1

Electric Power and

Power Electronics
Part II- Power Electronics
2010-2011
2
Reference
Power Electronics : Circuits, Devices and
Applications, M. H. Rashid, Prentice Hall,
Third Edition, 2004.
Course notes
3
4
Introduction
Power electronics may be defined as the applications of solid-
state electronics for control and conversion of electrical power.
Power electronics are based primarily on the switching of the
power semiconductor devices.
Power electronics combine power, electronics and control.
Power electronics have already found an important place in
modern technology and are now used in a great variety of
high- power products, including heat controls, light controls,
motor controls, power supplies, and high voltage direct current
systems.
5
Course Contents
The following topics will be covered in this course:
1. Power Electronic Devices
2. Power Electronic Circuits
DC-DC converters
AC-AC converters
AC-DC converters
DC-AC converters
3. Power Electronic Application
Uninterruptible power supply (UPS).
Motor speed control (Electrical Drives)
6
Chapter 1
Power Electronic Devices
7
Power Electronic devices
Switching devices are common to all
power electronic circuits
These devices control current: Ideal
switch turn ON allow current flow with
no resistance and OFF no current flow,
much like valves control the flow of
fluids.
8
Ideal Switch
V
sw
i
R
v
s
vsw
i
v
t
+
-
v
s
R
v
s
Switch is opened
Switch is closed
9
Power Electronic Devices
These devices can be divided broadly into three
main types:
1. Power diodes
2. Transistors
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)
Power MOSFETs
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs)
3. Thyristors
SCR, GTO, Triac
10
1- Power Diodes
General characteristics:
A passive switch
Single-quadrant switch:
can conduct positive on-state current
can block negative off-state voltage
Conducts when its anode voltage is higher
than that of the cathode (V
A
> V
C
)
Forward voltage drop (when on) is very low
(typically 0.5 and 1.2V)
If V
C
> V
A
the diode is said to be in Blocking
mode.
off
on
i
Instantaneous
i-v
characteristic
v
i +
v
_
Symbol
Anode
Cathode
11
Stud-mounted type
Disk type
12
General purpose
Rating up to 6000V, 4500A
High speed (or fast recovery)
Rating up to 6000V, 1100A
Reverse recovery time 0.1 to 5ms
Essential for high-frequency switching
Types of Power Diodes
13
R
) sin( t V v
sm s
e =
L
v
L
i
A diode as a half-wave uncontrolled rectifier
s
v
t e
0
sm
V
L
v
t e
14
Transistors - 2
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) - i
N
N
P
(C)
(B)
(E)
Collector
Emitter
Base
(C)
(B)
(E)
15
16
Main Features of BJT
Current controlled device
High base current must be present during the closing
period
Can operate at high frequencies
High base losses
Available at a relatively low power rating in the
range of 400V, 250A.
The driving circuit must be capable of producing a
large base current for as long as the transistor is
closed. Such a circuit is large, of low efficiency, and
complex to build.
17
POWER MOSFET - ii
Off (V
gs
=0)
On (V
gs
>0)
i
Instantaneous i-v
characteristic
v
i
+
V
Symbol
Gate
Drain
Source
_
MOSFET Metal-Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor
18
Main Features of MOSFET
An active switch controlled by terminal Gate
Voltage controlled device
Low gate losses
Typical switching frequencies are tens and
hundreds of kHz
Available at a relatively low power rating in
the range of 1000V, 100A.
19
iii- Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor
(IGBT)
Equivalent circuit
Symbol
(C)
(G)
(E)
20
Easy to drive similar to MOSFET
Typical switching frequencies:
3 -30kHz
compared with MOSFET:
slower switching times,
lower on-resistance,
useful at higher power rating
(up to 1700V, 2400 A)
IC
VCE
VG2
VG3
VG1>VG2>VG3
G
V
= 0
Main Features of IGBT
21
3-Thyristors
i- Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCR)
Equivalent circuit
Symbol
Cathode (K)
Gate (G)
Anode (A)
N
N
N
N
P
P
P
P P
N
Anode (A)
Cathode (K)
Anode (A)
Anode (A)
Cathode (K)
Cathode (K)
IA
IA
IA
Ic1
Ic2
Q1
Q1
Q2
Q2
Gate
Gate
IG
22
The SCR: high voltage and current ratings (6500V,4200A)
low cost, passive turn-off transition.
23
Closing Conditions of SCR
1. Positive anode to
cathode voltage
(V
AK
)
2. Gate pulse is applied
(I
g
)
Anode (A)
Cathode (K)
Gate (G)
Closing angle is o
24
Thyristor commutation techniques
Commutation is the process of turning off a thyristor. There are
many techniques to commutate a thyristor. However, these can
be broadly classified into two types:
1- Natural or line commutation:
If the voltage source is ac, the thyristor current goes through a
natural zero, and a reverse voltage appears across the thyristor.
The device is then automatically turned off.
2- Forced commutation:
If the voltage source is dc, the forward current of the thyristor is
forced to be zero by an additional circuitry called commutation
circuit to turn off the thyristor. The commutation circuit
normally consists of a capacitor, an inductor and one or more
thyristor(s) and/or diode(s).
25
R
) sin( t V v
sm s
e =
L
v
L
i
A thyristor as a half-wave controlled rectifier
s
v
t e
0
sm
V
L
v
t e
o t + 2 o
o
t e
ig
o t + 2
|= t
26
ii- Gate Turn-Off Thyristor (GTO)
Thyristors are suitable for ac line operation
systems.
Thyristors are NOT suitable for dc line operation
systems because of the turn-off problems.
GTO is the solution, a GTO is an SCR fabricated
using modern techniques.
Negative gate current is able to completely
reverse-bias the gate-cathode junction.
GTO requires positive current impulse at the gate
for turn-on and negative impulse for turn-off.
27
GTO: General Characteristics
Maximum controllable current (MCC) is
highest anode current that can be turned
off under gate control.
GTO is designed for an allowable peak
current that is less than the MCC by a
safety factor.
Symbol
Gate (G)
Anode (A)
Cathode (K)
Turn-on positive gate current pulse is higher
than that of a normal SCR.
28
R L
v
L
i
V
s
V
s
V
s
i
g
GTO
L
v
GTO turn-on and turn-off.
29
The GTO: intermediate
ratings (less than SCR,
somewhat more than
IGBT).
Slower than IGBT.
Difficult to drive.
A (200 V, 160 A) GTO
30
iii-TRIACS
i
BV
R
Third
quadrant
First
quadrant
v
BV
f
i-v characteristics
Gate
G
Equivalent circuit
Symbol
MT
1
MT
1
MT
2
MT
2
31
s
v
t e
0
sm
V
o
o t +
L
v
t e
o t + 2
o t e
ig
o t + 2
o t +
A triac as an ac voltage controller
R
) sin( t V v
sm s
e =
L
v
L
i
) sin( t V v
sm s
e =
L
v
L
i
1
T
2
T
R
32
Classification
1. Uncontrolled turn on and turn off (e.g. diode)
2. Controlled turn on and uncontrolled turn off
(e.g. SCR)
3. Controlled turn on and off (e.g. BJT, MOSFET,
IGBT, GTO)
4. Continuous gate signal requirement (e.g. BJT,
MOSFET, IGBT)
5. Pulse gate requirement (e.g. SCR, GTO)
33
34
Power Electronic
Circuits
Chapter 2
35
The main task of power electronics is to control and convert
electrical power from one form to another.
The four main forms of conversion are:
- DC-to DC conversion,
- AC-to-AC conversion,
- AC-to-DC conversion, and
- DC-to-AC conversion.
Power electronic circuits
36
"Electronic Power Converter" is the term that is used to
refer to a power electronic circuit that converts voltage and
current from one form to another. These converters can be
classified as:
1- Chopper that converts a dc voltage to another dc
voltage,
2- AC voltage controller converting an ac voltage to
another ac voltage,
3- Rectifier converting an ac voltage to a dc voltage, and
4- Inverter converting a dc voltage to an ac voltage.
37
Choppers - 1
DC Conversion) - to - (DC
Choppers are widely used for traction motor control, marine
hoists, forklift trucks and mine haulers. They provide smooth
acceleration control, high efficiency and fast dynamic response.
They are used also as dc voltage regulators.
The choppers can be step-down or step-up chopper.
1. Step-down (Buck) chopper:
where the output voltage of the chopper is lower than the
input voltage.
2. Step-up (Boost) chopper:
where the output voltage is higher than the input voltage.
38
down Chopper - Step
Time
t
t
on
V
S
V
l
Time
t
t
on
I
V
CE
V
S
I
+
-
V
l
s
t
s
on
s av
V K V
t
dt V V
on
= = =
}
0
1
t t
K is Chopper
duty cycle
39
The average load voltage is:
(Where K is the chopper duty cycle)
The power supplied to the load is:
Where I
av
is the average load current.
The equivalent input resistance
s av
V K V =
av s av av load
I V K I V P = =
K
R
R
V
K
V
I
V
R
s
s
av
s
eq
= = =
Chopper Performance Parameters
R
V K
R
V
I
s av
av
= =
The duty cycle k can be varied from0 to 1 as follows:
1- Constant frequency operation:
The chopping frequency (or chopping period t) is kept
constant and the on-time t
on
is varied. The width of the
pulse is varied and this type of control is known as pulse
width modulation (PWM)
2- Variable frequency operation:
The chopping frequency is varied. Either on-time t
on
or
off-time t
off
is kept constant. This is called frequency
modulation.
41
Example
ms K t
o K
V K V
on
s av
0834 . 0 2 . 0 417 . 0
417 .
12
5
= = =
= =
=
t
? ; 5 ; 12
) ( 5
= = =
=
on av s
t V V V V
frequency switching kHz f
ms
f
2 . 0
5000
1 1
= = = t
Solution
Step-down (Buck) chopper
42
Step-Up
Chopper
T
I
L
dt
di
L v
L
A
A
= =
When the chopper is turned on, the
voltage across the inductor is:
This gives the peak-to-peak
ripple current in the inductor
1 2 s s
s
i i I where
T k
L
V
I
= A
= A
i
a
i
C
D
v
a
+
_ V
s
C
L
a
b
ON OFF
i
s1
i
s2
i
s
kT
T
i
c
i
s
43
k
V
v
k
k
V
kT T
I
L V v
dt
di
L V v
s
o
s s o
s o

+ =

A
+ =
=
1
)
1
1 (
) (
When the chopper is turned off
The average output voltage is:
1
k
V
o
V
s
2V
s
0.5
44
Example
ms t
k
o k
k
V
V
on
s
o
12 . 0 2 . 0 6 . 0 6 . 0
6 . 0
4 .
30
12
1
1
= = =
=
= =

=
t
? ; 30 ; 12
) ( 5
= = =
=
on o s
t V V V V
frequency switching kHz f
ms
f
2 . 0
5000
1 1
= = = t
Solution
Step-up (Boost) chopper
45
2- AC to AC Converters
Types of Ac to Ac converters :
AC Voltage Controllers control the output
rms voltage using SCR-type switches.
They are two types:
On-Off Control
Phase-angle Control
46
AC Voltage Controllers
(AC Voltage Regulator)
L
Z
) sin( t V v
sm s
e =
L
v
L
i
1
T
2
T

L
Z
) sin( t V v
sm s
e =
L
v
L
i
Triac
47
Off Control - On - i
period one during cycle half of number : N
on switch during cycles half of number : n
R
) sin( t V v
sm s
e =
L
v
L
i
s
v
t
0
sm
V
n
L
v
t
N
N
n
V V
rms Lrms
= =
=
2
sm V
N
n
2
sm V
K
K : is called the duty cycle
48
Example
A single-phase ac voltage controller uses on-off control for heating a
resistive load of R = 4 O and the rms input voltage is 240 V. If the
desired output power is 3.6 kW, determine the duty cycle K.
Solution:
25 . 0
5 . 0
240
120
120 4 * 3600
2
=
= = = =
= = = =
k
V
V
k V k V
R P V
R
V
P
s
L
s L
L L L
L
L
L
49
angle control - Phase - ii
( ) ( )

2 sin - 2
2
) sin (
1
2
t
o o t
u u
t
t
o
+
=
=
}
sm
Lrms
sm Lrms
V
V
d V V
1. Resistive Load
R
) sin( t V v
sm s
e =
L
v
L
i
t e
s
v
t e
0
sm
V
o
o t +
L
v
o t + 2
t
50
Example
A single-phase ac voltage controller uses phase control has a resistive
load of R = 5 O and the input voltage v
s
= 170 sin 314t . For delay angle
= 90
a- Sketch the waveforms for the output voltage and output current.
b- Calculate the values of the rms output voltage, rms output current
and output power.
= = = 90 5 170 o R V
sm
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
W R I P
A
R
V
I
V
V
V b
Lrms
Lrms
Lrms
sm
Lrms
1445 5 . ) 17 ( ) (
17
5
85
85
sin
2
- 2
2
170

2 sin - 2
2
2 2
= = =
= = =
=
+
=
+
=
t
t
t
t
t
o o t
51
L
Z
A
v
A
i
0
B
v
C
v
L
Z L
Z
B
i
0
C
i
0
1
2
3
N
1
T
2
T
3
T
L
Z
A
v
A
i
0
B
v
C
v
L
Z L
Z
B
i
0
C
i
0
1
2
3
N
1
T
2
T
3
T
N
A
v
A
i
0
B
v
C
v
B
i
0
C
i
0
1
2
3
1
T
2
T
3
T
L
Z
L
Z
L
Z
A
v
B
v
C
v
2
T
1
3 2
1
T
3
T
L
Z
L
Z
L
Z
3-PHASE AC REGULATORS
52
3- Rectifiers
Rectifiers can be classified as controlled
and uncontrolled rectifiers.
Uncontrolled rectifier circuits are built with
diodes only.
Controlled rectifiers can be further divided into
semi-controlled and fully-controlled rectifiers.
Fully-controlled rectifier circuits are built with
SCRs and semi-controlled rectifier circuits are
built with both diodes and SCRs .
53
There are several rectifier circuit configurations. The popular
rectifier configurations are listed below:
- Single-phase half-wave uncontrolled rectifier,
- Single-phase full-wave uncontrolled rectifier,
- Three-phase half-wave uncontrolled rectifier,
- Three-phase full-wave uncontrolled rectifier,
- Single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier,
- Single-phase full-wave controlled rectifier,
- Three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier,
- Three-phase full-wave controlled rectifier,
54
wave uncontrolled - phase half - Single - 1
rectifier
R
v
i i
v
v v
v
V v
d
s
s s
sm s
0
0
0
0 if 0
0 if
) sin(
= =

>
>
=
= u
Resistive Load:
R
D
v
s
i
d
+ v
d
-
V
o
+
_
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02
-400
-300
-200
-100
0
100
200
300
400
i
o
v
o
v
s
t
u u
t
t
sm
sm
V
d V V = =
}
sin
2
1
0
0
55
R-L Load:
L
D
v
s
i
d
+ v
d
-
v
o
+
_
R
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02
-400
-300
-200
-100
0
100
200
300
400
v
o
i
o
v
d
|
56
R-L Load with freewheeling diode:
L
D
1
v
s
i
d
+ v
d
-
v
o
+
_
R
D
2
L
D
1
v
s
i
d
+ v
d
-
v
o
+
_
R
D
2
Mode 2
L
D
1
v
s
i
d
+ v
d
-
v
o
+
_
R
D
2
Mode 1
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02
-400
-300
-200
-100
0
100
200
300
400
v
o
i
o
v
d
57
wave uncontrolled - phase full - Single - 2
rectifier
Resistive load:
Mode 1: 0<u<t
Mode 2: t<u<2t
t
u u
t
t
sm
sm
V
d V V
2
sin
1
0
0
= =
}
v
s
v
o
Mode 1 Mode 2 Mode 1
I
o
i
s
D
1
v
s
v
o
+
_
D
4
D
2
D
3
Mode 1
Mode 2
+
58
wave uncontrolled - phase half - Three - 3
rectifier
D
2
v
a
n
i
d
R
V
o
+
_
D
1
D
3
v
b
n
v
c
n
Single-phase:
High output voltage ripple
Low ripple frequency (2f
s
)
Limitations
Limitations can be overcome or minimized using multiphase
(3|) input sources.
59
0
30 270
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
Angle
o
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
s
v
o
v
bn
v
cn
v
an
15
0
390
D
1
D
2
D
3
30
150
270 390
Angle
o
t
u u
t
t
t
2
3 3
sin
2
3
6 / 5
6 /
0
sm
sm
V
d V V = =
}
60
wave uncontrolled - phase full - Three - 4
rectifier
( )
( )
o
p CN
o
p BN
p AN
V v
V v
V v
240 sin 2
120 sin 2
sin 2
=
=
=
u
u
u
v
0
i
o
+
_
D
1
D
4
D
3
D
6
D
5
D
2
A
B
C
i
A
i
B
i
C
( )
( )
( )
o
LL CA
o
LL BC
o
LL AB
V v
V v
V v
210 sin 2
90 sin 2
30 sin 2
=
=
+ =
u
u
u
p LL
V V 3 =
61
i
o
v
0
+
_
D
1
D
4
D
3
D
6
D
5
D
2
A
B
C
i
A
i
B
i
C
Mode 1:
CA BC AB
v v v & >
D
1
& D
6
conduct
0 >
AB
v
( ) ) 2 / 6 / ( , 6 / sin 2
0
t u t t u < s + = =
LL AB
V v v
-30
30 90 210 270 330
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
Angle
o
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
s
v
o
v
BC
v
CA
v
AB
15
0
390
D
1
D
6
62
i
o
v
0
+
_
D
1
D
4
D
3
D
6
D
5
D
2
A
B
C
i
A
i
B
i
C
Mode 2:
BC AB CA
v v v & >
D
1
& D
2
conduct
0 >
AC
v
-30
30 90 210 270 330
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
Angle
o
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
s
v
o
v
BC
v
CA
v
AB
15
0
390
D
1
D
6
D
2
D
1
63
-30
30 90 210 270 330
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
Angle
o
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
s
v
o
v
BC
v
CA
v
AB
150
390
D
1
D
6
D
3
D
2
D
2
D
1
D
4
D
3
D
5
D
4
D
6
D
5
- Therefore the output voltage v
0
is periodical with a period of
60
o
as shown. (six-pulse)
64
( )
ms p LL
LL
V V V
d V V
t t t
u t u
t
t
t
3 3
3
2 3 2 3

6 / sin 2
3 /
1
2 /
6 /
0
= = =
+ =
}
-The average output voltage can be calculated over one
period from t/6 to t /2 (mode 1).
65
wave controlled rectifier - phase half - Single - 5
i
R
v
t
vs
+
-
e
t
o
v
s
v
t
i
) t sin( V v
max s
e =
t t
t o e
o
2 t for 0 v
t for ) sin( V v
t 0 for 0 v
t
max t
t
< < =
< < =
< < =
t
66
i
o
v
s
}
=
t
o
e e
t
t d t V V
av
) ( sin
2
1
max
} }
= =
t
o
t
e
t
e
t
t d v t d v V
s t av
2
1
2
1
2
0
) cos 1 (
2
max
o
t
+ =
V
V
av
|
R
V
I
av
av
=
et
v
t
67
) cos 1 (
2
max
o
t
+ =
V
V
av
V
av
t o
t
max
V
t 2
V
max
2
t
68
1 Example
A single phase, half wave SCR circuit is used to reduce the dc voltage
across a nonlinear resistance. The elements of the resistance change
the resistive value according to the following equation:
The voltage of the a c side is 110 V(rms). Calculate the dc current and
dc power of the resistance when the triggering angle is adjusted to 90
o.
O + = 5 2 . 0
2
dc
V R
69
V
V
V
dc
75 . 24 )] 90 cos( 1 [
2
110 2
) cos 1 (
2
m
= + = + =
t
o
t
O = + = + =
6 . 127 5 ) 75 . 24 ( 2 . 0 5 2 . 0
2 2
dc
V R
A
R
V
I
dc
dc
2 . 0
6 . 127
75 . 24
~ = =
Solution:
W I V P
dc dc dc
95 . 4 2 . 0 * 75 . 24 * = = =
70
wave controlled rectifier - phase full - Single - 6
S1 S3
i2
R
S4
vs
A
D
C
B
i1
vt
S2
71
S1 S3
i2
R
S4
vs
A
D
C
B
i1
vt
S2
v
t
i
2
e
t
v
s
o
v
t
i
1
t+o
72
) cos 1 ( ) sin(
1 1
max
max
o
t
e e
t
e
t
t
o
t
o
+ = = =
} }
V
t d t V t d v V
s av
v
t
i
2
e
t
v
s
o
v
t
i
1
) cos 1 (
max
o
t
+ =
V
V
av
t t+o
73
wave controlled - phase half - Three - 7
rectifier
S
2
v
a
n
i
d
V
o
+
_
S
1
S
3
v
b
n
v
c
n
74 30
150
270 390
Angle
o
0
30 270
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
Angle
o
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
s
v
o
v
bn
v
cn
v
an
15
0
390
S
1
S
2
S
3
No delay o = 0
T
r
i
g
g
e
r
i
n
g
75
Delayed Triggering (t/6)
0 30+o
270 +o
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
Angle
o
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
s
v
o
v
bn
v
cn
v
an
150 +o
390 +o
S
1
S
2
S
3
o
30
T
r
i
g
g
e
r
i
n
g
) cos(
2
3 3
sin
2
3
6 / 5
6 /
o
t
u u
t
o t
o t
sm
sm av
V
d V V = =
}
+
+
76
For (t/6)
)]
6
cos( 1 [
2
3
sin
2
3
6 /
o
t
t
u u
t
t
o t
+ + = =
}
+
sm
sm av
V
d V V
0
30+o 270 +o
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
Angle
o
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
s
v
bn
v
cn
v
an
150 +o
390 +o
S
1
S
2
S
3
o
30
t
30+o
150 +o
77
wave controlled - phase full - Three - 8
rectifier
v
an
v
bn
v
cn
S
1
S
3
S
5
S
4
S
6
S
2
Z
L
c
b
a
v
L
+
-
78
3-phase, AC/DC
Conversion
v
an
v
bn
v
cn
S
1
S
3
S
5
S
4
S
6
S
2
Z
L
c
b
a
v
L
+
-
No delay o = 0
-30 30 90 210 270 330
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
Angle
o
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
s
v
o
v
BC
v
CA
v
AB
150
390
S
1
S
6
S
3
S
2
S
2
S
1
S
4
S
3
S
5
S
4
S
6
S
5
Triggering
S
6
S
5
79
Delayed Triggering (t/3)
-30 30 90 210 270 330
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
Angle
o
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
s
v
o
v
BC
v
CA
v
AB
150
390
Triggering
o
o
o
80
( ) ) 6 / 3 6 / ( , 6 / sin 3
max 0
o t u o t t u + < s + + = = V v v
AB
The output voltage v
0
is periodical with a period of 60
o
The average output voltage can be calculated over one
period from t/3+o to 2t/3+o .
( )
o
t
u t u
t
o t
o t
cos
3 3

6 / sin 3
3 /
1
max
6 / 3
6 /
max
V
d V V
av
=
+ =
}
+
+
81
For (t/3)
( )
)]
3
cos( 1 [
3 3

6 / sin 3
3 /
1
max
6 / 5
6 /
max
t
o
t
u t u
t
t
o t
+ + =
+ =
}
+
V
d V V
av
82
For a three-phase full-wave controlled rectifier if the source
voltage is 208 V, calculate:
a- Maximum dc voltage across the load
b- The delay angle at which the dc voltage of the load
equals the peak phase voltage of the source
c- the dc load voltage for delay angle of 60
: 2 Example
83
o
t
cos
3 3

max
V V
dc
=
Solution
V
V
V
L
ph
120
3
208
3
= = =
a- For maximum average voltage across the load o = 0
V V
dc
69 . 280 ) 0 )(cos 120 2 (
3 3
= =
t
b- The delay angle at which the average voltage of the load equals the
peak phase voltage of the source
84

8 . 52
6046 . 0
3 3
cos
cos
3 3

max max
=
= =
= =
o
t
o
o
t
V V V
dc
c- the average load voltage for delay angle of 60
V
V V
dc
35 . 140
) 60 cos( ) 120 2 (
3 3
cos
3 3

max
=
= =

t
o
t
85
Inverters - 4
) DC to AC Converters (
1. SINGLE-PHASE INVERTER
Converting a dc voltage to a single-phase
ac voltage
2. THREE-PHASE INVERTER
Converting a dc voltage to a three-phase
ac voltage
86
SINGLE-PHASE INVERTER
Half-Bridge
Full-Bridge
V
s
/2
V
s
/2
T
1
T
2
D
1
D
2
Load
V
s
T
3
T
2
D
3
D
2
Load
T
1
T
4
D
1
D
4
87
Bridge - Half
Resistive Load
V
s
/2
-V
s
/2
V
s
/(2R)
v
0
i
0
T/2
T
s
s
s s s
s
rms
V V
t n
n
V
v
t
V
t
V
t
V
v
V
V
45 . 0
) sin(
2
) 5 sin(
5
2
) 3 sin(
3
2
) sin(
2
2
1
5 , 3 , 1
0
0
0
=
=
+ + + =
=

e
t
e
t
e
t
e
t

No even harmonics
V
s
/2
V
s
/2
T
1
T
2
D
1
D
2
Load
v
0
i
0
88
l fundamenta the of rms
harmonic n the of rms
th
1
= =
V
V
HF
n
n
1
2
1
2
1
7 , 5 , 3
2
V
V V
V
V
THD
o
n

= =

Definitions:
Measure of closeness in shape
between a waveform and its
fundamental.
(Harmonic Factor of n
th
harmonic)
(Total Harmonic Distortion)
89
For half bridge
s s s
s s s
V V V V V V
t
V
t
V
t
V
v
09 . 0 , 15 . 0 , 45 . 0
) 5 sin(
5
2
) 3 sin(
3
2
) sin(
2
5 3 1
0
= = =
+ + + = e
t
e
t
e
t
2 . 0
45 . 0
09 . 0
333 . 0
45 . 0
15 . 0
l fundamenta the of rms
harmonic n the of rms
1
5
5
1
3
3
th
1
= = =
= = =
= =
s
s
s
s
n
n
V
V
V
V
HF
V
V
V
V
HF
V
V
HF
484 . 0
45 . 0
) 45 . 0 5 . 0 (
) (
2 2
1
2
1
2
=

=
s
s s
o
V
V V
V
V V
THD
90
Purely (or highly) Inductive Load
V
s
/2
-V
s
/2
v
0
i
0
T/4
T
T/2 3T/4
I
max
I
min
T
1
OFF
T
2
ON T
1
ON
T
2
OFF
D
2
ON
D
1
ON
i
0
v
0
Quadrant 1
[0, T/4]
Quadrant 2
[T/4, T/2]
Quadrant 3
[T/2, 3T/4]
Quadrant 4
[3T/4, T]
V
s
/2
V
s
/2
T
1
T
2
D
1
D
2
Load
v
0
i
0
91
Bridge - Full
Inductive Load
T
1
T
2
D
3
D
4
T
3
T
4
D
1
D
2
T/4
T/2 3T/4 T
Same as half-bridge (V
s
instead of V
s
/2)
V
s
-V
s
v
0
i
0
T/4
T
T/2 3T/4
I
max
I
min
T
3
T
4
T
1
T
2
D
3
D
4 D
1
D
2
s rms
V V =
0
V
s
/2
V
s
/2
T
3
T
2
D
3
D
2
Load
T
1
T
4
D
1
D
4
v
0
i
0
92
THREE-PHASE INVERTER
Phase Bridge Inverter - Three
93
Power Electronic
Applications
Chapter 3
94
1- Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS).
It is used as standby ac source for critical loads. The UPS
configuration is as shown. The load is normally supplied from
the ac main supply and the rectifier maintains the full charge
of the battery. If the supply fails, the load is switched to the
output of the inverter, which then takes over the main supply.
Rectifier
AC/DC
Inverter
DC/AC
Batteries
Critical
Load
Normally on
Normally off
Normally off
AC main
supply
95
2- Electrical Drives
Electric drive systems involves controlling electric motors
using power electronic converters.
Motor
Load
Command Signal
Control
unit
Power
Semiconductor
converter
Source
Sensing
unit
96
Motors Speed-Torque
Characteristics
i) AC-Motors
ii) DC-Motors
Separate
or shunt
Series
Compound
e
m
T
m
Induction Motor
e
m
T
m
T
max
T
s
e
m0
e
ms
97
Speed Control of DC Motors
DC motors playa significant role in modern industrial drives.
DC motors have variable characteristics and are used extensively
in variable-speed drives.
DC motors can provide a high starting torque and it is also
possible to obtain speed control over a wide range.
The methods of speed control are normally simpler and less
expensive than those of ac drives.
Both series and separately excited dc motors are normally used
in variable-speed drives, but series motors are employed for
traction applications.
Due to commutators, dc motors are not suitable for very high
speed applications and require more maintenance than do ac
motors.
98
Separately Excited
Motors
Basic Characteristics of DC Motors
I
f
R
f
V
f
I
R
a
a
V
t
E
a
99
a a a t
R I E V + =
f
f
f
R
V
= I
a f d
f a
I I K T
I K E
=
= e
e
d a a d
T I E P = =
At steady-state & neglect saturation.
Ra, La
I
a
I
f
R
f
V
t
V
f
+
+
-
-
E
a
T
d
, e
100
e A e e =
o
e
e
f a a t
f a
I K I R V
I K E
=
=
f
a a
f
t
I K
I R
I K
V
= e
Ra
Ia
If
Rf
Vt
Vf
+
+
-
-
Ea
e ,
d
T
a f d
I I K T =
d
f
a
f
t
T
I K
R
I K
V
2
) (
= e
101
Speed-Torque CC of Separately Excited Motors
Torque
Speed
e
o
T
m
Load
Motor
e
Operating
Point
Ae
}
d
f
a
f
t
T
I K
R
I K
V
2
) (
= e
e A e e =
o
102
SPEED CONTROL
a a a t
r I E V + =
m f a
I K E e =
Since
So the speed of the d.c .motor can be controlled by controlling u or V
t
1- Armature Voltage Control
In this method I
f
(i.e.|) is kept constant, and V
t
is varied to change the speed.
Armature voltage control can control the speed
of the motor for speeds below rated speed but
not for speed above rated speed.
f a
a a t
m
I K
r I V
= e
103
2- Field current control
In this method V
t
remains fixed and
the speed is controlled by varying I
f
.
This is normally achieved by using a
field rheostat as shown in the
following Figure for separately
excited d.c. motor. Field control can
control the speed of the motor for
speeds above base speed but not for
speeds below base speed.
104
Operating modes
105
DC Drives
In Recent years, solid-state control have been used for
armature and field voltage control. Both can be achieved
using controlled rectifier or choppers.
DC drives can be classified in general into three types:
1- Single phase drives
2- Three phase drives
3- DC-DC converter (chopper) drives
AC/DC
1|
3|
AC/DC
1|
3|
DC/DC
Arm.
106
1- Single phase Drive
Single phase Drive may be subdivided into:
a) Single-phase half-wave converter drive
b) Single-phase full-wave converter drive
c) Single-phase duall converter drive
107
a- Single-phase half-wave converter drive:
) cos 1 (
2
max
a a
V
V o
t
+ =
f f
V
V o
t
cos
max
=
108
b- Single-phase full-wave converter drive:
a a
V
V o
t
cos
2
max
=
f f
V
V o
t
cos
2
max
=
109
c- Single-phase dual converter drive:
1
max
cos
2
a a
V
V o
t
=
1 2
2
max
cos
2
a a
a a
where
V
V
o t o
o
t
=
=
f f
V
V o
t
cos
2
max
=
Quadrant
V
a
I
a
110
Example
A dc separately excited motor drives a constant
torque load of 18 NM. The motor is driven by a
full-wave converter through a 120 V ac supply.
Assume that K I
f
= 2.5 and the armature resistance
is 2 O. Calculate the triggering angle for the
motor to operate at 200 rev/min. The motor
current is continuous.
111
Solution

83 . 51 ) cos(
2 120 * 2
76 . 66
) cos(
2
76 . 66 2 . 7 * 2 36 . 52
2 . 7
5 . 2
18
36 . 52 )
60
200
2 ( * 5 . 2 )
60
2 ( *
max
= =
=
= + = + =
= = = =
= = = =
+ =
o o
t
o
t
t t e
V
V
V I R E V
A
KI
T
I I KI T
V
n
KI KI E
I R E V
a
a a a a
f
a a f
f f a
a a a a
112
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =

e
t
o
e
t
o
f
f
a
f a a
KI
I K
T
R
V
KI I R
V
max
1
max
1
2
cos
2
cos
a a f a a a a
I R KI I R E
V
V + = + = = e o
t
) cos(
2
max
o
83 . 51
60
200
2 5 . 2
5 . 2
18
2
120 2 2
cos
1
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

=

t
t
o
OR
113
2- Three phase Drive
Three phase Drive may be subdivided into:
a) Three-phase half-wave converter drive
b) Three-phase full-wave converter drive
c) Three-phase duall converter drive
114
wave converter drive - phase half - Three - a
) cos(
2
3 3
max
a a
V
V o
t
=
S
1
S
2
v
a
n
i
d
S
3
v
b
n
v
c
n
v
a
L
+
_
R
E
R
f
V
f
3-phase full-wave
converter
f f
V
V o
t
cos
3 3
max
=
3-phase ac supply
115
wave converter drive - phase full - Three - c

v
an
v
bn
v
cn
S
1
S
3
S
5
S
4
S
6
S
2
c

b

a

v
a
L
+
_
R
E
R
f
V
f
3-phase full-wave
converter
a b c
3-phase ac supply
f f
a a
V
V
V
V
o
t
o
t
cos
3 3
cos
3 3
max
max
=
=
116
phase dual converter drive - Three - c

v
an
v
bn
v
cn
S
1
S
3
S
5
S
4
S
6
S
2
c

b

a


v
an
v
bn
v
cn
S
4
S
6
S
2
S
1
S
3
S
5
c

b

a

v
a
L
a
+
_
R
a
E
a
R
f
V
f
3-phase full-
wave converter
a b c
3-phase ac supply
2
max
1
max
cos
3 3
cos
3 3
a a
a a
V
V
V
V
o
t
o
t
=
=
f f
V
V o
t
cos
3 3
max
=
117
DC converter (chopper) drives - DC - 3
For 0 < t < kT Q
1
is on
For kT < t < T Q
1
is off, I
a
flows through Dm
118
The average armature voltage is:
Where K is the chopper duty cycle
The power supplied to the motor is:
Where I
a
is the average armature current.
Assuming lossless chopper,
i.e. the average value of supply current is:
The equivalent input resistance
s a
V K V =
a s a a
I V K I V P = =
0
s s a s i
I V I V K P P = = =
0
a s
I K I =
a
s
s
s
eq
I k
V
I
V
R = =
119
Example
A separately excited dc motor drives a drilling machine load
whose torque is proportional to the inverse of its speed. The
motor has an armature resistance of 1O. The armature
voltage of the motor is controlled using a chopper. The input
voltage to the chopper is 250V. For chopper duty cycle of 50
% the motor draws a current of 45A and runs at 800 rpm.
Calculate the motor current and speed if the chopper duty
cycle is increased to 80 %, neglect rotational losses and
assume constant field excitation.
120
Solution :
R
a
= 1 O , T (1/N)
V
s
= 250 V
Chopper duty cycle K = 0.5
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2 2 2
2
1 1
1
) (
200 ) (
200 250 8 . 0
80 ) 0 . 1 ( 45 125
125 250 5 . 0
N
N
T
T
but
I
I
I k
I k
T
T
I R I V E
V KV V
V R I V E
V KV V
a
a
a
a
a a t
s
a a t
s
=
= =
= =
= = =
= = =
= = =
|
|
121
36000
800
45
2 2
2
2 1
2
2
1
=
= =
a
a a
a
I N
N
I N
N
I
I
A I
rpm N which from
N N
N I N N
I N
N I
N
N
N k
N k
E
E
Since
a
a
a
a
20
1800
0 360000 2000
0 10 2000
0 10 2000
800
200
80
2
2
2
2
2
2 2 2
2
2
2 2
2 2
2
1
2
1
2
1
=
=
= +
= +
= +
=

= =
|
|
122
Closed-loop control of dc drives
DC Motor
Speed sensing
Converter
Speed
controller
+
-
e
V
r
V
e
V
c
V
a
T
L
Power supply
123
Speed Control of AC induction motors
Ac motors are lightweight, inexpensive, have low maintenance
compared with dc motors.
They required control of frequency, voltage, and current for
variable speed applications.
The power rectifiers, inverters, and ac voltage controllers can be
used to meet the drive requirements. These power controllers
are complex, more expensive and require advanced feed-back
control techniques.
The advantages of ac drives outweigh the disadvantages.
Therefore Ac drives are replacing dc drives and are used in
many industrial and domestic applications.
124
The speed and the torque of induction
motors can be varied by one of the
following means:
1- Stator voltage control
2- Frequency control
Speed control of induction
motors
125
i
a
i
L
v
A
N
T
1
T
4
v
B
N
v
C
N
T
3
T
6
T
5
T
2
i
b
i
c
N
B
C
A
Induction
motor
ac voltage controller Stator voltage control using - 1
alpha = 100
T
L
Speed control range
126
I.M.
Load
Firing
circuit
Reference
speed
Actual speed
Error
Firing
angle
Tacho-
generator
Closed loop speed control system
127
2- Stator Frequency Control
The induction motor speed is given by:
n
m
= (1-s) n
s
where n
s
= 120 f
s
/P
f
s
= supply frequency
P= total no of poles
128
Circuit arrangements
PWM
Inverter
6 step
Inverter
6 step
Inverter
Controlled
rectifier
Diode
rectifier
Diode
rectifier