = %[R
- sin(2ma
R)/2mn ].
We
thus obtain
A a =2/R.
Hence the complete
Jo
r.f(r)sin(mar)drl[I -sin(2mnfi)/2maR].
solution of the problem
is
contained in
sin(w 1 r)g-""
-T
w
w
(RrO
/*
*.\
322
CONDUCTION OF HEAT.
initial
[CHAP. xiv.
In the simple case in which the is everywhere equal, we have f(r)

.
temperature of the sphere

find
and then
FT sin (mr)dr = 6Jm?

(k),
[sin (mR)
-mE cos (mR)],
or,
by the use of
sin (mr)dr 9 f*r
= hR0
sin
(mE)^.
We
(
\
therefore get the result

4.
ti-hRfl
O'^m^m^-sin^m^R)]
If the coefficient of radiation
ii
2
m.2 [2m 2 R - sin(2m 2 R)]

also h are very small,
22
and therefore
is
or if the radius of the sphere
small, the product
hR
is
a small
In this case, if we neglect the higher powers when the quantity. sine and cosine are developed in series, we obtain from (k),
1
-1
m^R = (1 - hB)(l
2
-1
m*fl*),
from which follows
m = 3h/R.
l
The other values

sponding terms in
therefore obtain
(s)
(r)
m are so very much greater that the correvanish in comparison with the first term. 6 e~ 3Hlcl< B or, substituting the value of h,
of
We
'
0=0
e- 3JB/<"*
We can derive this formula more simply. The quantity of heat which the sphere radiates in the time dt is 4irR~E6dt. Thus the dd and the quantity of temperature of the sphere increases by
;
heat given up
is
4?r/3
R?cpdd.
Hence we have
4;r/3
.
= from which follows 6 =

is
'
e~
3t cf>K since the temperature of the sphere

,
On at the time
= 0.
SECTION CXXXIII.
THE MOTION OF HEAT LONG CYLINDER.
IN
AN INFINITELY
Let the cross-section S of the cylinder be so small that its temarid B be two cross-sections separated perature 6 is constant, and let by the distance dx. The quantity of heat Sk Wfdx dt flows through
in the time dt,
through between
B A
and the quantity - SktfO/'dx + 32 0/3a; 2 dx)dt flows in the same time. Hence the part of the cylinder and B receives the quantity of heat Sk 3 2 0/3z2 dxdt. A
. .
.
SECT. CXXXIIL]
THE MOTION OF HEAT.

is
323
by conduction E a constant,
part of this heat or radiation. If
given up to surrounding bodies is the perimeter of the cylinder,
and
the temperature of the medium around the cylinder is 0, the heat given up by conduction or radiation is PEO dxdt. Another
if
.
portion of the heat received serves to heat the cylinder is S dx cp dO. Hence we obtain the equation
. .
this portion
Sk.-d*-efdx'
if
= Spc.'d6/-dt + PEe,
and h = PE/SP c.
(a)
or (a) 90/3/ = K 2
c>20/3x 2
- A0,
we
set K*
= k/cp
If the
state of the cylinder or rod has
30/3/ =
this
it
0,
and equation
takes the form
become steady, we have * 2 32 0/3z2 = h0. From

.
follows that (b) 6 = A<?**K + Be- xVJtl\ If the temperature of the rod is given at two points, we obtain from (b) the temperature of the intermediate points. will assume that the temperature
We
of a certain point in the rod is and that at a very great distance from this point the temperature of the rod is 0. Then, for x = oo ~* v '*' we will have = and therefore (c) = But if the rod is
, ,
1
'.
not in a steady state the equation (a) must be used.

k
. .
If
we
.
sub-
The stitute in this equation = u e~ ht , we obtain "dufdt = K 2 3%/Bo;2 integral of this differential equation has already been given. By the
help of equations
(c)
and
(d)
we can determine
the cooling of any
rod which
We
heated in any manner. will here consider only the case in which one cross-section
is
,
of the rod has the temperature while the temperature of all other The heat flows from S toward both parts parts of the rod is zero. of the rod, and after an infinitely long time the temperature at the
distance x from
is
temperature at the
<e)
given by same place

6
e~'yjtlK .
t
On
is
the other hand, the
at the time
given by
=6
.e-' v<
y + u.e-'*.
:
In this case u must satisfy the following conditions

(1) It
(2)
must
t
satisfy the equation dw/3*
(3)
When = When x =
the equation holds
= K 2 3%/Sx2 -***/ + u =
. .
we must have
= 0.
Conditions (1) and (3) are satisfied by
%=
2/7T
X2K2 <</a. l~dX sin (\x) (/(a)sin(Aa)e-
Jo
^0
And
as u also satisfies (2)
we have
/
2/7T.
<Usin(Az)//(a)sin(AaX/c
324
CONDUCTION OF HEAT.
= -0
e~ aVr/K
.
[CHAP. xiv.
It is requisite for this that /(a)
Hence the
solution of
the proposed problem

8
is
= eo
e-*^'"
- 20
/7T
e~
f*dX sin(Az)
f"s
As
in
CXXXL, we
can give the expression

2/7T
.
fsui(Aa;)
Jo
si
the form
and
this latter expression equals 1/2*7^7. ( e -(*-w*
g-(fw*^
v>
Sub-
stituting this expression in the equation for 6, it follows that
= eXe-**" - -^= fV".
**"'
- e-^w**)
<r
rfal
2/Cx/7T<
-/O
To
simplify this expression,
we
set
p = (a- x)/2i<Jt,
= x + 2i<pjL
_
_
It
then follows that

,
_
Vft/K
,00
_
TT
-V^ - z/2 K VF
_^
We
obtain in the same
way
2*
and therefore
(f)
careful examination of this expression shows that it represents the flow of heat through an infinitely long rod. For t = the lower limit of the first integral equals - oo and the value of the integral itself
,
then equal to JTT ; the lower limit of the second integral is in the same case oo and therefore the value of the second integral
is
,
equals zero. the case for

section.
Hence
all
for
we
also obtain
= 0, which
should be
fore 6
state
except for the heated Both integrals have the same value for x = Q, and thereBoth integrals vanish when t = ao and for the steady
cross-sections
of
the
rod,
of heat
we have
is
the evidently
correct
if
result
0=QQ e~*^
.
lK
.
Because h = PE/Scp, h
infinitely small,
the cross-section of the
SECT, cxxxiu.]
THE MOTION OF HEAT.
325
rod
is
infinitely great, or if the coefficient of radiation
is
infinitely
small.
= Setting h
in (f)
we come back
to a case already treated,
This result
is
also
found
in
CXXXI.
The expression
(g) gives
the
temperature in an infinitely extended body, having, at the time t = 0, the temperature 6 = at all points, with the exception of the points =6 on the surface ce = 0, for which
.
holds only for positive values of x; and that it shall hold for those parts of the rod which correspond to negative values of x, x must be replaced by - x in (f ).
solution
(f)
The
SECTION
CXXXIV.
this
ON THE CONDUCTION
we have
which have thus
OF HEAT IN FLUIDS.
motion of heat in
obtained
Up
solids.
to
point
results
treated only the
The
been
cannot in
general be applied to fluids, because any difference of temperature which causes a different expansion in different parts of the fluid,
occasions
so-called
convection currents.
In general,
differences
of
temperature are more quickly equalized by these currents than by conduction alone. The relations are therefore very complicated. We
will confine ourselves to developing the general equations of which will be applied in some simple cases.
motion
We
tinuity,
use the notation of hydrodynamics. The equation of conwhich expresses that the quantity of matter is constant,
[cf.
becomes
XLI.
(d)]
The momentum received by the unit

time
is
of
equal to the force acting on that unit of volume.
volume in the unit of We have
therefore from XLI.
A = p(du[dt + u'du/'dx + vdufiy + wduj'dz)

= 'dXJ'dx + VXj'dy + 'dXJ'dz + pX,
B = P (dvfdt + u'dv/'dx + vdvfdy + wdvfiz)

= VYJ'dx + ^YJ-dy + -dYfiz + P Y, C = p(dwfdt + u'dw/'dx + vdwfdy + vfdw/'dz) = 'dZJdx 4- aZ,/3y + 'dZfiz + pZ.
The symbols A, B, C are introduced on account of the use to be subsequently made of them.
326
CONDUCTION OF HEAT.
[CHAP. xiv.
Suppose the fluid which is here considered to be a liquid and In this case it contains energy only in the form incompressible. If the body, on the other hand, i& of kinetic energy or heat.
gaseous, we suppose it to be an ideal gas, which conforms to the Such a gas can indeed be comlaw of Boyle and Gay-Lussac. pressed, but the work done by the compression is transformed into
heat,
so
that the
the
volume,
and
is
energy contained by the gas is independent of determined only by its kinetic energy and
fluid d<a
temperature.
A
/,
volume-element of the
= dxdydz
contains, at the time
a quantity of energy which is the sum of the kinetic energy and the quantity of heat contained in it. multiply the latter by If is the unit the mechanical equivalent / of the unit of heat.
We
the unit of mass receives the quantity of heat 0, we have, designating the velocity by h, E = ^ph? + JpQ. During the time dt the volume element d(a receives the quantity of energy
of volume, and
if
(c)
= dE/dt dtda, where dEfdt $d(ph*)/dt + J. d(pQ)/dt.

.
The increment
dt proceeds
1.
of energy which the element dw receives in the time from the following causes
:
accelerating forces X, Y, Z. the kinetic energy which, in consequence of the flow of 2. the fluid, passes into the volume-element do> through its surface.
3.
From From
the
work done by the
From
the
work done by the
surface forces
X^ Y^
...
on that
part of the fluid which is situated on the surface of the element dw. 4. From the heat contained by that part of the fluid which flows
through the surface-element d<o. 5. From the heat which passes into the element da by conduction. We will designate these quantities of energy in order by e^wdt,
e^dudt, e.jdwdt, e 4d(adt,
received
and e. da>dt; by the unit of volume

of the
&>,
. .
e 1 is
therefore the quantity of energy
the influence
in the unit of time only through will now investigate accelerating forces.
We
the values of e^
We
determine the work done by the accelerating forces in the
time dt in the following way. The volume element contains the mass pdo> and moves in the time dt through the distance udt in the direction of the ar-axis. Thus the force does the work pd<o Xudt.
The work done by the forces Y and Z is determined in the same The work considered is therefore p(uX+vY+u-Z}dwdt. We way. have represented this quantity of work by e^-wdt and hence obtain
(d)
el
SECT, cxxxiv.]
CONDUCTION OF HEAT IN FLUIDS.
327
The kinetic energy which Jw receives from that part of the fluid which flows in the time dt through the element d<a, is determined thus. The mass which flows through the surface-element dydz in the time dt is p.u.dt. dydz the kinetic energy of this mass is therefore
;
But if we set U=^puh'2 is the component ^.p.itdt.dydz.h?. of flow of the kinetic energy in the direction of the a-axis. Let the corresponding components of flow with respect to the y- and
,
z-axes be
V and
W respectively
we then have
F=|.M W=\.po'
2
,
By
method
similar to that used in XIV.,
it
may
be shown that
in the time dt the volume-element
da
receives the quantity of energy
-(dU/'dx + 'dV/'dy + 'dW/'dz)d(adt. db)dt and hence obtain
We
represent
this
quantity
by
puîdufdx + v'dv/'dx + wdwfdx) - pv (u'du/'dy + vdvj'dy + wdwj'dy)

pw(udufdz
+ vdv/'dz + wdwj?)z).
(a)
It follows
e2
from
.
this
by the help of equations
and
(b) that
= 1 h2
dp/dt
+ p(u'du/'dt + vdvfdt + wdw\"t t) -(Au + Bv + Cw),
or more simply
e,
= $hMp/dt + IpdWldt - (Au + Bv + Cw),

=
2
(e)
d(ph ){dt
(Au +Bv+
Cic).
The quantity of energy which the surface forces x y ... impart The to the element du, may be determined in the following way. force xdydz acts on the surface-element dydz which bounds d<D
, ,
X Y
on the side lying in the direction of the negative .r-axis, in the The fluid particles which flow in the time direction of the #-axis.
dt through the element dydz traverse the path udt in the direction Thus the force - x does the work - xdydz udt. But of the a-axis.
the fluid particles in the surface-element have also tangential motions. Thev traverse the path wit in the direction of the y-axis under the
influence of the force -
Yxdydz,
also
.
by which the work
Yxdy'dz
vdt is
done.
so
The same particles that the work - Zxdydz
move
in the direction of the 2 axis,
ivdt is
done.
The
total
is
work done by
the forces in the time dt on the element dydz
therefore
Y v + Zxw)dydzdt.
x
328
CONDUCTION OF HEAT.
will designate this flow of
[CHAP. xiv.
We
energy in the direction of the z-axis
by U'dydzdt; let the corresponding flow in the direction of the We then have y- and -axes be V'dxdzdt and Wdxdydt respectively.
U'=- (Xxu + Yjo + Zxw\ V=- (Xy u + Yyv + Z,w), W' = ~(X u+Y v + Z,w}.
2 z
The quantity of energy which

in the foregoing case,
d<a
thus receives
is
determined as
and
is
equal to
eûdt =
(d U'j'dx +
Wfiy + -d!P'rdz)d<adt.
Hence we obtain
Yyv + Zju^fdy
But using equations
f e 3
(b) it follows that
(f )
[
= Xû/Zx + Ypvfdy + Z&cfiz + Z,(dwfiy + Vvpz) + XtCdufdz + + YjCdvfdx + 'dul'dy} + (A- pX)u + (B- pY)v +(C- pZ)w.
The quantity of heat which the separate parts of the fluid contain is transferred with them by the flow. During the time dt the mass pudt.dydz enters the element dw through the surface dydz,
and brings with
JpudydzdtQ.
If
it
We
the quantity of heat pudydzdtQ or the energy determine in the same way the quantities of heat
d<a
which enter the element
through the other bounding surfaces.
we
use the method given above and set
the quantity of heat time dt, is given by
e 4d<adt
received
by the parallelepiped
d<a in
the
or
e4
=
(a),
Hence, by use of equation

(g)
e4
we have
= /.
-d(pQ)pt Jp(de/dt + udQrd

element
do>
Finally the
receives
heat by conduction.
The com-
ponents of flow of heat are
[CXXIL]
-Jk.Wfiy,
-Jk.-ddj-dz.
-Jk.VOfdx,
If
set the quantity of energy thus received by da> in the time dt, equal to e^d^dt, and assume the conductivity constant, we have
we
(h)
e. a
=J
SECT, cxxxiv.]
CONDUCTION OF HEAT IN FLUIDS.

is
329
given
The
by
increase in energy which d<a receives in the time dt
[%.d(ph*)/dt
of energy ( therefore have

(i)
+ Jd(pQ)/dt]dudt. At the same time the quantity + 2 + s + 4 + 6 ) dwdt enters the element do>, and we 1
\
in
.
d(fW)jdt
this
+ Jd( P Q)/dt = e 1 + e 2 + e, + e,+ ey

the values
Introducing
follows that
equation
found for
ev
e.
2,
3,
...it
If internal friction exists in the fluid,
we have from XLVII.
(h)
X
By
= -p + 2p. x
J,
'duj'dx
^(dufix + Zv/dy + "die fix)

etc.
Z = fu(dwl'dy + 'dvl'dz),
the help of these relations
r
we may
give equation (k) the form
Jp(dQj
= - p(du/dx + dv + (dz;/^) 2 + (dw/-dz)* 2 + (du/oz
we have
u,
For the determination of the motion and temperature of the fluid the five equations given under (a), (b), and (1). These five
equations are not sufficient to determine the seven unknown quantities obtain two other equations in the followv, w, p, p, 9, and 6.
We
0,
ing way.
is
The
total quantity
mass must depend on

c
of heat 9 contained by the unit of and we assume that (m) 9 = c0, where c
If the fluid considered is gaseous,
the specific heat, a constant.
denotes the specific heat of constant volume. The second equation must express the relation between density, In the case of liquids, we may set approxipressure, and temperature.
mately (n) p = pJ(l+aB), where pQ a is a constant. But for gases, if
is
the
is
and density when the volume of the unit of
mass at pressure p and temperature 6, V$ the volume of the same mass at pressure p and temperature 0, we have ^F"=j9 F (l +a0). The Since Vp=\ and J> =1, we have (o) p/p =pJpQ ( 1 + a0). equation (o) in connection with (a), (b), (1), and (m) serves to deterThe complicated equations which mine the unknown quantities.
.
determine temperature and motion in a fluid are very hard to integrate, so that up to this time no case has been completely solved.
330
SECTION
CONDUCTION OF HEAT.
[CHAP. xiv.
CXXXV. THE INFLUENCE OF THE CONDUCTION OF HEAT ON THE INTENSITY AND VELOCITY OF SOUND IN GASES.
have the following equations [CXXXIV.] for the determination of motion in a gas in which the temperature is variable
:
We
1.
The equation
:
of continuity
[CXXXIV.
(a)],
which may take
the following form

'dp/'dt
+ p(dufdx + 'dv/'dy + 'dw/'dz) + udpj'dx + vdpfiy + wdpfdz = 0.
2. The equations of motion [CXXXIV. (b)]. replace in these the values found in XL VII. (b) a equations the forces y ...by and (h), and obtain [cf. XLVIIL (a)]
We
X X
p(dufdt + uduj'dx + vdufdy + w'duj'dz) = pX- 'dpj'dx + ft V 2^ + If^ûfdx + 'dv/'dy + 'dwfdz)l'dx,
and analogous equations

3.
for y
and
z.
4.
The condition for the conservation of energy [cf. CXXXIV. (1)]. The connection between the heat contained in the body and
[cf.
the temperature
5.
CXXXIV.
(m)].
The Boyle-Gay-Lussac law [cf. CXXXIV. (o)]. Let the velocity and change of temperature be very small quantities ; the same is then true of such differential coefficients as 'dp/'dx, 'dQ/'dx,
etc.,
and we
is,
will therefore neglect the

udpj'dx,
product of these quantities,

itdQjdx, etc.
that
tions
(a)
.If
terms of the form

5 are then very
udu/~dx,
The equa-
much
simplified.
We
obtain
3(log p)j?>t + 'du/'dx + 'dv/'dy + 'dwj'dz
= 0.
(a),
we
further set
'du/'dt
/t/p
= //,
.
equation
(2),
by use of
/*'
.
takes the form
(b)
+ 1 Ip
'dp/'dx
= // V 2 v,
32 (logp)/ar3i5.
is
Similar equations hold for u and

respectively.
if
replaced by y and s
Eliminating
Q = cO
for
in equation CXXXIV. (1) by means of the relation and introducing the heat equivalent A of the unit of work We have l/J, it follows that (c) cp.Wj'dt-k\7-d = Apd(\op)l'dt.
further the
equation
k,
[CXXXIV.
(o)],
(d)
p/p=p
fp .(l
+ a8).
We
consider
///,
and
as constants.
infinitely small quantities of the Setting p = Po (l+ a-) we obtain (e) log p = log p + <r because o- is a small quantity. Hence equation (d) takes the form is also a small quantity, P = Po(\ +")(1 +#)> r because
l/p occurs as a coefficient; we these substitutions we neglect only
substitute p for p, if p or also substitute p for p in (c). In
We
second order.
>
(0
7>=/>
SECT, cxxxv.]
VELOCITY OF SOUND IN GASES.

(c)
331
d^/cM,
Equation
if
now becomes Wfdi - k/cp

,
# = -dpo/ cPo
and
we
(g)
= k/cp and 9 =^ cpQ B/Ap we 2 2 Wfdt - K V = ftr/3*.

set K-
obtain from the last equation
we may transform equation (b) into 2 - $/*' ^(r/'dt'dx. = /*' 'du/'dt +PQ/PQ 'do-fa +pQ a/p 'dB/'dx in place of 6 the quantity defined, we have Introducing already
By
the use of
(e)
.
and
(f)
The heat required
to
raise
the
under constant pressure from 6 to

.
temperature of a gram of air + dO is equal to C dd, if C is

.
the specific heat at constant pressure. part of this heat, namely c dO, is used in raising the temperature, the other part is used in overcoming resistance during the expansion, by which the
is
woAp*dP
from
that
done.
We
have therefore C.dO = e.dO + Ap.dT.
It follows
the
equation
pF=p
t
F' (l
2
+ ad), because p
(i)
is
here
constant,
r p.dV=pJP <ft.dO and
therefore
Finally, if
and
(c)
we set a =p G/p c take the following forms

'da-j'dt
C=c + 4p and b 2 =p /p
, :
a/pQ, since
rop
=l.
(a), (b),
the equations
+ 'dul'dx + *dvfdy + *dw/oz = 0,
(k)
'dv/'dt
+ b2
'da-f'dy
+ (a2 -
These equations are due to Kirchhoff.* Eeference may be made to KirchhofF s work for the application of these equations to the more
difficult cases of
the transmission of sound.
We
will here investigate
only the influence of conduction and friction on the motion of plane sound waves. First, however, the physical significance of the constants (a) If there
and
is
;
(b)
must be determined.
air,
neither conduction nor friction in the

further,
if
we have
=
of
and
p.'
the vibrations
v
occur
in
the
direction
the z-axis,
we
also
have
= w = 0.
Under
these circumstances the
equations (k) become
If the second of these three equations to /, we obtain
is
differentiated with respect
Kirchhoff, Pogrj. Ann., Vol. 134.
1868.
332
It
CONDUCTION OF HEAT.
[CHAP..XIV.
that 3%/322
thus follows, by the use of the first and last of these equations, = a 2 3 2 w/3a;2 An integral of this equation is
. .
and
this expression represents a wave motion which proceeds with This value for the velocity of the velocity (1) a = Jp C/p c = b-JC/c. sound was found by Laplace. It differs from the value calculated
(>
in
XXXV., which was
originally found
b
our present notation is formulas is due to the
= Jp Q /p
The
in
difference
first
by Newton, and which in between the two
fact that
the
we have taken
into
account the heating of the air by compression and its cooling by expansion. Since the ratio C/c has been determined by direct experi-
ment, the true velocity of sound in the air may be calculated. For This value C,, C/c = 1,405 ; hence a = 33815 cm. atmospheric air at agrees very well with experiment.
z-axis,
Suppose that a plane-wave is propagated in the direction of the and that K and /*' are not zero. The vibrations are parallel
to the x-axis, so that v = Q and w = Q. Since u, 0, functions of x and t alone, equations (k) become
and
cr
are then
-dufit
+ 62
"do-fix
+ (a 2 - V)
/c
39/3*
2
.
9 2 0/3.s2
--=
fa fit.
The unknown
We
quantities u, 0, and o- are periodic functions of t. will represent by h a real magnitude, and by u', 0', and o-' three
It is then admissible magnitudes which are functions of x alone. = 6'. ehit a- = ar' e*", where to make the assumptions (n) u = u' e*", i = -J - 1. the of these we obtain from
. ,
.
By
help
equations
(m)
hiu'
+ b'2
+ du'jdx = 0, d 2 u'/dx* - ^'hi + (a 2 - tf)dQ'/dx = da-'/dx

hi<r'
/*'
.
do-'/dx,
We
eliminate
a-'
J \
u'
_A
v+
from these equations, and then have = 2+ a2 _

fci(
j2)
dQ'/dx
(b
$p'hi)
tPu'/da?,
du'/dx
= K 2 d'2 Q'/dx2 - hiQ'.

:
If the first of these equations (o)
may
be eliminated, and
we
is differentiated with respect to x, obtain the following differential equation
(p)
K 2 (&2
*'p'hi)
d*&/dx* +
is
*
(h*
K2
'
^V - ha
i)
,
d*Q'/dx*
- h*i& = 0.
Since this equation

(r)
linear,
we
2 2
set 0'
= emx and
obtain
K-'m 4
(Z
X/w)
+ TO
(A *2
+ |/*'A 2 - hcM) - h s i = 0.
SECT, cxxxv.]
VELOCITY OF SOUND IN GASES.
333
will determine the exponent in only in the case in which the conductivity as well as the internal friction is very small. If = and /*' = (), we have from (r) If therefore we set -hi/a.
We
m=
2
m = (-hi + $)/a,
may
(n)
where
be disregarded,
(s)
we
a small quantity whose higher powers have from (r), if the terms K 2//, * 2 8, etc., are
is
2
neglected,
and
(q)
obtained by substituting the sum of the two values of

the same time real, since
(t)
[^'h + (1 6' /a )K fr ]/2a = e 8x/a that one value for is - 1 for i, which
8
2
= -
But
.
e hi(t
it ~ xM
.
follows from
the other
-**"-"/.
is
gives
= e Sx/a
Half
is
satisfies
the conditions and
at
= e-WaM-*+
(i
tw* *n *w
cos tyy
_x a j
From
the exponent of e we see that the changes of temperature in the wave diminish the further it travels ; at the same time u also
diminishes.
further.
tions,
The sound,
therefore,
becomes weaker as the wave travels
If
is
the period of vibration and n the
number
of vibra-
we have h = 27r/T2mr.
By using this value of h it follows, from equation (t), that the higher tones lose their intensity more quickly than the lower ones.
The mathematical treatment
Fourier, of conduction
is
principally
due to
who not
which
is
only developed the partial differential equation at the foundation of the treatment of conduction, but also
gave us methods for the solution of a great number of problems. His principal work is Thdorie Analytique de la Chaleur, Paris, 1822.
:
Of the
later
works on
this subject
Differentialgleichungen, edited
we mention Eiemann, Partielle by Hattendorf, Braunschweig, 1876.
INDEX.
Acceleration,
2.
Condenser, Cylindrical, 153.

4.
Centripetal, 11.
Resultant,
Parallel Plate, 151. Spherical, 152.
Action and Reaction, 48. Adiabatic Curves, 268.
Conductivity for Electricity, 197.

for Heat, 300.
Amplitude,
90.
Conductors, System
of, 147.
Attraction, Universal, 30.
Work done
Contact Angle, 125.
on, 150.
Biot and Savart's Law, 184. Bodies, Structure of, 50.

Rigid, 58.
Continuity, Equation of, 105. Cooling of a Sphere by Conduction, 318.
by Radiation,
319.
Equilibrium
of, 59.
Motion
of, 59. of, GO.
Rotation
Boyle's Law, 267.
Corresponding States, 289. Critical Temperature, 284. Current, Electrical, Continuity of, 191. Force of, 184.
Force of Linear, 190. Measurement of Constant, 194.
Capacity, Electrical, 131, 149. of Coaxial Cylinders, 153.

of Condenser, 141.
Measurement of Variable, 195.
of Spherical Condenser,140,152. of Parallel Plates, 151.

Specific Inductive.
Potential of, 185. Potential Energy

193.
of,
(Dielectric Constant), 156.
Currents,Electrical,MutualActionof,192. Potential Energy of,

193.
Relation to Index of Refraction, 221.
Systems
of, 186, 190.
Capillarity, 121.
Cycle (Cyclic Process), 268, 272.

Carnot's, 272. Efficiency of Carnot's, 273.
Capillary Constant, 121.
Tubes, 125. Carnot's Cycle, 272.
Theorem, 274.
Clausius's Equation of the State of a Gas,
290.
Damping
Action, 195.
74.
Deformation,
Density, 35.
Theorem, 275, 277.

Collision, 49.
Relation
of, to Stress, 79.
336
INDEX.
Entropy, 271, 272, 278, 292, 294.
Descartes's Explanation of Mutual Actions, 49.
Entropy Criterion of Equilibrium,

Equations Plane Waves
of,
294.
Dielectric, 155.
219.
in, 221.
Equilibrium, 58. Conditions
of, 58.
.
of Fluid Surfaces, 12
Dielectric Constant, 156. in Crystals, 246.
Equipotential Surfaces, 23. Construction
of, 132.
Displacement, 156.
Dilatation, 76.
Equivalence of Heat and Energy, 268. Equivalent, Mechanical, of Heat, 268.

Ether, 230, 231.
Fresnel's
233.
Linear, 77. Principal Axes
of, 78.
Assumption Concerning,
Volume,
Dissociation, 295.
77.
Dirichlet's Principle, 136.
Neumann's Assumption Concerning, 233.
Dyne,
9.
Euler's Equations of Motion of Fluids,103.
Earth, Temperature
of, 302.
Falling Bodies,
Laws
of, 5.
Elastic Body, Equilibrium of, 82.
Flexure, 87.
Motion
of, 89.
of, 96.
Flow
of Fluid, 108.
Potential Energy
Elasticity, Coefficient of, 79.
Through Tube,
Flux of Force,
Force,
8.
119.
42.
Modulus
of, 81.
Electrical Convection, 161.
Centripetal. 11.
Displacement, 191.
Distribution, 128.
Components
Line
of, 23.
of, 9.
on on on on on
a Conductor, 130.
Conductors, 139.
Measure
Normal,
of, 6, 9.
13.
an Ellipsoid, 133.
a Plane, 135.
Tangential, 13.
a Sphere, 132, 137.

160.
Tubes of, 145. Unit of, 9.

Forces, Conservative, 20.
Double Sheets,
Energy, 145.
Force,
External, 53.
of, 143.
Law
of, 128.
Lines
Internal, 53, 62. Fluid, Conduction of Heat in, 325.
Images, 135.
Oscillations, 215, 223.
Elasticity of, 81.
Equilibrium
of, 62, 99.
Polarization, 191.
Motion
of, 103.
Potential, 128.
of a Conductor, 131.
Viscous, 118.
near a Surface, 129.

Electricity, Theories of, 127. Electrified Body, Force on, 141.
Motion of Sphere in, 109. Steady Motion of, 118.

Fourier's Theorem, 312, 315. Fresnel's Formulas for Light, 231. Failure of, 235.
Electro-kinetic Energy, 201, 210.
Electromagnetism, 184.
Friction of Fluids, 115.

of, 188.
Equations Electrometer, Quadrant, 154.

Energy, Conservation
of, 58.
Coefficient of, 115.
Thomson's Absolute,
Kinetic, 14. of a System, 56.
Potential, 57.
142.
Galileo's
Laws of
Falling Bodies,
5.
Gas, Elasticity
Ideal, 270.
of, 82.
Specific
Heats
of, 270.
INDEX.
Gauss's Theorem, 41.
Gravity, Acceleration of,
5.
337
Lenz's Law, 200.

Light, Electromagnetic Theory
235, 237.
of,
230,
Centre of, 50. Gyration, Radius of, 60.
Emission Theory
Principal
of, 229.
Laws
of, 230.
Heat, Conduction
of, 298.
Wave Theory
Lines of Force, 23.
of, 229.
in Fluids, 325.
Flow
of,
between two Bodies, 317. from a Point, 204. from a Surface, 303, 316.
in a Cylinder, 322. in an Infinite Body, 305.
Electrical Force, 143.
Logarithmic Decrement, 196.
MacCullagh's Construction, 263.
in a Plate, 308.
Fourier's Equation of, 298. Steady Flow of, in a Cylinder, 323.
in a Plate, 300.
Magnet, Constitution
of, 163.
Forces acting on, 169.

Oscillation of, 170.
in a Sphere, 301. in a Tube, 301.
Potential Energy Potential of, 166.
of, 171.
Magnetic
Axis, 166. Induction, 173, 177, 179.

Coefficient of, 180.
Helmholtz's Transformation of Euler's

Equations, 106. Hertz's Apparatus, 216.
Moment,
165.
Form of Max well's Equations, 219.

Huygens's
Construction, 262.
Permeability, 180.
Poles, 163. SheU, 180.
Strength
Ice,
of, 180.
Formation
8.
of,
307.
Force, 166.
Impulse,
due to Electrical Curof, 9.
Measure
rent, 184.
Inclined Plane, 24.

Induction, Coefficients of Magnetic, 149.
of Electrical Currents, 199. Coefficients of, 202.
Law
of, 163. of, 174, 178. of, 174.
Lines
Tubes
Magnetism, 163.
Equations of, 208. Law of, 200.
Distribution
Coefficients
of, 165.
Measurement
of, 203.
of
Magnetization, Intensity of, 165. Magnetized Sphere, Potential of, 168.
Mutual, 201.
Self-, 200.
Material System, 53. Maxwell's Electromagnetic
Theory of
Inertia,
Moment
Principle
of, 60.
of, 6.
Light, 230. Theory of the Action of
Medium,
Melting, 291. Moment, of Force, 56.
of Inertia, 60.
72.
Isentropic Curves, 268.
Isothermal Curves, 267.
Joule's Law, 197.
of
Momentum,
49.
55,
Momentum,
Kepler's Laws, 27.
Moment
Curvilinear,
of, 55.
Motion, Constrained. 24.

3.
Lagrange's Equations of Motion of Fluids,

111.
Equations of, of a Particle, In a Circle, 11.

Oscillatory, 12.
10.
Laplace's Equation, 45. Application
of, 46.
Periodic,
1, 12,
338
Motion, Uniform,
Variable,
1.
INDEX;
Resistance,
Measurement
of
1, 2.
Lorenz's Method, 207.
Thomson's Method, 206.

Newton's Law of Attraction,
30.
Shear, 77.
Solenoid, 186. Solid, Internal Forces
in, 62.
Ohm's Law,
197.
Optic Axes, 249. Optic Axes of Elasticity, 247.

Oscillatory Motion, 12.
Sound, Velocity of, in Gases, 330. Spherical Shell under Pressure, 83.
Sphondyloid, 143. State of a Body, 266.
Diagram Representing,
Path,
1.
267.
Equation
of, 4.
of, 267.
Equation
Pendulum,
Period, 90.
25, 61.
Stateof a Gas, Clausius's Equation of ,290. Van der Waal's Equation

of, 286.
Points, Electrical Action of, 144. Poisson's Equation, 45.
Stokes's Theorem, 21.

Stress, 64.
Application, 46.
Polarization,
Components
of, 65.
Angle
of, 234.
Equilibrium under, 67.

Principal, 69.
Strings, Vibrating, 95.
Potential, 20, 21.

Coefficients of, 148.
Difference
of, 22.
Surface Tension, 122.
of a Circular Plate, 38.

of a Cylinder, 39. of a Solid Sphere, 37.
Tension, 64.
of a Spherical Shell, 36. of a Straight Line, 39.

of a System, 34.
Thermodynamic
Relations, 280.
PropertiesofBodies,281.
Poynting's Theorem, 224.

Pressure, 64.
Thermodynamics, First Law of, 268. Equation embodying, 269. Second Law of, 170.
Application
Torsion, 85.
Coefficient of, 86.
of, 279.
Hydrostatic, 62, 63. Principal Section, 260.

Projectiles, 7, 11.
Trigonometrical
Series Representing Arbitrary Functions, 309, 312.

of Force, 145.
Kays, Direction of, in Crystals, 256. Velocity of Propagation of, 257.

Reflection of Polarized Light, 232, 237,
Tubes
Uniaxial Crystals, 259.
239
Total, 240, 241.
Wave
Units, Absolute,
2, 211.
Surface
in, 259.
Refraction, Double, 246. at the Surface of a
Derived,
2.
Practical, 214.
Crystal, 261.
in Uniaxial Crystals,
264.
Van
der Waal's Equation of State, 283.
In a Plate, 242.
Index
239.
of, 230.
Vaporization, Heat of, 291. Vapour, Saturated, 290.

Specific
of Polarized Light. 233, 237,
Heat
of, 292.
Vector, 55.
Velocity,
of, 205.
1, 2.
Resistance, 198.
Measurement
Angular,
1.
INDEX.
Velocity,
339
90.
Components
Resultant,
4.
of, 3.
Waves, Plane,
in Dielectric, 221.
Velocity Potential, 106.

Vibrations, Longitudinal, 91.
Spherical, 93.
Stationary, 93.
Torsional, 93.
Transverse, 91.
Vortex Motion,
107.
Velocity
of, 91, 92.
Filament, 109.
in Crystals, 248, 249, 257.
Wave
Surface, 251. Reciprocal, 257.
Weight,
9.
Work,
14.
"Waves on the Surface of a Fluid, 112.
Done
in Closed Path, 15, 16.
QC
20 C462E 1897
L 006 580 2

Elements of Theoretical Physics (1897)

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Elements of Theoretical Physics (1897)

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES

PROFESSOR OF PHYSICS IN THE UNIVERSITY OF COPENHAGEN

TRANSLATED INTO ENGLISH BY

PROFESSOR OF PHYSICS IN PRINCETON UNIVERSITY

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

GLASGOW PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS BY ROBERT MACLEHOSE AND CO.

presents the fundamental

and develops them so

the reader in touch with

being done in that subject.

not in every respect exhaustive, but

stimulating and informing,

and furnishes a view of the whole

reader's subsequent progress in special parts of

a book, in which the various branches of the subject are developed

with one another and in a consistent notation, has

by both teachers and students.

his courtesy in permitting the use of his book.

PRINCETON UNIVERSITY, September,

GENERAL THEORY OF MOTION.

Freely Falling Bodies,

Equations of Motion for a Material Point,

The Tangential and Normal

Work and Kinetic Energy, The Work Done on a Body during

Universal Attraction, Universal Attraction (continued},

Action and Reaction.

the Molecular and Atomic Structure

of the Equilibrium of Fluids,

Vortex Motions and Currents in a Fluid,

Equations of Motion of a Viscous Fluid,

Flow through a Tube

of Circular Cross Section,

Complete Distribution, Mechanical Force Acting on a Charged Body,

The Condenser and Electrometer, The Dielectric,

Mechanical Force and Electrical Energy in the Dielectric,

The Magnetic The Potential

Biot and Savart's Law,

of Current-Strength on the Quantity

Ohm's Law and Joule's Law,

LXXXVII. Measurement LXXXVIII. Fundamental

Calculation of the Period,

XCI II. The Fundamental

-----------------Equations for Electrical Insulators

Plane Waves in the Dielectric, The Hertzian Oscillations,

REFRACTION OF LIGHT IN ISOTROPIC AND TRANSPARENT

The Electro-Magnetic Theory

Equations of the Electro-Magnetic Theory of Light, Refraction in a Plate,

242 246 249

Discussion of the Velocities of Propagation,

The Wave Surface (continued), The Direction of the Rays,

Double Refraction at the Surface

Application of the Second Law,

Liquids and Solids,

der Waal's Equation of State,

from a Point, in an Infinitely Extended Body,

CXXIX. The Flow

a Plate whose Surface

of Functions in Series of Sines

Application of Fourier's of Heat,

which a moving point occupies

the distance traversed in the unit of time measures

moves on the circumference of a

time measures the angular velocity.

+ x2 The component = sc1 + 2