Artificial Intelligence The central problems of AI include such traits as reasoning, knowledge, planning, learning, communication, perception and

the ability to move and manipulate objects. General intelligence (or "strong AI") is still among the field's long term goals. Currently popular approaches include statistical methods, computational intelligence and traditional symbolic AI. There are an enormous number of tools used in AI, including versions of search and mathematical optimization, logic, methods based on probability and economics, and many others. The field was founded on the claim that a central property of humans, intelligencethe sapience of Homo sapienscan be so precisely described that it can be simulated by a machine.This raises philosophical issues about the nature of the mind and the ethics of creating artificial beings, issues which have been addressed by myth, fiction andphilosophy since antiquity.Artificial intelligence has been the subject of optimism, but has also suffered setbacks and, today, has become an essential part of the technology industry, providing the heavy lifting for many of the most difficult problems in computer science.

Timeline of AI Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead published Principia Mathematica,which revolutionized formal logic 1913 .

1915

Leonardo Torres y Quevedo built a chess automaton, El Ajedrecista and published speculation about thinking and automata.[23]

1923

Karel apek's play R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots) opened in London. This is the first use of the word "robot" in English.

1943

Arturo Rosenblueth, Norbert Wiener and Julian Bigelow coin the term "cybernetics". Wiener's popular book by that name published in 1948.

Game theory which would prove invaluable in the progress of AI was introduced with the 1944 paper, Theory of Games and Economic 1945 Behavior bymathematician John von Neumann and economist Oskar Morgenstern.

Vannevar Bush published As We May Think (The Atlantic Monthly, July 1945) a 1945 prescient vision of the future in which computers assist humans in many activities.

1950 Alan Turing proposes the Turing Test as a measure of machine intelligence

1956

The first Dartmouth College summer AI conference is organized by John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky, Nathan Rochester of IBM and Claude Shannon.

1956

The name artificial intelligence is used for the first time as the topic of the second Dartmouth Conference, organized by John McCarthy

John McCarthy (Massachusetts Institute of Technology or MIT) invented theLisp 1958 programming language. 1962 First industrial robot company, Unimation, founded.

Danny Bobrow's dissertation at MIT (technical report #1 from MIT's AI 1964 group,Project MAC), shows that computers can understand natural language well enough to solve algebra word problems correctly.

Joel Moses (PhD work at MIT) demonstrated the power of symbolic 1968 reasoningfor integration problems in the Macsyma program. First successful knowledge-based program in mathematics.

Richard Greenblatt (programmer) at MIT built a knowledge-based chess-playing 1968 program, MacHack, that was good enough to achieve a class-C rating in tournament play.

Stanford Research Institute (SRI): Shakey the Robot, demonstrated 1969 combininganimal locomotion, perception and problem solving .

1969

First International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI) held at Stanford.

Early Jane Robinson and Don Walker established an influential Natural Language 1970s Processing group at SRI.

Jaime Carbonell (Sr.) developed SCHOLAR, an interactive program forcomputer 1970 assisted instruction based on semantic nets as the representation of knowledge.

1970

Bill Woods described Augmented Transition Networks (ATN's) as a representation for natural language understanding.

1972 Prolog programming language developed by Alain Colmerauer.

1972

Earl Sacerdoti developed one of the first hierarchical planning programs, ABSTRIPS.

Austin Tate developed the Nonlin hierarchical planning system able to search a 1975 space of partial plans characterised as alternative approaches to the underlying goal structure of the plan.

Marvin Minsky published his widely-read and influential article on Frames as a 1975 representation of knowledge, in which many ideas about schemas andsemantic links are brought together.

The Meta-Dendral learning program produced new results in chemistry (some 1975 rules of mass spectrometry) the first scientific discoveries by a computer to be published in a refereed journal.

Mid David Marr and MIT colleagues describe the "primal sketch" and its role 1970s invisual perception.

1979

Cordell Green, David Barstow, Elaine Kant and others at Stanford demonstrated the CHI system for automatic programming.

The Stanford Cart, built by Hans Moravec, becomes the first computer1979 controlled, autonomous vehicle when it successfully traverses a chair-filled room and circumnavigates the Stanford AI Lab.

1979

BKG, a backgammon program written by Hans Berliner at CMU, defeats the reigning world champion.

Early The team of Ernst Dickmanns at Bundeswehr University of Munich builds the 1980s first robot cars, driving up to 55 mph on empty streets.

1980s

Lisp machines developed and marketed. First expert system shells and commercial applications.

1980

First National Conference of the American Association for Artificial Intelligence(AAAI) held at Stanford.

1983

James F. Allen invents the Interval Calculus, the first widely used formalization of temporal events.

Marvin Minsky published The Society of Mind, a theoretical description of the 1987 mind as a collection of cooperating agents. He had been lecturing on the idea for years before the book came out (c.f. Doyle 1983).

Around the same time, Rodney Brooks introduced the subsumption 1987 architecture and behavior-based robotics as a more minimalist modular model of natural intelligence; Nouvelle AI.

1989

Dean Pomerleau at CMU creates ALVINN (An Autonomous Land Vehicle in a Neural Network).

DART scheduling application deployed in the first Gulf War paid 1991 back DARPA'sinvestment of 30 years in AI research.[33] Ian Horswill extended behavior-based robotics by creating Polly, the first robot to navigate using vision and operate at animal-like speeds (1 meter/second). 1993

Rodney Brooks, Lynn Andrea Stein and Cynthia Breazeal started the widely1993 publicized MIT Cog project with numerous collaborators, in an attempt to build ahumanoid robot child in just five years.

ISX corporation wins "DARPA contractor of the year"[34] for the Dynamic 1993 Analysis and Replanning Tool (DART) which reportedly repaid the US government's entire investment in AI research since the 1950s.[35]

With passengers on board, the twin robot cars VaMP and VITA-2 of Ernst Dickmanns and Daimler-Benz drive more than one thousand kilometers on a Paris three-lane highway in standard heavy traffic at speeds up to 130 km/h. They demonstrate autonomous driving in free lanes, convoy driving, and lane 1994 changes left and right with autonomous passing of other cars.

Semi-autonomous ALVINN steered a car coast-to-coast under computer control 1995 for all but about 50 of the 2850 miles. Throttle and brakes, however, were controlled by a human driver.

1997

First official RoboCup football (soccer) match featuring table-top matches with 40 teams of interacting robots and over 5000 spectators.

1998

Tiger Electronics' Furby is released, and becomes the first successful attempt at producing a type of A.I to reach a domestic environment.

1998 Tim Berners-Lee published his Semantic Web Road map paper

Late Demonstration of an Intelligent room and Emotional Agents at MIT's AI Lab. 1990s

Late Initiation of work on the Oxygen architecture, which connects mobile and 1990s stationary computers in an adaptive network.

2000

Interactive robopets ("smart toys") become commercially available, realizing the vision of the 18th century novelty toy makers.

2000

Cynthia Breazeal at MIT publishes her dissertation on Sociable machines, describing Kismet (robot), with a face that expresses emotions.

2000

The Nomad robot explores remote regions of Antarctica looking for meteorite samples.

Honda's ASIMO robot, an artificially intelligent humanoid robot, is able to walk 2005 as fast as a human, delivering trays to customers in restaurant settings.

2005 Recommendation technology based on tracking web activity or media usage

brings AI to marketing

2007 Checkers is solved by a team of researchers at the University of Alberta.

AI received much public attention in February, 2011, with 2011 the Jeopardy!exhibition match during which IBM's Watson soundly defeated the two greatest Jeopardy! champions, Brad Rutter and Ken Jennings.

Problems
The general problem of simulating (or creating) intelligence has been broken down into a number of specific sub-problems. These consist of particular traits or capabilities that researchers would like an intelligent system to display. The traits described below have received the most attention. Deduction, reasoning, problem solving Early AI researchers developed algorithms that imitated the step-by-step reasoning that humans use when they solve puzzles or make logical deductions.[39] By the late 1980s and '90s, AI research had also developed highly successful methods for dealing with uncertain or incomplete information, employing concepts from probability and economics.[40] For difficult problems, most of these algorithms can require enormous computational resources most experience a "combinatorial explosion": the amount of memory or computer time required becomes astronomical when the problem goes beyond a certain size. The search for more efficient problem-solving algorithms is a high priority for AI research.[41] Human beings solve most of their problems using fast, intuitive judgements rather than the conscious, step-by-step deduction that early AI research was able to model.[42] AI has made some progress at imitating this kind of "sub-symbolic" problem solving: embodied agent approaches emphasize the importance

of sensorimotor skills to higher reasoning; neural net research attempts to simulate the structures inside the brain that give rise to this skill; statistical approaches to AI mimic the probabilistic nature of the human ability to guess. Knowledge representation Knowledge representation[43] and knowledge engineering[44] are central to AI research. Many of the problems machines are expected to solve will require extensive knowledge about the world. Among the things that AI needs to represent are: objects, properties, categories and relations between objects;[45] situations, events, states and time;[46] causes and effects;[47] knowledge about knowledge (what we know about what other people know);[48] and many other, less well researched domains. A representation of "what exists" is an ontology (borrowing a word from traditional philosophy), of which the most general are calledupper ontologies.[49] Among the most difficult problems in knowledge representation are: Default Reasoning and the qualification problem The breadth of commonsense knowledge The subsymbolic form of some commonsense knowledge

Planning Intelligent agents must be able to set goals and achieve them.[56] They need a way to visualize the future (they must have a representation of the state of the world and be able to make predictions about how their actions will change it) and be able to make choices that maximize the utility (or "value") of the available choices.[57] In classical planning problems, the agent can assume that it is the only thing acting on the world and it can be certain what the consequences of its actions may be.[58] However, if the agent is not the only actor, it must periodically ascertain whether the world matches its predictions and it must change its plan as this becomes necessary, requiring the agent to reason under uncertainty.[59] Multi-agent planning uses the cooperation and competition of many agents to achieve a given goal. Emergent behavior such as this is used by evolutionary algorithms and swarm intelligence.[60]

Learning The main goal of machine learning is to get knowledge from users, input data and so on, improving to solve more problems, reduce the mistakes and increase the efficiency of solving problems. Machine learning[61] has been central to AI research from the beginning.[62] In 1956, at the original Dartmouth AI summer conference, Ray Solomonoff wrote a report on unsupervised probabilistic machine learning: "An Inductive Inference Machine".[63] Because learning is very complicated, much of the research focus on the concept learning which consists in finding a classification function which distinguishes between the entities that are instances of the concepts from those that are not. Unsupervised learning is the ability to find patterns in a stream of input. Supervised learning includes both classification and numerical regression. Classification is used to determine what category something belongs in, after seeing a number of examples of things from several categories. Regression is the attempt to produce a function that describes the relationship between inputs and outputs and predicts how the outputs should change as the inputs change. In reinforcement learning[64] the agent is rewarded for good responses and punished for bad ones. These can be analyzed in terms of decision theory, using concepts like utility. The mathematical analysis of machine learning algorithms and their performance is a branch of theoretical computer science known as computational learning theory. Natural Language Processing Natural language processing[66] gives machines the ability to read and understand the languages that humans speak. A sufficiently powerful natural language processing system would enable natural language user interfaces and the acquisition of knowledge directly from human-written sources, such as Internet texts. Some straightforward applications of natural language processing include information retrieval (or text mining) and machine translation.[67]

A common method of processing and extracting meaning from natural language is through semantic indexing. Increases in processing speeds and the drop in the cost of data storage makes indexing large volumes of abstractions of the users input much more efficient. Motion and manipulation The field of robotics[68] is closely related to AI. Intelligence is required for robots to be able to handle such tasks as object manipulation[69] and navigation, with sub-problems of localization (knowing where you are, or finding out where other things are),mapping (learning what is around you, building a map of the environment), and motion planning (figuring out how to get there) or path planning (going from one point in space to another point, which may involve compliant motion - where the robot moves while maintaining physical contact with an object). Perception Machine perception[72] is the ability to use input from sensors (such as cameras, microphones, sonar and others more exotic) to deduce aspects of the world. Computer vision[73] is the ability to analyze visual input. A few selected subproblems are speech recognition,[74] facial recognition and object recognition.
Social intelligence

Affective computing is the study and development of systems and devices that can recognize, interpret, process, and simulate human affects.[77][78] It is an interdisciplinary field spanning computer sciences, psychology, and cognitive science.[79] While the origins of the field may be traced as far back as to early philosophical enquiries into emotion,[80] the more modern branch of computer science originated with Rosalind Picard's 1995 paper[81] on affective computing.[82][83] A motivation for the research is the ability to simulate empathy. The machine should interpret the emotional state of humans and adapt its behaviour to them, giving an appropriate response for those emotions. Emotion and social skills[84] play two roles for an intelligent agent. First, it must be able to predict the actions of others, by understanding their motives and emotional states. (This involves elements of game theory, decision theory, as well as the ability to model human emotions and the perceptual skills to detect emotions.) Also, in an effort to facilitate human-computer interaction, an

intelligent machine might want to be able to display emotionseven if it does not actually experience them itselfin order to appear sensitive to the emotional dynamics of human interaction.

Creativity A sub-field of AI addresses creativity both theoretically (from a philosophical and psychological perspective) and practically (via specific implementations of systems that generate outputs that can be considered creative, or systems that identify and assess creativity). Related areas of computational research are Artificial intuition and Artificial imagination. General intelligence Most researchers think that their work will eventually be incorporated into a machine with general intelligence (known as strong AI), combining all the skills above and exceeding human abilities at most or all of them.[7] A few believe that anthropomorphic features like artificial consciousness or an artificial brain may be required for such a project.[85][86] Many of the problems above are considered AI-complete: to solve one problem, you must solve them all. For example, even a straightforward, specific task like machine translation requires that the machine follow the author's argument (reason), know what is being talked about (knowledge), and faithfully reproduce the author's intention (social intelligence). Machine translation, therefore, is believed to be AI-complete: it may require strong AI to be done as well as humans can do it.