MEX5272 Materials & Manufacturing Engineering

METROLOGY

OBJECTIVES
To give a basic overview in to Metrology

METROLOGY

The branch of knowledge concerned with measurements

The science of measurements

EXERCISE
Why is Metrology important in Production Technology ?

During manufacture of a product or component, measurements have to be taken in various stages, during ( real-time), after (post production) to ensure that the manufactured product meets the required standard.

FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES IN METROLOGY

Length Mass Time Electrical Current Temperature Light radiation

WHAT IS A MEASUREMENT ?

A procedure in which an unknown quantity is compared to a known standard using an accepted and consistent system of units

Quantity

Measurement

Numerical Value

BRANCHES IN METROLOGY

Metrology

Scientific Metrology R & D work on measurement technique and standards

Legal Metrology Units and methods of measurements and types of measuring instruments in relation to mandatory technical and legal requirements

Industrial Metrology Measurements related to activities in industry

TERMINOLOGY
Important parameters for satisfactory performance of engineering components

Dimensional Accuracy Standardization Standards of length Length measuring instruments Measurements of angles Limits and fits Limit gauges

Geometrical Accuracy Measurement of flatness

Surface Accuracy

Measurement of surface Measurement of parallelism texture finish Measurement of straightness Measurement of roundness

CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Accuracy Precision Calibration Magnification

The ratio of instrument output to the input dimension

Linearity
The accuracy of the reading over the instrument's full working range

CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Resolution
Smallest dimension that can be read on the instrument

Sensitivity
Smallest difference in dimension that an instrument can detect

Speed of response

CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Stability
An instruments capability to maintain its calibration over a period of time. Sometimes referred to as Drift

Rule of 10 (Gauge makers rule)

An instrument or gauge should be 10 times more accurate than the dimensional tolerance of the part being measured. A factor of 4 is known as the Mil standard rule

SELECTION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Apart from the above characteristics, following factors also should be taken into account when selecting a measuring instrument for a particular job

Size and type of part being measured Environment (Temp, humidity etc.,) Operator skills required Cost of the instrument

EXERCISE
10 0.7 5 0.02

Comment on the applicability of using a steel ruler, Vernier caliper and a micrometer to measure the diameter and length of the above shown bar. Dimensions are in mm

ACCURACY & PRECISION

Accuracy
Degree to which the measured value agrees with the actual value

Precision
the repeatability of a measurement i.e. the closeness of agreement between the results of successive measurements of the same parameter carried out by the same observer, with the same measuring instrument, at the same location at a short interval of time

EXERCISE
Comment on the accuracy and precision of the measurement
Actual value Actual value Actual value

No. of measurements

No. of measurements

No. of measurements

Precise but not accurate

Inaccurate and not precise

Accurate and precise

MEASUREMENT ERRORS
Systematic Errors Random Errors Operator Errors Application Errors

SYSTEMATIC ERROR
Description
An error in which, in the course of the number of measurements of the same value of a given quantity, made under the same conditions, with the same measuring instrument, remains constant in absolute value and sign, or varies according to a known law when the conditions change.

Cause
Mainly due to instrumental errors such as, zero drift, non-linearity, in accurate calibration, sensitivity change etc..

Examples
Error which occurs when taking measurements at 25 0C from a steel ruler gauged at 0 0C.

EXERCISE
Indicate a systematic error on a graph similar to the previous one

True value

No of measurements

RANDOM ERROR
Description
An error in which, in the course of the number of measurements of the same value of a given quantity, made under the same conditions, with the same measuring instrument, varies in an unpredictable manner both in value and sign of the absolute value.

Cause
Mainly due to unidentified sources, such as changes in environment, resistance inside measuring instruments etc...

Examples
Error which occurs when taking measurements micro balances in changing environments

EXERCISE
Indicate a random error on a graph similar to the previous one

True value

No of measurements

OPERATOR ERROR
Description
An error in which occurs due to the fault of the operator.

Cause
Due to misreading of instrument, lapses in memory, boredom , inadequate knowledge in handling the instruments etc

Examples
When taking a same reading over a long period of time.

EXERCISE
Comment on the error indicated

True value

No of measurements

APPLICATION ERROR
Description
An error in which occurs due improper selection and measuring technique for measurements.

Cause
Lack of knowledge of handing and selecting measuring instruments for a particular application

Examples
When using a screw gauge to measure the thickness of the soft sheet of metal strip the force exerted by the anvil on the surface of the metal may cause faulty reading .

CALIBRATION
Operations carried for the purpose of determining the values of errors in measuring instruments are collectively termed Calibration
Adjustments Gauging scale graduation

LINEAR MEASUREMENTS

Fundamental quantity LENGTH

Linear distance between internal or external surfaces, points etc.

STANDARDS OF LENGTH
How is it done? Comparing the unknown quantity with a with a standard on a appropriate device. Against what ??? What is the system of units???

HIERARCHY OF STANDARDS

Primary Ref. Std. Transfer Std Secondary Ref. Std.

Working Std. Gauges, Instruments & Equipment used for measurements

THE IMPERIAL STANDARD YARD GREAT BRITAIN PRIMARY STANDARD Standard of length is a metal bar Length is defined by the distance between two lines on the bar Bronze bar of 1 section, 38 long and the datum lines are engraved at 620F

THE IMPERIAL STANDARD YARD GREAT BRITAIN

THE PROTOTYPE METER FRANCE PRIMARY STANDARD

Meter One ten-millionth of the distance between the north pole and the equator Marked (scratches) on a PlatinumIridium bar kept under controlled conditions

THE PROTOTYPE METER FRANCE

THE PROTOTYPE METER FRANCE

1650763.73 wave length of the orange radiation of Krypton isotope 86

Path traveled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299792458 of a second

WORKING STANDARDS
Line standards
Distance between two engraved/marked points
Steel rulers Measuring tapes

End standards
Distance between two parallel faces
Slip gauges Length bars

SLIP GAUGES & LENGTH BARS

SLIP GAUGES
Made out of hardened high Carbon steel Rectangular sections of 9mm x 30mm up to size of 10mm and 9mm x 35mm for larger sizes Can be used individually or as a combination of several (Wringing) gauges

SLIP GAUGES
BS 4311 : 1968 provides 5 grades of gauge block sets Calibration grade Grade 00 Grade 0 Grade I Grade II

SLIP GAUGES
Eg : Set M46/2
Size mm Increment mm 2.001 2.009 0.001 2.01 2.09 0.01 2.1 2.9 0.1 1-9 1.0 10 - 100 10.0 No. of pieces 9 9 9 9 10

SLIP GAUGES
Eg : Using Set M46/2 buildup 58.434 mm

58.434
Eliminate the last decimal place 2.004 Eliminate the second decimal place Eliminate the third decimal place Eliminate the remaining whole number Remainder 2.03

2.40 2.00

50

FEELER GAUGE
This is a set of thin steel strips held together in a holder The accuracy will be not good as the gauge blocks Range of thickness from about 0.030mm 0.6mm can be found The gauges can be combined to form a variety of sizes

FEELER GAUGE

EXERCISE 1
What is the common feature found on both slip gauges and feeler gauges in the context of measurement? These are fixed size pieces of equipment, and the intermediate sizes have to be obtained by combination of several blocks or sets.

EXERCISE 2
How would you then measure an intermediate sizes? By using measuring equipment that are capable of taking variety of sizes, ie. Variable size measuring equipment Comment on the accuracy of these types of equipment Accuracy will be less than that of the Fixed type equipment

ENGINEER'S RULE
The sizes are indicated by fine lines scribed on a steel strip. (Line standard) An accuracy about 0.25mm can be obtained The main cause of error is the Parallax error i.e., incorrect positioning of the eye in relation to the mark being used

ENGINEER'S RULE

VENIRE CALIPERS
An instrument using End measurement standard working on the Vernier principal Can take readings up to an accuracy around 0.02 mm

VENIRE CALIPERS

VENIRE CALIPERS

VENIRE CALIPERS - ADVANTAGES

A large range of sizes can be measured by one caliper The wearing parts are the jaws and usually these are hardened. Therefore, provided that the jaws are undamaged the loss of accuracy due to usage is low

VENIRE CALIPERS - LIMITATIONS

Cannot measure very small measurements The jaws are comparatively light and may spring out of alignment if too much pressure is applied

OTHER TYPES VERNIER DEPTH GAUGE

OTHER TYPES VERNIER HEIGHT GAUGE

MICRO-METER

MICRO-METER

End measurements

Both external and internal

Readings up to 0.001 mm

COMPARATORS
What is the common feature that can be found in the measuring equipment studied so far? The measurements are made without to any other datum Measures in themselves

COMPARATORS
Sometimes, it is necessary to know the variation of size, rather than the actual size or to find out how much the dimensions of a given component differ from that of a known datum Comparators can be used for the above task

COMPARATORS
What is a Comparator? A device that compares the size of a part with that to which is set , and does not directly indicate the actual size.

COMPARATORS
Types of comparators Classification can be made according to the type of magnification devices that are employed Mechanical comparators Electrical comparators Optical comparators Pneumatic comparators

MECHANICAL COMPARATORS
Employs mechanical means for magnifying the small movement of the measuring stylus Advantages being self contained, robust design and no requirement of no external power to operate. Disadvantages being loss of accuracy over a long period of time due to wear of moving parts

MECHANICAL COMPARATORS
The order of magnification possible with these types of comparators are around 1000 In mechanical comparators the magnification of the small movement of the stylus is accomplished by use of gears, leavers or a combination of both.

MECHANICAL COMPARATORS
Dial Gauges
Two types Plunger type Lever type Readings up to 0.001mm

MECHANICAL COMPARATORS
Other types
Sigma comparators Venwick comparators Mikrokator comparators

Mikrokator

Sigma

OPTICAL COMPARATORS

ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS

Angular Measurements

Direct

Indirect

Bevel Protractors Fixed Variable

INDIRECT METHODS

Fixed type angular gauges Taper gauges Plug gauges Ring gauges

Angle templates

Angle gauges

INDIRECT METHODS

Adjustable type angular gauges Sine bars

SINE BAR
How do we measure ???

SURFACE TEXTURE
What is surface texture?

Importance

Evaluation

Measurement

WHAT IS SURFACE TEXTURE?

Surface irregularities
Surfaces of any manufactured component (machined) consist of :
Form errors (Geometric errors) Surface texture (Surface finish)

FORM ERROR

Form errors are generally not considered for measurement of surface texture since its wave length is considerably higher than that of surface texture quantities. Cause Due to general kinematic faults in machine tools

KINEMATICS' FAULTS

Slide-way wear Worn out chuck Worn out cutter spindle Worn out bearings Faulty machine alignment Faulty machine settings

DETECTION (MEASUREMENT)

Dial gauges Straight edge Sprit levels

SURFACE TEXTURE
Definition Repetitive and/or random deviations from nominal surface that forms the 3-D topography of the surface Defined by 4 elements
Roughness Waviness Lay Flaws

ROUGHNESS

Roughness refers to the small, finely spaced deviations (irregularities) from the nominal surface.

Caused by:
Machining process : feed rates, chatter Material characteristics

WAVINESS

Waviness refers to much larger spaced deviations (irregularities) than roughness.

Caused by:
Machine or work deflections Vibration Forces or temperatures sufficient enough to cause warping Heat treatment

ROUGHNESS & WAVINESS

Surface texture is the combined effects of Waviness and Roughness

ROUGHNESS & WAVINESS

LAY (DIRECTIONALITY)
Lay is the predominant direction or surface pattern

Caused by:
Action of the cutting tool (Manufacturing method)

POSSIBLE LAYS OF A SURFACE

FLAWS (DEFECTS)
Flaws are the random irregularities which occurs on the surface

Examples:
Cracks Scratches Craters Holes Tears

IMPORTANCE

Improved performance
Less friction on mating surfaces hence high efficiency

Can be used as a QC parameter Wear resistance property Appearance Used as datum for measurements

EVALUATION
How do we quantify the above qualitative parameters?? Depending on the characteristics of the profile they quantify..
Roughness

Amplitude Parameters

Spacing Parameters

Hybrid Parameters

SURFACE ROUGHNESS PARAMETERS

Amplitude Parameters
Determined solely by peak or valley heights or both, irrespective of horizontal spacing

Spacing Parameters
Determined solely by the spacing of the irregularities along the surface ( Spacing of local peaks)

Hybrid Parameters
Determined by amplitude and spacing in combination

EXAMPLES

Amplitude Parameters
Centre Line Average CLA ( Ra) Ten point height of irregularities (Rz) Line of profile peak/valley

Spacing Parameters
Spacing of local peaks (s) Spacing of profile irregularities (sm) RMS parameter of roughness (Rq)

Hybrid Parameters
Profile bearing length ratio (tp)

CENTRE LINE AVERAGE (CLA)

Arithmetic average value of the departure of the whole of the profile. (Arithmetic average of the absolute values of the roughness profile ordinates)

Sampling length (l)

i Ra = Z ( x ) dx l0

TEN POINT HEIGHT OF IRREGULARITIES

Average distance between the five lowest valleys and five highest peaks within the sampling length

SPACING OF PROFILE IRREGULARITIES

The mean distance between the more prominent irregularities of the effective profile

MEASUREMENT

Surface inspection by comparison methods Touch inspection Visual inspection Scratch inspection Miro-interferometer Direct measurements using instruments Stylus probe instruments Profile meter

MIRO-INTERFEROMETER

Reflection Arm

Reference Arm Imaging Leg Test Arm

Transmission Arm

MICRO-INTERFEROMETER IMAGE

STYLUS PROBE INSTRUMENT

LIMITS & FITS

TOLERANCE

the allowable deviation from a standard, eg: the rage of variation permitted in maintaining a specified dimension in a machined piece
Webster

TOLERANCE AS APPLIED IN MANUFACTURING

Allowance for specific variation in the size and geometry of a part

WHY IS IT NECESSARY?

It is impossible to manufacture a part or component to an exact size or geometry. Since variation from the drawing is inevitable, acceptable degree of variation must be applied. Large variation may affect the functionality of the part. Small variations may affect the economy of the part.

CONSEQUENCES

Cost generally increases with Smaller (tighter) tolerances. Parts with Smaller tolerances often require special methods of manufacture. Parts with Smaller tolerances often require greater inspection and call for rejection of parts .

HOW IS TOLERANCE SPECIFIED?

Tolerance

Dimensional
Limits specifying the allowed variation in each dimension (length, height, width etc) are specified on the drawing

Geometrical
Allows for specification for the geometry of a part separate from its size GDT (Geometric Dimensioning & Tolerancing) uses special symbols to control the different geometric features of a part

GEOMETRIC TOLERANCES

Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing (GD&T) is a method of defining parts based on how they function, using standard ANSI symbols.
Concentricity Symbol Feature Control Frame

DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCING

Definition
the total amount by which a specified dimension is permitted to Vary

ANSI (American National Standards Institute)

SPECIFICATION OF DT

Bilateral

20 0.5

20

+0.5 0.5

20.05 19.95

Unilateral

20

+0.5 0

20.05 20.00

EXERCISE 1

2.505 2.495

1. Express in the form 2. Tolerance? 3. Type?

? ?

2.5

+0.005 0.005

|( -0.005) (0.005)| = 0.01

Bilateral

EXERCISE 2

2.5

+0.010 0.005

1. Type? 2. Tolerance?

Bilateral |( -0.005) (0.010)| = 0.015 2.510

3. Express in limit form

2.495

EXERCISE 3

2.5+0.0 0.005
Unilateral |( -0.005) (0.0)| = 0.005 2.500

1. Type? 2. Tolerance?

3. Express in limit form

2.495

EXERCISE 4

2.5

0.001 0.005

1. Type?

Unilateral |( -0.005) (-0.001)| = 0.004 2.499

2. Tolerance?

3. Express in limit form

2.495

In unilateral tolerance variation can be only in one direction. That is either Negative or Positive

APPLICATION

Tolerances

Single Component

MuliComponent

SINGLE COMPONENT (PARTS)

Single Component

Shafts

Holes

Convention to designate all external features of a component or part

Convention to designate all internal features of a component or part

DEFINITIONS
Basic Size
The size to which the tolerances are applied

Nominal Size
The general size

Limits of size
The two extreme permissible sizes of a part between which the actual size should lie

Maximum limit of size

The greater of the two limits of size. Sometimes referred as the Upper limit as well

DEFINITIONS
Minimum limit of size
The smaller of the two limits of size. Sometimes referred as the Lower limit as well

Tolerance
The algebraic difference between the Maximum and Minimum limits of size

Deviation
The algebraic difference between a size ( actual, basic , maximum etc)

Upper Deviation
The algebraic difference between the Maximum limit of size and the corresponding Basic size

DEFINITIONS
Lower Deviation
The algebraic difference between the Minimum limit of size and the corresponding Basic size

Zero Line
In the graphical representation of limits and fits, the straight line to which the deviations, limits are refers is know as the Zero line. This is the line of Zero deviation and often refers to the basic size

Maximum Limit of Size

Maximum Material Condition

SHAFTS

Tolerance
Line of Zero Deviation
U. D L. D

Minimum Limit of Size

Minimum Material Condition

Basic Size

Limits & Fits for Muli-components

INTERCHANGEABILITY

If from a batch conforming to the same dimensions, surface finish and material properties, anyone can be selected in random to be used in place of another, with equal probability that the selected part will assemble and function satisfactory, then the parts in the batch are said to be interchangeable.

DEGREE OF INTERCHANGEABILITY

From a batch of 1000 components only 750 managed to assembled and perform the intended task. What would be the DOF? 75%

TYPES OF DOIS

DOI

Zero

Universal

Local

ZERO INTERCHANGEABILITY

As a result when components are made to suit Components are fitted by a skilled mechanic often in a fitting room Subsequently, if a replacement is needed, it must also be machined to suit and then fitted as above

UNIVERSAL INTERCHANGEABILITY

When factors affecting the interchangeability of a component are specified by a drawing, the components are said to have a universal interchangeability That is, by making components confirming to a specific drawing, it is possible to manufacture them independent of skill, tooling or knowledge within a particular work-shop

LOCAL INTERCHANGEABILITY

When the interchangeability of a component is controlled by workshop practices and not simply by confirming to drawings, the components are said to have a local interchangeability That is, a set of tools and gauges are made so that repeated adjustments or refinements can be made for each components or during production checking that will confirm to the required standard within the workshop

DEFINITIONS

Allowance
The specified difference in dimensions between mating parts. ( ie the difference between the Hole dimension and the Shaft dimensions). NOTE: Sometimes referred as; o Functional dimension o Sum dimension

Fit
The range of looseness of tightness that can result from the application of specific combination of allowance and tolerance in designing of mating part features of an interchangeable system

DEFINITIONS

Deviation
The algebraic difference between a size and the corresponding basic size

Upper Deviation
The algebraic difference between the maximum limit size and the corresponding basic size

Lower Deviation
The algebraic difference between the minimum limit size and the corresponding basic size

DEFINITIONS

Fundamental Deviation
That one of the two deviations which is conveniently chosen to define the position of the tolerance zone in relation to the zero line

BS 4500: (I.S.O. SYSTEM OF LIMITS & FITS)

U. D (F. D) U. D L. D Line of zero deviation L. D (F. D)

Basic size

Max .L .S

Min .L .S

Min .L .S

Max .L .S

MORE DEFINITIONS
Clearance
The difference between the size of Hole and the Shaft, before assembly, and when this difference is positive.

Clearance = Hole - Shaft Hole - Shaft > 0 Hole > Shaft Interference
The difference between the size of Hole and the Shaft, before assembly, and when this difference is Negative.

Interference = (- Clearance) Hole - Shaft < 0 Hole < Shaft

MORE DEFINITIONS.
Limit System
System of Standardized tolerances and deviations.

Fit System
System of fits comprising shafts and holes belonging to a specific limit system

TYPES OF FITS

Fits

Clearance

Transition

Interference

CLEARANCE FIT
The shaft will always be smaller than the hole which it

is going to fit
Maximum Clearance

Minimum Clearance

Basic size

Max .L .S

Min .L .S

Min .L .S

Max .L .S

CLEARANCE FIT

Clearance will always be positive. (ie. Clearance >0)

Cmax > Cmin> 0 This types of fits allows rotation or sliding between the

mating parts

INTERFERENCE FIT

The shaft will always be larger than the hole which it

is going to fit
The fit will always give a negative clearance The minimum interference = The negation of the

maximum clearance
Imin = - ( Cmax ) = - ( Hmax Smin ) Similarly, the maximum interference Imax = - ( Cmin ) = - ( Hmin Smax )

Max .L .S

Imax

Min .L .S

INTERFERENCE FIT

Imin

Basic size
Min .L .S Max .L .S

INTERFERENCE FIT

Clearance will always be Negative. (ie. Clearance <0)

Cmax < Cmin < 0

For components where motion, power has to be

transmitted.

TRANSITION FIT
A fit resulting the maximum clearance to take a positive

value while the minimum clearance gives a negative value.

Cmin <0

Cmax >0

Basic size

Max .L .S

Min .L .S

Min .L .S

Max .L .S

SYSTEM OF FITS

Systems

Hole Basis
System of fits in which the different clearances and interferences are ascertain in associating various shafts with a single hole ( or, possibly, with holes of different grades but having always the same fundamental deviation)

Shaft Basis
System of fits in which the different clearances and interferences are ascertain in associating various holes with a single shaft ( or, possibly, with shafts of different grades but having always the same fundamental deviation)

INSPECTION

Inspection is a procedure in which a product or part characteristic, such as a dimension is examined to determine whether or not it conforms to the design specification

GAUGING

Gauging determines whether the part characteristics meets or not meet the design specification, ie. The parts passes or fails the inspection - Gauging is usually faster than measuring - Does not give a actual value of the characteristic of interest

INSPECTION METHODS

Depending on the quantities of products/parts involved and the method of feedback used from the inspection department to the manufacturing department, methods can be broadly classified as, Complete Method Statistical Quality Control Use of Limit gauges

INSPECTION METHODS

Complete Method
This method is used when the quantities involved are very small and the cost of gauging is not justified

Statistical Quality Control

This method is used when the quantities involved are large and feedback is necessary regarding the machines

Use of Limit gauges

Every component is inspected with the aid of a limit gauge which indicates whether the dimensions being checked are within the limits specified

LIMIT GAUGES
A limit gauge (or a pair of limit gauges) consists of GO and NOT GO gauges

GO gauge
A GO gauge should pass over or through a correct feature. It checks the maximum material condition of the part

NOT GO gauge
A NOT GO gauge should not pass over or through a correct feature. It checks the minimum material condition of the part

LIMIT GAUGES

Limit Gauges

Checking External Dimensions

Snap Gauges Ring Gauges

Checking Internal Dimensions

Plug Gauges

GAUGES FOR EXTERNAL DIMENSION

Snap Gauges

Gauges for Internal Dimension

Plug gauges

Limit Gauges.

~ END ~