P-Numbers 1 2 3 4 5A 5B 5C 6 7

Base Metal (Typical or Example) Carbon Manganese Steels (four Group Numbers) Not Used Half Molybdenum or half Chromium, half Molybdenum (three Group Numbers) One and a quarter Chromium, half Molybdenum (two Group Numbers) Two and a quarter Chromium, one Molybdenum Five Chromium, half Molybdenum or nine Chromium, one Molybdenum (two Group Numbers) Chromium, Molybdenum, Vanadium (five Group Numbers) Martensitic Stainless Steels (Grade 410, 415, 429) (six Group Numbers) Ferritic Stainless Steels (Grade 409, 430) Austenitic Stainless Steels

Group 1 - Grades 304, 316, 317, 347 Group 2 - Grades 309, 310 Group 3 - High Manganese Grades

Group 4 - High Molybdenum Grades 9A, B, C Two to four Nickel Steels 10A, B, C, F Various low alloy steels 10H Duplex and Super Duplex Stainless Steel (Grades 31803, 32750) 10I High Chromium Stainless Steel 10J High Chromium, Molybdenum Stainless Steel 10K High Chromium, Molybdenum, Nickel Stainless Steel 11A Various high strength low alloy steels (six Group Numbers) 11B Various high strength low alloy steels (ten Group Numbers) 12 to 20 Not Used 21 High Aluminum content (1000 and 3000 series) 22 Aluminum (5000 series - 5052, 5454) 23 Aluminum (6000 series 6061, 6063) 24 Not Used 25 Aluminum (5000 series - 5083, 5086, 5456) 26 to 30 Not used 31 High Copper content 32 Brass 33 Copper Silicone 34 Copper Nickel 35 Copper Aluminum 36 to 40 Not Used 41 High Nickel content 42 Nickel, Copper - (Monel 500) 43 Nickel, Chromium, Iron - (Inconel)

44 45 46 47 47 to 50 51, 52, 53 61, 62

Nickel, Molybdenum (Hastelloy B2, C22, C276, X) Nickel, Chromium Nickel, Chromium, Silicone Nickel, Chromium, Tungsten Not Used Titanium Alloys Zirconium Alloys

GTAW Welding
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) is frequently referred to as TIG welding. TIG welding is a commonly used high quality welding process. TIG welding has become a popular choice of welding processes when high quality, precision welding is required. In TIG welding an arc is formed between a nonconsumable tungsten electrode and the metal being welded. Gas is fed through the torch to shield the electrode and molten weld pool. If filler wire is used, it is added to the weld pool separately.

TIG Welding Benefits

Superior quality welds Welds can be made with or without filler metal Precise control of welding variables (heat) Free of spatter Low distortion

Shielding Gases

Argon Argon + Hydrogen Argon/Helium

Helium is generally added to increase heat input (increase welding speed or weld penetration). Hydrogen will result in cleaner looking welds and also increase heat input, however, Hydrogen may promote porosity or hydrogen cracking.

GTAW Welding Limitations

Requires greater welder dexterity than MIG or stick welding Lower deposition rates More costly for welding thick sections

Common GTAW Welding Concerns

We can help optimize your welding process variables. Evaluate your current welding parameters and techniques. Help eliminate common welding problems and discontinuities such as those listed below: Weld Discontinuities

Undercutting Tungsten inclusions Porosity Weld metal cracks Heat affected zone cracks

TIG Welding Problems

Erratic arc Excessive electrode consumption Oxidized weld deposit Arc wandering Porosity Difficult arc starting

If your company is experiencing these or other welding problems you can retain AMC to improve your weld processing. Hire AMC to act as your welding specialist.

Flux Cored Welding

Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) is frequently referred to as flux cored welding. Flux cored welding is a commonly used high deposition rate welding process that adds the benefits of flux to the welding simplicity of MIG welding. As in MIG welding wire is continuously fed from a spool. Flux cored welding is therefore referred to as a semiautomatic welding process. Self shielding flux cored arc welding wires are available or gas shielded welding wires may be used. Flux cored welding is generally more forgiving than MIG welding. Less precleaning may be necessary than MIG welding. However, the condition of the base metal can affect weld quality. Excessive contamination must be eliminated. Flux cored welding produces a flux that must be removed. Flux cored welding has good weld appearance (smooth, uniform welds having good contour).

Flux Cored Welding Benefits

All position capability Good quality weld metal deposit Higher deposition rates than SMAW Low operator skill required Metallurgical benefits that can be gained from a flux

Common Flux Cored Welding Concerns

We can help optimize your flux cored welding process variables. Evaluate your current welding parameters and techniques. Help eliminate common welding problems and discontinuities such as those listed below: Weld Discontinuities

Undercutting Excessive melt-through Incomplete fusion Incomplete joint penetration Porosity Cracks Slag inclusions

Flux Cored Welding Problems

Melted contact tip Irregular wire feed Burnback Porosity

If your company is experiencing these or other welding problems you can retain AMC to improve your weld processing. Hire AMC to act as your welding specialist.

Welding Discontinuities
Some examples of welding discontinuities are shown below. Evaluation of the discontinuity will determine if the discontinuity is a defect or an acceptable condition:

Incomplete Fusion - A weld discontinuity in which fusion did not occur between weld metal and fusion faces or adjoining weld beads.

Undercut - A groove melted into the base metal adjacent to the weld toe or weld root and left unfilled by weld metal. Overlap - The protrusion of weld metal beyond the weld toe or weld root.

Underfill - A condition in which the weld face or root surface extends below the adjacent surface of the base metal. Incomplete Joint Penetration - A joint root condition in a groove weld in which weld metal does not extend through the joint thickness Partial joint penetration groove welds are commonly specified in lowly loaded structures. However, incomplete joint penetration when a full penetration joint is required, as depicted above, would be cause for rejection. A fix for an incomplete penetration joint would be to back gouge and weld from the other side. Another acceptable partial penetration joint is shown below. Partial penetration joint on the left without discontinuities is an acceptable condition where appropriate. Appropriate engineering decisions need to be applied to determine what type of joint should be specified for a given application. Engineering should be contacted to determine whether partial penetration of full penetration joints are appropriate for a particular situation.

Above are several different representations of weld Cracking

Below is a representation of a convex fillet weld without discontinuities.

If your company is experiencing these or other welding problems you can retain AMC to improve your weld processing. Hire AMC to act as your welding specialist.

MIG Welding
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) is frequently referred to as MIG welding. MIG welding is a commonly used high deposition rate welding process. Wire is continuously fed from a spool. MIG welding is therefore referred to as a semiautomatic welding process.

MIG Welding Benefits

All position capability Higher deposition rates than SMAW Less operator skill required Long welds can be made without starts and stops Minimal post weld cleaning is required

MIG Welding Shielding Gas

The shielding gas, forms the arc plasma, stabilizes the arc on the metal being welded, shields the arc and molten weld pool, and allows smooth transfer of metal from the weld wire to the molten weld pool. There are three

primary metal transfer modes:

Spray transfer (MP3 Audio) Globular transfer (MP3 Audio) Short circuiting transfer (MP3 Audio)

The primary shielding gasses used are:

Argon Argon - 1 to 5% Oxygen Argon - 3 to 25% CO2 Argon/Helium

CO2 is also used in its pure form in some MIG welding processes. However, in some applications the presence of CO2 in the shielding gas may adversely affect the mechanical properties of the weld.

Common MIG Welding Concerns

We can help optimize your MIG welding process variables. Evaluate your current welding parameters and techniques. Help eliminate common welding problems and discontinuities such as those listed below: Weld Discontinuities

Undercutting Excessive melt-through Incomplete fusion Incomplete joint penetration Porosity Weld metal cracks Heat affected zone cracks

MIG Welding Problems

Heavily oxidized weld deposit Irregular wire feed Burnback Porosity Unstable arc Difficult arc starting

If your company is experiencing these or other welding problems you can retain AMC to improve your weld processing. Hire AMC to act as your welding specialist.

Stick Welding

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) is frequently referred to as stick or covered electrode welding. Stick welding is among the most widely used welding processes. The flux covering the electrode melts during welding. This forms the gas and slag to shield the arc and molten weld pool. The slag must be chipped off the weld bead after welding. The flux also provides a method of adding scavengers, deoxidizers, and alloying elements to the weld metal.

Stick Welding Benefits

Equipment used is simple, inexpensive, and portable Electrode provides and regulates its own flux Lower sensitivity to wind and drafts than gas shielded welding processes All position capability

Common Stick Welding Concerns

We can help optimize your welding process variables. Evaluate your current welding parameters and techniques. Help eliminate common welding problems and discontinuities such as those listed below: Weld Discontinuities

Undercut Incomplete fusion Porosity Slag Inclusions Cracks

Stick Welding Problems

Arc Blow Arc Stability Excessive spatter Incorrect weld profile Rough surface Porosity

If your company is experiencing these or other welding problems you can retain AMC to improve your weld processing. Hire AMC to act as your welding specialist.

Section IX of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Overview

The forms listed below form the basis for verifying welding procedures and welder performance:

WPS - welding procedure specification PQR - procedure qualification record WPQ - welder performance qualification

There are three steps in qualifying welders and welding procedure specifications to Section IX of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC). First, prepare a welding procedure specification (WPS). The WPS must contain the minimum requirements that are specified by the code. The WPS provides guidance for welding by specifying ranges for each variable. Second, a procedure qualification record (PQR) is used to verify the WPS. The WPS is qualified by welding procedure qualification test coupons. The variables and tests used are recorded on a PQR. Third, the performance of the welders is verified by welding performance qualification test coupons. The variables and tests used with the particular variable ranges qualified are recorded on a welders performance qualification (WPQ) record. Another way of conceptualizing these requirements is shown below: Specify: Variable ranges Essential variables Nonessential variables Record: Actual variables Essential variables Tests and results Record: Actual variables Specify Ranges Qualified Tests and results

WPS

PQR

WPQ

Outline of Articles in ASME Section IX

An abbreviated summary of items covered in ASME Section IX is provided below

Article I - Welding General Requirements QW-100

Article I covers the scope of ASME Section IX, the purpose and use of the WPS, PQR and WPQ, responsibility, test positions, types and purposes of tests and examinations, test procedures, acceptance criteria, visual examination, and radiographic examination.

Article II - Welding Procedure Qualifications QW-200

Article II covers the rules for the preparation of WPS and PQR. Each process is listed separately in QW-250 with the essential, supplementary essential, and nonessential variables. The WPS shall specify a value or range for each essential, nonessential and, when necessary, each supplementary essential variable listed for each welding process. The PQR shall record the value for each essential and, when necessary, each supplementary essential variable used. When a change is made in an essential variable, the WPS must be revised, and requalified with a new PQR, unless the revision can be supported by an existing PQR. Similarly, when the code requires notch-toughness, supplementary essential variables become additional essential variables. When a change is made in a supplementary essential variable, the WPS must be revised, and requalified by a new PQR, unless the revision can be supported by an existing PQR for notch-toughness applications.

Article III - Welding Performance Qualifications QW-300

Article III covers the preparation of WPQ records. Each welding process is listed separately in QW350 with the essential variables for welding performance. The WPQ form must record a value for each essential variable used and must list a range qualified for each of these essential variables. Article III covers responsibility, type of tests, records, welder identification, positions, diameters, expiration and renewal of qualifications. Welders and Welding Operators may be qualified by visual and mechanical tests, or by radiography of a test coupon, or by radiography of the initial production weld.

Article IV - Welding Data QW-400

Article IV covers welding variables that are used in the preparation and qualification of the WPS, PQR or the WPQ as applicable. Some of the welding variables are listed below:

Joints Base Materials Filler Materials Positions Preheat Postweld Heat Treatment Gas Electrical Characteristics Technique

Article IV also includes assignments of P-Numbers (ASME base materials), S-Numbers (other materials), F-Numbers (grouping of filler metals) and A-Numbers (weld metal chemical analysis). Tables for WPS qualification thickness limits and tables for WPQ thickness and diameter limits are also included. There are tables for welding positions signifying that a welder who qualifies in a particular position is qualified to weld within a range of positions as appropriate. Furthermore, test coupons, the removal of test specimens, and the test jig dimensions are identified.

Article V - Standard Welding Procedure Specifications (SWPS) QW-500

Article V covers rules for the adoption, demonstration, and application of the Standard Welding Procedure Specifications, (SWPSs). If your company is experiencing these or other welding issues you can retain AMC to improve your weld processing. Hire AMC to act as your welding specialist.

Welding Position

The 1G and 5G horizontal and 2G vertical positions refer to the pipe position. The welding positions shown above are commonly used by codes when qualifying welders.

If your company is experiencing these or other welding issues you can retain AMC to improve your weld processing. Hire AMC to act as your welding specialist.

Submerged Arc Welding

Submerged arc welding (SAW) is a high quality, very high deposition rate welding process. Submerged arc welding is a high deposition rate welding process commonly used to join plate.

Submerged Arc Welding Benefits

Extremely high deposition rates possible High quality welds Easily automated Low operator skill required

Common Submerged Arc Welding Concerns

We can help optimize your welding process variables. Evaluate your current welding parameters and techniques. Help eliminate common welding problems and discontinuities such as those listed below: Weld Discontinuities

Cracks Porosity

Slag Undercut

Submerged Arc Welding Problems

Solidification Cracking Hydrogen Cracking Incomplete fusion Irregular wire feed Porosity

If your company is experiencing these or other welding problems you can retain AMC to improve your weld processing. Hire AMC to act as your welding specialist

DISTORTION
Welding involves highly localized heating of the metal being joined together. The temperature distribution in the weldment is therefore nonuniform. Normally, the weld metal and the heat affected zone (HAZ) are at temperatures substantially above that of the unaffected base metal. Upon cooling, the weld pool solidifies and shrinks, exerting stresses on the surrounding weld metal and HAZ. If the stresses produced from thermal expansion and contraction exceed the yield strength of the parent metal, localized plastic deformation of the metal occurs. Plastic deformation results in lasting change in the component dimensions and distorts the structure. This causes distortion of weldments. Several types of distortion are listed below:

Longitudinal shrinkage Transverse shrinkage Angular distortion Bowing Buckling Twisting

Factors affecting distortion

If a component were uniformly heated and cooled distortion would be minimized. However, welding locally heats a component and the adjacent cold metal restrains the heated material. This generates stresses greater than yield stress causing permanent distortion of the component. Some of the factors affecting the distortion are listed below:

Amount of restraint Welding procedure Parent metal properties Weld joint design Part fit up

Restraint can be used to minimize distortion. Components welded without any external restraint are free to move or distort in response to stresses from welding. It is not unusual for many shops to clamp or restrain components to be welded in some manner to prevent movement and distortion. This restraint does result in higher residual stresses in the components. Welding procedure impacts the amount of distortion primarily due to the amount of the heat input produced. The welder has little control on the heat input specified in a welding procedure. This does not prevent the welder from trying to minimize distortion. While the welder needs to provide adequate weld metal, the welder should not needlessly increase the total weld metal volume added to a weldment. Parent metal properties, which have an effect on distortion, are coefficient of thermal expansion and specific heat of the material. The coefficient of thermal expansion of the metal affects the degree of thermal expansion and contraction and the associated stresses that result from the welding process. This in turn determines the amount of distortion in a component. Weld joint design will effect the amount of distortion in a weldment. Both butt and fillet joints may experience distortion. However, distortion is easier to minimize in butt joints. Part fit up should be consistent to fabricate foreseeable and uniform shrinkage. Weld joints should be adequately and consistently tacked to minimize movement between the parts being joined by welding. If your company is experiencing these or other welding problems you can engage AMC to reduce your welding distortion. Hire AMC to act as your welding specialist.

Alloy Selection
Base metal and filler metal alloy selection is critical to producing good quality welds. Proper alloy selection can reduce numerous welding problems. Does the aluminum welding you are performing result in significant reductions in tensile strength? Is the alloy you are using susceptible to cracking.? Does your weld need a post welding heat treatment? Are your processing parameters appropriate? Can your yield be improved? Can your weld quality be improved? Contact us about exotic alloys or common alloys as listed below:

Commonly used Welding Alloys

Aluminum Steel Stainless Steel Titanium Nickel and Cobalt Magnesium Copper

Benefits from Proper Alloy Selection

Increase weld quality and yield Proper weld joint strength Good corrosion and oxidation resistance Reduction of weld and HAZ cracking Eliminate reheat cracking Eliminate stress corrosion cracking Eliminate lamellar tearing Improved weldability Optimize dissimilar metal joints

Let AMC engineers help you identify proper base metal and filler rod alloys for your application. Select economical, good quality welding procedures to meet your customer needs. Let us optimize your welding procedure to improve yield, reduce rework, and reduce weld discontinuities. Proper cleaning, processing, heat treating of your weld joint will reduce costs, reduce failures, and increase customer satisfaction. If your company is experiencing these or other welding problems you can retain AMC to improve your weld processing. Hire AMC to act as your welding specialist.

Structural Welding Codes

There are several Structural Welding Codes. This web page provides an outline of the Structural Welding Codes. Typical examples of these are listed below:

Steel (AWS D1.1) Aluminum (AWS D1.2) Reinforcing Steel (AWS D1.4) Stainless Steel (AWS D1.6)

Overview
The Structural welding Codes cover various aspects for fabricating and erecting welded structures. While there are changes to the Codes from time to time the outlines here provide an overview of the information in the codes. For comparison the Structural Welding Codes are more comprehensive than Section IX of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC), as issues such as design and fabrication are addressed in other sections of the ASME BPVC. Some examples of welding requirements addressed by the Structural Welding Codes include:

Design of welded connections Requirements for Welding Procedure Specifications (WPS)

Requirements for Welding Personnel Performance Qualification Fabrication Requirements Inspection

Weld Design
Engineers typically design welded connections in accordance with the requirements identified in the welding code. The codes address various aspects of the weld. Some of the weld issues specified are listed below

Groove welds Fillet welds Weld length Complete joint penetration Partial joint penetration Lap joints Weld size Weld spacing Transitions Static and cyclical loading

Qualification
Welding Procedure Specifications (WPS) and Welding Personnel Performance Qualification are required. The qualification covers various aspects concerning the production of welds. Some of these items are listed below:

Welding Process (SMAW, GMAW, FCAW, GTAW, SAW etc.) Base metal Filler metal Preheat and Interpass temperature Amperage Voltage Travel speed Shielding gas Thickness Welding position Backing

Requirements for Welding procedure Specifications and Welding Personnel Performance Qualification are identified in the Codes.

Fabrication
Fabrication and erection of welded assemblies and structures are detailed in the code. Some of the items covered by the code are listed below Base metal Welding consumables Preheat and Interpass temperature Stress relief heat treatment Backing, backing gas, or inserts Welding environment Design compliance

Preparation of base metal Dimensions and Tolerances Weld profile Repairs

Inspection
Requirements for the Inspector's qualifications and responsibilities, acceptance criteria for discontinuities, and procedures for nondestructive testing (NDT) are identified in the Code. Some of the items identified in the code are listed below:

Inspector Materials WPS Equipment Welder Qualification Welds Records Acceptance Criteria Alternate Acceptance Criteria Liquid Penetrant Testing Magnetic Particle Testing Radiographic Inspection Ultrasonic Inspection

If your company is experiencing issues with these or other welding problems you can retain AMC to improve your weld processing. Hire our consultant to act as your welding specialist.