Part I: Flowmeter Selection Strategies

http://www.flowcontrolnetwork.com/articleprint.aspx?articleid=2394

Part I: Flowmeter Selection Strategies

How to Choose the Right Technology for Liquid Measurements
By John Frederick

With uncertain economic conditions and fierce global competition, accurate flow measurement has become an increasingly important concern for the aerospace, automotive, oil & gas, chemical and pharmaceutical industries, as well as various military and government operations. And with so many different flow measurement technologies available, optimal flowmeter selection can be difficult and confusing. In an effort to provide some valuable strategies to simplify the flowmeter selection process, here we provide the first installment of a two-part article addressing flow measurement. The article describes common types of liquid flowmeters and provides guidelines for their selection and usage. It also discusses the influence of fluid properties and installation effects on meter performance, and examines methods and equipment for accurate calibration. Part two of this article will be published in the October issue of Flow Control magazine, and it will cover similar topics in gas flow measurement.

Basic Fluid Properties

When it comes to accurate flow measurement, the two variables that have the most influence on flowmeter performance are liquid density and viscosity. Understanding these properties helps the user realize how flowmeters work under a wide range of operating conditions. In many flow measurement and calibration applications, it is important to determine the density of the liquid. Density measurements are used to convert flow readings from volume to mass, and from volumetric flowrate to mass flowrate. Density can be determined by weighing an accurately known volume of liquid, however, this approach is not very convenient. The easiest method of determining the density of a liquid is by measuring the specific gravity (the ratio of two densities) of the liquid with a

1 of 6

18.6.2012. 14:57

Part I: Flowmeter Selection Strategies

http://www.flowcontrolnetwork.com/articleprint.aspx?articleid=2394

hydrometer and then calculating the density. The specific gravity of a liquid is the ratio of the density of the liquid to the density of pure water at a specified reference temperature. 60 degrees F is the most commonly used reference temperature for flow measurement applications. The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its frictional resistance to flow. It represents the amount of force required to overcome shear stress between adjacent layers of fluid molecules as they move past one another. Most flowmeters are affected to some extent by changes in the viscosity of the fluid being measured. The change in performance may be so small that it can be ignored, or it may be enough to cause significant calibration changes. Another key flow-related factor, Reynolds Number, describes how liquid flows through a pipe, and how various flowmeters are influenced by the flow. A Reynolds Number calculation requires knowledge of the density and viscosity of the liquid. Four factors influence whether flow is laminar or turbulent: the velocity of the fluid, V; the diameter of the pipe, D; the density of the fluid, p; and the absolute viscosity of the fluid, (Figure 2).

Common Flowmeter Technologies

Modern flowmeters can be classified into two general categories: quantity meters and rate meters. Quantity meters are those in which the liquid passes through the meter in successive, isolated quantities. Rate meters are those in which the liquid passes though the primary element in a continuous stream. The flowrate (amount of flow per unit of time) is derived from the interaction between the flow stream and the primary element. Although meters are classified in general as quantity meters or rate meters, quantity meters are often adapted to measure rate and rate meters are often used to also measure total quantity. There are many electronic devices available that can utilize flowmeter signals to accomplish a wide variety of useful functions. The most common liquid flowmeter designs in use by industry include: Turbine Flowmeters: Turbine flowmeters are used extensively for high-accuracy flow measurements in a wide variety of applications. This flowmeter has a rotor suspended on low-friction bearings in such a way that the rotor can spin freely as the liquid passes through the meter body. A pickup assembly mounted on the outside of the meter body generates an electrical signal when the rotor turns and produces one electrical pulse with the passing of each rotor blade. The pickup may be a self-generating design; a magnetic type; or a carrier-excited, non-magnetic type (Figure 3). The rotational speed of the turbine rotor is approximately proportional to the volume flowrate of the liquid. Each flowmeter must be individually calibrated to determine the exact relationship between the frequency of the flowmeter signal and the flowrate. Differential-Pressure Flowmeters: When a liquid flowing through a pipe encounters a restriction that reduces the area of the pipe, the liquid must go faster past the restriction. This increase in velocity results in a difference between the pressure upstream and downstream of the restriction. There is a definite relationship between this pressure difference and the flowrate of the liquid passing the restriction. This relationship can be used to create a flow-measuring device by purposely installing a restriction with known characteristics in the pipe. By establishing the relationship between flowrate and differential pressure, differential-pressure flowmeters can be used to measure

2 of 6

18.6.2012. 14:57

Part I: Flowmeter Selection Strategies

http://www.flowcontrolnetwork.com/articleprint.aspx?articleid=2394

an unknown flowrate. Positive-Displacement Flowmeters: Positive-displacement (PD) flowmeters measure the total volume of liquid that has passed through them. Most PD meters have a totalizing register mounted on the outside of the meter body to register the total quantity of liquid. These registers are usually dial type or digital or a combination of both. They register in gallons, cubic feet, cubic meters, barrels, or other volume units. Vortex-Shedding Flowmeters: The physical principle of a vortex-shedding flowmeter is a natural phenomenon that was first observed by Leonardo da Vinci. When a moving fluid impacts a non-streamlined obstruction in a flow stream, it separates and moves around the object so the fluid can continue its path on alternating sides. When this shedding occurs, a local increase in pressure and a decrease in stream velocity is created on one side of the object, while a local decrease in pressure and an increase in stream velocity is created on the other side of the object. After shedding from one side, the process is reversed and a swirl or vortex is shed on the other side of the object. As long as the moving fluid impacts the object, the vortex swirls will be continuously shed 180 degrees out of phase with each other. The frequency of the shedding process is proportional to the velocity of the fluid flowing past the object in the flow stream. Coriolis Flowmeters: Coriolis meters operate on the principles of motion mechanics. The fluid in motion through a vibrating flow tube is forced to take on acceleration as it moves toward the point of peak amplitude of the tubes vibration. The motion at any point on the tube represents a sine wave. With no flow through the tube, all points move in sequence or in phase with the driver. As mass flow through the tube occurs, the inlet side motion of the tube lags the driver phase, and the outlet side motion leads the driver phase. The associated time delay is directly proportional to the mass flowrate through the sensor. Magnetic Flowmeters: In a typical magnetic flowmeter, coils are mounted on the outside of a non-magnetic pipe section. Voltage is applied to the coils, and the current generates a magnetic field in the pipe section. As conductive liquid passes through the pipe perpendicular to the plain of the magnetic field, a voltage is generated. This generated voltage is sensed by a set of electrodes mounted on opposite sides of the pipe wall. The inner surface of the pipe must be non-conductive to prevent the flow voltage from being dissipated into the pipe itself, and to insulate the pipe from the electrodes. Ultrasonic Flowmeters: Doppler ultrasonic flowmeters consist of an externally mounted transducer, a Doppler frequency transmitter and a receiver/conditioner. The transmitter crystal sends a continuous ultrasonic signal through the pipe and into the liquid stream. As the transmitted signal impacts suspended particles, gas bubbles or other disturbances in the flow stream, it is reflected off the disturbance with a shifted frequency. The receiver crystal detects this frequency, which is proportional to the flow stream velocity. The electronic transducer measures the difference between the transmitted and reflected frequencies, which is the indicated flowrate. Transit-time ultrasonic flowmeters transmit a sonic pulse in one direction and record the time of arrival of the pulse at the other end of the acoustic path. They subsequently transmit a pulse in the opposite direction and record that time or arrival. The time of travel for the pulse moving with the flow is aided by the flow velocity. The time of flight of the pulse moving against the flow is retarded by the flow velocity. Therefore, the travel time difference between the two pulses is proportional to twice the velocity of the flow stream.

Typical Application Considerations

The choice of a flowmeter for a particular liquid process involves an analysis of many factors. After evaluating the major application requirements, the number of possibilities can be reduced and the final selection can be made based on the remaining factors.

3 of 6

18.6.2012. 14:57

Part I: Flowmeter Selection Strategies

http://www.flowcontrolnetwork.com/articleprint.aspx?articleid=2394

For many end-users, initial cost is a key issue when deciding upon a meter technology. Ownership, installation and operating costs may be equally important and should also be evaluated. Typical issues encountered in flowmeter applications include: Installation space restrictions Mass or volumetric flow data requirements Speed of meter response Signal output requirements Vibration or high-shock environments Clearly, there is no perfect solution to any given flow measurement. A turbine flowmeter might resolve a problem of installation space, but does not provide a direct mass output. A Coriolis meter offers a direct mass output, but is too large for mounting in many application areas. Vibration will not influence a turbine meters performance, however, it will affect a Coriolis device, which operates on vibration responses. That is one of the reasons why Coriolis meters do not fly on an aircraft. Some or all of the following considerations should be taken into account when choosing what flowmeter to use: 1. What type of fluid is to be metered? Liquid, gas, or vapor Clean or dirty Corrosive or noncorrosive 2. What are the flow conditions? Measuring flowrate or total flow or both Normal flowrate Minimum and maximum flowrate Minimum and maximum temperature Minimum and maximum pressure 3. What are the installation conditions? Pipe size Reynolds Number Is there room for adequate length of piping? Are flow conditioners needed? Is pipe vibration a problem? Is flow steady or pulsating? 4. What are the performance requirements? Accuracy Is accuracy required under all conditions? 5. What are the cost factors? Initial cost of primary and secondary instruments Cost of accessories Installation cost Reliability vs. maintenance cost Energy cost for pumping Availability of parts and repair service Compatibility with existing equipment

Additional Performance Issues

Pumps, valves, flowmeters and other fluid handling devices frequently require straight runs of pipe upstream and downstream to stabilize material process flow for effective performance. Putting

4 of 6

18.6.2012. 14:57

Part I: Flowmeter Selection Strategies

http://www.flowcontrolnetwork.com/articleprint.aspx?articleid=2394

elbows, expansions, reductions, or spiral piping close to instrumentation alters the process medias tangential, radial, and axial velocity vectors. Flow disturbances can result in swirl, jetting and velocity profile distortions, which negatively impact flow measurement accuracy. Flow conditioners are one of the most practical ways to eliminate flow disturbances resulting from inadequate straight-pipe runs and other poor pipe layouts. Types include honeycomb vanes, perforated plates, tabs, tube bundles, and vanes. Each has its application, depending on process media, equipment problem, pipe configuration, cost requirement, etc. When specifying a flow conditioner or consulting with a vendor, ensure you know these key process variables: Viscosity range of the process media; Solids content in the gas or liquid; and Tolerable pressure loss vs. conditioning effectiveness. Most flow disturbances can be partially or completely eliminated by installing a flow conditioner upstream of the flowmeter. However, a conditioner that is good at eliminating swirl may be unable to remove non-symmetrical velocity profiles. Other flow conditioners may be effective for straightening flow profiles, but do not remove the swirl. In some cases, flow conditioners have a high pressure drop, which can greatly increase the pumping cost. Thus, it may be necessary to compromise between accuracy and operating cost.

Ensuring Proper Calibration

Flowmeter performance is ultimately dependent upon the sensors or other signal-producing elements, which have an active relationship with the flowing fluid. In order to be confident that a meter is functioning according to specification and providing accurate information, it must be tested for proper operation and recalibrated on a periodic basis. The choice of a flowmeter calibration solution is not always an easy one. Thankfully, end users have numerous options when seeking assistance from an outside calibration service center or considering the purchase of their own in-house calibration equipment. Their alternatives can include: 1. Contract with an established flow laboratory offering primary standard flowmeter calibration services. 2. Utilize a staffed, onsite calibration service employing either a Primary Standard Flow Calibrator or Flow Transfer Standard (FTS). 3. Purchase a Primary Standard Calibration System for in-house use. 4. Acquire a secondary standard FTS to perform your own field calibrations. Major independent flow laboratories offer liquid and gas calibration services meeting both end-user and OEM production requirements. These labs verify flowmeter accuracy by comparing the meter with a primary flow standard traceable to the U.S. National Institute of Standards & Technology (NIST). Their calibration services take into account key factors affecting flowmeter performance, such as orientation of the meter, operating temperature and pressure, and the type of the flow medium and viscosity (Figure 4). Increasingly, flowmeter customers are purchasing their own secondary flow

5 of 6

18.6.2012. 14:57

Part I: Flowmeter Selection Strategies

http://www.flowcontrolnetwork.com/articleprint.aspx?articleid=2394

transfer standards (FTS) for maintaining the accuracy of their meter populations. Instead of removing flowmeters from service for recalibration, a portable FTS allows users to bring the calibrator to the flowmeter. These documenting field flow calibrators are intended for in-line calibration and validation of meters using the actual process gas or liquid. The most advanced FTS systems incorporate hand-held electronics, thus eliminating bulky interface boxes and the need to carry a laptop computer into the field for calibration (Figure 5). An FTS utilizes a master flowmeter that has been calibrated to a very high degree of accuracy. This master meter is installed in series with the flowmeter under test. The readings from these instruments are compared at various flowrates or flow totals. A technician can install the master meter in the same system as the test meter, perform the calibration, and then remove the master meter and go about his business. This approach minimizes downtime and eliminates the need to purchase backup meters to replace units that are out for calibration. There is no substitute for knowledge and training when choosing an industrial flowmeter. In order to ensure a successful application, end-users must be aware of the considerations involved in optimal selection and usage of a liquid flow-metering device. In addition, they must understand how basic fluid properties such as density and viscosity affect meter performance. Users should also know how to calibrate liquid flowmeters using primary and secondary flow standards. This article is based on the content of an upcoming training seminar titled Liquid Flow Measurement. This event will be hosted Nov. 3-5 at the Flow Dynamics office in Scottsdale, Ariz. For more details and to register, please visit www.flow-dynamics.com/training.html or call 480 948-3789.

John Frederick has worked in precision metrology for the past 27 years, holding senior technical positions with the U.S. Navy, Lockheed Martin and Flow Dynamics Inc. For the past 14 years, John has focused on flow measurement in various positions at Flow Dynamics, including Calibration Laboratory Manager, Vice President of Engineering and Vice President of Business Development. John has authored numerous papers on flow measurement, holds several patents on flow measurement technologies, and teaches flow measurement and measurement uncertainty courses. John earned a bachelors degree in Physical Science from the State University of New York and a masters degree in Business Administration from Central Michigan University. John can be reached at john.frederick@flow-dynamics.com or 480 948-3789, ext. 16. www.flow-dynamics.com

6 of 6

18.6.2012. 14:57