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Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 1

Complex Numbers, Phasors and Circuits

Complex numbers are defined by points or vectors in the complex
plane, and can be represented in Cartesian coordinates
1 z a jb j = + =
or in polar (exponential) form

( ) ( )
( )
( )
exp( ) cos sin
cos
sin
z A j A jA
a A
b A
= = +
=
=
r
imagina
ea
ry
l part
part


where
2 2 1
tan
b
A a b
a

| |
= + =
|
\ .

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Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 2

















exp( ) exp( 2 ) z A j A j j n = = Note :

z
Re
Im
A
b
a
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Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 3
Every complex number has a complex conjugate

( )
* * z a jb a jb = + =

so that

2
2 2 2
* ( ) ( ) z z a jb a jb
a b z A
= +
= + = =


In polar form we have

( )
( )
( ) ( )
* exp( ) * exp( )
exp 2
cos sin
z A j A j
A j j
A jA
= =
=
=


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Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 4
The polar form is more useful in some cases. For instance, when
raising a complex number to a power, the Cartesian form
( ) ( ) ( )
n
z a jb a jb a jb = + + +
is cumbersome, and impractical for noninteger exponents. In
polar form, instead, the result is immediate

| | ( )
exp( ) exp
n
n n
z A j A jn = =

In the case of roots, one should remember to consider + 2k as
argument of the exponential, with k = integer, otherwise possible
roots are skipped:
( )
2
exp 2 exp
n
n
n
k
z A j j k A j j
n n

| |
= + = +
|
\ .

The results corresponding to angles up to 2 are solutions of the
root operation.
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Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 5
In electromagnetic problems it is often convenient to keep in mind
the following simple identities

exp exp
2 2
j j j j

| | | |
= =
| |
\ . \ .



It is also useful to remember the following expressions for
trigonometric functions

( ) ( )
exp( ) exp( ) exp( ) exp( )
cos ; sin
2 2
jz jz jz jz
z z
j
+
= =

resulting from Eulers identity

exp( ) cos( ) sin( ) jz z j z =
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Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 6
Complex representation is very useful for time-harmonic functions
of the form
( ) ( ) | |
( ) ( ) | |
( ) | |
cos Re exp
Re exp exp
Re exp
A t A j t j
A j j t
A j t
+ = +
=
=

The complex quantity

( )
exp A A j =

contains all the information about amplitude and phase of the
signal and is called the phasor of

( )
cos A t +

If it is known that the signal is time-harmonic with frequency , the
phasor completely characterizes its behavior.
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Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 7
Often, a time-harmonic signal may be of the form:
( )
sin A t +
and we have the following complex representation
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) | |
( ) ( ) ( ) | |
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) | |
sin Re cos sin
Re exp
Re exp / 2 exp exp
Re exp / 2 exp
Re exp
A t jA t j t
jA j t j
A j j j t
A j j t
A j t
+ = + + + (

= +
=
= (

=

with phasor
( ) ( )
exp / 2 A A j =
This result is not surprising, since
cos( / 2) sin( ) t t + = +
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Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 8
Time differentiation can be greatly simplified by the use of phasors.
Consider for instance the signal

( ) ( )
0 0
( ) cos exp V t V t V V j = + = with phasor


The time derivative can be expressed as

( )
( ) ( ) { }
( )
0
0
0
( )
sin
Re exp exp
( )
exp
V t
V t
t
j V j j t
V t
j V j j V
t

= +

is the phasor of

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Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 9
With phasors, time-differential equations for time harmonic signals
can be transformed into algebraic equations. Consider the simple
circuit below, realized with lumped elements











This circuit is described by the integro-differential equation

( ) 1
( ) ( )
t
d i t
v t L Ri i t dt
dt C

= + +


C
R
L
v (t)
i (t)
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Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 10
Upon time-differentiation we can eliminate the integral as

( )
2
2
( ) 1
( )
d i t
d v t d i
L R i t
dt dt C
dt
= + +

If we assume a time-harmonic excitation, we know that voltage and
current should have the form


0 0
0 0
( ) cos( ) exp( )
( ) cos( ) e pha
ph
xp( ) o
a or
s r
s
V V
I I
v t V t V V j
i t I t I I j
= + =
= + =

If V
0
and
V
are given,

I
0
and
I
are the unknowns of the problem.
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Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 11
The differential equation can be rewritten using phasors

( )
{ }
( ) { }
( ) { } ( ) { }


2
Re exp Re exp
1
Re exp Re exp
+
+ =
L I j t R j I j t
I j t j V j t
C


Finally, the transform phasor equation is obtained as

1
V R j L j I Z I
C
| |
= + =
|

\ .


where
1
Z R j L
C
| |
= +
|

\ .
Impedance Resistance
Reactance

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Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 12
The result for the phasor current is simply obtained as

( )
0
exp
1
I
V V
I I j
Z
R j L j
C
= = =
| |
+
|

\ .


which readily yields the unknowns I
0
and
I
.


The time dependent current is then obtained from


( ) ( ) { }
( )
0
0
( ) Re exp exp
cos
I
I
i t I j j t
I t
=
= +


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Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 13
The phasor formalism provides a convenient way to solve time-
harmonic problems in steady state, without having to solve directly
a differential equation. The key to the success of phasors is that
with the exponential representation one can immediately separate
frequency and phase information. Direct solution of the time-
dependent differential equation is only necessary for transients.













Anti-
Transform
Direct Solution
( Transients )
Solution
Transform
Integro-differential
equations
i ( t ) = ?
i ( t )
Algebraic equations
based on phasors
I = ?

I
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Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 14
The phasor representation of the circuit example above has
introduced the concept of impedance. Note that the resistance is
not explicitly a function of frequency. The reactance components
are instead linear functions of frequency:

Inductive component proportional to
Capacitive component inversely proportional to

Because of this frequency dependence, for specified values of L
and C , one can always find a frequency at which the magnitudes of
the inductive and capacitive terms are equal

1 1
r r
r
L
C
LC
= =

This is a resonance condition. The reactance cancels out and the
impedance becomes purely resistive.
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Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 15
The peak value of the current phasor is maximum at resonance

0
0
2
2
1
V
I
R L
C
=
| |
+
|

\ .













I
M

r
| I
0
|

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Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 16
Consider now the circuit below where an inductor and a capacitor
are in parallel











The input impedance of the circuit is

1
2
1
1
in
j L
Z R j C R
j L
LC

| |
= + + = +
|

\ .

C
V
I
L
R
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Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 17
When
0
1
in
in
in
Z R
Z
LC
Z R
= =
=
=



At the resonance condition

1
r
LC
=

the part of the circuit containing the reactance components
behaves like an open circuit, and no current can flow. The voltage
at the terminals of the parallel circuit is the same as the input
voltage V.