Contents

1.INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 3 1.1 About BARC ............................................................................................................... 4 1.2 Founder....................................................................................................................... 4 2. ATOMIC ENERGY IN INDIA ............................................................................................. 5 2.1 Future Perspectives ................................................................................................... 5 2.2 Strategy For Nuclear Energy..................................................................................... 6 2.2.1 2.2.2 Indian Nuclear Power Generation................................................................... 6 Reprocessing of Spent Fuel ...7

3. EVOLUTION OF NUCLEAR REACTORS ........................................................................ 9 3.1 PHWR (Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor) ............................................................. 9 3.2 Fast Breeder Reactors ............................................................................................. 10 3.3 Boiling Water Reactor ............................................................................................. 11 3.3.1 Introduction........................................................................................................ 11 3.3.2 Overview of BWR............................................................................................... 12 4. NUCLEAR FUELS .......................................................................................................... 13 4.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 13 4.2 Types of Nuclear Fuels ........................................................................................ 14

4.2.1 Oxide fuel ........................................................................................................... 14 4.2.2 Metal Fuel ........................................................................................................... 14 4.2.3 Ceramic Fuels .................................................................................................... 15 4.2.4 Common physical forms of nuclear fuel ......................................................... 16 5. VARIOUS PLANTS AT BARC TARAPUR ..................................................................... 17 5.1 PREFRE (Power Reactor Fuel Reprocessing) Plant ............................................. 17 5.2 SSSF (Solid Waste Storage Surveillance Facility) Plant ....................................... 17 5.3 AFFF (Advanced Fuel Fabrication Facility) ........................................................... 18 6. MECHANICAL WORKSHOP AT AFFF, BARC .............................................................. 19 6.1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................ 19

6.2 WORKSHOP ............................................................................................................. 19 6.2.1 LATHE MACHINE ............................................................................................... 19 6.2.2 MILLING MACHINE ............................................................................................ 21 6.2.3 SHAPING MACHINE .......................................................................................... 22 6.2.4 Centreless Grinding machine ........................................................................... 23 6.2.5 GRINDING MACHINE ......................................................................................... 24 6.2.6 ROLLING MACHINE........................................................................................... 26 6.2.7 POWER SHEARING MACHINE ......................................................................... 26 6.2.8 COOLANT ........................................................................................................... 27 6.2.9 TOOL .................................................................................................................. 28 7. WELDING........................................................................................................................ 29 7.1 TIG WELDING (GTAW) ............................................................................................. 29 7.1.1 Metals that can be welded ................................................................................ 30 7.1.2 Technical chart for TIG welding ....................................................................... 30 7.1.3 Technical chart for cutting process for Argon gas ........................................ 30 7.2 SMAW (SHIELDING METAL ARC WELDING .......................................................... 31 7.2.1 Join quality and strength .................................................................................. 31 7.2.2 Metals commonly welded ................................................................................. 31 7.3 WELDING ELECTRODE SPECIFICATION .............................................................. 32 7.4 WELDING DEFECTS ................................................................................................ 33 7.4.1 Cracks ................................................................................................................ 33 7.4.2 Distortion ........................................................................................................... 33 7.4.3 Incomplete penetration ..................................................................................... 33 7.4.4 Slag conclusion ................................................................................................. 34 8. ENCLOSURE BOX PANEL ............................................................................................ 35 8.1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................ 35 8.2 PANEL ....................................................................................................................... 35 8.2.1 FRONT PANEL ................................................................................................... 35 8.2.2 BACK PANEL ..................................................................................................... 35 8.2.3 TOP PANEL ........................................................................................................ 36 2

8.2.4 SIDE PANEL ....................................................................................................... 36 8.3 DESIGN CONCIDERATION ...................................................................................... 36 8.4 SELECTION OF MATERIAL ..................................................................................... 36 8.4.1 STAINLESS STEEL ............................................................................................ 36 8.5 FABRICATION OF PANEL ....................................................................................... 38 8.5.1 Welding inspection method .............................................................................. 39 8.5.2 Principle of the Die Penetrant test ................................................................... 39 8.5.3 LEAK TESTING OF PANELS ............................................................................. 40 9. CONCLUSION..41

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 ABOUT BARC:
The Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) is India's premier nuclear research facility based in Tarapur, Mumbai. BARC is a multi-disciplinary research Centre with extensive infrastructure for advanced research and development covering the entire spectrum of nuclear science, engineering and related areas. BARC's core mandate is to sustain peaceful applications of nuclear energy, primarily for power generation. It manages all facets of nuclear power generation, from theoretical design of reactors, computerized modeling and simulation, risk analysis, development and testing of new reactor fuel materials, etc. It also conducts research in spent fuel processing, and safe disposal of nuclear waste. Its other research focus areas are applications for isotopes in industries, medicine, agriculture, etc.

1.2 FOUNDER:
Dr. Homi Jehangir Bhabha was the visionary who conceptulised the Indian Nuclear Programme and along with a handful of Scientists initiated the nuclear science research in India in March, 1944. He envisaged the vast potential of nuclear energy and its possible successful utilization in the field of power generation and allied areas. Dr. Bhabha started working with the goal of achieving selfreliance in the fields of nuclear science and engineering and todays Department of Atomic Energy which is a consortium of different and diversified fields of science and engineering is the final outcome of the farsighted planning of Dr. Bhabha. Thus, in his own words When Nuclear Energy has been successfully applied for power production in, say a couple of decades from now, India will not have to look abroad for its experts but will find them ready at hand. Dr. Homi Jehangir Bhabha, realizing the immense potential of nuclear energy as a viable alternative source for electric power generation, launched the Indian Nuclear Programme in March 1944. It was the farsightedness of Dr. Bhabha to start nuclear research in India at a time following the discovery of nuclear fission phenomena by Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman and soon after Enrico Fermi etal from Chicago reporting the feasibility of sustained nuclear chain reactions. At that time very little information was available to the outside world about nuclear fission and sustained chain reactions and nobody was willing to subscribe to the concept of power generation based on nuclear energy.

2. ATOMIC ENERGY IN INDIA 2.1 FUTURE PERSPECTIVES:

Atomic Energy has got a definite and decisive role to perform in the Indian Power Generation and supply sector. Being a developing country, a major share of India's overall electricity requirements has to be from non-conventional sources as the conventional sources has got limitations to meet the galloping needs. India has achieved self-sufficiency in the Nuclear Science and Technology thanks to the pioneering efforts initiated by Dr. Homi Bhabha who visualized the Indian Nuclear Program and since then meticulously carried on by the dedicated scientists and engineers of DAE family. An adequate and uninterrupted power generation is an intrinsic essentiality for the overall development of any nation. In quantitative terms, the per capita consumption of electric energy is regarded as an indicative parameter of the socio economic growth rate of a nation. The major contribution to Indias power production programme comes from: Coal based thermal power stations (105,437 MW in 2012, ~ 55.3% of total power output) Hydroelectric power generation (38,848 Mw in 2012, ~ 20.38 % of total Power Output) Nuclear power generation (4,780 Mw, ~2.5% of total Power Output) Non - conventional sources (wind, tidal etc.)(22,233 MW, ~ 11.6% of total Power Output)

Per capita power consumption in India is around 600 Kwh/yr., which is much below the world average consumption of 2430 Kwh/yr. Thus, massive increase in the power generation to match the world average consumption is needed in the coming years to enhance the overall national growth rate. Our conventional resources are far from being adequate to achieve any ambitious target in terms of power generation. With the depleting coal deposits and the limited potential of hydel power, the nations future requirements of power could be met by tapping nuclear and other non - conventional resources. There is a lot of potential in non-conventional sources and this must be harnessed. By their very nature, while other non-conventional sources are suitable for smalldecentralized applications, nuclear power stations are suitable for large central generating stations.

2.2 STRATEGY FOR NUCLEAR ENERGY:

India has consciously proceeded to explore the possibility of tapping nuclear energy for the purpose of power generation and the Atomic Energy Act was framed and implemented with the set objectives of using two naturally occurring elements Uranium and Thorium having good potential to be utilized as nuclear fuel in Indian Nuclear Power Reactors. The estimated natural deposits of these elements in India are: Natural Uranium deposits - ~70,000 tonnes Thorium deposits - ~ 3,60,000 tonnes

2.2.1 Indian Nuclear Power Generation: Envisages A Three Stage Programme:

STAGE 1 Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor using STAGE 2 Fast Breeder Reactor STAGE 3 Breeder Reactor

STAGE 1 Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor using Natural UO2 as fuel matrix Heavy water as moderator and coolant Natural U isotopic composition is 0.7 % fissile U-235 and the rest is U-238. In the reactor The first two plants were of boiling water reactors based on imported technology. Subsequent plants are of PHWR type through indigenous R&D efforts. India achieved complete self- reliance in this technology and this stage of the programme is in the industrial domain.

The future plan includes: Setting up of VVER type plants based on Russian Technology is under progress to augment power generation. MOX fuel (Mixed oxide) is developed and introduced at Tarapur to conserve fuel and to develop new fuel technology.

STAGE 2 Fast Breeder Reactor Indias second stage of nuclear power generation envisages the use of Pu-239 obtained from the first stage reactor operation, as the fuel core in fast breeder reactors (FBR). The main features of FBTR are:-

Pu-239 serves as the main fissile element in the FBR A blanket of U-238 surrounding the fuel core will undergo nuclear transmutation to produce fresh Pu-239 as more and more Pu-239 is consumed during the operation. Besides a blanket of Th-232 around the FBR core also undergoes neutron capture reactions leading to the formation of U-233. U-233 is the nuclear reactor fuel for the third stage of Indias Nuclear Power Programme. It is technically feasible to produce sustained energy output of 420 GWe from FBR. Setting up Pu-239 fuelled fast Breeder Reactor of 500 MWe power generation is in advanced stage of completion. Concurrently, it is proposed to use thoriumbased fuel, along with a small feed of plutonium-based fuel in Advanced Heavy Water Reactors (AHWRs). The AHWRs are expected to shorten the period of reaching the stage of large-scale thorium utilization.

STAGE 3 Breeder Reactor The third phase of Indias Nuclear Power Generation programme is, breeder reactors using U-233 fuel. Indias vast thorium deposits permit design and operation of U-233 fuelled breeder reactors.

U-233 is obtained from the nuclear transmutation of Th-232 used as a blanket in the second phase Pu-239 fuelled FBR. Besides, U-233 fuelled breeder reactors will have a Th-232 blanket around the U233 reactor core which will generate more U-233 as the reactor goes operational thus resulting in the production of more and more U-233 fuel from the Th-232 blanket as more of the U-233 in the fuel core is consumed helping to sustain the long term power generation fuel requirement. These U-233/Th-232 based breeder reactors are under development and would serve as the mainstay of the final thorium utilization stage of the Indian nuclear programme. The currently known Indian thorium reserves amount to 358,000 GWe-yr of electrical energy and can easily meet the energy requirements during the next century and beyond.

2.2.2 Reprocessing of Spent Fuel By an Open Cycle or a Closed Cycle mode. Open cycle refers to disposal of the entire waste after subjecting to proper waste treatment. This Results in huge underutilization of the energy potential of Uranium (~ 2 % is exploited)

Closed cycle refers to chemical separation of U-238 and Pu-239 and further recycled while the other radioactive fission products were separated, sorted out according to their half-lives and activity and appropriately disposed of with minimum environmental disturbance. Both the options are in practice. As a part of long term energy strategy, Japan and France has opted closed cycle India preferred a closed cycle mode in view of its phased expansion of nuclear power generation extending through the second and third stages. Indigenous technology for the reprocessing of the spent fuel as well as waste management programme has been developed by India through its own comprehensive R&D efforts and reprocessing plants were set up and are in operation thereby attaining self - reliance in this domain.

3. EVOLUTION OF NUCLEAR REACTORS

3.1 PHWR (PRESSURISED HEAVY WATER REACTOR):

Indias first stage of Nuclear Programme was based on the PHWR Technology for the following advantages. Optimum utilization of the limited uranium resources Higher Plutonium yield, for the second stage fuel Availability of Indigenous Technology

The most significant feature of the PHWR design is Multiple pressure tube configurations instead of a large pressure vessel. The first two reactors (1x100 MWe & 1x200 MWe) were built at Rawatbhata near Kota in Rajasthan with the Canadian collaboration and became operational in the year 1973 & 1981. Two units located at Kalpakkam near Madras built later were of the same design but using indigenous technology and were dedicated to the nation in the year 1984 & 1986. Subsequently, the Reactors at Narora offered first opportunity to our engineers to evolve an indigenous design based on operating experience and other requirements such as stringent safety norms and seismic design. 2x220 MWe PHWRs at Narora was connected to the grid in 1991 and 1992. 2x220 MWe PHWRs at Kakrapar became operational in 1993 and 1995 followed by the 2x220 MWe PHWRs built at Kaiga and 2x220 MWe PHWRs at Rajasthan in the year 2000.

In 2007, 1x220 MWe PHWR unit at Kaiga became available followed by 1x220 MWe PHWR in 2011. 2x220 MWe units at Rajasthan became functional in the year 2011. The design of 540 MWe PHWR is the next step in the process of evolution and the first two units based on this design were built at Tarapur. The First Unit was dedicated to the Nation in 2005 and the second in 2006 and both the units are working well. Technology for the manufacture of various components and equipment is now well established and has evolved through active collaboration between the DAE and the industry. Several universities and national institutions have also participated in the development of PHWR technology apart from in house efforts in DAE. As we gain experience and master technology, performance of our plants is improving. 700 MWe PHWR

3.2 FAST BREEDER REACTORS:

Fig.3.2: Fast Breeder reactor

Indias first 40 MWt Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) attained criticality on 18 October, 1985. India becomes the sixth nation having the technology to build and operate a FBTR besides USA, UK, France, Japan and the then USSR.

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The unique features of Indian FBTR are: Indigenously developed U-Pu carbide fuel rich in Pu Design, development and fabrication of all machineries, peripheral units and materials are by the Indian Scientists in close coordination with industry.

Status Initial operational problems sorted out and the reactor operates smoothly at a steady power level of 10.5 Mwt- maximum possible powers output owing to its small core. Future plans based on the Design, setting up and operation of FBTR has provided rich experience and immense information with liquid metal cooled Fast Breeder Reactor Technology and also confidence to embark upon the design of a 500 MWe prototype fast breeder reactor [PFBR], is in advanced stage of completion at Kalpakkam. PFBR design requires A detailed and complete understanding of thermal- hydraulics phenomena Creep, creep-fatigue interaction, and buckling and fluid- structure interaction for the design optimization and also for an assessment of structural integrity. A large number of codes, in the disciplines of thermal- hydraulics and structural mechanics have been developed. The codes have been validated either through experimental data or through international benchmark tests.

Engineering R&D For fast breeder reactor programme through simulated experiments and component development. Experimental data for validating the analytical codes and performance evaluation codes. Facilities to carry out these experiments in air, water and sodium environment. Expertise for modeling phenomena, special instrumentation for measuring flow patterns, vibration etc. and interpretation of data. Capability to set up high temperature sodium facilities and their safe operation.

3.3 BOILING WATER REACTOR : 3.3.1 Introduction:

The boiling water reactor (BWR) is a type of light water nuclear reactor used for the generation of electrical power. It is the second most common type of electricitygenerating nuclear reactor after the pressurized water reactor (PWR), also a type of light water nuclear reactor.

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Fig.3.3: Boiling Water Reactor

The main difference between a BWR and PWR is that in a BWR, the reactor core heats water, which turns to steam and then drives a steam turbine. In a PWR, the reactor core heats water, which does not boil. This hot water then exchanges heat with a lower pressure water system, which turns to steam and drives the turbine. The BWR was developed by the Idaho National Laboratory and General Electric in the mid-1950s. The main present manufacturer is GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy, which specializes in the design and construction of this type of reactor.

3.3.2 Overview of BWR:

The BWR uses demineralized water as a coolant and neutron moderator. Heat is produced by nuclear fission in the reactor core, and this causes the cooling water to boil, producing steam. The steam is directly used to drive a turbine, after which it is cooled in a condenser and converted back to liquid water. This water is then returned to the reactor core, completing the loop. The cooling water is maintained at about 75 atm (7.6 MPa, 10001100 psi) so that it boils in the core at about 285 C (550 F). In comparison, there is no significant boiling allowed in a PWR (Pressurized Water Reactor) because of the high pressure maintained in its primary loopapproximately 158 atm (16 MPa, 2300 psi). Prior to the Fukushima I nuclear accidents, the core damage frequency of the reactor was estimated to be between 104 and 107 (i.e., one core damage accident per every 10,000 to 10,000,000 reactor years).

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4. NUCLEAR FUELS
4.1 INTRODUCTION:
Nuclear fuel is a material that can be 'consumed' by nuclear fission or fusion to derive nuclear energy. Nuclear fuel can refer to the fuel itself, or to physical objects (for example bundles composed of fuel rods) composed of the fuel material, mixed with structural, neutron moderating, or neutron reflecting materials. Most nuclear fuels contain heavy fissile elements that are capable of nuclear fission. When these fuels are struck by neutrons, they are in turn capable of emitting neutrons when they break apart. This makes possible a self-sustaining chain reaction that releases energy with a controlled rate in a nuclear reactor or with a very rapid uncontrolled rate in a nuclear weapon. The most common fissile nuclear fuels are uranium-235 (235U) and plutonium239 (239Pu). The actions of mining, refining, purifying, using, and ultimately disposing of nuclear fuel together make up the nuclear fuel cycle. Not all types of nuclear fuels create power from nuclear fission. Plutonium-238 and some other elements are used to produce small amounts of nuclear power by radioactive decay in radioisotope thermoelectric generators and other types of atomic batteries. Also, light nuclides such as tritium (3H) can be used as fuel for nuclear fusion. Nuclear fuel has the highest energy density of all practical fuel sources.

Fig.4.1: Nuclear Fuel Processing cycle

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4.2 TYPES OF NUCLEAR FUELS:

4.2.1 Oxide fuel: For fission reactors, the fuel (typically based on uranium) is usually based on the metal oxide; the oxides are used rather than the metals themselves because the oxide melting point is much higher than that of the metal and because it cannot burn, being already in the oxidized state. UOX: Uranium dioxide is a black semiconductor solid. It can be made by reacting uranyl nitrate with a base (ammonia) to form a solid (ammonium uranate). It is heated (calcined) to form U3O8 that can then be converted by heating in an argon / hydrogen mixture (700 C) to form UO2. The UO2 is then mixed with an organic binder and pressed into pellets, these pellets are then fired at a much higher temperature (in H2/Ar) to sinter the solid. The aim is to form a dense solid which has few pores. The thermal conductivity of uranium dioxide is very low compared with that of zirconium metal, and it goes down as the temperature goes up. MOX: Mixed oxide, or MOX fuel, is a blend of plutonium and natural or depleted uranium which behaves similarly (though not identically) to the enriched uranium feed for which most nuclear reactors were designed. MOX fuel is an alternative to low enriched uranium (LEU) fuel used in the light water reactors which predominate nuclear power generation. Some concern has been expressed that used MOX cores will introduce new disposal challenges, though MOX is itself a means to dispose of surplus plutonium by transmutation. 4.2.2 Metal Fuel: Metal fuels have the advantage of much higher heat conductivity than oxide fuels but cannot survive equally high temperatures. Metal fuels have a long history of use, stretching from the Clementine in 1946 to many test and research reactors. Metal fuels have the potential for the highest fissile atom density. Metal fuels are normally alloyed, but some metal fuels have been made with pure uranium metal. Uranium alloys that have been used include uranium aluminum, uranium zirconium, uranium silicon, uranium molybdenum, and uranium zirconium hydride. Any of the aforementioned fuels can be made with plutonium and other actinides as part of a closed nuclear fuel cycle. Metal fuels have been used in water reactors and liquid metal fast breeder reactors.

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 TRIGA Fuel: TRIGA fuel is used in TRIGA (Training, Research, Isotopes, General Atomics) reactors. The TRIGA reactor uses uranium-zirconium-hydride (UZrH) fuel, which has a prompt negative temperature coefficient, meaning that as the temperature of the core increases, the reactivity decreasesso it is highly unlikely for a meltdown to occur. Most cores that use this fuel are "high leakage" cores where the excess leaked neutrons can be utilized for research. TRIGA fuel was originally designed to use highly enriched uranium, however in 1978 the U.S. Department of Energy launched its Reduced Enrichment for Research Test Reactors program, which promoted reactor conversion to low-enriched uranium fuel. A total of 35 TRIGA reactors have been installed at locations across the USA. A further 35 reactors have been installed in other countries. Actinide Fuel: In a fast neutron reactor, the minor actinides produced by neutron capture of uranium and plutonium can be used as fuel. Metal actinide fuel is typically an alloy of zirconium, uranium, plutonium and the minor actinides. It can be made inherently safe as thermal expansion of the metal alloy will increase neutron leakage.

4.2.3 Ceramic Fuels: Ceramic fuels other than oxides have the advantage of high heat conductivities and melting points, but they are more prone to swelling than oxide fuels and are not understood as well. Uranium Nitride: This is often the fuel of choice for reactor designs that NASA produces, one advantage is that UN has a better thermal conductivity than UO2. Uranium nitride has a very high melting point. This fuel has the disadvantage that unless 15N was used (in place of the more common 14N) that a large amount of 14C would be generated from the nitrogen by the (n,p) reaction. As the nitrogen required for such a fuel would be so expensive it is likely that the fuel would have to be reprocessed by a pyro method to enable to the 15N to be recovered. It is likely that if the fuel was processed and dissolved in nitric acid that the nitrogen enriched with 15N would be diluted with the common 14N. Uranium Carbide: Much of what is known about uranium carbide is in the form of pin-type fuel elements for liquid metal fast breeder reactors during their intense study during the '60s and '70s. However, recently there has been a revived interest in uranium carbide in the form of plate fuel and most notably, micro fuel particles.

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The high thermal conductivity and high melting point makes uranium carbide an attractive fuel. In addition, because of the absence of oxygen in this fuel (during the course of irradiation, excess gas pressure can build from the formation of O 2 or other gases) as well as the ability to complement a ceramic coating (a ceramic-ceramic interface has structural and chemical advantages), uranium carbide could be the ideal fuel candidate for certain Generation IV reactors such as the gas-cooled fast reactor. 4.2.4 Common physical forms of nuclear fuel: PWR Fuel: Pressurized water reactor (PWR) fuel consists of cylindrical rods put into bundles. A uranium oxide ceramic is formed into pellets and inserted into Zircaloy tubes that are bundled together. The Zircaloy tubes are about 1 cm in diameter, and the fuel cladding gap is filled with helium gas to improve the conduction of heat from the fuel to the cladding. There are about 179-264 fuel rods per fuel bundle and about 121 to 193 fuel bundles are loaded into a reactor core. Generally, the fuel bundles consist of fuel rods bundled 1414 to 1717. PWR fuel bundles are about 4 meters long. In PWR fuel bundles, control rods are inserted through the top directly into the fuel bundle. The fuel bundles usually are enriched several percent in 235U. The uranium oxide is dried before inserting into the tubes to try to eliminate moisture in the ceramic fuel that can lead to corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement. The Zircaloy tubes are pressurized with helium to try to minimize pellet-cladding interaction which can lead to fuel rod failure over long periods. BWR Fuel: In boiling water reactors (BWR), the fuel is similar to PWR fuel except that the bundles are "canned"; that is, there is a thin tube surrounding each bundle. This is primarily done to prevent local density from affecting neutronics and thermal hydraulics of the reactor core. In modern BWR fuel bundles, there are either 91, 92, or 96 fuel rods per assembly depending on the manufacturer. A range between 368 assemblies for the smallest and 800 assemblies for the largest U.S. BWR forms the reactor core. Each BWR fuel rod is back filled with helium to a pressure of about three atmospheres (300 kPa).

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5. VARIOUS PLANTS AT BARC TARAPUR

5.1 PREFRE (POWER REACTOR FUEL REPROCESSING) PLANT:

The PREFRE plant located at Tarapur and commissioned in 1975 reprocesses zircaloy clad oxide spent fuel using chop-leach technique for the head end. Besides providing the required Plutonium, several campaigns of reprocessing have also been carried out under international safeguards in this plant, thereby, providing valuable experience in material accounting practices adhering to the international standards. Around 40 years of experience in the spent fuel reprocessing based on PUREX process has given the confidence that this technology can be successfully employed for the recovery of both U and Pu with yield exceeding 99.5%. Substantial reduction in waste volume has been achieved over the years by resorting to salt free reagents. Evaporation followed by acid reduction by formaldehyde is used to reduce the high level waste volume. The overall decontamination factors for the Pu and U products from fission products exceed 106 and are handled subsequently with minimum radiation protection.

5.2 SSSF (SOLID WASTE STORAGE SURVEILLANCE FACILITY) PLANT:

BARC had established a waste treatment plants at Tarapur site also had waste treatment plants to take care of the wastes arising from operations of TAPS and PREFRE. All these plants came under the

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review of SARCOP from 1987 onwards. Management of HL waste has to take into account the need for their isolation and surveillance for extended periods of time. To meet this objective in the long term perspective, waste isolation system comprising multiple barriers are employed. The vitreous matrixes in which these waste are immobilized constitute the primary barrier. This along with its packaging, engineered barriers in the repository and the surrounding geology (secondary barriers) together are expected to prevent the recycling of radionuclides back into human environment so as to pose no hazard. The long term strategy for management of High Level Waste would involve partitioning of long lived radionuclides that would result in reduction of radioactivity. Ceramic matrices are also being pursued to address specific waste streams.

5.3 AFFF (ADVANCED FUEL FABRICATION FACILITY):

Fig. 5.3: AFFF Plant at BARC

BARC installed an Advanced Fuel Fabrication Facility (A3F) at Tarapur in 1989 for fabrication of mixed oxide (MOX) fuel subassemblies for Tarapur Atomic Power Station (TAPS). AERB constituted an ACPSR with K. Balaramamoorthy, the then Chief Executive, and NFC to carry out the safety review of the project. ACPSR had several detailed discussions on the engineered safety features of the plant to ensure the containment of radioactivity during plutonium powder handling operations, criticality safety etc. Based on the recommendations of this Committee, AERB issued the authorization For regular operation of A3F in 1994. 18

6. MECHANICAL WORKSHOP AT AFFF, BARC

6.1 INTRODUCTION:
This Work Shop is engaged with fabrication of various components and maintenance in the fuel fabrication process and tries to keep all the machines in working conditions, with higher availability factor, the various operations are carried such as lathe operation i.e. turning, milling, shaping and all the utility operations.

6.2 WORKSHOP:
As a mechanical engineer, it is required to know about different type of the machines tools i.e. Lathe, Milling, Shaping machine etc., and their specifications & applications. The entire above requirement is completely fulfilled by workshop. Workshop consists of almost all types of machines workshop gives the practical information about the various operations carried on different machines following are some important machines of the workshop. Lathe machine Milling machine Shaper machine Rolling machine Power press (Mechanical type) Shearing machine All cut machine ( Band Saw ) Grinding machine (cylindrical, flexible shaft grinders, surface grinder) Tool cutter grinder machine Radial drilling machine Welding machine (ARC, TIG, PLASAMA)

6.2.1 LATHE MACHINE: LATHE MACHINE is the most important machine tool. The main function of the lathe machine is removing the material to provide desired shape on the job. This can be accomplished by revolving the job against the single point cutting tool. There are different types of lathe machines. Speed Lathe Engine Lathe Capstan and Turret Lathe 19

Fig.6.2.1: Lathe Machine

DIFFERENT TYPE OF LATHE OPERATIONS AS FOLLOWS: Plain Turning Step Turning Taper Turning Threading Grooving Drilling Reaming

SPECIFICATION: Bed length Nominal height Holding length Feed Speed 2500 mm 220 mm 1800 mm 0.04-2.25 per rev 40-2040 rpm

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6.2.2 MILLING MACHINE:

Fig.6.2.2: Milling Machine

Milling is the process of removing the metal by feeding the work past at rotating multipoint cutter.

Classification: Column & knee type Bed type (simplex, duplex, triplex) Plano type Special purpose machine

In the workshop there is a horizontal milling machine of column & knee type with a vertical attachment. Principal parts of column & knee type machine are as follows. Motor, over arm, cutter, spindle, arbor, column table, saddle knee, elevating screw base etc.

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 Specifications: Table size Table traverse Longitudinal Cross Vertical Main motor 1350 x 350 mm both manually & automatic 810mm & 800mm 220mm & 235mm 340mm& 360mm 3.7kw (5Hp)

6.2.3 SHAPING MACHINE:

Fig.6.2.3: Shaping Machine

The shaper is a reciprocating type of machine tool intended primarily to produce flat surface. These surfaces may be horizontal, vertical or inclined. In general, the shaper can produce any surface composed of straight line element. In modern machine shop there is a universal shaper, in this shaper swiveled about an axis parallel to the ram ways and the upper portion of the table can be tilted about a second horizontal axis perpendicular to the first axis as the work mounted on the table can be adjust in different planes, the machine is most suitable for different types of work like producing flat surfaces, internal or external key cutting etc.,

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6.2.4 Centreless Grinding machine:

Fig.6.2.4: Centreless Grinding Machine

Centreless grinding is an OD (outer diameter) grinding process. In difference from other cylindrical processes, where the work piece is held in the grinding machine, while grinding between centers, the work piece is not mechanically constrained during centreless (centerless) grinding. Therefore the parts to be ground on a centreless (centerless) grinder do not need center holes, drivers or work head fixtures at the ends. Instead, the work piece is supported in the grinding machine on its own outer diameter by a work blade and by the regulating wheel. The work piece is rotating between a high speed grinding wheel and a slower speed regulating wheel with a smaller diameter.

G: Grinding Wheel - R: Regulating Wheel - B: Blade - W: Work piece

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The blade of the grinding machine is usually positioned in a way that the center of the work piece is higher than the virtual line between the centers of the regulating wheel and the grinding wheel. Also the blade is designed with an angle in order to ensure that the work piece is fixed between the blade and the regulating wheel. The regulating wheel consists of soft material like rubber and can contain some hard grain material to achieve good traction between work piece and regulating wheel. ROUNDNESS: Centreless (centerless) grinding can perform excellent roundness of the work piece. However, caused by the simultaneous suspending and machining of the work piece surface it is possible that process typical roundness errors are generated. Proper adjustment of the grinding machine and the grinding slot geometry is essential. When a high spot comes in contact with the regulating wheel, then on the other side of the work piece a low point will be ground. However this low point must not be exactly in the opposite side of the work piece. The grinding machine has to be set up in a way that a polygon form is ground with so many corners that it is almost round finally. APPLICATIONS: Mass Production: E.g. bolts,

shafts,

bearings,

hubs,

valves,

needles,

axles,

pivots

6.2.5 GRINDING MACHINE: There are various types of grinding machines available in the workshop. As required to their applications. Such as hydraulic cylindrical grinding machine precision, hydraulic surface grinding machine, and portable grinding machine. Selection of grinding wheel: Type of Bond Vitrified Vitrified Grinding Operation precision grinding precision grinding

Abrasive aluminum oxide Silicon Carbide

Size 36 to 80 36 to 80

Grade N to J I to L

Aluminum oxide is use for grinding of steels, hard bronze, manganese, nickel, chrome, and phosphor bronze. Silicon carbide is applicable for the grinding of aluminum, soft brass, and bronze, cast iron, copper, nickel, chrome, tungsten carbide and rubber. 24

 Specification: Ac / Dc N/L rpm F/L amps Duty cycle 230 volts 11500 and 1200 1.74 A 30 min

Specification of Grinding wheel: W AA 60 K 5 V 10 W : - Prefix (Manufactures Code) AA: - Aluminum oxide 60:- Grain Size Medium K : - Grade Medium 5 :- Structure Dense V: - Bond Vitrified 10:- Suffix

Fig.6.2.5 Grinding W heel

# Structure of Grinding Wheel: DENSE OP E N 1 9 2 10 3 11 4 12 5 13 6 14 7 15 8

# Grade of Grinding Wheel Soft Medium Hard A I Q B J R C K S D L T E M U F N V G O W H P X

# Grit Grade Structure of Wheels Coarse Medium Fine Very fine 10 30 80 220 12 36 100 240 14 46 120 280 16 54 150 320 20 60 180 400 24

50 0

600

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6.2.6 ROLLING MACHINE: The rolling machine is one of the important machines. It works only on applying pressure. In workshop there are two rolling machines available out of which one is manually operated. The entire structures of both the machines are made up of steels. Frame is fully welded structure made of heavy section steels.

Working principle: The desired length of metal is past between the two rollers and simultaneously rotating rollers by manually or through power which applies pressure on metal plate to get circular shape. 6.2.7 POWER SHEARING MACHINE:

Fig.6.2.7: Power Shearing Machine

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 Working: A punch (or moving blade) is used to push the work piece against the die (or fixed blade), which is fixed. Usually the clearance between the two is 5 to 10% of the thickness of the material, but dependent on the material. Clearance is defined as the separation between the blades, measured at the point where the cutting action takes place and perpendicular to the direction of blade movement. It affects the finish of the cut and the machine's power consumption. This causes the material to experience highly localized shear stresses between the punch and die. The material will then fail when the punch has moved 15 to 60% the thickness of the material, because the shear stresses are greater than the shear strength of the material and the remainder of the material is torn. Two distinct sections can be seen on a sheared work piece, the first part being plastic deformation and the second being fractured. Because of normal inhomogeneities in materials and inconsistencies in clearance between the punch and die, the shearing action does not occur in a uniform manner. The fracture will begin at the weakest point and progress to the next weakest point until the entire work piece has been sheared; this is what causes the rough edge. The rough edge can be reduced if the work piece is clamped from the top with a die cushion. Above a certain pressure the fracture zone can be completely eliminated. [3] However, the sheared edge of the work piece will usually experience work hardening and cracking. If the work piece has too much clearance, then it may experience roll-over or heavy burring.

Specification:
Height of Table from Floor / / mm 815

Cutting Model Thickness

Cutting Length

Stroke / Min

Table Blade No. of Motor Size (W Size (W Blades Power x L) x T x L) mm 300 1380 mm nos HP HPM 5 1440

UCS

Mm

Mm 750

nos 65

04075 4

x 18 x 55 x 2 770

6.2.8 COOLANT: Coolant is a solid or liquid flowing medium which is used for the cooling of job & tool for removing the heat which is produced between job & tool due to its friction while performing machining like turning, milling, drilling etc. Purposes: To increase the tool life To improve the surface finishing

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To flow away the chips which is formed during the operation on the job?

Classification: Solid coolant e.g.- Graphite Liquid coolant e.g. - Water, Soluble oil etc. Semi Solid coolant e.g.- Wax

Here in workshop we are using soluble oil cool cut 40 with the ratio of 1:20 with water. This coolant is used for stainless steel, mild steel etc. For aluminum & copper kerosene is used as a coolant. For cast iron & brass there is no requirement of coolant. 6.2.9 TOOL: Tool is a substance which is used for removing the excess metal from the work piece in the form of chips to get required shape and size with the help of its cutting edge. The tool material should be harder than the work piece on which operation has to done. In the workshop we are using High Speed Steel Tool & Carbide Tool COMPOSITION: High Speed Steel: Carbon - 0.70-1.50 % Vanadium 1.00-5.00% Chromium 4.00-4.50 % Tungsten - 12-20%

Fig.6.2.9 (a): High Speed Tool

Carbide: Tungsten base Carbon 40% Cobalt base Cabon-40%

Tungsten - 60%

Tungsten & Cobalt 60%

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7. WELDING

Welding and cutting operation are frequently used in engineering industry in fabrication, repair and maintenance work. Welding is a process to unite pieces of metal at a joint faces by heat and use of a filler material. Cutting is a process to remove the metal by chemical reaction of the metal at high temperature. In both these operation, the common factor is high heat energy and high temperature for melting or fusing of metals. Types of welding used in workshop are SMAW TIG welding (GTAW)

7.1 TIG WELDING (GTAW)

Fig.7.1: GTAW Welding

It is an arc welding process in which the heat is produced between a nonconsumable electrode and the work metal. A stream of a gas or a mixture of gases protects the electrode weld pool arc and adjacent heat areas of the work piece. The gas shield must provide full protection even small amount of entrained air can contaminate the weld. Because of the non-consumable electrode, a weld can be made by fusion of the base metal without addition of filler metal. A filler may be used, however depending on the requirement that have been established for the particular joint TIG welding is an all 29

Position welding process and is especially well adapted to the welding of thin metals often as thin as 0.005 inch. 7.1.1 Metals that can be welded: The nature of GTAW permits its use for welding of most metals and alloys. Metals that are gas tungsten arc welded includes carbon and alloy steels, stainless steels, heat resistant alloys, refractory metals, aluminum alloys, copper alloys, magnesium alloys, nickel alloys etc.

7.1.2 Technical chart for TIG welding Thickness (mm) 1.5 3 6 12 Current (amps) 88-130 120-224 220-350 330-420 Gas flow (psi) 4-6 4-6 6-8 6-10

Electrode 1.6-2.4 2.4-3.2 3.2-4.8 4.8

Filler rod 1.6 1.6 3.2 3.2-4.8

7.1.3 Technical chart for cutting process for Argon gas Thickness (mm) 5-8 8-16 16-25 25-32 Current (amps) 100-150 150-200 200-250 250-300 Gas flow (psi) 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-35

Argon is one of the excellent gases that freely give up electrons, hence produce a more stable and quite arc during welding. Stable arc reduces the spatter effect. But argon gas cannot be used for deeper penetration. This gas prevents direct contact of air with weld pool

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7.2 SMAW (SHIELDING METAL ARC WELDING:

Fig. 7.2: SMAW Welding

It is a manual arc welding process in which the heat for welding is generated by an arc established between a flux coated consumable electrode and a work piece. The electrode tip, molten weld pool and adjacent areas of the work pieces are protected from atmosphere. Contamination by gaseous shield obtained from the consumption and decomposition of the electrode covering. Additional shielding is provided for the molten metal in the weld pool, by a covering of the molten metal in the weld pool by a covering of molten flux or slug.

7.2.1 Join quality and strength: The quality and strength of the shielded metal arc welded joints can be controlled as easily as the quality and strength joints welded by other manual methods that use consumable electrodes. SMAW electrode material is available to the match the Properties of most ferrous base metals, allowing the properties of a joint to match those of alloys jointed. 7.2.2 Metals commonly welded: By SMAW arc carbon and low alloy steels, stainless steel, heat resistant alloys, cast iron and high strength and harden able steels can also be shielded metal arc welded, but process that includes preheating, post heating or both may be needed.

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7.3 WELDING ELECTRODE SPECIFICATION:

Electrode is a metallic rod coated or non-coated, consumable or nonconsumable used to transmit heat that melts the work piece or base metal by generating arc. The type of electrode required is depending upon the following factors. The strength required Type of base metal to be welded Additional filler metal is used or not. Size of electrode required will depend upon the following factors. Type of joint and gap to be bridge between two plates to be welded Amount of current supplied.

Classification of electrode:

Welding electrode

Non consumable

Consumable

Carbon graphite

Tungsten

Bare electrode

Flux cored electrode

Pure electrode

Thoriated electrode

Zicroniated electrode

Selection of electrode Chemical composition Thickness of the work piece Nature of electrode coating positions

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7.4 WELDING DEFECTS:

7.4.1 Cracks: Causes Poor ductility of base metal Fast arc travel speed Internal stresses in the base metal

Remedies Metal should be tested for its composition as well as mechanical properties before use and the welding speed must be up to desired value.

7.4.2 Distortion: Causes Very high welding speed Continuous welding Residual stresses in the base metal

Remedies Use of jigs, fixture, clamps, may minimize the distortion. Distortion can also minimize by proper weld tacking.

7.4.3 Incomplete penetration: Causes Fewer arcs current Faster arc travel speed Two large electrode diameters Wrongly held electrode

Remedies In case of filling material to the corner box, sufficient temperature is required to melt the base metal as well as electrode. Hence arc current and voltage should be proper. Position of the electrode should be near about an angle of 70 to 80 degree the vertical plane, Electrode of proper size and shape should be used. 33

7.4.4 Slag conclusion: Causes Too high and too low arc current. In sufficient chipping and cleaning off previous passes in multi pass welding. Improper selection of electrode coated with flux.

Remedies Set the current and voltage at desired value Use of proper flux coated electrode Cleaning of slag after welding

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8. ENCLOSURE BOX PANEL

8.1 INTRODUCTION:
An enclosure box is cubical / cuboidal shape box or container which confines the radioactive materials or toxic chemical which contaminates the surroundings environment. There are mostly six types of standard enclosure and there used as per the required processes & geometry of the process equipment. 1) Type I (1094 x 637 x 1094) mm 2) Type II (1731 x 637 x 1094) mm 3) Type III (2188 x 637 x 1094) mm 4) Type IV (1094 x 1094 x 1094) mm 5) Type V (1731 x 1094 x 1094) mm 6) Type VI (2188 x 1094 x 1094) mm

8.2 PANEL:
Panel act as protective shield which is attached to enclosure box from all side & makes the enclosure leak tight to required level. It protect the surroundings from the contamination .It has number of parts as per use purposes. There are four types of panel in an enclosure box which are as follows: Front Panel Back Panel Top Panel Side Panel

8.2.1 FRONT PANEL: In a front panel four glove ports and one viewing window. The viewing window will be rectangular and circular. It is as per the viewing aspect of working condition. 8.2.2 BACK PANEL: Back panel is made up of stainless steel metal or glass& mostly only viewing window is provided & if required as per condition ports can be provided if required.

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8.2.3 TOP PANEL: The top panel is also made of stainless steel on which a large size of rectangular glass panel is provided by which light can pass for good visibility, outlet port is provided for exhaust in enclosure box & other required accessories are provided if required on the top panel for enclosure box. 8.2.4 SIDE PANEL: In a side panel a transfer port is provided by which radioactive material is transfer for one enclosure box to other enclosure box for other treatment or processes. The panels are designed ergonomically to suit the day to day operations & maintenances requirements. The positions of parts & windows are decided on the basis of comfort of operations & maintenance, ease of accessibilities & visibility to maximum possible extents. The flatness & the geometry of these panels are very critical to get the leak tightness point of view.

8.3 DESIGN CONCIDERATION:

For fabrication of panel stainless steel of grade 304 has to use because it has high corrosion resistance & its density is sufficient to minimize the penetration rate of radioactive radiation by less thickness of sheet only. The stainless steel of 3mm thick sheet is used for fabrication of panels because in the system maximum up to negative 4 of WG pressure with respect to working area can be created at critical condition so at that pressure it should not rupture. In panel four port holes should be provided to cover max. Area in the enclosure box for any operation or maintenance. The diameter of port hole & distance between two ports is should be according to the normal human height & shoulder width for easy in work. The viewing window should be design to cover maximum visibility area in the enclosure box. Generally circular window is used but if it is not sufficient than rectangular window has to provide.

8.4 SELECTION OF MATERIAL:

8.4.1 STAINLESS STEEL: It is alloy of iron with a minimum of 10.5% chromium, chromium produces thin layer of oxide on the surface of the steel know as passive layer. This prevents any further corrosion of surface, increasing of chromium gives an increased resistance of corrosion. 36

 Type Of Stainless Steel Ferritic stainless steel Austenitic stainless steel Martenstic stainless steel Duplex stainless steel Precipitation Hardening stainless steel Ferritic Stainless Steel These stainless steel have better engineering properties than austenitic grade but have reduced corrosion resistance because of the lower chromium & nickel content. Martenstic Stainless Steel It is extremely strong & tough but not as corrosion resistant then the other class of stainless steel. Duplex It is the combination of 50% austenite steel & 50% ferrite Steel. Precipitation Hardening These stainless steel can develop very high strength by adding element such as copper, niobium & aluminum to the steel corrosion resistance is comparable to standard austenite. Austenitic Stainless Steel This stainless steel are shown 300 series, Stainless Steel have an Austenitic crystalline structure which is an FCC face centered cubic crystal structure, it make up over 70% of total SS production They contain max 0.15% carbon, min 16% chromium &sufficient nickel & manganese to retain as austenite structure at all temp. From the cryogenic region to m.p. of the alloys. In this industries we are dealing with the toxic material not very high stresses or load so in this field we can use low strength material but we required high corrosion resistive material & less cost material so for that austenitic stainless steel is good to use. Therefore glove box & panels are mostly made of stainless steel of grade 304. This stainless steel possess in austenitic type of Stainless Steel. Composition of SS304 Carbon 0.08% Silicon 1.00% Nickel 8.00-10.5 % 37 Magnesium 2.00% Chromium 18.00-20.00 %

 Properties Of Stainless Steel High density because of which radiation cannot penetrate. It is a non-corrosive material. Surface finishing is very high & it property of hardness is high due to which scratch can be avoided. Ease of cleaning due to better finish.

8.5 FABRICATION OF PANEL:

[[

First with the help of power shearing machine the sheet of 3mm thick is cut of dimension 945 x 850 mm & the corner radius of 103 mm is also cut by power shearing & after that the corner radius is ground to get required finishing & dimension. For this refer plan of panel on drawing. Now in panel there are two port holes are provided of diameter 204 mm which is done by trepanning operation by using trepanning tool on the drill machine. For this refer plan of panel & section D-D on drawing. Now one viewing window is provided of dimension 750 x 150 mm which is cut by bend saw machine & the corner radius of 30 mm is done by this machine only. For this refer plan of panel & section X-X on drawing. Now the MS bright bar is fabricated by bending the bar to required angle this is done by a fixture which is made of required angle for this refer section X-X on drawing. This bar is of material mild steel because on MS bending, tapping operation are easy to be done as compare to SS & it is outside of enclosure box so there is no contact between radioactive material so no chance of contamination & it also reduce cost of production. Now MS bright bar of dimension 15 x 13 mm is welded on the viewing window by GTAW welding process for screwing the glass. This welding become dissimilar welding so for that the filler metal is used is of grade SS309. Now glove ports are made from 8 NB schedule 40 pipe of material SS304 which means pipe outer diameter is 219.1mm & wall thickness is 8.18mm & then we fabricate three O ring groove on the pipe with the help of radius grooving operation on very low rpm by using radius tool on the lathe machine, for this refer section A-A on drawing. This O ring is provided on the surface of glove port to get the proper sealing between glove port & gauntlet & its surface finishing is 0.025 to 1.6 micron. Now these ports are welded on port hole with the help of GTAW welding process. This welding is a similar welding so in this the filler wire used is of grade SS308. The whole GTAW welding process used in the plant we are using argon gas for shielding & 2% thoriated Tungsten non consumable electrode which is also called red tip electrode according to AWS. 38

By clamping strip the glass on viewing window & panel on enclosure box is clamped by screwing. That clamping strip is fabricated by die & punch, for this refer section X-X on drawing. On this clamping strip the hole is drilled of required dimension for screwing the socket head M6 x 15. This whole diameter is given by[D 1.3 p] Where D = Diameter of screw P = Pitch which is taken mostly 1 mm For leak tightness we are using Neoprene gasket of width 12 x thick 1.6 mm & Neoprene O ring of dia. 6.99 mm which is placed between the glass panel & clamping strip & it also placed in between panel & enclosure. In gasket there is a surface contact between the two surfaces & In O ring there is a line contact between the two surfaces. So O ring gives better leak tightness. 8.5.1 Welding inspection method: Here after any welding like port with port hole, MS bright bar with viewing window etc. in the panel the welding inspection has to be done to find out any defect which are not visible in visual inspection which are done by naked eyes. Types Of Welding Inspection Test Liquid Penetrant Test Magnetic Particle Test Radio graphical Test Ultrasonic Test etc.

But here we are using only liquid penetrant test. This test can only indicate surface defect, if defect is in the inside the surface then it cannot deduct it. But here we are more concern about leak proof more than strength wise so this test is sufficient. 8.5.2 Principle of the Die Penetrant test: D.P test is working on the principle of capillary action. Following is the procedure to carry out the D.P test. First of all, cleaning of welding joint is required to be done. This will remove all the dust particle, grease, oil etc. cleaning process is done with ACETONE. Once the cleaning is completed, dye is sprayed on the welding joint whose defects are to be checked. Dye is also known as penetrating. It is red in color. As dye penetrates in the cracks on the welding joint or surface of metallic enclosure, it is kept for 15 min to 20 min. After this, it is again clean with wet cloth. This will help to remove penetrant from the surface of the component. This process is carried out till there is no penetrant 39

on the surface. Here penetrant which is penetrating inside the cracks of welding joint are not cleaned by acetone. Then white developer is sprayed on the surface. This developer gives the capillary action, and due to that action the pink penetrant that is inside the cracks is shown on the surface in the form of line, or spot. Once we found these pink lines or cracks on the surface we may conclude that the cracks are present on the welded material. And try to remove it. 8.5.3 LEAK TESTING OF PANELS: After complete dimensional inspection & assembly of panel, enclosure box etc. Then we go for pressure drop testing method for leak testing of panel & enclosure box. Where we pressurize the enclosure box up to required testing standard & then by calculation we find the leak rate. Calculation P1 & T1 = Initial pressure & temp. P2 & T2 = Final pressure & temp. V = volume is constant We know, PV= nRT Where, R = Universal gas constant n = no. of mole Initial condition P1V = n1RT1 Final condition P2V = n2RT2 Leak Rate = n1 n2/n2 x 100/no. of hrs OR Leak Rate = (P1T2 P2T1)/P1T2 x 100 / no of hrs

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CONCLUSION
In pursuit of the peaceful uses of Atomic Energy, power generation based on nuclear energy assumes first and foremost place and India has achieved many milestones in this area. A well planned programme for the progressive expansion for the tapping of atomic energy for electricity keeping in view of the countrys future requirements for increased power generation capacity and available resources has been under implementation. A strong R&D base has been established and functions as a back bone for the smooth transition of the research and development activities to the deployment phase and thereby realising the Department of Atomic Energys mandate. Many technologies of strategic importance have been mastered to meet developmental needs. Indigenous technology development in the areas of fuel reprocessing, enrichment, production of special materials, computers, lasers, accelerators represents a whole spectrum of activities necessary for realising full potential of our energy resources to meet future energy needs. Radiation Technology and Isotope Applications represents another prominent area of the peaceful uses of Atomic Energy in health care, agriculture, industries, hydrology and food preservation where self- reliance has been accomplished.

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