CSC 203 1.

Computer System Architecture

Budditha Hettige
Department of Statistics and Computer Science University of Sri Jayewardenepura

Secondary Memory

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Technologies
Magnetic storage
Floppy, Zip disk, Hard drives, Tapes

Optical storage
CD, DVD, Blue-Ray, HD-DVD

Solid state memory

USB flash drive, Memory cards for mobile phones/digital cameras/MP3 players, Solid State Drives

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Magnetic Disk
Purpose:
Long term, nonvolatile storage Large, inexpensive, and slow Lowest level in the memory hierarchy

Two major types:

Floppy disk Hard disk

Both types of disks:

Rely on a rotating platter coated with a magnetic surface Use a moveable read/write head to access the disk

Advantages of hard disks over floppy disks:

Platters are more rigid ( metal or glass) so they can be larger Higher density because it can be controlled more precisely Higher data rate because it spins faster Can incorporate more than one platter

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Disk Track

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Components of a Disk
The arm assembly is moved in or out to position a head on a desired track. Tracks under heads make a cylinder (imaginary!). Only one head reads/writes at any one time. Block size is a multiple of sector size (which is often fixed).
Disk head Spindle Tracks

Sector

Arm movement

Platters

Arm assembly

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Internal Hard-Disk

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Magnetic Disk
A stack of platters, a surface with a magnetic coating Typical numbers (depending on the disk size):
500 to 2,000 tracks per surface 32 to 128 sectors per track

A sector is the smallest unit that can be read or written Traditionally all tracks have the same number of sectors: Constant bit density: record more sectors on the outer tracks
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Magnetic Disk Characteristic

Disk head: each side of a platter has separate disk head Cylinder: all the tracks under the head at a given point on all surface Read/write data is a three-stage process:
Seek time: position the arm over the proper track Rotational latency: wait for the desired sector to rotate under the read/write head Transfer time: transfer a block of bits (sector) under the read-write head

Average seek time as reported by the industry:

Typically in the range of 8 ms to 15 ms (Sum of the time for all possible seek) / (total # of possible seeks)

Due to locality of disk reference, actual average seek time may:

Only be 25% to 33% of the advertised number

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Typical Numbers of a Magnetic Disk

Rotational Latency:
Most disks rotate at 3,600/5400/7200 RPM Approximately 16 ms per revolution An average latency to the desired information is halfway around the disk: 8 ms

Transfer Time is a function of :

Transfer size (usually a sector): 1 KB / sector Rotation speed: 3600 RPM to 5400 RPM to 7200 Recording density: typical diameter ranges from 2 to 14 in Typical values: 2 to 4 MB per second
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Disk I/O Performance

Disk Access Time = Seek time + Rotational Latency + Transfer time + Controller Time + Queueing Delay
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Disk I/O Performance

Disk Access Time = Seek time + Rotational Latency + Transfer time + Controller Time + Queueing Delay Estimating Queue Length:
Utilization = U = Request Rate / Service Rate Mean Queue Length = U / (1 - U) As Request Rate Service Rate -> Mean Queue Length ->Infinity
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Example
Setup parameters:
16383 Cycliders, 63 sectors per track, 3 platters, 6 heads

Bytes per sector: 512 RPM: 7200 Transfer mode: 66.6MB/s Average Read Seek time: 9.0ms (read), 9.5ms (write) Average latency: 4.17ms Physical dimension: 1 x 4 x 5.75 Interleave: 1:1
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Disk performance
Preamble: allows head to be synchronized before read/write ECC (Error Correction Code): corrects errors Unformatted capacity: preambles, ECCs and inter sector gaps are counted as data Disk performance depends on

seek time time to move arm to desired track rotational latency time needed for requested sector to rotate under head
Rotational speed: 5400, 7200, 10000, 15000 rpm

Transfer time time needed to transfer a block of bits under head (e.g., 40 MB/s)
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Disk performance
Disk controller
chip that controls the drive. Its tasks include accepting commands (READ, WRITE, FORMAT) from software, controlling arm motion, detecting and correcting errors

Controller time
overhead the disk controller imposes in performing an I/O access

Avg. disk access time = avg. seek time + avg. rotational delay +
Transfer time + controller overhead

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Example
Advertised average seek time of a disk is 5 ms, transfer rate is 40 MB per second, and it rotates at 10,000 rpm Controller overhead is 0.1 ms. Calculate the average time to read a 512byte sector.

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RAID(Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks)

A disk organization used to improve performance of storage systems An array of disks controlled by a controller (RAID Controller) Data are distributed over disks (striping) to allow parallel operation

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RAID 0- No redundancy
No redundancy to tolerate disk failure Each strip has k sectors (say)
Strip 0: sectors 0 to k1 Strip 1: sectors k to 2k1 ...etc

Works well with large accesses Less reliable than having a single large disk

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Example (RAID 0)
Suppose that RAID consists of 4 disks with MTTF (mean time to failure) of 20,000 hours.
A drive will fail once in every 5,000 hours A single large drive with MTTF of 20,000 hours is 4 times reliable

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RAID 1 (Mirroring)
Uses twice as many disk as does RAID 0 (first half: primary, next half: backup) Duplicates all disks

On a write, every strip is written twice Excellent fault tolerance (if a disk fails, backup copy is used) Requires more disks
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RAID 3 (BitInterleaved Parity)

Reads/writes go to all disks in the group, with one extra disk (parity disk) to hold check information in case off a failure

Parity contains sum of all data in other disks If a disk fails, subtract all data in good disks from parity disk
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RAD 4 (BlockInterleaved Parity)

RAID 4 is much like RAID 3 with a stripforstrip parity written onto an extra disk
A write involves accessing 2 disks instead of all Parity disk must be updated on every write

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RAID 5- BlockInterleaved Distributed Parity

In RAID 5, parity information is spread throughout all disks In RAID 5, multiple writes can occur simultaneously as long as stripe units are not located in same disks, but it is not possible in RAID 4

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Secondary Storage Devices: CD-ROM

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Physical Organization of CD-ROM

Compact Disk read only memory (write once) Data is encoded and read optically with a laser Can store around 600MB data Digital data is represented as a series of Pits and Lands:

Pit = a little depression, forming a lower level in the track Land = the flat part between pits, or the upper levels in the track Reading a CD is done by shining a laser at the disc and detecting changing reflections patterns.
1 = change in height (land to pit or pit to land) 0 = a fixed amount of time between 1s

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Organization of data
LAND PIT LAND PIT LAND
...------+ +-------------+ +---... |_____| |_______| ..0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 ..

Cannot have two 1s in a row! => uses Eight to Fourteen Modulation (EFM) encoding table. 0's are represented by the length of time between transitions, we must travel at constant linear velocity (CLV)on the tracks. Sectors are organized along a spiral Sectors have same linear length Advantage: takes advantage of all storage space available. Disadvantage: has to change rotational speed when seeking (slower towards the outside)
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CD-ROM
Addressing
1 second of play time is divided up into 75 sectors. Each sector holds 2KB 60 min CD: 60min * 60 sec/min * 75 sectors/sec = 270,000 sectors = 540,000 KB ~ 540 MB A sector is addressed by: Minute:Second:Sector e.g. 16:22:34

Type of laser
CD: 780nm (infrared) DVD: 635nm or 650nm (visible red) HD-DVD/Blu-ray Disc: 405nm (visible blue)

Capacity
CD: 650 MB, 700 MB DVD: 4.7 GB per layer, up to 2 layers HD-DVD: 15 GB per layer, up to 3 layers BD: 25 GB per layer, up to 2 layers
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Solid state storage

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Solid state storage

Memory cards For Digital cameras, mobile phones, MP3 players... Many types: Compact flash, Smart Media, Memory Stick, Secure Digital card... USB flash drives Replace floppies/CD-RW Solid State Drives Replace traditional hard disks Uses flash memory
Type of EEPROM Electrically erasable programmable read only memory Grid of cells (1 cell = 1 bit) Write/erase cells by blocks
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Solid state storage

Cell=two transistors
Bit 1: no electrons in between Bit 0: many electrons in between

Performance
Acces time: 10X faster than hard drive Transfer rate
1x=150 kb/sec, up to 100X for memory cards Similar to normal hard drive for SSD ( 100-150 MB/sec)

Limited write: 100k to 1,000k cycles

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Solid state storage

Size
Very small: 1cm for some memory cards

Capacity
Memory cards: up to 32 GB USB flash drives: up to 32 GB Solid State Drives: up to 256 GB

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Solid state storage

Reliability
Resists to shocks Silent! Avoid extreme heat/cold Limited number of erase/write

Challenges
Increasing size Improving writing limits
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