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Brunel Technical College

Department of Aeronautical Studies
CHAPTER 7

VOL 1

SECT 1
CHAP 7

ROTARY MACHINES
Simple Generator.
1.

The simple d o c . generator i s a device f o r converting mechanical energy i n t o e l e c t r i c a l energy.

I ,

briar, brle

A,

e ~ e & ~ u a ~ uubyuc,

* -

. I

-J

c,dke~l LL--~

o--

bu

t h e load is always i n one d i r e c t i o n a simple switching arrangement i s attached t o t h e loop ends. This device i s c a l l e d t h e ' commutator '

The Simple Commutator.

I

--. ......--...-, . -* .-. . .

.
h

LC..

This consists of two halves of a copper ring, each h a l f insulated from the other, and mounted on t h e same s h a f t as t h e loop; each segment o f ' t h e commutator i s connected t o a loop end.

VOL 1 SECT 1 CHAP 7

3.

A s shown i n t h e sketch t h e change-over of the segments takes place when no EMJ? i s being induced i n the loop. A s t h e loop r o t a t e s . brush C i s i n contact with t h e conductor passing the North Pole, and brush D i s i n contact with t h e conduotor 8' passing the south pole. When the loop has passed through 10 the oondition is still the same and the generated E51F a t t h e brushes although of a varying m p l i t u d e i s always of t h e same polarity.
By increasing t h e number of loops and commutator segments a much

smoozner UV&' g r e a t e r value can be obtained. of

\

Multi-Bar Commutator.

This c o n s i s t s of t h e correct number of copper s t r i p s i n s u l a t e d from one another by mica; the whole s t r u c t u r e i s then mounted and insulated from the s h a f t . Brushes

5.

These a r e made of graphite (carbon) which has a f a i r l y high resistance. They a r e f a i r l y s o f t and do not normally wear t h e commutator, but a d j u s t t h e i r contact surface t o the shape of t h e

VOL 1 SECT 1 c- 7 3m
u ~ m m b ac r . ~ o Tne brushe-sSare kept i n contact with the commutator by means of springs. The complete cradle and s p r i n g assembly i s known a s the brush holder. This i s i n s u l a t e d from t h e case of the machine.

Induced EMF.

6.

For a constant speed and f i e l d current, t h e induced emf i s constant i s given by

--

..

-- -

- --

E
\

x n Volts

- - _4

n 7-1

where K i s a constant Z i s f l u x i n webers n i s revolutions p e r sec.

The armature conductor system has some r e s i s t a n c e Ra. When t h e machine i s supplying a load, Ra w i l l have a p o t e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e across it a s current flows through t h e load. Hence terminal volts V w i l l fall.

and the value of armature current can be determined by E-V Ra Generator Efficiency
=

Ia

Amps

7.

i)
ii)

Mechanical Efficiency E l e c t r i c a l Efficiency

Total watts generated Mechanical Power Supplied

100%

Watts a v a i l a b l e i n e x t e r n a l c i r c u i t x 10@ Total Watts Generated x 100% Mechanical Power Supplied

iii) Commercial Efficiency = Watts i n e x t e r n a l c i r c u i t

Thus Mechanical Efficiency x E l e c t r i c a l Efficiency Efficiency.

1 Horse Power
9

Commercial

746 Watts.

Output Rating,

8.

This is the output voltage which t h e generator w i l l generate a t t h e s t a t e d speed and t h e current which can be s a f e l y taken from t h e machine without undue overheating, i n t e r n a l v o l t s drop o r sparking.
A t y p i c a l r a t i n g : ~ O O V , 50(XnA 2,000 rev/min.

Regulation.

9.

Generators a r e given a maximum load r a t i n g and should n o t be allowed t o exceed t h e s t a t e d value. The f a l l i n terminal P D between no load and f u l l - l o a d i s known a s t h e r e g u l a t i o n of t h e machine. A well regulated machine w i l l show only a s l i g h t drop

L
#
, -

VOL 1
SECT 1 a-wp 7

VOLTAGE REGULATION
The Simple Motor.

(No-load p . d . Full-load p o d ) x N Laad p o d e o

- 4n.7.4

An e l e c t r i c motor i s a device f o r converting e l e c t r i c a l energy i n t o mechanical energy. When a c u r r e n t I s passed through t h e armature and t h e f i e l d winding i s e x c i t e d a f o r c e i s s e t up which causes t h e armature t o r o t a t e . The d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n can be found by u s i n g L e f t Hand Rule. Commutation.

11.

I n t h e case of a d.c. motor a commutator i s e s s e n t i a l i n o r d e r t o reverse t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e c u r r e n t i n t h e armature t o maintain t h e r o t a t i o n . E f f i c i e n c y of a Motor.

12.

Efficiency Efficiency

Mechanical Power Output E l e c t r i c a l Power Input

E x la V x la

10@

100%

The Horsepower developed by a motor

E x Ia

746

VOL 1 SECT 1 CHAP 7

1 .

This i s t h e turning f o r c e which causes t h e conductor t o r o t a t e . The f o r c e i s proportional t o t h e f l u x and t h e c u r r e n t flowing around t h e loop.
TO=
B X I X N X A

Nm

---

4 n 7.6

where B< = f l u x d e n s i t y i n Wb m-2 I = current i n amps N = number of t u r n s of the c o i l A = a r e a of loop i n m 2 Back e.m.f. 14. I n a motor the conductors moving i n t h e magnetic f i e l d must have an induced e .me f . produced i n them ( ~ a r a d a ys Law). This ' ' induced e.m.f. opposes the motion causing i t ( ~ e n zs Law). The value of t h e induced e.m.f. i s found i n e x a c t l y t h e same way a s i n t h e generator. INDUCEDe.m.f. where K iti n
= = =

K x

di

x n

- - _ %n

7.7

A Constant Flux i n webers Revolutions p e r second

A t a l l times the back e.m.f. w i l l be i n opposition t o t h e supply voltage. The armature current I a w i l l depend upon t h e r e s i s t a n c e of the armature and t h e difference between t h e supply voltage V s and t h e back e.m.f. Vb,

I n a running machine the back e.m.f. w i l l be s l i g h t l y l e s s than t h e supply e.m.f. and t h e current w i l l be j u s t s u f f i c i e n t t o keep t h e motor running a t a constant speed. If t h e load on t h e machine increases t h i s tends t o slow t h e machine down, t h e induced back e.m.f. w i l l be reduced because t h e v e l o c i t y has been reduced. Therefore Vb i s reduced, Ta i s increased and tends t o bring t h e machine back t o normal speed.

P r a c t i c a l d.c. Motor Construction.

15.

The construction i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t of t h e d o c . generator and i s swnmarised a s follows :a) b) S o f t i r o n yoke f i t t e d with shaped pole pieces, which a r e often laminated. The f i e l d windings may be s e r i e s o r shunt connected and a r e of copper wire. Heavy gauge f o r t h e s e r i e s motor, f i n e gauge f o r t h e shunt motor. The copper wire i t s e l f i s s h e l l a c i n s u l a t e d and then wound with cotton tape. The armature:
'.

C)

This is constructed from s o f t i r o n stampings

VOL 1
SECT 1
1

CHAP 7
o r Laminations, which a r e assembled and bolted together on t h e splined spindle. The armature has s l o t s i n i t t o take t h e armature c o i l s . There a r e u s u a l l y many c o i l s and t h i s involves havlng many segments on t h e o o m u t a t o ~ . The multieegment oommutato~consists of a number of copper segments placed together but insulated from one another by mica spaces. The ends of t h e armature c o i l s a r e soldered t o t h e commutator segments. pieces. The brushes a r e usually made of carbon o r copper carbon, and a r e held i n p o s i t i o n on the commutator by l i g h t springs on the brush holders. The brush holders c o n s i s t of metal tubes and can be square, rectangular o r c y l i n d r i c a l . The brushes make a s l i d i n g f i t within t h e brush holders. The brushes a r e concaved t o give a good contact a r e a with t h e commutator and connection t o t h e brush i s made by a copper f l e x o r p i g t a i l . Armature Reaction.

19*nga*

Fig. 7.6

I n a machine t h e c u r r e n t i n the windings produces a f i e l d which r e s u l t s i n a d i s t o r t i o n i n the main f i e l d . I n the motor t h e e l e c t r i c a l n e u t r a l a x i s lags on t h e geometric n e u t r a l a x i s i n the d i r e c t i o n of rotation. Thus t o accomplish commutation without sparking a t the brushes then .the brushes must be retarded. If i n t e r p o l e s a r e used t h e i r p o l a r i t y must be t h a t of the poles immediately behind i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n . I n the generator the e l e c t r i c a l n e u t r a l axis leads t h e geometric neutral a x i s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n and t h e brushes must be advanced. Field Excitation.

18.

A s t h e method f o r c r e a t i n g a f i e l d f o r machines is normally electromagnetic i t i s convenient i n most machines t o use t h e e.m.f. generated by t h e machine i t s e l f t o energise the f i e l d c o i l s . This i s possible s i n c e the residual magnetism i n t h e pole pieces

VOL 1
SECT 1 CHAP 7 -

a-ll;ows -a=all e .111.l n b U AJt: nerated wiien tile machine is s t a r t e d and t h i s b u i l d s up a s t h e f i e l d grows.
2 L

--

The f i e l d windings may be i n s e r i e s o r i n p a r a l l e l with t h e armature windings. Methods of Field Ekcitation. 19. Separately excited machines.

by*
Fig.

7.7

~a )

SPEED

LOAD
Where VB i s v o l t s drop across brushes

Ia Ra i s v o l t s drop across armature

Fig. 7.8

I n t h i s type of machine the terminal voltage i s f a i r l y constant, because the f i e l d current i s independent of the vari,ations i n t h e load current. The only f a l l * i n terminal voltage i s hue t o the r e s i s t a n c e of the armature and brushes. Variations of t h e generated e.m.f. may be accomplished by a v a r i a b l e s e r i e s r e s i s t o r i n the f i e l d c i r c u i t , thereby l i m i t i n g f i e l d current and therefore flux. The regulation of a separately excited machine i s good. For a motor, f i e l d s t r e n g t h i s independent of load v a r i a t i o n s so t h a t the motor speed remains v i r t u a l l y constant f o r various loads.

VL 1 O SECT 1

--.

CHAP 7

20.

(a) Generator

9 .
LOAD
I n t h i s case some of the armature current flows through the f i e l d windings. The smaller t h e f i e l d current the l a r g e r t h e current a v a i l a b l e t o t h e outside c i r c u i t . Since the flux i s dependent on the ampere t u r n s of t h e f i e l d windings, they are made of many turns of f a i r l y high r e s i s t a n c e wire. Variation of output can again be achieved by t h e s e r i e s f i e l d r e s i s t a n c e RT.

A shunt wound machine has a f a l l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c due t o the f a c t t h a t the more current IL the load takes, the l e s s i s a v a i l a b l e f o r the f i e l d .
(b) Motor.

Here the applied voltage i s across the f i e l d c o i l s and t h e armature. Consequently i f the load increases t h e speed decreases, and t h e back e.m.f. decreases. This causes an increase i n armature current and a corresponding increase i n torque s o t h e speed builds up again.

VOL 1 SECT 1

CHAP 7
'Yhe shunt wound motor i s v i r t u a l l y a constant speed machine and i t s load c h a r a c t e r i s t i c is steady. The speed does drop s l i g h t l y a t high loads because of t h e high increased IR drop i n t h e armature. S e r i e s Wound Machines. 21. (a) Generator.

I n t h i s case the f i e l d current must be t h e same as t h e armature current and the load current. It follows therefore, t h a t i f t h e load draws more current t h e f i e l d current increases likewise. The f i e l d windings i n t h i s case a r e a few t u r n s of heavy gauge wire. Since f i e l d current increases with load, t h e r e must be an increase i n the generated e.m.f. this results i n a rising characteristic. Regulation of the generated e.m.f. resistance Kf.
i s by means of t h e p a r a l l e l

SPEED &

Fig* 7 e 1 2

TORQUE

LOAD I n the s e r i e s machine the f i e l d current and t h e armature current a r e one and the same. If t h e load on t h e machine i s increased it w i l l

VOL 1
SECT 1 sup 7

, the b a c ~ e.m.f. w i l l be reduced, and t h e c u r r e n t through t h e armature and t h e f i e l d increases. This gives increased torque which makes the machine e s p e c i a l l y useful f o r the purpose of e l e c t r i c
b l V W
-

U r n

' I

trac-tion.
Compound Wound Machines. 22. (a) Generator.

Fig. 7.13

mer

compoun_ded

el Compounded

This i s a combination o f s e r i e s and shunt machines having both s e r i e s and shunt f i e l d s . It therefore oombines t h e load c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of both types of machine and by s u i t a b l e choice of each f i e l d a f a i r l y l e v e l graph can be obtained.
I f the s e r i e s f i e l d i s connected s o t h a t i t s f i e l d a i d s the shunt f i e l d , the generator i s called ' cumulatively' compound. If the s e r i e s f i e l d opposes the shunt f i e l d , the generator i s c a l l e d ' d i f f e r e n t i a l l y ' compound.

The voltage c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the cumulative compound generator depend on the r a t i o of the turns i n the shunt and s e r i e s f i e l d windings. P E E D AND TORQUE

VOL 1 SECT 1 CXAp 7

m
\

I n a-sh-t motor t h e r e i s a time l a g between the application of an increased load and t h e building up again of the speed. This i s an undesirable e f f e c t , e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e motor i s d r i v i n g a generator, because t h e voltage output would drop during t h e time l a g . For t h i s reason a machine i s produced having a s e r i e s winding s o t h a t i t s f i e l d a i d s t h e shunt f i e l d . A s soon as the load on t h e motor i s increased t h e increasing current through t h e armature and t h e s e r i e s f i e l d w i l l produce a s t r o n g e r s e r i e s f i e l d giving immediately higher torque. The r e s u l t i s t h a t the r t s speed remains s t e motor such as t h i s with a s e r i e s c o i l aiding t h e main f i e l d - i s c a l l e d a cumulative compound wound motor. If t h e s e r i e s c o i l was wound t o oppose t h e shunt f i e l d , it would be known as a d i f f e r e n t i a l compound wound motor, but t h i s type i s r a r e l y used. Losses i n Rotary Machines.

- ...-,
-*
i .

-- .. .

23.

These a r e of t h e same nature f o r a l l r o t a r y machines i . e . motors, generators e t c i) Copper Losses. This i s due t o the ohmic r e s i s t a n c e of the armature, and f i e l d windings and the I R drop a c r o s s the brushes.
A s armature and f i e l d currents flow through t h e s e windings they d i s s i p a t e power I ~ R . This i s wasteful power since it i s taken from t h e input prime mover and not delivered t o

t h e output load c i r c u i t .
It i s minimised by keeping t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e winding a s small a s possible and t h i s i s done by using t h e b e s t but cheapest conducting material f o r these windings e.g. copper.

It i s a l s o minimised by making t h i s wire a s t h i c k a s possible, the l i m i t i n g f a c t o r s here being the r e s u l t i n g bulk of the f i n i s h e d machine.

(ii)

Iron Losses. (a)HysteresisLoss Theselosses a r e d u e e s s e n t i a l l y t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e i r o n a m 3 t u r e core and f i e l d poles a r e located within a rapidly changing magnetic f i e l d . Thus they a r e a l t e r n a t e l y magnetised and demagnetised, the magnetising force encounters i n the substance a s o r t of 'OPPOSITION' which causes the magnetising e f f e c t t o l a g behind t h e magnetising force. This lagging i s c a l l e d HYSTERESIS. The energy l o s s due t o t h i s 'OPPOSITION' shows up a s heat produced within t h e substance. To minimise t h e h y s t e r e s i s l o s s t h e armature core and f i e l d poles a r e g e n e r a l l y made of s o f t iron, SILICON s t e e l o r c e r t a i n o t h e r a l l o y s t h a t have a high permeability. ( b ) Eddy Current Losses. Since t h e i r o n armature core is a l s o

VOL 1
SECT 1 a-up 7

a conductor, and i s c u t t i n g - l i n e s of force, an e.m.f. w i l l be induced r e s u l t i n g i n c i r c u l a t i n g c u r r e n t s which w i l l cause heat. By Lenz' law these Eddy c u r r e n t s w i l l c r e a t e a flwr opposing the foroe whloh created them and f o r t h i s

reason they are wrdeslrab2e.

They a r e minimised by constructing t h e core from many t h i n stampings which a r e insulated by paper o r s h e l l a c . This prevents c u r r e n t s flowing through t h e core and reduces t h e neax and. waste energy produced by eddy currents. This arrangement of laminated cores i s a l s o used i n transformers, czhokes e t c .

( c ) F r i c t i o n a l Losses. When a machine i s running, t h e r e a r e various f r i c t i o n a l l o s s e s t o be overcome, each of which requires a continuous expenditure of energy and r e s u l t s i n heating of t h e rubbed p a r t s .
There is f r i c t i o n l o s s i n the machine bearing, a t the surface of the commutator due t o t h e rubbing of the brushes, and i n t h e armature core due t o i t s fanning a c t i o n (windage). When a generator o r motor m s a t a fixed speed and generates a given voltage, the mechanical l o s s (stray-power l o s s ) i s constant regardless of the electricaJ, output o r input of the machine, f o r speed and flux density are t h e only two f a c t o r s t h a t influence the stray-power l o s s .

~7

's 3

CORE Loss.

Remedies

24.

a)

Brushes Power l o s s a t t h e brushes can be reduced by reducing :a)

b)

c)

Brush pressure on the commutator. Total contact area of a l l the brushes. Co-efficient of f r i c t i o n .

The type of brush used i s a l s o important e.g. brushes consisting l a r g e l y of pure graphite have a r e l a t i v e l y low l o s s , whereas harder graphite w i l l give an increase i n brush l o s s .

VOL 1
SECT 1 asp 7

(b)

Bearings. Sleeve bearings produce t h e g r e a t e s t l o s s , so b a l l bearings o r r o l l e r bearings a r e preferred. This i s due t o a i r r e s i s t a n c e and a i r f r i c t i o n a t Windage. the surface of the armature. Where a f a n i s mounted on the s h a f t f o r cooling purposes t h e power absorbed by t h e fan must be added t o t h e windage l o s s .
=d

(c)

Loading Requirements of Pm-rs

Motors.

25.

Generators. Shunt Wound: This type should p r e f e r a b l y b e - s t a r t e d without any e l e c t r i c a l load, e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e it may f a i l t o e x c i t e due t o lack of f i e l d current. S e r i e s Wound: In t h i s case t h e f i e l d i s an open c i r c u i t i f no load i s applied and t h e machine cannot e x c i t e . It should t h e r e f o r e be s t a r t e d on load.

26.

Motors. Shunt Wound: This type should be s t a r t e d o f f load due t o the f a c t t h a t t h e s t a r t i n g torque w i l l be small (torque = kx I a x 8 ) as 8 w i l l be very small. The armature has -small opposition t o t h e c u r r e n t since t h e r e i s v i r t u a l l y no back e.m.f. on s t a r t i n g . S e r i e s Wound: I n t h i s case the s t a r t i n g torque w i l l be exceptionally high s i n c e both Ia and 8 w i l l be very l a r g e . The motor w i l l a c c e l e r a t e very quickly, s o s e r i e s machines can be used f o r t r a c t i o n purposes where t h e s t a r t i n g load i s very heavy. Motor Generator.

27.

This i s a device f o r converting one value of dc voltage t o another value. It c o n s i s t s of a motor and a dynamo mounted on t h e same s h a f t . The d o c . input turns t h e motor which r o t a t e s t h e dynamo t o give a d i f f e r e n t d.c. output. The above can be arranged i n t h r e e d i f f e r e n t ways.

1) 2)

Two separate machines with t h e i r s h a f t s coupled. , B u i l t i n the same c a s t i n g with separate armatures, f i e l d windings and commutators f o r each machine. Using the same pole pieces and armature but having two d i f f e r e n t s e t s of windings on the armature, t h e ends brought out t o two commutators, one a t e i t h e r end. This i s known a s a dyno-motor. The motor i s u s u a l l y shunt o r compound wound i n order t o obtain a steady c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . This makes t h e generator voltage independent of v a r i a t i o n s of load o r supply.

3)

Motor Alternator.

28.

T h i s i s a s i m i l a r arrangement t o t h e motor generator, except t h a t

t h e generator i s replaced by an a l t e r n a t o r .

VOL 1 SECT 1 7
The RotaryWansfoxmer.

' 7

29

Fig. 7.15

FISLD

This i s a machine with one s e t of f i e l d windings and one armature. The armature has two windings, one f o r receiving t h e current and turning t h e armature, t h e other winding then being a generator and its output being then taken v i a a commutator a s shown. The motor windings may be shunt o r s e r i e s wound. Series windings a r e employed where quick s t a r t i n g i s desirable. I n t h e case of the shunt wound type some type o f s t a r t i n g r e s i s t a n c e should be included.

Rotary Converter.

Fig. 7.16

The construction of t h i s type of machine i s r a t h e r s i m i l a r t o the r o t a r y transformer but t o obtain an AC output s l i p r i n g s a r e used instead of a commutator from the output t o t h e machine. The machine i s usually shunt wound and t h e e f f e c t i v e output would be 0.707 of the a.c. peak value. Interference Suppression.

31.

The most common form of interference i s t h a t which i s caused by sparking. Sparking i s caused where contacts a r e c o n t i n u a l l y being opened and closed. The e f f e c t of sparking i s t o produce high

VOL 1 SECT 1 CHAP 7

frequency currents i n the leads t o t h e contacts which w i l l cause t h e r a d i a t i o n of electro-magnetic waves from the l e a d s (Radio waves). These r e f . waves w i l l be picked up by receiving a e r i a l s i n the v i c i n i t y and w i l l cause interference. If t h i s i n t e r f e r e n c e i s bad normal reception may be impossible and f o r t h i s reason sparking must be reduced t o a minimum. Suppression F i l t e r s .
22

--

These c o n s i s t of a capacitor from t h e sparking contact t o e a r t h and a high frequency choke i n s e r i e s with t h e supply. These chokes oppose any f l u c t u a t i o n s i n l i n e current and t h e capacitors o f f e r easy paths t o e a r t h f o r t h e high frequency currents. A suppression f i l t e r i s shown f o r a generator but these f i l t e r s a r e a l s o used on the input c i r c u i t s of motors. It may be necessary t o provide more than one f i l t e r and f u r t h e r s e c t i o n s can be added a s shown i n the diagram. These f i l t e r s a r e only e f f e c t i v e when connected a s close a s possible t o t h e spark source.
A f u r t h e r precaution i n avoiding i n t e r f e r e n c e i s t o screen t h e l e a d s by using a cable such a s lead covered cable and e a r t h i n g t h e o u t e r

covering.

This forms an e l e c t r o s t a t i c s h i e l d .
I

The casting of the machine and a u x i l i a r y u n i t s should a l s o be earthed.

VOL 1

SECT 1 CHAP 7

/\

I n many cases t h e output from a generator i s n o t smooth enough and i f it was used a s the h o t . supply f o r a receiver it could oause a background hum (buzz). The output from t h e generator can be made smooth using a smoothing f i l t e r across t h e output leads. The capacitor C w i l l charge t o t h e peak voltage. When t h e generator output f a l l s the capacitor will p a r t i a l l y discharge i n t o t h e r e s i s t i v e load. The current taken by the load w i l l determine how smooth the output w i l l be, because the more the current taken, the quicker the f a l l of the capacitor voltage.

34.

B e t t e r r e s u l t s can be obtained s o t h a t the output from t h e generator is smoother s t i l l .

5 offers

again charges t o the peak value and s o does C2. opposition t o the current changes thus decreasing t h e i r amplitude. C2 o f f e r s an easy path f o r t h e remaining ripple when c q a r e d w i t h the load. 16

In fig. 7;-20 C1

'

..$ '& ?

?.

?,a.. ,..-z-,

< zt

fl

VOL 1
SECT 1 CHAP 7

Alternators.
33.
,

--

\a) (b)

~ r m a ~ ; u r e . 1s only rouna i n a l t e r n a t o r s o r small power r a t i n g and n o t generally used. Rotating Field. This machine has a s t a t i o n a r y armature winding, o r s t a t o r , and a rotor, o r r o t a t i n g f i e l d winding.

36.

S t a t o r s of high o r low speed machines a r e e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same. They c o n s i s t of laminated i r o n cores, with *the armature windings embedded i n t h i s core. The core i s secured t o t h e s t a t o r frame. The armature windings a r e c u t by t h e r o t a t i n g magnetic f i e l d . The voltage generated i n the armature as a r e s u l t of t h i s a c t i o n i s applied d i r e c t l y t o the load. Advantages of S t a t o r . The fixed connections of the s t a t o r t o t h e load means t h a t these windings a r e much more e a s i l y insulated a t very high voltages, than i f s l i p r i n g s were used. Rotors.

37.

37.

(a)

Turbine Driven: These a r e high speed (1200 r. p .m. o r more) r o t o r s which a r e c y l i n d r i c a l and small i n diameter, and having windings firmly embedded i n t h e s l o t s provided. The windings a r e arranged t o form 2 o r 4 d i s t i n c t f i e l d poles. S a l i e n t - Pole: This type of r o t o r i s used i n low speed (1200 r.p.m. o r l e s s ) r o t o r s and has a number of s e p a r a t e l y wound pole pieces which a r e bolted t o t h e frame of t h e r o t o r . The f i e l d windings a r e e i t h e r connected i n s e r i e s , o r i n s e r i e s groups connected i n p a r a l l e l . I n e i t h e r case t h e ends of the windings connect t o s l i p r i n g s mounted on the s h a f t .

(b)

Regardless of t h e type of r o t o r f i e l d used, i t s windings a r e separately excited, usually by a DC generator c a l l e d an e x c i t e r , Alternator Rating.

39.

Every a l t e r n a t o r r a t i n g i s expressed i n VOLT-AMPERES o r K I L O VOLT-AMPERES (KVA) of t h e apparent power which the a l t e r n a t o r can supply. This means t o say t h a t the a l t e r n a t o r i s r a t e d i n terms of the maximum c u r r e n t which i t can s a f e l y carry, without damage t o the insulation, as well a s i n terms of t h e voltage output.

VOL 1 SECT 1 CHAP 7

This simple diagram i l l u s t r a t e s a two pole s i n g l e phase a l t e r n a t o r . The r o t o r c o n s i s t s of two poles of opposite p o l a r i t y . A s t h e r o t o r turns, i t s poles induce ac voltages i n the s t a t o r windings. The two c o i l s of t h e s t a t o r winding a r e connected i n such a way t h a t t h e ac voltages induced i n them are i n phase o r s e r i e s aiding. Two Phase.

VOL 1

.,

SECT 1 CHAP 7
fTb.rn

Dnl

----

42.

The s t a t o r c o n s i s t s of two s i n g l e phase windings completely separated from one another, and physically spaced s o t h a t t h e ac voltage induced i n one i s ninety degrees out of phase with t h e voltage induced i n the other. Spacing between t h e windings i s such t h a t when one i s being c u t by maximum f l u x t h e o t h e r is being c u t by no f l u x a t a l l .
ro+ysr is i c ? e ~ t i to ~ h a t used i~ a single phase ~ tl a1ternator.

When t h e r o t o r poles a r e opposite Phase A windings then maximum voltage i s induced i n phase A and zero v o l t s i n phase B. A s t h e r o t o r moves away from the A windings and approaches t h e B windings t h e voltage induced i n phase A decreases from m a x i m u m value and t h e voltage induced i n phase B increases from zero. With the r o t o r poles opposite phase B windings voltage induced i n phase B i s maximum and t h e voltage induced i n phase A has dropped t o zero. Three Phase,

fl)'
\ 4
\

Fig. 7.22

The three phase a l t e r n a t o r has three s i n g l e phase windings so spaced t h a t the voltages induced i n any one phase i s displaced by 120' from the other two. The t h r e e phases a r e independent of each other. The voltage waveforms generated across each phase a r e drawn i n Fig. 7.25 phase distance 120 from each other.
8

A simplified diagram of the.windings i s shown, w i t h t h e r o t o r

omitted f o r simplicity. S t a r Connection.

A
Fig. 7.23

STAR POINT

LINE VOLTAGE

VOL 1
f
SECT 1 CHAP 7

'llhe point of connection i s c a l l e d t h e n e u t r a l Point, and t h e voltage from t h i s point t o any one of t h e l i n e l e a d s w i l l be t h e phase voltage. The t o t a l voltage o r l i n e voltage across any two u l i n e s i s t h e vector sm of the individual phase voltages. The o r 1.73 times t h e phase voltage. l i n e voltage VL i s

D.v~

Since t h e windings form only one path f o r t h e c u r r e n t between phases, t h e l i n e and phase currents a r e equal; IL = Ip

Fig. 7.25

I n the d e l t a connection t h e l i n e voltages a r e equal t o t h e phase voltage, but the l i n e currents w i l l be equal t o t h e v e c t o r sm of u t h e phase currents. Since t h e phases a r e 120 out of phase, t h e l i n e currents w i l l be 1 7 times t h e phase current. .3 Output Frequency.

46.

The frequency of t h e a.c, generated by an a l t e r n a t o r depends on the speed of r o t a t i o n and on the number of p a i r s of r o t o r poles. When a r o t o r has r o t a t e d through a s u f f i c i e n t l y wide angle f o r two opposite poles ( a north and a south) t o have passed one s t a t o r winding, the voltage induced i n t h e winding w i l l have passed through a complete cycle of 360'.
*

Frequency F
=

2
2

Hz

65
Rotor rpm 60
2

x No. of Poles

Hz
=

For an e i g h t pole a l t e r n a t o r r o t a t i n g a t 750 rpm

A.C.

750 x 8 60 2

50 Hz

Motors.

47.

A A.C. motor can be designed t o operate from a s i n g l e o r multin phase a.c. supply, but i n e i t h e r case it operates on t h e same principle. The a.c, applied t o t h e motor generates a r o t a t i n g

VOL 1 SECT 1 clap 7

'\

magnetic f i e l d cau-gthe Synchronous Motor.

r o t o r of the m n t o r to

krr?.

48.

This motor i s an a l t e r n a t o r operated a s a motor i n which an a.c. i s applied t o the s t a t o r and a d.c. i s applied t o t h e r o t o r . The synchronous motor i s s o c a l l e d because i t s r o t o r i s synchronised with t h e r o t a t i n g f i e l d s e t up by t h e s t a t o r . Stator.

49.

The application of a t h r e e phase supply t o t h e s t a t o r causes a r o t a t i n g magnetic f i e l d t o be s e t up round t h e r o t o r . The p o l a r i t y of t h i s f i e l d w i l l be a s shown i n t h e diagram t h i s being due t o the current passing through the d e l t a connected s t a t o r windings.

3 PHASE AC INPUT

Fig. 7.26

These windings A, AL - B, and C, C1 i n each phase a r e wound i n the same direction, but a s these phases c a r r y opposite currents, (e.g. B & C ) then opposite poles w i l l be produced t o give a combined s t a t o r f i e l d which r e a c t s on the r o t o r . Rotor.
50.

Because the r o t o r i s energised by d.c. i t behaves l i k e a bar magnet and therefore l i n e s up with t h e magnetic f i e l d caused by the application of three phase a.c. t o the s t a t o r . If t h e magnetic f i e l d turns, the r o t o r w i l l turn with t h e f i e l d . If t h e r o t a t i n g magnetic f i e l d i s strong, i t w i l l e x e r t a s t r o n g turning force on the r o t o r which w i l l be therefore able t o t u r n a load a s i t r o t a t e s . (see Fig. 7.28) The speed of r o t a t i o n of the magnetic f i e l d depends on the frequency of the t h r e e phase a.c.- then since t h e frequency i s fixed, synchronous motors a r e i n p r a c t i c e s i n g l e speed motors. They a r e used f o r loads which require constant speed from no load r i g h t through t o t h e f u l l load condition.

51.

VOL 1
SECT 1 CHAP 7

52.

be s t a r t e d from a s t a n d s t i l l by applying t h r e e phase a.c.

One of t h e disadvantages of a synchronous motor i s t h a t it cannot t o the s t a t o r . The i n s t a n t a.c. i s applied t o t h e s t a t o r , a high speed r o t a t i n g f i e l d appears. This r o t a t i n g f i e l d rushes p a s t t h e r o t o r poles s o quickly t h a t t h e r o t o r does not have a chance t o g e t s t a r t e d ; it i s repelled first i n one d i r e c t i o n and then i n t h e other. So a synchronous motor i n i t s pure form has no s t a r t i n g

?++AS

A. C. A P P L ~ CTo STATOG. ~
-23-

Fig, 7.27

VOL 1
SECT 1

CHAP 7

usually s t a r t e d therefore with t h e help of a small induction motor, o r with windings equivalent t o t h i s incorporated i n t h e synchronous machine. When the r o t o r has been brought near t o synchronous speed by t h e s t a r t i n g device, it i s energised by connecting It t o a d . a , voltage source, The r o t o r then f a l l s i n t o s t e p with the r o t a t i n g f i e l d . Induction Motors.

2-0
\

r I1

currents a r e induced i n the r o t o r c i r c u i t by t h e r o t a t i n g magnetic f i e l d i n t h e s t a t o r . Stator.

55.

The s t a t o r construction of the induction motor, and of t h e synchronous motor a r e almost i d e n t i c a l . Rotor.
.-.

SEW CLOSED

Eh'D R I N S

The r o t o r i s a laminated cylinder with s l o t s i n i t s surface. The " s q u i r r e l cage rotor" i s made up of heavy copper bars connected together a t e i t h e r end by a metal ring made of copper o r brass. N i n s u l a t i o n i s needed between the core and t h e bars o because of the very low voltages generated i n the r o t o r bars. The a i r gap between the r o t o r and the s t a t o r i s kept very small so a s t o obtain maximum f i e l d strength. Fig. 7.29 F'rinciple o f Operation

57.

VOL 1
SECT 1

CHAP 7
/

W s t a - b i n g ~ a g r r e t i cf i d d ge11 d l V m i l induces an e.m.f. i n t h e r o t o r . The current i n t h e r o t o r c i r c u i t caused by t h i s induced e.m.f. s e t s up a magnetic f i e l d . The two f i e l d s i n t e r a c t and cause t h e r o t o r t o turn. This r o t a t i n g f i e l d c u t s the b a r s of t h e r o t o r and induces a current i n them and t h i s induced current w i l l generate a magnetic f i e l d around t h e conductors of t h e r o t o r , which w i l l t r y t o l i n e up with t h e s t a t o r f i e l d . However, s i n c e t h e s t a t o r f i e l d i s

+. n . O+ -a u t - ~ r g ~ n n +u trnr~~ i t rcll r ~ u r U L A ei

+n-m

~ a L u A u u L

- m n n ~ + 1

4 n n

A A A A ~

-*-

UP

-.--t+LA 4 t ,
WAUL
L -

always follow along behind it. Slip.

58.

It i s impossible f o r t h e r o t o r of an induction motor t o t u r n a s fast as t h e r o t a t i n g magnetic f i e l d . I f t h e speeds were t h e same, no r e l a t i v e motion would e x i s t between the two and s o no induced e.m.f. would r e s u l t i n t h e r o t o r . Without induced e.m.f, no turning force would be exerted on t h e r o t o r . The r o t o r must r o t a t e a t a speed lower than t h a t of t h e r o t a t i n g magnetic f i e l d i f r e l a t i v e motion i s t o e x i s t between t h e two.

Fig, 7.30

This percentage d i f f e r e n c e between the speed of t h e r o t a t i n g s t a t o r f i e l d and t h e speed of the r o t o r i s c a l l e d " s l i p " . The smaller the s l i p t h e c l o s e r t h e r o t o r speed w i l l approach the speed of the s t a t o r f i e l d . Slip Ss Rs
=
= =

Ss

Ss Synchronous speed Rotor speed

Rs

100%

VOL 1
SECT 1
,\

CHAP 7
e r o t o r depends on t h e torque requirements of t h e load. The bigger t h e load, t h e stronger t h e turning f o r c e needed t o r o t a t e the rotor. But, the turning f o r c e can only increase i f the rotor induced e.m.f. increases; an8 t h i s e.m.f. om only increase if the magnetic field outs through the r o t o r a t a f a s t e r r a t e . 30, t o increase t h e r e l a t i v e speed between the f i e l d and t h e rotor, the r o t o r must S O DOWN. LW

60.
\

For heavier loads therefore t h e induction motor w i l l t u r n slower -, loads. Actually only a s l i g h t change i n speed i s necessary t o produce t h e current changes required f o r formal changes i n load. This i s because t h e r o t o r windings have such a very low resistance. Induction motors a r e t h e r e f o r e f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l purpoges constant speed motors. Two Phase Induction Motors.

I
Axts OF -4% B M A ~GELD* ~ ~ A two phase induction motor has i t s s t a t o r made up of two windings placed a t r i g h t angles t o each other around the s t a t o r .
t ~

It i s arranged t h a t the voltages A A1 and B - B1 a r e 90' out of phase. This means t h a t the magnetic f i e l d s a r e a l s o go0 out of phase, and these on adding together a t every i n s t a n t during t h e i r cycle produce a r e s u l t a n t f i e l d which w i l l r o t a t e one revolution f o r each cycle of a.c. Fig. 7.32 shows two a l t e r n a t i n g magnetic f i e l d s which a r e 90' out of phase. By arranging things i n t h i s way a r o t a t i n g magnetic f i e l d has been produced and t h i s w i l l p u l l t h e r o t o r round with i t . Single Phase Motors.

62.

A s i n g l e phase induction motor has only one s t a t o r winding. This winding generates a f i e l d which can be s a i d t o a l t e r n a t e across the a x i s of the s i n g l e winding r a t h e r than r o t a t e .

VOL 1 SECT 1 CX-IAp 7

Fig, 7.32
L

AP PAQANT MOVL
OF- N O ~ T H VOLE.

A L T ~ ~ N A %~ ~ - as

b e

When t h e r o t o r i s s t a t i o n a r y the expanding and collapsing f i e l d induces current i n t h e r o t o r which generates a r o t o r f i e l d . The i n t e r a c t i o n of these f i e l d s e x e r t s a , f o r c e on the r o t o r , which t r i e s t o t u r n i t 180' from i t s position. However, s i n c e t h i s f o r c e i s exerted through the' centre of t h e rotor, it does not t u r n , Thus the same s t a r t i n g arrangements a r e necessary f o r a s i n g l e phase induction motor.

If now, t h e r o t o r i s turned, the turning f o r c e i n t h a t d i r e c t i o n i s aided by the momentum of the rotor, and a l s o by t h e induced p o l a r i t y of the r o t o r , ( a s shown) which can now be pulled round i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n toward t h e south pole.

The induced e.m.f, i n the r o t o r has t h e p o l a r i t y shown because i t i s the r e l a t i v e motion of t h e r o t o r which decides t h e d i r e c t i o n of the induced e.m.f. and not the actual r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r i t s e l f . So, the turning force on the rotor, due t o t h e induced p o l a r i t y w i l l help t h e r o t o r continue on i n the d i r e c t i o n of i t s o r i g i n a l movement.

VOL 1
SECT 1

CA 7 HP ovemenbs 01 the f i e l d takes place a t a f a s t e r r a t e than t h e a c t u a l movement, therefore the r e l a t i v e movement of t h e r o t o r w i l l be i n the opposite d i r e c t i o n a s shown.

Fig.7.36 shows a simplified capacitor s t a r t motor. The s t a t o r c o n s i s t s of the main winding and a star-t;ing winding which i s connected i n p a r a l l e l with the main winding and spaced a t r i g h t angles t o it. The go0 e l e c t r i c a l phase d i f f e r e n c e between t h e two windings Is obtained by connecting t h e a u x i l i a r y winding i n s e r i e s with t h e capaoitor and s t a r t i n g switch.
O s t a r t i n g , the switch i s closed, placing t h e c a p a c i t o r i n n s e r i e s with t h e a u x i l i a r y winding, The capacitor i s of such a value t h a t the a u x i l i a r y winding i s e f f e c t i v e l y a r e s i s t i v e , capacitive c i r c u i t i n which t h e current l e a d s the l i n e voltage by approximately 45'. The main winding has enough inductance t o cause t h e current t o l a g the l i n e voltage by apprdximately 45'.

The two currents a r e therefore 90' out of phase and s o a r e t h e magnetic f i e l d s they generate. The e f f e c t is t h a t t h e two windings a c t a s a two phase s t a t o r and produce t h e revolving f i e l d required t o s t a r t the motor.
t

Brushless Generator Brushes i n r o t a r y machines of a i r c r a f t f l y i n g a t low a l t i t u d e s a r e generally s u f f i c i e n t l y l u b r i c a t e d by t h e moist atmosphere. A t higher a l t i t u d e s t h e a i r i s colder and d r i e r and brush wear increases s i g n i f i c a n t l y , Brushless generators have been used since t h e e a r l y 1950's t o avoid t h i s problem, Figure 7-36 shows a simple brushless generator,A and A' represent t h e s t a t i o n a r y f i e l d winding of t h e e x c i t e r generator, B i s t h e r o t a t i n g armature, The ac output of t h e r o t o r i s r e c t i f i e d , i.e. converted t o dc, by a bridge r e c t i f i e r C ( f o r d e t a i l s s e e Vol.1 Sec 1 Chap 9). The dc output of t h e r e c t i f i e r i s f e d t o f i e l d c o i l D which induses a c i n t h e s t a t o r c o i l s F and

VOL 1

SEC 1
a-ulp 7
A part of t h i s ac output i s r e c t i ied and fed t o the stationary f i e l d windings A and A

f.

67.

The rotating armature coil, bridge r e c t i f i e r , rotating f i e l d c o i l and permanent magnet E a l l r o t a t e on a hollow shaft. Cooling , a i r i s forced through the hollow shaft. The permanent magnet avoids any need f o r flashing the f i e l d .

BRUSHLESS GENERATOR
BRUNEL TECHNICAL COLLEGE, BRISTOL GSB/PJR JUNE 1983