Soil Resistivity Measurement:

Two-Layer Model, Proposed Revisions to IEEE

Standard 80-2000 and IEEE Standard 81-1983
P Calixto
Author Affiliation: Electrical Department of ABB Lummus
Global B.V., The Netherlands
Abstract: Some simplification to Sunde's procedure, shown in
IEEE Standard 80-2000 13.4.2.2, two-layer soil model by graphical
method is proposed, with the introduction of a modified Sunde's curve.
Comments on Appendix B of IEEE Standard 81-1983 are offered to
correct some formula and improve concepts.
Keywords: Soil resistivity measurement, two-layer model.
Introduction: IEEE Standard 80-2000 offers a graphical method
for determining a two-layer model. Sunde's curves are used, for example, for soil type 1 (Table E2 in Annex E). The Sunde's curve can be replaced by a table (or a graph, if a graphical solution is desired) where
the apparent resistivity is represented by (pa / pl) = (p2 / pl/'m with m
varying from 0.1 to 0.9. This will limit the representation to the range of

useful values of(pa / pl), for the determination of the layer depth h. If a
graphical method is to be used, the ordinate will then be m in uniform
scale versus a/H in logarithmic scale, with parameters (p2 / pl). The table (see Table 1) has the advantage of facilitating interpolation and being more accurate.
The set of pl, p2 and H calculated in this manner can be used for
more sophisticated calculations such as the steepest descent method,
described in IEEE Standard 81-1983, Appendix B. For this, the formulas of Equations B8 have to be corrected.
Modified Sunde's Method: The parameters pl and p2 are obtained
by inspection of resistivity measurements. Only h is obtained by
Sunde's method as follows:
a) Plot a graph of apparent resistivity pa on the y-axis versus pin
spacing on the x-axis.
b) Estimate pl and p2 from the graph plotted in a). The pa corresponding to a smaller spacing is pl and the larger spacing is p2. Extend
the apparent resistivity graph at both ends to obtain these extreme resistivity values if the field data is insufficient.
c) Determine p2 / pl from Table 1 and read the corresponding value
for (a/h), or interpolate them if the ratio (p2 / pl)is not shown. The most

Table 1. Modified Sunde curve

l---T

0.81

m+>p2/pl=
0.001

0.9
5.89
5 3
5 34
-5.10

0.002
0.003
0 005
0.007
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.05
0.07

494

i,

- 4.79
..,
4.50

4.37
4.24
4.17
4.12
4.18
4.32
4.48
4.68
4.87
5.06

0.1

0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6

07

0.8
0.9
1
1.1

1.2

1.3
1.4
1.5
06
1.7
1.8
1.9

1.04
1.05
1.07

1.12
-.--.-,
1.17
1.23
1.31
1.38

-5

7
10

15
20

30
40
50
60
70

0.98
1.00
1.02
[ 1.04

80

11.05

90
100
120

1.06
1.08
1.10

1.7

1.86
1.98

2.18
. ..

- -1.48
1.56
1.62
1.65
1.71

2.34

1248

1.75
1.79

[1.83
1.90
1.99

2.60
2.71

4.04
4.27

6.36
6.81

11.1

2.81
2.90
2.99
3.14
3.34

4.48

7.22

11.9

4.67

7.61

12.7

7.98
8.66

13.4

150

1.12

170

[1.14

2.04

13.46

200

1.16

2.11

3.63

400

1.25
1.28

300 [ 1.21
2.28
500

600
700
800
900
1000

66

1.30
1.33
1.34

1.36

11.38

2.41
2.52
2.61

400

.48
5.18
5.63
Js5.90
6.27
J 7.30
-8.15

14.07

4.42
2.52-i-14.72

2.69
2.76
2.82
2.88

8.88

4.97
5.20
5.41

9.53
10.1
10.7

5.60

11.6

15.78

_111.6

9.59

14.8
16.7

730.3

110.2

117.9

132.7

11.0

19.6

36.3

28.8
32.7

F56.7
675.5

113.2

47.1j24.5
97.1

15.2
16.9

18.4
19.8
21.2

22.4
23.6

0272-17241021$17.00(02002 IEEE

I-.

36.3
39.6
42.7
45.7

148.6

59.1
64.6
72.5

56

73.8

81.6
89.1

096.4
103

120

141

161
181
200
219
237

306~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

-7306

368
426
483
540
594

649

IEEE Power Engineering Review, April 2002

Table 2. Method with modified Sunde curves

PI1

p2=

~~~~~~p2pl=

________

A(ft)

6.096A(m)

0.305

3
5
15
20
30
50
70
90

0.914
1.524

100
300
3

displaced

pa/pl=
0.5694
0.8807
0.9548

15.240
21-336
27 432

2076
1.431
1.817
2.0878
2.2775

0.305
0.914
1.524
4.572
6.096
9.144
15.240
21-336

110

33.528

241.48

2.4148

27.432

130
150

39.624
45.720

25177
259.76

2.5177

33.528
39.624

6.096

9.144,

(papp1)

M=

0.305
0.914
1.524

3
5
15
20

4.572
6.096
9 144

30
50

15.240
21-336
27.432

70

90

xi
1.107
1.208
1.208

Y2

2.68787538
p2pl=

0.3

0.4

0.9

4.32

4.48

4.38

0.1
0.79

0.3
1.33
1.31
1.33

0.4
1.62

0.77
0.78
RHO for examnple in IEEE Standard 80-2000 Table E-2
in=
Soil Type 2
pa/pi=
displaced
(pa/p1) m
0
170-14
0.1
-089595846
-05671
0.2
-08782
-0802741562
0.305
263.46
0o9435
0.914
0.3
283.06
-0.719223093

0.2
1.07
1.06
1.07

Y1

xi
-0899
-0825

269.67
247-57
202.12
144.05

9.144
9.144

12
6.096
9.144
9.144
15.240
15.240
15.240

2.5976

0.1
0.2

0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9

300
100

aH= >

-0333333333

aH= >

aH=

120.28

-0.8989
-08252
-0.6737
-04802
-0.4009

110.68

-03689

1.524
4.572
6.096
9.144
15.240
21-336

110

33528

106.41

-03547

27.432

130

39 624

104-34

-0 3478

33.528

>

-0644394015
-0.577350269
-0.517281858
-0.463463057
-0415243647
-0372041058

0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8

0.9

4.572

6.096
6.096
9.144
9.144
15.240

4.572
6.096

6.096
9.144

21.336
#N/A
#N/A

15.240

#N/A
#N/A

A(m)

X2

1.817
2.088
2.278
2.598
0 33333
3333

p2=
p2pl=

Y1

in=

1.116123174
1.24573094
1.39038917
1L551845574
1.732050808
1.933182045
2.15766928
2.408224685

21-336
27.432
45.720

1.1071

ni=>

A(m)

0.5
0.6
2.25
2.89
Interpolation auxiliary values

04

1.78

6.096
9.144
9.144
15.240
15.240
21-336
27.432
33.528
45.720

p1=
A(ft)

0.3
1.40

0.2
1.07

0.76

aH= >

RHO for example in IEEE Standard 80-2000 Table E-2

Soil Type 1
56.94
88.07
95.48
110.71
1206
143.1
181.7
208.78
227.75

4.572

0.1

M=>

4.70
6.57
8.54
10.88
13.76
17.71
23.47
33.22

1.208

1.431
1.431

1.431
1.431

1 817
1.817
2.088
2.278

2.415
2.598

#DI7T 0!

EPRI

1.60
1.61

0.5

0.6

1.91
1.89
1.90

225_

0.7
3.84

6.116939482
6.102179619
#DIW 0'

206f

(6.096m)
0.8
3.24

0.7
2.66
2.67
2.66

2.24

2.24
Interpolation auxiliary values
X2
A(m)
H(mi)
-0825
4.62
5.916068843
0o674
6.44
6.041850702
-0674
8.02
6.053405618
-0480
9.78
6.068960246
-0480
11.54
6.067665292
-0480
13.62
6.075423804
-0401
16.28
4.244086906

-0825
-0674
-0674
-0674
-0480

#N/A
#N/A

#N/A

#N/A
#N/A

#N/A

0.9
9.09

H(m)
6.204837915
6.124368644
6.10641875
6.109891684
6.104719069
6.128636255

H=
>

0.8

5.44

0.9
4.32
4.48
4.38

3.29
3.26

#N/A

#N/A
H=

EPRI=>

206f

(6.096m)

Table 3. Steepest descent method

IEEE Standard 81 1983 Appendix B

RHO for Example in IEEE Standard 80-2000 Table 8.2

a(m)
0 3048

p
56.94

0.9144

88.07

1.524

95 41

4.572
6.096
9.144
15.24
21 336
27.432
33.528
39.624

110.71
120.76
143.1
181.7
208 78

227.75
241.48
251.77

45.72

259.76

Soil Type 1

0.01

x,o,"y

0.005

0.005

poX(

SpSpI

8pS8p2

SpS8h

57.92

88.79
90 04
109.54
119.47
141.72
181.09
207.40
226.87
241.00
251.63
259.94

1.0002147
1.0005592

0,0002451

1 0012589

0.0010898

1.0139351
1.025761
1.0440078

0.0237252
0.0486734
0.1131851

1.0261829
0.9590563
0.8744943
0.789564

0.2475768
0 3593614
0.4513083
0.5260392

0.7105731

0.5872803

0.6394377

0.6379529

0.0125984
0.0627096

0.0000089

0.1996335
3.0207405
5.5043031
9.662053

12.689283
12.453769
11-560631
10.505809

9.4761023
8.5307172

-0 005

Initial values= =>

AS

Ap
-0289526

Ap2
-256642

-0020512

-0443335
0.47974

-1683824

-003178

-1.702803

0.505137

1.527179

0.5102581

1.5406318

0.5128183
0.5123912
0.5092271
0.5086011
0.5080274
0.507516
0.5070644

1.5454603
1.5424182
1.5334525
1.5327861
1.5323724
1.532085
1.5318703

-0.005

a(m)
0.3048
0.9144
1.524

Ip/8Sp
170.14
263.46
283.06

0.0064872

-0000245
-0.053456
-0 343312

0 9999903

0.0000123

263-19
283.06

0.9990747
0.9947847

0.0011531

p2

516.64922
338.18418

-0034323
-0035063

95.110412
101.51455

31378357
303-12498

-0034243
-0033333
-0032699
-0 032782
-0032861
-0032987
-0033122
-0033252

102.53825

306.26018

103.0603

307.91628
308.08418

103.05137
102.50399

102.45943
102.41412
102-37173
102-3335

306.6775

306.79194
306.88884
306.97092
307-04063

h
4.0086689
6.189248

006794735
6.8298843
6.6897576
6.5363374
6.4366989
6.4637889
6.4862106
6.5162235
6.5471494
6.576511

-0009976
-0.00734
-0.005739

-0.009327
-0008771
-000751

-0003334
-0.008358
-0005862
-0003409
-0001068
0.0014192

Soil Type 2

-0005

0 005

Sp/Sp2

171 12

300

57.615378
88.221776

RHO for Example in IEEE Standard 80-2000 Table E-2

0.01

100

-0.855611
-1316738
-1.419676

initial values=

Ap2
-0.284753
-0435512
-0.46911

300

100

57.50504

0 0358056

170.26658
262.02725
282.49424

p2

0.0586229
0.0385639

87-939328
94.697161

12.074289
7.9412581
7.3699854

-0.009868
0.0026649
0.0000164

0.0007613
-0.007667

41572

260.67

269061

0.8814601

0.14640

-6856415

1,451418

-0470256

0.0341303

288 47001

96.474615

60904642

6.096
9.144

247-57

-11.4653
-16.55398
-13.94835
-9.082716

0.0337692
0.0337416
0.0353098
0.0355166

92.951122

-1377657
-1427199

279.45714=

92.750073

6.9022641
6.8641056
7.136936
7.1456353

27.432

110.68

111.34

0.0365977

1.0436481

5 .404728

-1.483501

-0474934
-0463965
-0451184
-0.465594
-0.482589

285.6643
278-93035
271.00264

21-336

0.2811817
0.5604483
0.8886303
1.014555

95.438262

144.05
120.28

0.7707824
0.535353
0.2356138
0.0933919

-1439753
-1410243

15.24

248.15
202-53
144.64
120-89

0.0351272

289.59204

96.048244

7.0464104

-0.008861

33.528

106.41

109.19

-3.320728

-0.520687

-0.116225

103.76

0.0050375

-0.025087
-151971 j
-1.445282

299.97491
297.04144
298.54688

6.8837745
6.9949353
6.9839328

-0.008196

104.94

.0413746

99.479313

104.34
103.16

0.0167244
0.0084651

39.624
45.72

202.12

IEEE Power Engineering Review,

April 2002

1.0340634
1.0269131

-2.077845
-1.417293

0.495052

-0.497361

0.0349242
0.034254

90.05903

98.490626

98.989109

-0006336
-0009956
-0009394

-0.006921
-0.006585

67

important values of a/h is m = 0.5, which corresponds to the inflexion of

Sunde's curve, i.e., values most sensitive to h.
d) From the graph in a) read the probe spacing a corresponding to pa
= (pl * p2), i.e., the geometric mean of pl and p2.
e) Divide the probe spacing a by a/h found in c; this will be depth of
the upper layer h.
Using the soil data from soil type 1 in Table E.2 of Appendix E, a
plot of resistivity versus spacing can be drawn. See Figure 22 of the
Standard. Both p 1 and p2 can be determined by visual inspection. Assuming pl = 1002.m and p2 = 300Q.m, the following example illustrates the modified Sunde's graphical method:
a) Plot Figure 22.
b) Choose pl = 100l.m and p2 = 300Q2.m.
c) p2/pl=300/100 = 3. Read in Table 1 the corresponding value for
m = 0.5, a/h = 2.25.
d) Read the probe spacing corresponding to (100
+*300) = 173
Q.m, h = 13.8 m.
e) The depth of upper layer is 13.8/2.25 = 6.13 m or 20.1 ft.
This compares favorably with the 6.1 m (20 ft.) using EPRI TR-100622
[B63].
Extended Calculation with Modified Sunde's Method: Instead
of using only m = 0.5 in Table 1, it is possible to use all values from 0.1
up to 0.9. The result will give a more thorough examination of the measured resistivity to locate possible irregularities. Table 2 exemplifies the
application of this method via spreadsheet, the graphic was replaced by
logarithmic interpolation, i.e., y = yl *(y2/yl)A(ln(x/xl)/ln(x2/xl)). The
soil 2 is shown as well.
Steepest Descent Method: This method is described by IEEE Standard 81-1983, Appendix B. All three parameters pl, p2, and h can be
calculated, starting with assumed initial values that can be obtained as
described above. Table 3 shows the results of this method for soils type
1 and 2.
The following comments apply:
Equations (1) and (2) should be used for only one average value of
apparent resistivity (N = 1). The equations imply harmonic mean of the
measured values. It is more common practice to use arithmetic or geometric mean (harmonic mean is the smallest of all three). The decision
on what average to be used is left then to the engineer.
The convergence factors (t, y, and y ) should be more clearly defined; presently they are implied to be 0.005/(68/6p).
We need to obtain the (6P/6p) value for the next iteration, based on
its value on the previous iteration. The expression for the derivatives
(Eq. B8) should be corrected as follows:
For 6p / 5p2 the term (1I-KA2) should read (1-K)A2.
For 5p / h the term in the summation (KAn) should read (nA2*KAn).
The signs of(t, r, and y) should be reversed sometimes to reach convergence, minus to decrease the initial value and plus to increase it.
References:
[ 1 ] IEEE Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding, IEEE Standard 80-2000, 2000.
[2] IEEE Guide for Measuring Earth Resistivity, Ground Impedance and Earth Surface Potentials of a Ground System, IEEE Standard
81-1983, 1983.
Copyright Statement: ISSN 0282-1724/02/$17.00 ( 2002 IEEE.
Manuscript received 12 August 2001. This paper is published herein in
its entirety.

Ww =. _

A New Method for Determining Reference

Compensating Currents of Three-Phase
Shunt Active Power Filters
Gary W Chang

Author Affiliation: Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Cheng University, Taiwan.
Abstract: Using a shunt active power filter (SAPF) has been proved
as an effective method to compensate reactive power and to mitigate
harmonic currents of nonlinear loads. When designing a SAPF, it is
crucial to generate reference currents for determining actual compensating current injections to the point of common coupling. In contrast to
the conventional instantaneous reactive power theory, which needs coordinate transformations, the new method proposed in this letter is to
determine reference compensating currents based on the balance of the
instantaneous reactive and active power generated in the SAPF. It is
shown that the proposed method is suitable for reactive and harmonic
power compensation by using a SAPF. In addition, to maintain the sinusoidal source currents this method also eliminates the need for installing energy storage devices for reactive power compensation as well as
the dc source for the harmonic compensation in the active power filter.
Therefore, a simpler design of the SAPF with minimal line losses can
be expected.
Keywords: Active power filter, reference compensating current, instantaneous reactive power theory, coordinate transformation, instantaneous power balance.
Introduction: The concept of using the SAPF for reactive and harmonic power compensation was introduced more than two decades
ago. By measuring load currents and voltages, the SAPF can inject
compensating currents as well as absorb or generate reactive power at
the point of common coupling for controlling harmonics and compensating reactive power of the connected load.
In 1983, Akagi et al. proposed an innovative approach based on instantaneous reactive power theory (i.e., p - q theory) to compute SAPF
reference compensating currents. This approach inspired the development of many other p - q theory-based methods for realizing the SAPF
[I],[2]. Willems indicated that the p - q theory is complete only in
three-phase systems without zero-sequence component, however [3].
Also, the instantaneous reactive power theory-based method requires
coordinate transformations between the a - b - c coordinates and the
p - q coordinates, which increases the complexity of designing the
SAPF controller. More recently, Peng et al. proposed a theory that gave
a generalized definition of the instantaneous reactive power in the
a - b - c coordinate [4]. Although Peng's approach does not need the
coordinate transformation, it requires an additional function for instantaneous reactive power vector calculation in the SAPF controller.
Based on the instantaneous reactive power space vector defined in [4]

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Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the three-phase SAPF compensation

68

0272-17241021$17.00(02002 IEEE

IEEE Power Engineering Review, April 2002