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CONTENTS

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INTRODUCTION ANALYSIS OF CURRENT PRACTICE I. II. THE CONCEPT OF FRACTIONS THE CONCEPT OF EQUIVALENT FRACTIONS

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AN IMPROVED APPROCAH IN TEACHING EQUIVALENT FRACTIONS THE LESSON PLAN CONCLUSION REFERENCES WORKSHEET

HBMT2203 INTRODUCTION Science and technology plays a crucial role in meeting Malaysias aspiration to achieve developed nation status. Since mathematics in instrumental in developing scientific and technological knowledge, the provision of quality mathematics education from an early age in the education process is critical. The primary school Mathematics curriculum as outlined in the syllabus has been designed to provide opportunities for pupils to acquire mathematical knowledge and skills and develop the higher order problem solving and decision making skills that they can apply in their everyday lives. But, more importantly, together with the other subjects in the primary school curriculum, the mathematics curriculum seeks to inculcate noble values and love for the nation towards the final aim of developing the holistic person who is capable of contributing to the harmony and prosperity of the nations and its people. Therefore, we need to reforms our Mathematics curriculum to meet the 21st century competencies and capacities in response to globalisation and knowledge economies. Besides that, classroom pedagogy mainly teacher-centres with pupils on task behaviour, reliance on textbooks and worksheets. The Mathematics curriculum is ordered in such way so as to give flexibility to the teachers to create an environment that is enjoyable, meaningful, useful and challenging for teaching and learning. At the same time it is important to ensure that pupils show

progression in acquiring the mathematical concepts and skills. Mathematics is a reasoning activity that involves observing, representing and investigating relationships in the social and physical world, or between mathematical concepts themselves. A mathematical concept is not a single isolated idea but one idea in a structured system of knowledge or schemata. Information-processing models of cognitive development suggest that within these structured systems of knowledge, information stored in memory can be categorised into declarative and procedural knowledge.

HBMT2203 ANALYSIS OF CURRENT PRACTICE: THE CONCEPT OF FRACTIONS A fraction (from Latin: fractus, "broken") represents a part of a whole or, more generally, any number of equal parts. When spoken in everyday English, a fraction describes how many parts of a certain size there are, for example, one-half, eight-fifths, three-quarters.

A common, vulgar, or simple fraction (for example ,

, and 3/17) consists of an

integer numerator, displayed above a line (or before a slash), and a non-zero integer denominator, displayed below (or after) that line. The numerator represents a number of equal parts and the denominator indicates how many of those parts make up a whole. For example, in the fraction 3/4, the numerator, 3, tells us that the fraction represents 3 equal parts, and the denominator, 4, tells us that 4 parts make up a whole. The picture below illustrates or 3/4 of a cake. Numerators and denominators are also used in fractions that are not simple, including compound fractions, complex fractions, and mixed numerals.

Figure 1: A cake with one fourth (a quarter) removed. The remaining three fourths are shown. Dotted lines indicate where the cake may be cut in order to divide it into equal parts. Each fourth of the cake is denoted by the fraction .

Based on international research study, a common fraction is often described as the ratio or quotient of two whole numbers, a and b, expressed in symbolic form a/b, where b is not zero. It is a symbol that has meaning and can be interpreted and manipulated. The fraction schema includes five interconnected, yet distinct interpretations, as shown in Table 1. Using these fractions, one can explore the various characteristics and manipulation (such as proper and improper fraction, mixed numerals, fraction equivalence, comparison, addition, multiplication and division). The concept of fraction is also linked to other mathematical concepts such as geometry, number-lines, whole number, multiplication and division.
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Table 1: Different Fraction Interpretations for the fraction Fraction concepts can be explained by teachers and students using combination of external representations such as written symbols, spoken language, concrete materials, pictures, and real world examples. But, for Year 3 standard, the syllabus concern on naming the fractions. Based on Malaysia of Education Curriculum Standards for fractions is shown below:

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Other uses for fractions are to represent ratios and to represent division. Thus the fraction 3/4 is also used to represent the ratio 3:4 (the ratio of the part to the whole) and the division 3 4 (three divided by four). If fractions are taught correctly, they are fun and easy to learn. Most texts move children too quickly into adding with unlike denominators. I found that when I used fraction circles (manipulative) and spent plenty of time on adding and subtracting with like denominators, children moved easily to unlike denominators, because they understood how fractions work. Fraction kits for each child or pair of children are essential. They are available commercially or you can make your own. In primary schools, fractions have been
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HBMT2203 demonstrated through Cuisenaire rods, fraction bars, fraction strips, fraction circles, paper (for folding or cutting), pattern blocks, plastic rectangles, grid paper, dot paper, geoboards, counters and computer software. I don't have lessons and worksheets for every concept, but once you're off to a good start, you can use commercially available materials. You can present more than one concept a day if students can handle it. The first lessons are the most important, which is why I wrote scripted lessons for them. Spend plenty of time on the basic concepts, and the rest will fall quickly into place. Although my students were "behind" other classes initially, they finished the unit first and remembered what they learned.

ANALYSIS OF CURRENT PRACTICE: CONCEPT OF EQUIVALENT FRACTIONS By definition, equivalent fractions are fractions that represent the same amount. This means that 1/2 is equivalent to 50/100, which is also equivalent to 25/50. All three fractions represent exactly half of the whole number. However, students have difficulty conceptually understanding equivalent fractions due to various reasons as listed below. Without the successful conceptual understanding of equivalent fractions, students will inevitably struggle with subsequent fraction and rational number concepts; such as, algebraic equations with variables written in fraction form (for example x/4 = 5/16), computations (for example, adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing) with fractions, and making equal proportions and ratios. In the article, "Equivalent Fractions: An Explanation of Their Difficulty and Educational Implications," by Kamii (1994) provides a useful overview of why students have difficulty understanding equivalent fractions, placed within the framework of Piagets theory of Constructivism: ...researchers have generally viewed knowledge of equivalent fractions as the ability to call the same number by different names, the ability to ignore, or imagine, lines, and/or the manifestation of flexible thought. Piaget (1977) made a distinction between the figurative aspect of knowledge (based on shapes which are observable) and the operative aspect (based on relationships, which are not observable). For example, half

HBMT2203 of a rectangle can be either rectangular or triangular. While the triangular half may look bigger than the rectangular half from a figurative point of view, our operative knowledge enables us to deduce that the two halves have the same area (Kamii, 1994, p. 4). Piaget further divided operative thinking into multiplicative thinking and conservation of the whole and of the parts (Kamii, 1994). Kamii (1994, p. 10), suggests the following approaches for teaching equivalent fractions from Streefland (1991, 1993) and Mack (1990):

present students with realistic problems and encourage them to invent their own solution strategies;

have students draw their own fractional models that represent their own figurative knowledge; and

introduce equivalent fractions early in the context of whole numbers. Another research analysed that fraction equivalence is one concept within the

extensive fraction schemata. Equivalence implies similar worth. Thus two common fractions are considered equivalent when they have the same value (BOS, NSW,2002; Skemp, 1986). A fraction represents a number with an infinite number of names. Listing some of these names makes it apparent that each individual fraction is part of an equivalence set. For example the equivalence set for the fraction can be represented as [1/2, 2/4, 3/6, 4/8..]. implicit in the concept of equivalence is the knowledge that each fraction in the set interchangeable with the others. Conceptual understanding of equivalent fractions involves more than remembering a fact or applying a procedure. It is based on an intricate relationship between declarative and procedural knowledge; between fraction interpretation and representation. Students should be able to: (a) make connection between fraction models by understanding the sameness and distinctness within these interpretations (Lest et.al., 1983; NRC, 2001); (b) make connection between the different representations (Lesh et.al.,1983) and (c) show that a fraction represents a number with many names.

HBMT2203 Based on my teaching experience, I agree with study by Lamon (2001), in Figure 2 depicts the scope of students conceptual understanding of equivalent fractions. At lowest level, knowledge is declarative and procedural, loosely linked to specific examples of equivalent fractions and not generalised across representations or interpretations. As students develop understanding, their knowledge becomes generalised and applied more broadly.

Figure 2: Model used to develop equivalent fraction question (Adapted from Lamon, 2001, p.151) Let's take a moment to demonstrate the concept of equivalent fractions. Follow the steps below. 1. Take a sheet of paper and fold it twice, sections. 2. Now shade two of them. creating three equal

This shaded portion represents

HBMT2203 2/3. 3. Fold the paper again, in the other direction, but down the center of the paper.

The shaded portion is now 4/6.

The shaded portion of the paper does not change, so the fraction of the paper shaded does not change. The fractions 2/3 and 4/6 are equivalent.

Equivalent fractions can be created by multiplying or dividing both the numerator and denominator by the same number. This number is referred to as a multiplier. We can do this because, if you multiply both the numerator and denominator of a fraction by the same non-zero number, the fraction remains unchanged in value. In the demonstration above, we could get the fraction 4/6 by multiplying both the top and bottom of 2/3 by 2.

Why do students have difficulty in understanding equivalent fractions? One of the primary obstacles to understanding fractions is student misunderstanding with respect to equal shares i.e., 3/4 means 3 equal pieces, not any 3 pieces. Once students have an understanding of equal shares, they are better able to understand why 1/3 and 2/6 are equal fractions. **Students are most likely to unevenly divide a circle when asked to show 1/3. Students will often divide it by drawing two straight lines across the circle or make a section larger than necessary (Pearn, 2007). Van de Walle claims 4 common misconceptions (2010, p. 287-288):
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HBMT2203 1. Students think that the numerator and denominator are separate values 2. Students dont realize that a numerator of 2 does not mean any two parts, it means two equal parts 3. Children who have trouble with fractions are usually confused by the fact that larger denominators can mean smaller numbers 4. Students think that the rules of whole number computations also apply to fractions Teacher also over-emphasis on procedural skills. Students need to have a solid conceptual base of fraction knowledge with less emphasis on procedures. Information-

processing models of cognitive development suggest that within these structured systems of knowledge, information stored in memory can be categorized into declarative and procedural knowledge (Wong & Evans, 2005), which can potentially limit students understanding of concepts. There is evidence to suggest that many of the difficulties in understanding equivalent fractions could be attributed to a heavy emphasis on procedural knowledge, symbolic rules and manipulation in earlier grades (Wong & Evans, 2005). There is evidence that students who are successful in utilizing multiplication or division to find equivalent fractions may not necessarily understand that the fractions represent the same amounts. That is, once the multiplying has been done to find an equivalent fraction, the students were not able to explain whether or not the fraction was bigger, smaller, or remained the same. Other misconception is students confuse regarding on numerator and denominator. There is evidence that some students perceive the numerator and denominator as two separate, unrelated whole numbers, which subsequently led to misconceptions when comparing area and numerical representations of equivalent fractions (Jigyel,K.2007).

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HBMT2203 AN IMPROVED APPROACH IN TEACHING EQUIVALENT FRACTIONS Various changes occur that influence the content and pedagogy in the teaching mathematics in primary schools. These changes require variety in the way of teaching mathematics in schools. The use of teaching resources is vital in forming mathematical concepts. Teachers can use real or concrete objects in teaching and learning to help pupils gain experience, construct abstract ideas, make inventions, build self confidence, encourage independence and inculcate cooperation. The teaching and learning materials that are used should contain self-diagnostic elements so that pupils can know how far they have understood the concepts and skills. To assist the pupils in having positive attitudes and personalities, the intrinsic mathematical values of exactness, confidence and thinking systematically have to be absorbed through the learning areas. Good moral values can be cultivated through suitable context. For example, learning in groups can help pupils develop social skills and encourage cooperation and self-confidence in the subject. The element of patriotism can also be inculcated through the teaching-learning process in the classroom using planned topics. These values should be imbibed throughout the process of teaching and learning mathematics. Among the approaches that can be given consideration are pupil centred learning that is interesting, the learning ability and styles of learning, using relevant, suitable and effective teaching materials and formative evaluation to determine the effectiveness of teaching and learning. The choice of an approach that is suitable will stimulate the teaching and learning environment in the classroom or outside it. The approaches that are suitable include

cooperative learning, contextual learning, mastery learning, constructivism, enquirydiscovery and futures study. All of these approaches have included in the lesson plan given. Besides that, the use of teaching resources is very important in teaching equivalent fractions. This will ensure that pupils absorb abstract ideas, be creative, feel confident and be able to work independently or in groups. Most of these resources are designed for self-access learning. Through self-access learning, pupils will be able to independently according to

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HBMT2203 their pace. This will serve to stimulate pupils interests and responsibility in learning

equivalent fractions. While plenty of equivalent fractions worksheets exist in textbooks and on the Internet, enterprising teachers might consider a more hands-on approach for this difficult concept. Math manipulative make learning more concrete for students and can increase their motivation and attention. In fact, the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics regularly publishes studies endorsing the use of manipulative in introducing and teaching equivalent fractions. As an example uses of fraction strip, pattern blocks, measuring cups and pizza sharing are discussed in this section. Fraction strips show students how one fraction becomes another equivalent one. Using strips of paper, students make folds to create and compare fractions of different sizes. For example, students could begin by folding a strip in half and then in half again (creating quarter-size pieces). At this point, teachers might ask students to shade three of their paper's four pieces and ask them what fraction of the strip is shaded. Next, teachers could ask students to re-fold their strips into quarters and then fold it in half once more. Unfolding their strips, students will see that, three-fourths of the boxes are still shaded, even though more boxes are coloured in. Young children enjoy playing with measuring cups full of liquid. Teachers can use a container of water and measuring cups to show students how to convert between equivalent fractions. Students might begin by taking one cup and trying to fill it as many ways possible. They will see that 3/3, 4/4 and 2/2 are all equal to a whole cup. Once students experiment with and understand the relationship among different size cups, teachers can challenge them to find as many combinations as possible for different measurements. Teachers can introduce pattern blocks to children by saying that a yellow hexagon represents one whole. Students can then place smaller blocks on top of the hexagons and see that two half-size trapezoids equal one whole, and that three 1/6-size triangles equal a halfsize trapezoid. Teachers can complicate pattern block activities by designating a shape other than a single hexagon as a whole. For example, if three hexagons represent one whole, then the following are all equivalent: one hexagon (1/3), two trapezoids (2/6) and six triangles (6/18).

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HBMT2203 When given pizza (or play dough discs), most children will want their fair share. Teachers begin by separating children into groups. Groups of three work well. Students cut the pizza into equal-sized pieces and determine what fraction of a pizza that is -- 1/3 in our example. Then the teacher throws the students a curve ball: Two groups need to combine and share the same pizza; how can they slice the pizza again to ensure all six children receive equal shares? What if six more children need to share the pizza? Using this example, teachers show students how 1/3 of a pizza is the same amount as two 1/6-size slices or four 1/12-size pieces.

Assessment is also the way to improved approach in teaching the concept of equivalent fractions. Assessment is an integral part of the teaching and learning process. It has to be well-structured and carried out continuously as part of the classroom activities. By focusing on a broad range of mathematical tasks, the strengths and weaknesses of pupils can be assessed. Different methods of assessment can be conducted using multiple assessment techniques, including written and oral work as well as demonstration. These may be in the form of interviews, open-ended questions, observations and project. Based on the results, the teachers can rectify the pupils misconceptions and weaknesses and at the same time improve their teaching skills. As such, teachers can take subsequent effective measures in conducting remedial and enrichment activities to upgrade pupils performance.

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HBMT2203 THE LESSON PLAN Area : Topic : Time : Number and Operation Equivalent Fraction 60 minutes

Learning Objective :

To be able to recognise different fractions that are equal to each other.

Learning Outcomes :

Can recognise an equivalent fraction that its denominator is until 10. Write equivalent fractions.

Description: Understanding the concept of equivalent fractions is hard for many students; especially when asked to show where fractions go on the number line. Here are some PowerPoint slides you can make to show students how equivalent fractions measure up! Activity : Seeing Equivalent Fractions Laptop / Computer, LCD, A4 paper, scissors, worksheet, candy bar Teaching and Learning Steps: Step 1 (Preparation) : observation and analysis

Teaching Materials :

The objective of the first lesson is to understand what a fraction describes. 1. Read the childrens book to your class, and define equivalent fractions as numbers that can describe when an object is have the same value. Basically, two equivalent fractions can be said to represent the same portion of an object.

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HBMT2203 2. Ask a few students to describe how they are a part of a larger family group using a sentence like: I am one out of a family of _____. Write their answers on the board. 3. Ask students to describe how many members of their family are boys and girls by using sentence like: ____ out of my family of _____ are girls. Write their answers on the board. Step 2 (Imagination): Constructive of Idea

Divide 2 pupils in a group. Each group given 2 pieces of A4 paper. Ask them to fold a paper into half and cut it to four portions. Divide equally four portion cutting paper to both of them:

Then, second paper folded and cut it into eight portions. Divide equally eight portion cutting paper to both of them:

Compare each portion. Are they equal to each other?

Explain to students that 2/4 is equivalent to 4/8.

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HBMT2203 Step 3 (Expanding of idea): Show colour paper (folded as shown below):

2/2 = 1

2/4 = 1/2 4/4 = 1

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2/8 = 1/4 4/8 = 1/2 8/8 = 1

Deepen the understanding of equivalent fractions using slide show:

Slide 1: We can see that : 1/1 = 2/2 = 4/4 = 8/8 They are equivalent fractions
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Slide 2: We can see that 2/8 is the same length as So 2/8 = They are equivalent fractions.

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HBMT2203 Slide 3: Take a moment now to try a practice problem for this first part of the unit. When you are done you move on to the next section. Which fractions are equivalent to ? Answer : = 2/4 = 4/8

Slide 4: Which of these fractions is equivalent to ?

1/8

1/2

2/8

Answer:

2/8

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Slide 5: Which of these fractions is equivalent to 4/8?

1/8

2/4

1/4

Answer:

2/4

Slide 6: 1/3 = 2/6 = 4/12

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HBMT2203 Look at the equivalent fractions each time the numerators double, the denominators also double. Which other fraction will be equivalent?

8/24

6/24

4/24

Answer:

8/24

There is a relationship between the fractions using dividing and multiplying. Whatever you do to the top number. You must do to the bottom number. For example: multiply by 2 divide by 2

1 2

2 4

2 8

1 4

multiply by 2

divide by 2

Step 4:

Guided Practice Now, youll divide circles into fractional parts. What will you do now? Pass out the worksheet (see Attachment 1) Lets read the direction together.

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HBMT2203 During the guided practice, circulate among the students, giving assistance and reinforcements as needed.

Closure: Lets go over what we learned today. What is an equivalent fraction? The parts you divide a whole into must be equal. Say I have one friend to share this candy bar with. Divide the candy into unequal pieces. This wouldn't be fair, would it? Pieces are not halves unless the whole candy bar is divided into two equal pieces? What is important to remember when dividing a whole into fractions? (They must be equal.)

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HBMT2203 CONCLUSION Mathematics is a reasoning activity that involves observing, representing and investigating relationships in the social and physical world, or between mathematical concepts themselves. Semantics should be emphasized over syntactic when teaching fractions. The over emphasis of technical procedures may lead to a lack of understanding of the meaning of fractions. This may also lead to algorithmically-based mistakes, which occurs when algorithms are only seen in steps and not given meaning. Successful conceptual understanding of the meaning of equivalent fractions will inevitably lead to success with the operations of adding and subtracting fractions with similar and different denominators.

(3,100 words)

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HBMT2203 REFERENCES J. Watson & K. Beswick (2007). Proceedings of the 30th annual conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia. MERGA Inc.: Australia. Pg824-825

Jigyel, K.; Afamasaga-Fuatai, K. (2007). Students Conceptions of Models of Fractions and Equivalence. 'Australian Mathematics Teacher', 63(4), 17-25.

Kamii, C. (1994). Equivalent Fractions: An explanation of their difficulty and educational implications. Proceedings from National Council for Teachers of Mathematics Research Pre-Session. University of Alabama, Birmingham.

Ministry of Education Malaysia (2003).Integrated Curriculum for Primary Schools: Mathematics Year 3. Kuala Lumpur: .pg. 24

Lamon, S.J. (2001). Presenting and representing: from fractions to rational numbers. In A. Cuoco & F.R. Curcio (Eds.), The roles of representation in school mathematics (pp. 146-165). Reston, VA: The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics)

Lesh, R.A., Landau, M., & Hamilton, E. (1983). Conceptual models and applied mathematical problem-solving research. In R.A. Lesh & M. Landau (Eds.), Acquisition of mathematics concepts and processes (pp.263-341). Orlando, FL: Academic Press, Inc.

National Research Council, (2001). Adding it up: Helping children learn mathematics. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Pearn, C. A. (2007) Using paper folding, fraction walls, and number lines. 'Australian
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HBMT2203 Mathematics Teacher', 63(4), 31-36. Susan, A. (2003). http://www.susancanthony.com/Resources/fract/02_fr_conc.html Skemp, R. (1986). The psychology of learning mathematics (2nd ed.). London: Penguin Books. Wong, M. & Evans, D. (2005). Students conceptual of equivalent fractions. In Mathematics: Essential Research, Essential Practice Volume 2 (pp. 824-832). Australia: University of Sydney. Van De Walle, J. A., Karp, K. S., & Bay-Williams, J. M. (2010). Elementary and Middle School Mathematics: Teaching Developmentally (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalent_fractions#Equivalent_fractions

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HBMT2203 Worksheet Name:.............................................................. Date:.................................

1. 2. 3. 4.

Colour of the circle red Colour of the circle blue. Colour of the circle yellow. How many quarters are equal to a half?

5. 6. 7.
8.

Colour half of the circle blue. Colour of the circle green Colour 2/8 of the circle yellow How many eighths are equal to quarter?

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