Você está na página 1de 263

Psychological Research 2007

THESIS COMPILATIONS OF THE BENEDICTINE PSYCHOLOGICAL SOCIETY


Volume I
SY 2006-2007

Aldefer’s Model in the Formation of Gangs in San Pedro

Predictor of Managerial Potential: The Case of Employees in a Food Industry

Development of a Behavioral Assessment for Highly-Functioning Pre-School


Aged Children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Asperger Syndrome

Application of Krumboltz’s Theory of Social learning approach to career


decision making: Attraction of Nursing course as a second degree

Effects of Conflict During Parent-Separation on the Adolescent’s Self-Esteem

Perspective on Leadership of Daughters of Political Figures

Canadian Immigration: The Influence of Positive and Negative


advertisements on Skilled Workers’ Attitudes

TV Ads Exposure and Attitude towards Use of Alcohol among College Students

Influence of Introversion and Extroversion on the Academic Performance of


Intermediate Students with Parents Abroad

Background Music and Ambient Scent Interaction on Consumer In-Store Behavior

Factors Affecting on the Involvement of Young Fathers with His Child

Newspaper Job Ads: A Content Analysis Study

The Effect of Exposure to Television Advertisements on the Body Image of the San Beda
College Alabang College of Arts and Sciences Female Students

Assessing the Levels of Student Career /Maturity with the Introduction of Vision Therapy

The Psychological Effects on Early Pregnancy on Teenage Mothers

1
Aldefer’s Model in the Formation of Gangs in San Pedro
Edilbert H. Aguilar

The study was conducted to determine what motivates people to create a gang. The qualitative
method of research was used for this study to collect and analyze the gathered data. A self concept
interview was conducted to draw together the qualitative data. The study involves five male gang leaders
living in the area of San Antonio San Pedro Laguna. Their age ranges from 19 to 22 years old. Based from
the results the researcher concluded that gang leaders create their own gang for protection from other gangs
who dominated and bullied them or pushed them around when they did not have a gang and because of the
respect that they get from their gang members. This research implies that gang leaders are motivated to
create gangs due to the need for security, respect and social acceptance.

The rampant incident of youth violence and crimes has been a problem of the
society for quite some time. About 6 out of 10 incidents (from barangay San Antonio SPL
2005) are caused by the youth. What started from small groups that strived for
individuality from others, to the current and quite escalating numbers of reports of
violence and destruction gangs are causing, the subject of who, why and how these gangs
are formed has been catching the attention of the researchers, foreign and local,
especially the current researcher since gangs are often established in his hometown.

With such deviant behavior roaming around the area, people tend to come up with
their own explanations of why such behavior occurs. These explanations are of course
limited to their own interpretation, just enough for them to understand or just enough to
make a conversation. But nevertheless, the question arises, what pushes such individuals
to create a group of people that cause mayhem and destruction?

The same story has been heard over and over again from what is seen in the news
about gang wars, robbery and extortion, possession of deadly weapons, drugs and
sometimes destruction of private and government properties, such crimes are committed,
why? …they were driven by their need to survive.

The researcher uses Clayton Alderfer’s theory which is the simplified Maslow’s
Hierarchy of Needs. Aldefer’s states that there are different levels of needs that a person
should achieve, that man’s necessities should be fulfilled to live. It also states that the
needs do not follow a hierarchy. Alderfer mentioned that one can move on or even skip to
a need regardless of whether a need can or cannot be completely fulfilled.

How then does the theory explain why gang leaders create gangs? Like how the
old saying goes, “It is easier to be broken if you stand alone, but stand together, you can
become stronger” Gang leaders create gangs in such a way that the gang is motivated by
the same needs, thus it would be more efficient for them to achieve their needs if they
move as one group.

The researcher focuses on this concept in hopes of identifying whether the factors
that motivate the creation of gangs follow Alderfer’s E-R-G theory or is not bound by
such process.

2
The study aims to answer the question: What are the motivational factors that lead
to the formation of gangs?

In this study, the researcher aims to identify what motivates a person to create a
group called a gang. The researcher wants to identify what were the factors that affect a
person and pushes them to create gangs.

Review of Related Literature

According to Le and Jenkins (1993), gangs are “deviant" groups whose activities
were considered violations of folkways, rather than clear violations of laws. But today
when you hear the word gang it is all about the group of people that always violates the
law rather than maltreatment of folkways.

Moreover Dresag’s, case study, La Follette school of Public Affairs (2001) states
that young people join or form gangs for a variety of reasons. For some, it is not even a
conscious decision, but rather simply following friends, neighbors, and relatives. In most
communities in the barangay, boredom is the most common reason that young people join
gangs and/or abuse drugs and alcohol. For some, gangs offer an opportunity for
belonging, excitement, and employment, albeit in ways that involves dangerous and
illegal activities.

According to Rizzo and Mark (2003), social, economic, and cultural factors may
have pushed many adolescents in the direction of forming a gang. Protections from other
gangs and perceived general well being are key factors. Some researchers contend that
the "underclass" status of minority youth serves to push them into gangs. Feeling
marginal, adolescents join gangs for social relationships that give them a sense of
identity. For some youth, gangs provide a way of solving social adjustment problems,
particularly the trials and tribulations of adolescence. In some communities, youth are
intensively recruited or coerced into gangs.

In addition, Tuckman’s (1965) group formation theory goes through a five step
process. The first step is defined as the forming stage; this stage involves the joining
process. The second stage is known as storming; in this stage, the members of the group
start to realize their roles. The third stage is norming, in this stage the members perform
constructive roles to show their talents and be identified. The fourth stage is termed as
performing, the group has identified its leader and each person knows their role in the
group, at this point they can now be called a team. And lastly the mourning stage, this
level of group formation deals with the group’s identity.

Summing it all up, according to Dresag (2001) gangs are formed because of the
“bandwagon” mentality wherein young people make decisions because of the influence
of the majority in the community while Rizzo and Mark (2003) view gang formations as
a form of fulfilling needs like protection and problem solving. And finally for Tuckman
(1965) gangs are formed through a 5 stage process. With all the different reasons
involved in gang formation, the general term that can be concluded from all theories is

3
survival. All reasons that lead to gang formation always involve the survival of self. It
comes natural for individuals to join a bigger and secure group rather than risk being
alone.

According to Platow M., Foddy M. and Oldmeadow J. (2005) the social identity
approach, psychological group formation comes about through two related processes:
self-categorization and social identification. Self-categorization is a cognitive process
through which a collection of individuals, including the self, become perceived as a
single unit. This occurs primarily through contrasts at the group level. For example, a
comparison between countries bidding for the Olympic Games makes self-categorization
(and self-definition) in terms of one's nationality more likely than self-categorization in
terms of, say, gender. Self-categorization in terms of a specific group membership is also
more likely when that group is highly accessible in memory. More importantly, the social
identity approach suggests that in any given social context, one level of self-
categorization is most salient, and it is in terms of this level that self and others are
evaluated.

In addition Geen’s (1995 stated in Puyat J. 2005) theories of aggression


emphasize the casual role of negative emotions and its interpretation in aggressive
behavior. Studies have shown that any unpleasant emotion will predispose a person to be
aggressive (Anderson and Anderson 1996, Berkowitz 1993 and DeNeve 1992 Griffit and
Veiftch 1971). Whether that person will act aggressively or violently will depend on the
assessment of the social context, which includes among other things, the attribution that
makes the assessment of the retaliatory capabilities of the other person and the beliefs
about aggression (Geen, 1998 and Aronson, Wilson and Akert 1997, stated in Puyat, J.,
2005).

Moreover Aldefer’s theory is divided into three levels existence, relatedness and
growth. This levels state the needs that a person wants to fulfill (ChangingMinds.org,
2003). The first level or existence is all about the basic necessity of a human person and
focuses on ones existence. This level includes Maslow’s theory on physiological and
security needs. The second level or relatedness is basically all about the social needs, the
need to belong, to be loved and to focus on social identity or social status. The third level
or growth is the self actualization or the transcendence. In this level there is the desire to
grow. This level shows the fulfillment of a person the final stage of their needs.

4
Theoretical Framework

GROWTH
Self-esteem and
Self-actualization

RELATEDNESS
Being understood and
accepted by people

EXISTENCE
Physiological and
Security factors

Aldefer’s hierarchy of needs is basically based from Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.


Aldefer’s theory focuses on human needs that must be fulfilled. This states that the three
levels of needs which were the existence, relatedness and growth and Aldefer give
emphasized that it can only be achieved through a step by step process from the bottom
portion going up. He clearly indicated that one cannot proceed to the next level without
completely fulfilling or at least continuously fulfilling the current level.

Existence

At the lowest level is the need to stay alive and safe, now and in the foreseeable
future. Maslow's Physiological and Safety needs occur when an individual has satisfied
the existence needs, when there is the feeling of safety and physical comfort.

Relatedness

At the next level, once safe and secure, individuals consider their social needs.
They are now interested in relationships with other people and what they think of us.
When there are relations, there is a feeling of sense of identity and position within the
immediate society. This encompasses Maslow's Love/belonging and Esteem needs.

Growth

At the highest level, individuals seek to grow, be creative for one’s self and for the
environment. When there is successful growth, there is a sense of wholeness,
achievement and fulfillment. This covers Maslow's Self-actualization and Transcendence

5
Conceptual framework

Gang formation in Barangay San


Antonio San Pedro, Laguna

Each member feels that the group


is their family because the group
helps them to get their needs and
gain respect from the group
members.

Form a group to fulfill the basic


needs and to provide security to
protect the needs they have
acquired.

The conceptual framework of the research was based on Aldefer’s theory on the
hierarchy of needs. The first stage or existence stage focus on one’s need, it is all about
fulfilling physiological needs. In this stage a person create a group to fulfill the basic
needs and to give them protection from other groups or other people. A person seeks
another person with the same dilemma that they are having so that they could satisfy both
their needs if they work together. This stage also focuses on security needs. If they join
together they will have a better chance of surviving. They could count on each other; to
look out for one another and because of this; many more like them, seeking the same
remedy will join them. The second stage is all about social needs. If they have been
together and have been taking care of each other, they will establish a special relationship
more so like a family because they help each other and no matter what happens they stick
together. It also focus on the ego needs, this stage a person has proven his worth or what
they are capable of doing. And the third and final stage is the self actualization or
transcendence. In this stage the group leader can turn the group into a more solid body,
namely a gang. This stage may come in different order but each stage is subject to
different levels of intensity.

6
Method

Participants

The research used gang leaders that are still active as the participants so the data
to be gathered is more accurate.

The researcher can easily establish a direct contact with the gang leaders because
they are all acquaintances, this made data gathering easier. The researcher conducted a
personal perspective interview on why gangs are formed with 5 males with ages ranging
from 18 to 25 years old. Four of the participants were from the villages and subdivisions
of San Antonio while the remaining one came from the squatter’s area. Barangay San
Antonio San Pedro, Laguna is the prime location for the research since most of the gangs
are concentrated within its vicinity.

Materials/Instruments

The researcher used a structured interview to dig up the data concerning the
problem of the study. The set of guide questions contain questions related to what
motivates them to create gang and how they deal with their gang members and a recorder
to record the conversation.

Research Design

For this study, the qualitative method approach was used. The researcher utilized
the “pakikipagkwentuhan” method by Pepua (1982) to interview the participants and
have a free flowing conversation so that it will help in determining why they create
gangs. It measured and analyzed the motivations of gang leaders why they create their
groups or gang.

Procedure

The researcher identified the active gang leaders and gets the contact information
from the Barangay records. The researcher chose five gang leaders, those of which are
easy to establish a direct contact. The researcher had a free flowing conversation with the
participants and the researcher also had frequent meetings and constant communication
with the participants. At this point, the researcher establishes rapport with the participants
by giving them the freedom to choose whether they can continue to participate in the
study. The interview took place at the participants’ respective houses and would resemble
a “drinking” session so that the participants will be comfortable and can express them
selves in their own way while the researcher is acquiring the data’s needed for the
research. After acquiring all the responses, the researcher tallies the common responses
and interprets them accordingly.

7
Data Analysis

The researcher generalized the gathered information to identify the most common
answer of the participants. From this information from the participants, the researcher
analyzes the gathered data to discover what the motivational factors are that pushes gang
leaders to create gangs.

8
Results and Discussion

Table 1.
Participants Age highest educational attainment Religion Ordinal position

gangster N 21 2nd year college Iglecia ni Christo 2 of 3


gangster P 21 1st year college catholic 3 of 4
gangster A 20 1st year college catholic 1of 2
gangster D 22 elementary graduate catholic 2 of 6
gangster U 19 2 year course graduate catholic 1of 2

Aldefer’s theory on Gang Formation

The participants for this study were all from San Antonio San Pedro Laguna. They
were all males and ages range from 19 to 21, four of them were catholic, and the
remaining one is an Iglecia ni Christo, even though he has different religion he doesn’t
discriminate his catholic gang members, and he doesn’t care whether his members were
Iglecia ni Christo or not, he gives respect to his gang members even though he has the
highest position. Four of the participants were from the villages of San Antonio, their
family have sufficient funds to give their basic need to live in a day, but they spend more
time with their gang members than their family, because they can do anything they want
if they are together, one of the participants came from a poor family, unlike the four other
participants the researcher has hard time to reach and locate this specific participant,
because he doesn’t stay at home often he spends more time with his friends or gang
members than his family, because in his gang he is considered as the father and he is
respected by his gang members.

Even though the participants were from different environments and have different
status in life they all have some common reasons why they create a gang. They all have
different gang but they have almost the same perspective about their gang and their gang
members.

A. Existence

One of the key levels of Aldefer’s hierarchy of needs theory is existence which
includes physiological and security factors. Existence has an important role in motivation
because it motivates a person to stay alive and feel safe, now and foreseeable future.
When we had satisfied our existence needs, we feel safe and physically comfortable. This
includes Maslow’s Physiological needs and safety needs.

The respondents had almost the same reasons why they create a gang; to fulfill
their basic needs like food, drinks etc.., the need to be protected from the power of other
gangs that overwhelmed them when they go out alone, for respect and the fulfillment that
they get from their gang members, which they consider as their own family. This level is

9
supported by the answers of three participants of this study that is based from their
answers.

Gangsters N’s narration on why he created his gang is because of he feels security
from other groups, especially when they were strolling at night. He said “and other gang,
the other group, we need protection for our selves, for my self, because my gang member
think of it that way. That’s it, I’m brave, I’m not afraid of the police, I’m happy, what
more? And the protection that I get, because they give me protection, group to group, the
first one they protect is the leader”.

Although he came from a well-off family and can easily support his basic needs,
he also said that his gang members helps him fulfill his urge to drink liquor, because he
and his gang members share their money to buy drinks so that they can to fulfill their
desire to drink. Based from his answer it can relate to Aldefer’s theory on existence,
because under this stage are physiological needs and security needs. The participants
need protection from other gang that pushes him to create his gang to fulfill his security
needs.

On the other hand gangster P, age 21 stated that he created his gang, because other
gangs treat him and his friends as under dogs and push them to do something they don’t
want to do. He said that “plenty of reasons, its just the thing that pushes me is that when
you go to a certain place and there were gangs and they will slap you in the head and they
will push you around”. He also created a gang to unite his friends so that they could be
protected from other gangs and can also fight them if necessary.

Gangster A, a former gang member, created his own gang to protect the youth in
his community from other gangs that strolls in their neighborhood at night, which
sometimes hurt youth in their community. He said that “the company that I get from the
gang makes me happy, but I have friends inside the gang, that’s the reason, they told me
that I should make my own gang, that’s what pushes me to create a gang”. “The things
that my friend told me, when I saw them beaten down it makes me feel to fight back”.
“Yes, for protection”.

Like gangster N and P, he creates a gang to fulfill his needs of security. He needed
protection so that he will not be dominated and pushed around by other groups.

B. Relatedness

This is this second level of Aldefer’s E-R-G theory. This level includes the social
needs of a person in other words this shows the social status of a person. Individuals
become interested in relationships with other people and what other people think about
them. When in a group, individuals feel a sense of identity within the group. This is like
Maslow’s love/belonging needs.

In this level, people search the group in which they can belong. This is were they
find self importance. People in this stage want to be self secured in the society. They

10
don’t want to be left alone. Like gangsters U, D and P, they have family problems. They
were both the “utusan” (the one who does all the cleaning in the family) in their family.
That is why they created gangs, so that in their gangs which they were the founded they
cannot be treated the way they were treated in their homes.

Gangster U, the older of 2 siblings, said that he has been considered as the black
sheep of the family. He doesn’t have the freedom he deserves because of something he
did when he was in high school. He created a gang to gain the respect that his family has
not given him. He said that “in our home, they always pushes me around, they think I’m
a rebellious child, hard headed, black sheep of the family, that’s why I don’t get any
respect from them. Then I created my group, I get the respect from my members and they
understand me”.

When he is with his gang members he feels like no one can hurt him, because
they are there to fight beside him when needed. He said that “the respect and
understanding, because we have the same way of thinking”. He also stated that “am I a
fool? I have the respect I need and understanding, but if my family has given me the
respect that I need, maybe I will think to stop my gang”. He said that in his gang he found
what he wanted to have from his family. His gang members give him the respect that his
family has not given him. And when he is with his gang they have the same way of
thinking, they can easily relate to one another.

On the other hand gangster D has a different problem, and he also comes from a
family in the squatter’s area. And he has some problems when it comes with dealing with
the youth from the villages. He said that “because they always give the people here hard
times, that’s why I think to create a group that will fight them”. He also said that his
brother is a former gang leader and no one dared to touch his brother, that’s why he
created a gang, he said that “ yes, I’m jealous of my brother, he is tough, no one can
touch him”. He also said that he created a gang for companionship and respect, “there
were many people to tell them what you wanted them to do, the girls, right?, you cant
tell.., you’re a leader, no one can touch you..”. Based from his answers, he created a gang
to follow in his brother’s footsteps, where his brother was so dominating in their
community. Plus, he created a gang so that girls will be close to him, because of the
power he has over his gang members.

Gangster P has created a gang because his former gang has been dismantled,
because their former leader died because of a gang fight. He said that “because our gang
leader had died in a gang war, that’s why I create a gang, to unite our former group and
promote brotherhood”.

He created one, because he wanted to unite his former group mates and to
promote brotherhood in his community and he wants to show his former gang that his
gang is better, because he could lead them much better than his former leader. He also
told the researcher that he had formed a gang, because he has been bullied by other
minors from other gang.

11
C. Growth

At the highest level, individuals seek to grow and be creative for themselves and
to efficiently cope with their surroundings. When growing mentally and spiritually, there
is a sense of wholeness and with these we achieve the things that fulfill our lives. This
stage covers Maslow’s Self-actualization and transcendence. This is the stage were a
person is having a self-actualization and were they boost their self esteem. In this stage a
person will come up with a solution to the problem at hand and possess enough courage
to implement what they need to do.

Based from what the participants had said, they formed a group called a gang due
to the following; the first reason was for protection from other gangs that dominated and
pushed them around for quite sometime, second is peer pressure and third was they get
respect form their subordinates. This has motivated them to create a group that is called a
gang.

This stage is supported by the result of the study. All five participants self-
actualizations results to the creation of their gang. They have almost the same reasons; for
protection from other gangs and to gain social status, which led them to their self-
actualization to create a gang, fulfilling their needs from the lowest to their highest need.

Conclusion and Implication

Based from the result of the study, the researcher concluded, that the need to be
protected form other gangs is one of the defining factors that motivate a person in San
Pedro to create one. The gang is there to fulfill their need of protection and security,
especially from the other gangs that has dominated them throughout most of their stay.
Other factors like social relationship and peer pressure had also pushed a person to create
a gang, because of their fear that they will be left alone. Respect, also counts as another
motivating factor in the creation of gangs, because they did not get the respect they want
from others.

The youth in this generation are more sophisticated than before; also they are
more curious in finding ways to solve their problems on their own. They are more
independent and would rather tell their problems to their friends rather than their families.

The findings in this research implicate that the youth today find different ways to
solve or fulfill their needs. The need of protection from others (gangs or other social
groups), has pushed them to think of a solution to solve such a need. And the need to
belong and the need to be accepted by other people, has also pushed them and motivated
them to create such a group.

This result implies that most gangs need protection from other gangs. They need
protection because they don’t feel secure in their community. They feel that other gangs
will take advantage of them if they stand alone, and don’t have enough protection with

12
them. It also shows that their community has not been given enough security by the
barangay police.

This research shows that if a community has enough security, it can maintain
peace and order and people will feel more secure, from any kind of group and will not
think of the things like creating gangs to fulfill their needs of security.

This research also shows that families should be aware of the things that their
children need. They should also consider that their child has different personalities and
that they should be sensitive enough to care for each one.

This research can help solve the problem of the government when it comes to
youth crimes. They can prevent gang violence by preventing gang creation, by giving
more priority on security and more police patrol at night, so that the youth will not be
afraid to go out even, without the protection from a gang because they will feel more
secure.

This study also implies the social relationship of a person, because a person needs
to meet a certain level of respect and security from the people in his environment.

13
References

Ashby and DeGraaf, Reconsidering Group Process in Challenge Education:


Paradigmatic Shifts, University of Northern Iowa, 1993

ChangingMinds.org, ERG Theory retrieved from www.changingminds.org, 2003

Dresang, Case Studies Intro, La Follette School of Public Affairs, retrieved from
http://Case%20Studies%20homepage.htm, 2001

Harte, Groups and Groupwork, Essays Online, retrieved from www.lycos.com

Le and Jenkins, Youth Gang, The Pennsylvania State University, Abington-Ogontz


Campus retrieved from http://thesis/index.htm, 1993

Haslam, S. Alexander, Penelope Oakes, Katherine J. Reynolds, and John C. Turner.


1999."Social Identity Salience and the Emergence of Stereotype Consensus."
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 25:809-18.

McGarty, Craig, S. Alexander Haslam, Karen J. Hutchinson, and John C. Turner. 1994.
"The effects of salient group memberships on persuasion." Small Group Research
25:267-293.

Oakes, P. 1987. "The salience of social categories." Pp. 117-144, Rediscovering


the social group: A self-categorization theory, edited by J. C. Turner, M. A. Hogg,
P. Oakes, S. D. Reicher, and M. S. Wetherell. NY: Basil Blackwell.

Pe-Pua, R. Sikolohiyang Pilipino: Teorya, Metodo at Gamit, 1982

Puyat, J. Aggression and Group Membership: A Social Representations Approach To The


Study of Aggression, Philippine Journal of Psychology, Vol. 32, #2, pp. 381-397,
1999

Rizzo and Mark, Why Do Children Join Gangs? Journal of Gang Research, 11(1), 65-
Illinois Department of Corrections, Community Services, IL, US Source 75,
from APA PsycNET, 2003

Oldmeadow J., Platow M., Foddy M.,: “Task-group as self-categories: A social


Identity Perspective on status generalization”
http://www.uiowa.edu/%7Egrpproc/crisp/crisp.10.18.html

Tuckman, Bruce W. (1965) 'Developmental sequence in small groups', Psychological


Bulletin, 63, 384-399. The article was reprinted in Group Facilitation: A Research
and Applications Journal - Number 3, Spring 2001 and is available as a Word
document: http://dennislearningcenter.osu.edu/references/GROUP%20DEV%20ARTICLE.doc.

14
Predictor of Managerial Potential: The Case of Employees in a
Food Industry
Joanne Desiree M. Battung

This study investigated the relationship of Leadership Personality and Leadership Potential for the
Successful Selection of Managers for a Food Industry Company using standardized tests. The Gordon
Personal Profile Inventory is used to determine the Leadership Personality and another test is used to
measure the Leadership Potential Quotient, the Leadership Opinion Questionnaire. Results showed that
both genders have different Leadership Personalities but both genders have the same high scores for
Leadership Potential Quotient. Although both genders have different personalities they are still have the
potential to become good leaders in the near future if trained properly and are able to learn more leadership
skills. The results showed the relationship of the respondents Leadership Personalities to their Leadership
Potential Quotient.

Everyone can agree that there are a lot of diversities in leadership. Almost
everyone agrees that there is a school for leaders but it was never been easy defining the
traits and skills necessary to become a good and effective leader. Most of us believe that
when we see a person we can easily say whether that person has the quality or the
characteristic of an effective leader. But most of the time, we fail to see that this can also
lead to great danger if we point to a person whom we think is a n effective leader without
any formal assessment.

According to Mark Anderson (1991) a good and effective leader is someone who
can manage a group of people and bring out the best in each individual. He realizes the
potential of each individual it their teams and put this potential into good use for the
benefit of the group. He is both known as a provider of direction and guidance to his
subordinates. Other known characteristics known to people who are effective leaders are
responsible, have emotional stability and high stability. Responsibility is one keyword
everyone knows. Being responsible is being able to stick to job even though the job that
they have does not greatly interest them or their team.

That having emotional stability are those who are generally well- balanced
person, free from anxieties and nervous tensions and does not get easily frustrated even
when working under high pressure. They are able to communicate well and express their
feelings. Those people who have high sociability not only like to work with people and
are very likable but also take criticisms as constructive to their growth and do not take it
personally. Also they are able to say their ideas without being afraid of being rejected and
are usually the ones who are able to pint point great ideas among the rest of ideas during
brainstorming sessions of the group.

These personalities can be seen with people and justified if they are given formal
assessment. In line with the leadership potential, having these characteristics, it is much
easier for a person to lead a group through thick and thin. We use formal assessments
because these are more systematically designed to explore key quality leadership
qualities.

15
In the workplace, managers and supervisors needed key leadership qualities to
make sound decisions for their teams. The usual or standard procedures for promotion are
that first, managers and supervisors start as trainees and are under the supervision of
managers. Their managers are the one who gives the recommendation for them to be
promoted on a yearly or annual basis depending on the company policy. Screen
interviews are done by the HR department along with personality profile tests but never
given with a leadership tests to the candidate. This has been the standard procedure for
choosing potential leaders practiced by many companies for so many years here in our
country. Problem is that there is no known standardized test for choosing managers that
currently used in the food and industry business sector. They choose managers as to what
the researcher has stated above.

Although many have immersed leadership tests and interviews to candidates for
promotion, it is still not enough since some tests are not actually designed for their type
of work. There are some personality profile tests that may fail to asses a person’s
personality in relation to leadership potential. The HR departments are only able to track
the candidate’s work ethic and relationship once they are promoted and mingling with
their colleagues. With the wrong people given the wrong job, it will cause a lot of trouble
and tension in the work place causing most companies waste money through lost income
and waste time finding the right person to do their job well.

Review of Related Literature

Leadership Potential

Selection of potential effective leaders is usually through resumes and cover


letters and decided upon the final interview whether a person is qualified or not.
Unfortunately, interviews are highly subjective and easily influenced by appearance,
mannerisms, and conversational skills (Anderson, 1991).

Frederick Wendel and colleagues (1992) pointed out that many people are
wrongly chosen for their careers through bad decision making. Thus, passing off a person
having leadership potential after an interview would costs any company later on, millions
of income and opportunities due to traits lacking or presumably not there in the first
place, in that person which was not found out about with interviews and resumes. Most
schools just choose in the pool of student leaders much like choosing for them a career
not actually suited for them. Sometimes it is just a name drop among professors that a
certain student of theirs is very responsible in class brushing it off as quality of a potential
leader then sending them off to leadership programs.

Leadership potential is measured most commonly by tests having open ended


questions. Asking the subjects whether he/ she disagree or agree about behaviors or
beliefs is usually in a Likert- type tests. Scores are determined by comparing tests with
others or a group who took the tests. Having this kind is formal assessment and having
checked by a non- biased group would definitely give due rest to future companies about
future opportunities.

16
Leadership tests are mostly partnered with personality tests to pint point the
qualities one is expected of a leader. Aside from noting down and identifying people who
have been good leaders outside of the job, it is still best for these people to take formal
tests (Smith, 1996).

Leadership Traits

The increasing rate of change in today’s business industry has grown great ever
since. Psychology has contributed greatly to the field of business by determining the key
traits of acknowledged leaders. Many Psychological tests have been used to determine
what characteristic are the most common in many successful leaders. List of these
characteristics are used by companies to help their supervisors develop their leadership
skills.

Nowadays, leaders are not only leader, but also learners and teachers. They are
able to do paradigm shifts in order to help change their organization for the better. There
are now also visionaries and have a strong sense of work to build integrity in their
organizations (Lashway, 1997).

Raymond Cattell has developed the Leadership Potential Equation in 1954 based
from the study of military leaders is used today to determine traits that characterizes an
effective leader. Traits included are Emotional Stability, Dominance, Enthusiasm, Social
Boldness, Self- Assurance, Compulsiveness and Tough- mindedness. (Anderson, 1991)

Leadership traits included are also traits that can help motivate others to work and
lead people “out of the box”. They are able to envision the future and convince others the
vision is worth working on. These traits are Empathy, charisma, maturity, intuitiveness
and team orientation. Most of these traits are called people pleaser traits (Clark & Clark,
1996 cited by Lashway et. al 1997).

Managerial Characteristics and Gender Stereotypes

According to Marger’s Normative Theory of Discrimination (1991) suggests that


gender stereotyping is a product of conformity to norms or beliefs that is passed on
through socialization. It is a widely shared belief that people have about each gender.
Stereotyping can misrepresent any individual’s perception by maximizing the seeming
differences between social groups and minimizing the differences within them.
Successful manager is often characterized as a masculine role thus the management is
regarded as a territory of men. Women are then perceived as inappropriate as a manager.
Many companies choose men as managers because they seem to be more effective
managers than women as perceived by most. Studies on men and women executives
found differences in work assignments. Male executives had more overseas assignments
while women had more assignments with non-authority relationships (Lyness &
Thompson, 2000). Women can be discouraged to seek higher positions by a corporate
climate that alienates them or by counterproductive behavior and harassment from their
male colleagues (Woo, 2000).

17
Leadership in the Filipino Context

Even with gender segregation in the country, women in our society enjoyed a
higher status than their Asian counterparts. Filipino women have steadily progressed up
the business ladder in the modern years but their rise has been slow and difficult and the
administrative field is still male-dominated.

With the literature shown the standardized testing will be done in choosing
managers in the workplace would hopefully elevate biases that could hinder ones
promotion. The formal assessments for both personality and leadership potential now
proliferate; the researcher will now make use of these tools to conduct researches on
whether a person s personality will affect its leadership quotient potential and its
significance with each other. Whether having high scores of the said leadership
characteristics will also have the same score or lower score with their leadership potential
quotient. Perhaps, his co-relation does not have any effect on either the leadership
potential or the personality of the employee. These are some hypothesis the researcher
wants to clarify in the current research. This study also aims to use tests to predict
personality of candidates in line with leadership qualities explained earlier.

This study aims to examine whether employee’s personality as revealed by the Gordon
Personal Profile Interpretation (GPPI), is related to their Leadership Potential which will
be revealed by the Leadership Opinion Questionnaire (LOQ).

In particular, the proposed study seeks to know the personality profile of each
respondent, their level of leadership potential quotient, the significance of their scores
between the personality and the leadership quotient of male and female respondents, the
relationship of their scores in their leadership potential quotient and leadership
personality. Furthermore, the researcher hypothesizes that there is a significant difference
in the leadership potential quotient of the respondents and significance in the level of
scores between male and female respondents.

18
Theoretical Framework

LEADERSHIP LEADERSHIP
PERSONALITY POTENTIAL

Successful Managerial
Selection

Fig 1. Basis for Successful Managerial Selection

The framework of the study shows that Leadership Personalities such as


Responsibility, Emotional Stability, Sociability and Ascendancy that is measured by the
Gordon Personal Profile Interpretation and the Leadership Potential measured by the
Leadership Opinion Questionnaire are two factors that can affect the Successful Selection
of a Manager. If the employee’s score percentages are on the average to high score in
their Leadership Personalities and in their Leadership Potential then the rate of Success
for choosing a manager is also high to average. Likewise if the employees score
percentages are on the low to below average scores in their Leadership Personalities and
Leadership Potential then the rate of success for choosing a manager is also low to below
average.

A 50th percentile above from the Leadership Opinion Questionnaire is that the
employee would most likely become a good leader in the future is properly trained. The
test Leadership Opinion Questionnaire plays a vital role for the successful selection of
managers due to its validity in giving out potential good leaders that are vital for handling
teams or positions in different organizations in the company. Employees or managers
who are more responsible, sociable and possess high emotional stability are expected to
be better in handling people and are more confident in decision-making. One may not
poses these traits as they work but if their HRD or employers can easily learn if they are
more geared to working with other people than to be working alone by themselves. These
permits the employee to be more equipped in dealing with team tasks in order to help his
or her subordinates become more reliable and much more efficient worker. This in due
will open up more opportunities for their careers later on in life.

Furthermore, the level of Leadership Potential and Personalities of the employees


will help determine whether they are more of a follower rather then that of a leader.

19
Method

Participants

A total of 200 managers candidates for promotion, working in a private


organization in the field of food and industry based in the Philippines participated in the
study. The numbers are equally divided with having a 100 female and 100 male
managers. Most of them are with the company for the past five years.

Materials/Instruments

Leadership Potential. To measure the leadership potential of the respondents, the


test of Edwin Fleishman, Leadership Opinion Questionnaire was used. It has a reliability
of 0.7. The LOQ is a standardized test that consists of 40 item test that indicates
situations usually arising from the workplace. The respondent would then mark the
choice that indicates what expresses his or her opinion as the most desirable way to act as
a supervisor or as a manager. Choices range from always, often, occasionally, seldom and
never.

Personality. To measure the leadership personality of the respondents, the Gordon


Personal Profile Interpretation is used. This a standardized test with a reliability of 0.8 is
a test that predicts the leadership traits Ascendancy, Responsibility, Emotional Stability
and Sociability which are personal characteristics of known leaders. GPPI has fifteen (15)
groups consisting of four (4) statements that the respondents could choose upon. The
respondents is to find one description among the four statements in the group that is most
likely him or her and another that is least likely him or her marking it black.

Procedure

The target respondents of the study were employees in the food industry in the
Philippines and are candidates for promotion as managers or other high positions in the
organization. The criteria for selection were that the respondents have been working with
the organization for the past three years, do not have any relatives in the high ranking
positions of the company, and have the recommendation from his or her supervisors or
managers. Another consideration given by the company HRD was that the candidates
have completed 4 training course in the 2-4 year period that they have been with the
company. Their ages, social status and marital status does not further affect their selection
but are still recorded for study purposes.

The selection and training of the candidates were done in an 8-week period
starting from the 2nd week of November. The tests were given to the respondents in a 2 nd
week after briefing. After examination of the returned tests, a total of 200 usable tests
were included in the study. A respondent was dropped from the sample if they were not
able to complete the criteria for selection, has answered the tests wrongly or has left 30%
of the tests unanswered. All the usable booklets were included in determining their
personality and leadership potential.

20
The 200 respondents re-take the exam on leadership quotient after a 2-week
training course on their 6th week. Their training is to familiarize themselves with the
position they will be assigned to after they passed all tests and to clearly assess their work
performance and interaction with their subordinates and colleagues. If a candidate fails to
pass the tests and assessments, he/ she can re-apply and take the exam and assessments
again next year is recommended by their supervisors. After the computation of results,
the candidates are called in one by one for their debriefing process and see the results of
the assessments and tests. The researcher shall then compare the respondents’ test result
in their Leadership Potential Test and whether the respondent has been promoted or not.

21
Results

A total of 200 respondents equally divided among gender with 100 (50%) female
respondents and 100 (50%) male respondents. Their age ranges from 23- 36 years old 172
(86%) of the respondents are university graduates and Bachelor’s degree holder while 28
(14%) have only finished a 2-year certificate course. There is an almost equal distribution
among the male and female respondents with their marital status 68 single, 132 married
(34%single, 66% married). The respondent’s years of service in the organization ranged
from 3-5 years.

50

40

30
Men
20
Women
10

0
University Certificate
Graduate Course

Fig 2. Graphical Representation of Educational Attainment

35
30
25
20
15 Men
10 Women
5
0
23- 25- 27- 29- 31- 33- 35-
24 26 28 30 32 34 36

Fig 3. Graphical Representation of Age Groups of Respondents

22
Leadership Personality

120

LEGEND: 100
R- Responsibility
A- Ascendancy 80
ES- Emotional Stability Female
60
S- Sociability
Male
40

20

0
R A ES S

Fig 4. Linear Representation of Leadership Personalities Of Male and Female


Respondents

The Personality Test using the Gordon Personal Profile Inventory was found to be
significant between the mean ratings of men and women. The results as shown in Figure
4 show that women have scores 0.42% higher in terms of Responsibility and Sociability.
Men were found out to be higher in scores by 0.33% than women in terms of Ascendancy
and Emotional Stability. There is small percentage of female respondents who have
scored low in responsibility and sociability but have high scores in terms of Ascendancy
and Emotional Stability. Some male respondents have also scored higher in responsibility
and sociability but scored low in ascendancy and emotional stability. 50 (25%) of the
respondents (15 female, 10 male) have equal distribution of scores in the four leadership
personalities mentioned.

200

150

100 High Score


Low Score
50

0
R A ES S
Fig 5. Graphical Representation of High and Low Scores of Respondents in each
Leadership Personality

Over-all results as shown in Figure 5 that out of the 164 (82%) respondents who
have scored high in Responsibility, there are 36 (18%) respondents who have scored low
in this category. 150 (75%) respondents have scored low in Emotional Stability but 182

23
(91%) scored high in Sociability. Their scores in Ascendancy still vary by gender. Only
50% of each gender scored high in this category having 64 (32%) of them are married
and 36 (18%) are single respondents.

Female respondents with the ages ranging from 28-36 years old are those who are
married and have children scored high in responsibility. Those who have scored high in
Sociability have equal proportion between married and single but most are from younger
females with ages ranging from 23-26 years old. Sociability in male respondents is above
average with the ages of 23-27 years of age and equal distribution among the married and
single males. Those males who have high scores in Ascendancy are mostly single male
with the ages ranging from 24-27 years of age.

Coe fficie ntsa

Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients
Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig.
1 (Constant) 3.322 .073 45.334 .000
Responsibility -1.05E-02 .002 -.215 -5.155 .000
Ascendancy -1.55E-02 .002 -.321 -7.536 .000
Emotional Stability -1.88E-02 .002 -.397 -9.558 .000
Sociability -1.12E-02 .002 -.235 -5.695 .000
a. Dependent Variable: Promotion

Fig 6. Table of Mean Coefficients of Leadership Personality Ratings


Between Male and Female Respondents

The Gordon Personality Profile Inventory after Regression shows a positive


correlation between predicting the candidates to be promoted irregardless of the gender. It
has highly and positively predicted the promotion of the candidates as shown in Figure 6
with a mean of p=<0.1 (0.865).

24
Leadership Potential

Coefficie ntsa

Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients
Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig.
1 (Constant) 3.020 .060 50.052 .000
Structure -1.90E-02 .002 -.450 -10.551 .000
Consideration -1.97E-02 .002 -.533 -12.476 .000
a. Dependent Variable: Promotion

Fig 8. Table Representation of Coefficients of Leadership Potential Ratings Between


Male and Female Respondents

The Leadership Opinion Questionnaire results as shown in Figure 8 using


Regression was found out to be significant and positive correlation between the mean
ratings of men and women. The results show that there is a significant correlation
between the mean ratings of women (r=.76, p <.01) and between the mean ratings of
men (r=.50, p=<.01). This supported the hypothesis that there is a correlation between
the leadership potential quotient of male and female respondents.

Structure

Consideration

Fig 6. Pie Representation of High Scores for Leadership Potential Test


of 200 Respondents

For their scores in Structure, Fifty- three percent (53%) of males has higher scores
than females have only 47% who scored high in this category. Sixty-nine percent (69%)
of females have higher scores in Consideration while only 31% of males have high score

25
in this category. Of the 200 respondents who and has taken the tests, 104 respondents
have high score in Structure and 96 respondents have low score in this category. One
hundred fifty-two (152) respondents have high score in Consideration and 48 respondents
have low score in this category.

40
35
30
25
20 Male
15 Female

10
5
0
Structure Consideration

Fig 7. Graphical Representation of Scores in Leadership Opinion


Questionnaire of Promoted Male and Female Respondents

Out of 200 respondents who took the Leadership Opinion Questionnaire Test,
only 78 respondents have been promoted to a managerial position. Forty- eight (48) of
the respondents are female while 35 respondents are male. From the female respondents,
36 respondents have scored high in Consideration while only 12 female respondents have
scored higher in Structure. Twenty- four (24) male respondents who are promoted have
scored high in Structure while only 11 male respondents have scored higher in
Consideration. The rest who were not promoted have low assessments based from their
trainer’s assessments and feedbacks, though most knew the processes in their tasks they
have less grip of how to communicate with other people and are easily swayed by other
people’s opinion thus their decisions delayed them in finishing their tasks. At times, some
of these respondents do not follow instructions thus delaying them in finishing there
given tasks.

Discussion

The objective of this study was to provide a greater understanding of the


differences and equalities of men and women as managers in the Philippine context in the
area of food and industry setting through the examination between their personalities and
leadership potential quotient.

Leadership Personality

The study found out that only a small difference between the Leadership
Personality in males and females. Even if females have higher responsibility and

26
sociability rating the percentage of men having same scores are almost equal. Most
females are highly sociable and tend to like to work more with groups. They are much
friendlier and approachable in the corporate setting especially with female co-workers.
They are also more persevering in doing tasks that are assigned to them and are able to
finish much earlier than their male counterparts. Females are more inclined to be tense on
their first training but after getting some pointers for their tasks, they are able to do it with
minimal supervision.

Males are more ascendant and are more inclined to make decisions on their own
rather than asking their group or brainstorming with their group possible choices for a
solution. Although men are more assertive on their corporate relationships and may not
be as persevering as females, they are more emotionally stable and are more relaxed on
finishing their tasks even under pressure.

Most of the candidates who scored high in responsibility are married. The high
score in the responsibility area may be due to more demands in having their own family
thus giving much more experience in being responsible. Also younger respondents
ranging from the ages of 23-27, male and female are those who have high score in
sociability. They favor working with teams or groups and brainstorming ideas rather than
making their decisions alone. This answers the significant differences in the personality
of male and female respondents. The respondents who have equal scores distributed
among their Leadership Personalities are mostly younger managers with ages ranging
from 23-25 and are mostly single and female. Assessment from these respondents is that
they are thinking first of how people would react to what they want to do. They do not
think “out of the box” and are mostly afraid to decide by themselves and still wanted to
take the consensus of the group even though the last decision is theirs. These respondents
are the ones who always go with the majority decision.

Leadership Potential

There is a resemblance of scores on the leadership potential of both male and


female but not much difference on their scores before and after their training. Some
differences noted are that most females have higher score in Consideration. They are
more thinking of their subordinates more than how their subordinates do their tasks. It
matters to female respondents in an average score range how their subordinates do their
job but mostly considers more their feelings and how well the work environment it is for
their subordinates. These respondents see that their subordinates will be able to work
more efficiently if the manager or their leader can be approached concerning personal
matters. But even though they are emotionally involved with the work of their
subordinates, they are able to follow-up on the tasks at hand and want a through
inspection of the tasks done. They expect good job from their subordinates.

The male respondents on the other hand have much higher score on Structure.
Male respondents are more into how their subordinates do their job rather than what their
subordinates feel. They themselves would rather do overtime work just to get a perfect
job done and they expect their subordinates to do the same. They pour over company

27
policies and are very strict in following these rules. Although after a hard work done from
their subordinates, they allow light time for them to relax a bit but not vacating their light
tasks at hand.

The Leadership Potential Level of both male and female respondents did not have
much significance after the training perhaps due to constricted time of applying what they
have learned in training. The test must have been given too early to determine if t here
was really a big difference with their scores before and after the training. It may be best if
the training is given for three (3) weeks while the test shall be given two (2) weeks after
the training so that the respondents have rationalized and or digested what they have
learned in the training processes. Over-all the training period of the respondents have
been very tense and crucial for them which can be another factor why the respondents
have not fully assimilated their trainings.

28
References

Anderson, Mark. Principals: How to Train, Recruit, Select, Induct, and Evaluate Leaders
for America's Schools. Eugene, Oregon: ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational
Management, 1991.

Fred Smith, LEADERSHIP JOURNAL; Vol. XVII, No. 4, Page 30, 1996

Hursh, B. "Tools for Journals and Debriefing", pp. 80-86 of J. Kendall (ed.) Combining
Service and Learning: A Resource Book for Community and Public Service, vol.
2. Raleigh: National Society for Internships and Experiential Education. 1990

Lashway, Larry; JoAnn Mazzarella; and Thomas Grundy. "Portrait of a Leader." In


School Leadership: Handbook for Excellence, third edition. Edited by Stuart C.
Smith and Philip K. Piele. Eugene, Oregon: ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational
Management, 1997.

Lyness, K.S. & Thompson, D.E., Above the glass ceiling? A comparison of matched
samples of female and male executives. Journal of applied Psychology, 82 (3),
359-375, 1997

Lyness, K.S. & Thompson, D.E., Climbing the corporate ladder: Do female and male
executives follow the same route. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85 (1), 86-101,
2000

R.M. Felder, G.N. Felder, and E.J. Dietz, "A Longitudinal Study of Engineering Student
Performance and Retention. V. Comparisons with Traditionally-Taught Students"
J. Engr. Education, 87(4), 469-480, 1998

Smith, S. and Piele, P., "School Leadership: Handbook for Excellence," third edition.
Eugene, Oregon: ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Management, 1997

Wendel, Frederick C.; Allan H. Schmidt; and James Loch. Measurements of Personality
and Leadership: Some Relationships. Lincoln, Nebraska, University of Nebraska,.
121 pages, 1992

Woo, D. Glass Ceiling and Asian- Americans: The new face of workplace barriers.
California: Altamira Press., 2000

29
Development of a Behavioral Assessment for Highly-Functioning
Pre-School Aged Children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and
Asperger Syndrome
Ma. Celina Angela L. Calvento

The cause of Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Asperger Syndrome is still unclear up to date.
Alarmingly the prevalence rate of this pervasive developmental disorder is escalating. Along with increase
in their population is the need for proper intervention, Educational mainstreaming for children with ASD
and Asperger Syndrome also rise. With that the researcher of this study aimed to help these children by
constructing a Behavioral Assessment tool to predict readiness of these children to enter mainstream
schools. Having 10 highly functioning children with ASD and Asperger Syndrome, the researcher
computed for the reliability via the inter-rater consistency using the statistical analysis Intraclass
Consistency Coefficient. The study projected the reliability coefficient of .993 for single measure and .998
for average measure. The validity of the tool was assessed via correlation method. The Behavioral
Assessment tool and Entrance Examination from a mainstream school was correlated and showed a
correlation coefficient of .764 using the two-tailed significance level of .010. The results of the computation
for the reliability and validity of the Behavioral Assessment tool confirmed that it is a reliable and valid
measure of a highly-functioning child with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Asperger Syndrome’s readiness
to venture to a mainstream school.

In the late 1990’s, the Philippines was given a rough estimate of the prevalence of
Autism. At that time, the statistics was 1 out of 10,000 Filipino Children were born with
this disorder. Alarmingly, in less than 10 years the prevalence rate of Autism in the
country has gone up, along with the country’s population. In the late 20th century, The
Autism Society Philippines came up with an estimate. We are now facing the fact that 5-
10 out of 10,000 are inflicted with Autistic Spectrum Disorder. They estimated that a total
of 300,000 Filipino have Autism at present. Not even 30% of this population are able to
have educational intervention. Less than 5% are ready for mainstream schools. Not
nearing 1% is given employment.

These statistics are not mere assumptions, but reality to what might become of
these children. And what’s damaging about it is, as time progresses the prevalence rate
goes up. This study attempted to answer if the Behavioral Assessment tool is a reliable
and valid measure of a highly-functioning child with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and
Asperger Syndrome’s readiness to venture to a mainstream school. With the tool
constructed by the researcher, the aim would be to aid placement and predict readiness of
a highly functioning pre-school aged child with Autistic Spectrum Disorder or Asperger
Syndrome to enter a conventional school rather than being placed in a special school.
These children can specifically reach employment stage with equal chances to those
people who are normal if they have the right qualifications such as education as well. The
aim to be mainstreamed is primarily to have them live normally so as to prepare them for
whatever step they would like to pursue here after.

30
Review of Related Literature

Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Asperger Syndrome

Autistic Spectrum disorder is a pervasive developmental disability that affects the


way a person communicates and relates to people around them. People with autism have
the difficulty with social interaction and lacks responsiveness to other people due to the
limiting capacity to process information like a normal person. It is also accompanied by
learning disabilities which somehow hinder the person to reach their full capacities in
terms of cognitive, social, and emotional aspects. Characteristics often include failure to
have normal socialization, disturbances in language skills, abnormal response to sensory
stimuli and developmental delays, lack of imagination & repetitive behaviors and
routines. Asperger Syndrome on the other hand is a type of pervasive developmental
disorder and a form of Autism. Traits in both Autism and Asperger are quite the same but
milder.

Language deficiency is rarely a problem and Intellectual capacity ranges from


average to above average. Discrepancies for Asperger syndrome would then fall on
behavioral and social aspects. Difficulty in communication and processing, difficulty to
have and maintain social relationships and lack of imagination and creative play are some
of the traits associated to Asperger Syndrome. The cause of both Autism and Asperger
Syndrome is yet to be discovered. Strong evidence links them to genetics and physical
and chemical defects have been found in the brain. Generally it is an Organic and
Neurological Disorder. Cure for these disorders are non-existent. Autism and Asperger
syndrome is a developmental condition affecting the way the brain processes information
Children with Autism and Asperger syndrome carry on with them the disorder until
middle to old age. Since one of the traits of highly functioning Autistic children and
children with Asperger are with average and above average intellectual capacity, the
possibility of normal or mainstreamed schools is at par with other children who are
otherwise; because of this many high functioning children with Autistic Spectrum
Disorder and Asperger syndrome enter mainstream school as early as preschool. With
time and patience they can be taught to develop the basic skills needed for everyday life,
such as how to communicate appropriately with people and behavioral assets that they
need for mainstreaming. For one thing, the parents of these children want them to live
normal lives as possible. Intervention would play a major role on this.

Intervention for ASD and Asperger Syndrome

Early intervention for Autism and Asperger is hard due to no physical deformities
and only neurological discrepancies in the brain. Intervention would start for as early as 2
years of age. Prevalence rate is four times greater for boys than girls. With the right
support, intervention and encouragement, high functioning children with Autism and
Asperger syndrome can develop their intellectual capacity to go on further with their
studies in mainstreamed schools and to be employed.

31
Educational Mainstreaming

The outcome cannot be predicted in the intervention during pre-school years, but
that early appropriate intervention makes a big difference. Special schools are rampant
right now it offers different approaches but do not fully touch on the intellectual aspect
needed to reach their full capacity. Here the need for mainstreaming high functioning
children with Autism and Asperger arise. Assessment plays a vital role to ensure and
address the queries of the parents. Since they have the intellectual capacity to perform
well in school, this study dwells on to other aspects. One important aspect of
mainstreaming children is their behavior. Since most of the high functioning children
with Autism and Asperger presently have behavioral problems, the construction of a
behavioral checklist would help them be assessed with regards to correct placement in
either to special schools or normal schools. This study aims to focus on assessing the
present behavior which could mirror actual related behavioral tendencies that are needed
and vital for mainstream schools. It would somehow reflect the readiness of the child to
be mainstreamed. This could allow enhancement of the behavioral manifestations to be
developed early on so that the child can be mainstreamed at an early age. The assessment
tool was conceptualized to be of help to teachers both in special school and conventional
school to pin-point on the behaviors that are lacking or are under-developed for a child to
be accepted in a normal school. It is also a way of assurance for parents, to fully
understand the present condition of their child in terms of the behavioral aspect. It is a
tool designed to further help develop the full capabilities of the child by giving the exact
part in which a discrepancy is present. It is also to adjust the individualized programs of
the high functioning child with Autism and Asperger based on the specification needed.
The study aims to help the betterment of children with Autism and Asperger by giving
them choices and opportunities for them to prosper independently. The study believes that
the proper educational programs can teach them to capitalize on their own strengths and
compensate their weaknesses. Educating high functioning children with Autism and
Asperger can lead to them having meaningful lives and productively contributing to the
society.

Parents of highly functioning children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and


Asperger Syndrome have been battling the need for proper education system for these
children. Special schools available in the Philippines does not carry on it’s shoulder the
educational curriculum that a normal school has because of the individualized program
that they integrate in their school setting. But still, According to Bowe (1995) “Children
with autism and related pervasive developmental disorders are continuing to enter
preschool and elementary school settings.”

The concept of mainstreaming or inclusion was then introduced to the highly


functioning children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Asperger Syndrome. As stated
by the Autism Society in 2000, “Mainstreaming refers to teaching children with special
needs in regular classes with other children. Teaching autistic children without the
benefit of a specially-trained teacher and classroom tailored for such teaching was first
attempted as a matter of necessity in small school systems with too few autistics to

32
make it practical to set up specialized facilities. It was soon observed that autistics in
such situations in general did better than autistics in tailored classrooms, and the
policy of "mainstreaming" was born.” It was then that it was finalized that children with
Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Asperger Syndrome were lawfully allowed to be
included in normal school given that they pass the assessment tools created for the
intellectual capacity measurement depending on the school they were applying to.

Intelligence and Potential of Children with ASD and Asperger Syndrome

Admittedly, highly functioning children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and


Asperger Syndrome have the capacity to do well in a normal environment. Theory has it
that separating autistics from a normal environment just exacerbates their problem.
Children with special needs must be educated with as little restriction as necessary and
school systems have responded by placing autistics in normal classrooms as much as
practical. This theory is concurrent to Riddler (1996) that “professionals have long
believed that autistics have the potential for average or above-average intelligence.
Many autistics posses advanced mental skills, especially in math, music and visual
thinking - yet lack the social skills to make the most productive use of these gifts.”

Social and Communication Impairment

Even with the introduction of mainstreaming, it did not cease the battle against
pervasive disorders. It is a given fact that it did give progress to highly functioning
children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Asperger Syndrome but as how Lauren
Pierce (2003) put it, “One of the biggest hurdles is that these children are often
academically on the same level or more advanced than their peers but have severe
social and communication delays.”

One of the major problems of mainstreaming highly functioning children with


Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Asperger Syndrome were the behaviors they tend to
manifest in school setting. Although they are competent with regards to intellectual
capacity at par with other normal children. Behavior and social skills tend to hold them
back with their progress. This is being braised factually in accordance with Chris Ridder
(1996) “The prognosis is startlingly grim and consistent across a broad range of
studies - about 2% will attain normal functioning, with perhaps 30% labeled "high-
functioning autistic." These high-functioning autistics generally show some oddities of
behavior, have a tough time relating to others.” The same finding goes with Multer
(2006) as he presently stated that “Highly functioning Children with Autism and
Asperger Syndrome are highly advanced academically. But the behaviors brought
about by the disorder prevent them from being able to function in a regular classroom
– or even to communicate well with others.”

Development of Assessment Tools

The development of Assessment tools has been in great need for some time now.
Although these children are intellectually ready for regular school, behavioral deficits and

33
social immaturity must be dwelled on. A change in views and assessments has been in
focus for psychologist but few have given notice other aspects cited here with. This
makes the diagnosis inaccurate acceding to Lori Fitton and Laurie Ford (1998)
“Unfortunately, many practicing school psychologists have had very little training or
supervised experience working with this special population due to its relatively
infrequent occurrence in the general population. To make matters even more difficult,
the criteria for diagnosing autism and other pervasive developmental disorders have
changed in every revision of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) since 1980.
Despite these complications, school psychologists are often the first to see these
children, conduct evaluations and make diagnoses. As a result, school psychologists
assessing children with pervasive developmental disorders need to be familiar with
diagnostic criteria and be prepared to use alternative assessment procedures to
compliment traditional standardized testing in order to accurately make a diagnosis.”

The accuracy of assessments means more to it than it is given credit for. It gives
us the stature of a person, then knowing what track to pursue after the results of the
assessment has been made. Lori Fitton and Laurie Ford (1998) give a clear view on the
importance of assessment. “Assessments are typically carried out to assign a diagnostic
label or to determine placement eligibility. Domains such as communication, cognitive
ability, social skills, and motor development are often of interest to the school
psychologist. The ultimate goal of assessment, however, is to provide opportunities for
helpful educational planning. In some cases, it may be beneficial to know the child's
standard score on a test of intelligence. But it is more likely that descriptive
information about developmental levels and specific behavioral and social, adaptive
and communication skills will directly stimulate goal-setting.”

Establishment of the Behavioral Assessment

Establishing what type of assessment to use for mainstreaming highly functioning


children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Asperger Syndrome would dwell on what
would be the most beneficial at the moment and a tool that is not yet that rampant
amongst standardized test today. In lieu with the concepts of Steven Serrano (2004)
“Perhaps the most important component of workup is the behavioral assessment of the
child. At some point, the parents become aware of the child’s abnormal behavior and
seek evaluation, with either the family physician or representatives of the special
education field. By either approach, the child should have or be referred for an initial
visit by special education teachers who have worked with autistic children. If the child
has demonstrated need for special education services than these should be initiated
even while other diagnoses are considered.”

Consensus to Lori Fitton and Laurie Ford (1998) “Behavioral examples of each
symptom demonstrated how a young child or child with severe impairment might
exhibit the symptom as well as how older or less impaired individuals might express the
symptom.” The Behavioral assessment tool for mainstreaming highly functioning
children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Asperger Syndrome would be beneficial to
parents, teachers of both special and normal schools and special schools and to the child

34
afflicted with the disorder. It would somehow manifest the readiness of the child in terms
of behavioral aspect. Behavioral would be the most sufficient means of measuring
performance since it is one factor that is inevitable in each individual. Variations per
individual are predestined but these changes would somehow depict severity of the
disorder as well as the readiness for an individual for their right and accurate placement.

35
Conceptual Framework

Figure 1.0 – Conceptual Paradigm of the Behavioral Assessment for Pre-school Level
Mainstreaming of highly functioning Children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Asperger
Syndrome.

Behavioral
Manifestations

Subset 1 Subset 2 Subset 3 Subset 4


Loco-motor Comprehension Speech Conceptual

Behavioral Entrance
Assessment Checklist Examination

Readiness for Mainstreaming

It is believed that behaviors are inevitable to everyone and it does not exclude
children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Asperger Syndrome in this context.
Behavioral manifestations are the vital source of facts for this study. It encompasses the
skills and knowledge of each child that was presented both physically and verbally. These
behavioral manifestations was categorized into four subsets namely Loco-motor which
dealt with control and movement. Comprehension, which included understanding and
processing. Speech for verbal communication and expression. Conceptual for
specifications and perception. All these subsets comprised the Behavioral assessment
checklist which was the primary tool for this study. The line leading to the entrance
examination from the Behavioral Assessment indicates the relationship of the two tests.
The study used the Entrance Examination as the tool for correlation to establish validity
for the constructed test. All of which indicates the readiness of the Highly Functioning
child with Autistic Spectrum Disorder or Asperger Syndrome.

36
Method

Participants

This study was focused on handling Highly Functioning children with Autistic
Spectrum Disorder and Asperger Syndrome. These children would indicate that the child
is at par with normal children in terms of intellectual capacity and has moderate to
minimal imperfection with regards to social and behavioral aspects. Over all, the children
are manageable like normal children and know how to respond with minimal verbal and
physical promptings. The researcher limited the scope of the study to Philippine milieu,
within areas of Metro Manila. The study directed the focal point on pre-school aged
children, with age ranging from four (4) to eight (8) years of age. The researcher has
given leeway in the average age the children go to school with regards to both school
ages, which is the normal age the children go to school age and the mental age, which is
the measurement of the mental capacity of the child.

Estimation and Method of Sampling

Autism Society Philippines gave an estimate that five (5) to ten (10) Filipino
children out of 10,000 births are estimated on the average to have Autistic Spectrum
Disorder. Out of that number, only two (2) on the average are highly functioning or has
Asperger Syndrome. Given these statistics, the researcher aimed to have a minimum of
ten (10) Highly Functioning children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder of Asperger
Syndrome. The children have been specifically assessed medically and have been in any
form of professional/medical intervention. This ensured the proper intervention measure
with regards to progress and growth of the child with the right supervision. Along side
with the selection of the Highly Functioning children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder of
Asperger Syndrome, the research also had the participation of the Occupational
Therapist, Developmental Pediatrician, Speech Therapist and Teachers of the child. The
thorough selection of the participants in the study made the researcher use a Quota
Sampling method for the research.

All those who participated in the study are free-willed and are under a strict
confidentiality agreement with the researcher. All results will only be opened with proper
consent from the parents/guardian of the children.

Materials/Instruments

In an effort to further help the children with Autism and Asperger Syndrome, the
researcher came up with the formulated test to be able to aid placement and further
understand specific variables for them. In the last two decades the interest in the
psychosocial development of young children has increased considerably. Not only have
new theories and fields of research on the social and emotional development emerged
also behavioral and emotional problems specific to this age range have received more
attention than before according to the study of Verhulst and Boosma (1997).

37
Test Construction

Following these notions on behavioral dimensions, the researcher jumbled


different concepts and came up with Four Subsets: LOCO-MOTOR,
COMPREHENSION, SPEECH and CONCEPTUAL. These four subsets comprised the
Behavioral Assessment Checklist. Each subset was composed of minimum of five (5)
items. Each item is carefully designed to cater children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder
and Asperger Syndrome. The test was aimed to have at least 20 items in total with a three
(3) multiple choice coding of Excellent, Fair and Poor following a point system of two
(2), one (1), zero (0) as follows.

Establishing Subsets

Loco-motor dealt with precision movements and skills that can be used
accordingly in a school setting, like writing, sitting, walking and the likes.
Comprehension focused on the intellectual capacity translated to behaviors like following
the right command, pinpointing of objects, assertiveness and grouping or chunking.
Speech on the other hand dealt with verbal communication such as expression, recitation
and repetition. Conceptual dealt with basic information, identification and specifications.
All these subsets entailed careful observation and reports of a certified professional such
as a Developmental Pediatrician, Occupational therapist or a Teacher.

Scoring

The scoring was based on the panels rating on each child. Excellent was given a
score of three (3) which described that the child did the task with no or very minimal
verbal promptings, with no mistake. Average was given a score of two (2) to the child
with minimal to moderate verbal and physical promptings, who got one (1) mistake for
the task given. Fair would be rated as one (1) which would sum to a child who performed
the task with continuous verbal and physical promptings. Poor on the other hand was
given a score of zero (0) which meant that the child did not at all perform the task with
any aid of physical and verbal promptings whatsoever. Total score defined the readiness
of the child, which was based on the rating scale of the Behavioral Assessment.

Rubrics and Rating Scale

To ensure consistency between the raters of the respondents, the researcher came
up with a specific Rubric that was used to guide the rater for proper scoring. After such,
the scores were tallied and were compared to the rating scale also created by the
researcher. There were four (4) ratings on the said scale. This included Exemplary,
Middling, Conditional, and Needs Progress. Exemplary guaranteed at least 85% in the
Behavioral Assessment Checklist was performed by the child. Middling performed at
least at least 70% in the total score. Conditional meant that the child excelled to only a
specific part of the test and would need progress hereafter. The child must get at least

38
50% of the task well. 49% below was given a Needs Progress. The rating scale is based
on a 20-item Behavioral Assessment.

Research Design

The design of the study is test construction. Development of the tool meant
careful treatment of facts to ensure reliability and validity of the Behavioral Assessment.
The test results were tallied and the researcher computed for the reliability was computed
by inter-item consistency using the Intraclass Consistency Coefficient statistical analysis
and validity was computed via correlation method between the Behavioral Assessment
and Entrance Examination that of which a mainstream school uses. Also, the observation
is vital for proper handling of facts gathered. The researcher focused on the behavioral
manifestations of 10 random pre-school aged children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder
and Asperger Syndrome with regards to the consistency and predictive tendencies.
Through this study the researcher was able to investigate on Autism more closely and
what are the underlying effects to their progress and development. With these procedures,
the researcher had enough means to check reliability and validity of the Behavioral
Assessment. The computation of the reliability and validity of the Behavioral Assessment
was the last procedure for the study.

Procedure

Behavioral Assessment: Construction

The researcher designed the Behavioral Assessment as an aid to the ever growing
needs of Autism with regards to mainstreaming as according to Bowe (1995) and other
more researches in putting these children in a conventional school. The researcher
carefully mastered through behavioral manifestations very prominent to that of preschool
aged children via interviews and research mostly to Philippine based preschools and
daycares.

Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Aspeger Syndrome: Screening

After construction of the Behavioral Assessment, screening was the next step of
this research. The researcher limited the scope of the study to Pre-school aged Highly
Functioning children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder or Asperger Syndrome. Next was
the background study of the educational intervention of each child.

Test Administration

All the children underwent the administration of the Behavioral Assessment by


the researcher. The researcher conducted the study individually per child. This was to
control the environment and the extraneous variables that would affect the results and the
behaviors of the child. Each child was asked to perform a series of talks all depending on
the Behavioral Assessment.

39
Panel of Raters

A panel of raters was chosen and answered the Behavioral Assessment. It was
advised that the rater must be a professional like a Developmental Pediatrician or an
Occupational Therapist, thus ensuring that they have correct and in-lined background
with the special needs and considerations for the children and also proper handling of
data to be put in the material. After which, they assessed each child based on the
behaviors as to how well they did via the Rubrics and the Rating Scale designed
specifically by the researcher for the Behavioral Assessment.

Panelists of the Behavioral Assessment

Table 1.0 – Table of Qualifications of the Panelist for the Behavioral Assessment
Panelists Qualifications Practice

Developmental Pediatrician Has been a Developmental


Pediatrician for almost 23 years
Panelists Specializes in Children with Autistic
1 Spectrum Disorder and Attention Deficit Has been specializing in Autistic
Hyper-activity Disorder Spectrum Disorder and Attention
Deficit Hyper-activity Disorder
Dr. A Doctor-on-call of a Special School for for 17 years
Autism.
Has been in the School for
Does curriculum and individualized Autism for 11 years
programs for Children with Autistic
Spectrum Disorder

Graduate of De La Salle University Went under training for 6 months

Panelist Bachelor of Science in Psychology Attended Autism convention in


2 Major in Behavioral Science Malaysia

Currently taking up Masteral Degree Has been teaching for 3 years in


Ms. B a Special School for Autism
Training to handle children with Autistic
Spectrum Disorder Specializes in Individualized
Programs
Teacher in a Special School For Autism

40
Panelist Graduate of University of Santo TomasHas been handling motor skills
3 and Speech Therapy sessions of
Occupational and Speech therapist of the children with Autistic
Special School for Autism Spectrum Disorder in the Special
Mr. C School for Autism for 7 years

Data Analysis

Reliability

The researcher analyzed the reliability and validity of the Behavioral Assessment
constructed for the use of this study. Reliability was measured through careful
observation of the behaviors of the children. The consistency of predictive behaviors
amongst the children would measure up to a high reliability of the tool. The data for the
reliability was measured by the inter-rater reliability. It is the extent to which two or more
individual rater agrees. Inter-rater reliability addressed the consistency of the
implementation of a rating system known as the Rubrics for the Behavioral Assessment.

Validity

For the validity, the study used correlation for the validity by comparing the
Behavioral Assessment to the Entrance Examination the children took to enter the
mainstream schooling. The composition of the Behavioral Assessment was specifically
designed to pinpoint behaviors that can predict future readiness of the child in terms of
present stature in behaviors. With this, the study would compare the scores from the
Entrance Examination and the Behavioral Assessment if they were interrelated in some
way. By correlating the two tests, the researcher would be able to establish validity for
the Behavioral Assessment.

41
Results

Demographic Profile

The demographic profile of each child was used by the researcher for the
indications of to whom the results and test scores belongs. Due to the request of the
parents and guardians of the participants, the names of the children are withheld. Along
with the Behavioral Assessment was a waiver form attached for the confidentiality
agreement which the parents and guardians of the participants signed. Age of assessment
included in the demographic profile would sum up to the age the child was assessed by a
professional consult to have Autistic Spectrum Disorder or Asperger Syndrome. Age of
Entry would interpret the child’s age when educational intervention was introduced.

Table 2.0 - Demographic Profile of the Respondents

Preschooler Gender Age Age of assessment Age of Entry

1 Male 6 2.3 years 3.7 years

2 Male 7 2.4 years 3.0 years

3 Female 6 1.11 years 2.5 years

4 Male 8 3.0 years 2.4 years

5 Female 6 2.1 years 2.5 years

6 Female 8 2.3 years 3.0 years

7 Male 6 2.7 years 3.2 years

8 Male 8 2.10 years 3.8 years

9 Male 7 2.2 years 2.10 years

10 Male 6 2.4 years 3.0 years

42
Reliability of the Behavioral Assessment

The reliability of the Behavioral Assessment was measured by the researcher via the
inter-rater consistency. This type of measurement compares how similar or how close are
the scores given by each panel to the same child with regards to the rubrics also
constructed by the researcher. It would assess the over all components of the Behavioral
Assessment for the reliability would analyze not only the items of the tool but also the
rubrics of the scoring system.

Table 3.0 - Intraclass Correlation Coefficient

Intraclass
Correlation 95% Confidence Interval

Lower Bound Upper Bound


Single Measures .993 .981 .998
Average Measures
.998 .994 .999

Using the statistical software SPSS version 12, the researcher projected a .993
coefficient for single measure and .998 for average measure for correlating the scores
given of the panelists to all 10 participants. The researcher used the intra-class correlation
coefficient because to specifically caters to small sample size and it is used to assess
reliability for two or more raters. Single measures constitute individual ratings and
average measures uses the mean as unit of analysis. The coefficients projected high
reliability thus strengthening the purpose of the study to construct a reliable Behavioral
Assessment.

Validity of the Behavioral Assessment

The validity of the Behavioral Assessment was produced via correlation statistics
also using the statistical software SPSS. The researcher constructed the rating scale for
the said test. By using the rating scale of the behavioral assessment the researcher was
able to bracket the scores of the participants. The entrance examination on the other hand
was given two types of rating which was passed and failed, with that the researcher
assigned a numeric value as follows; passed being 1 and failed being 0. The rating scale
for the Behavioral Assessment was comprised of 4 ratings, to level it at par with the
numeric system of the entrance examination, the researcher assigned the top 2 ratings as
1 and last two ratings as 0.

43
Table 4.0 – Validity statistics of Correlation of Behavioral Assessment and Entrance
Examination

Correlations

VAR000 VAR0000
01 2
VAR00001 Pearson
1 .764
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) . .010
N 10 10
VAR00002 Pearson
.764 1
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .010 .
N 10 10

The correlation coefficient equaled to .764 using the Pearson correlation coefficient
method. Given the high correlation coefficient, the researcher has proven that the
Behavioral Assessment is a valid tool to measure the readiness of a child with ASD and
Asperger to enter mainstream school.

Discussion

The researcher primarily focused on developing a test that would aid majority of
the people who deal with children with Autistic Spectrum disorder and Asperger
syndrome. The Behavioral Assessment was constructed to measure a child’s readiness to
enter mainstream school. For this study, the researcher explored and interpreted behaviors
elicited from the tasks they performed and the data gathered was then computed to
exhibit the reliability and validity coefficient of the Behavioral Assessment.

The researcher specifically chose 10 highly functioning pre-school aged children


with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Asperger syndrome as respondents for this study. It
is with those kinds of children that the study would gain more knowledge due to less
complex behavioral abnormalities with younger children with ASD and Asperger. But
since one major deficiency of the children inflicted with this developmental disability is
behavior, it is expected that some children would not respond to the researcher’s
promptings right away. Because of this hindrance, the researcher needed to reschedule
meetings with the child and their parents to exclude any other extraneous variables that
might affect the outcome.

The main objective of this study is to prove that the self-constructed Behavioral
Assessment is a reliable and valid tool to measure readiness to enter in mainstream
schools. The researcher has put great effort and passion in order to achieve the outcome
herewith.

44
The reliability would refer basically on the consistency of the test scores given by
three individual panels. The Behavioral Assessment was tested for reliability by using the
correlation method of Intraclass Correlation Coefficient. It was preferred over Pearson for
the reason that the sample size is small and the statistical tool was designed for sample
size less than 15. Basing on a perfect 1.0 correlation and having a ICC coefficient of .993
and .998 respectively, the researcher can say that the Behavioral assessment is a reliable
tool

Validity on the other hand would fall on how well a specific tool tends to measure
what it’s supposed to measure. To elicit such data, the researcher correlated the score of
each child with the Behavioral Assessment to the entrance examination they took to a
mainstream school. Basing also on a perfect 1.0 correlation coefficient, the study
projected a .764 validity coefficient for the tool using Pearson’s Correlation. Validity is
set to be low most of the time, but the value of the validity coefficient of the Behavioral
Assessment is high that it ensures that the tool is in fact valid, and can measure a child’s
readiness for mainstreaming.

Conclusion

With the data gathered by the researcher, the following findings can be projected
that the Behavioral Assessment is a reliable and valid measure of a child with Autistic
Spectrum Disorder and Asperger Syndrome’s readiness to venture into mainstreamed
schools. This is strengthened by the high reliability and validity coefficient which is
statistically significant basing the projections on a 1.0 perfect correlation scale.
Reliability coefficient of .993 and .998 via the inter-rater consistency estimated by the
Intraclass Correlation Coefficient. Along side with this, the high value of the validity
coefficient predicted via the Pearson Correlation which was .764 also proves that the
Behavioral Assessment is indeed a valid measure.

From these findings, the researcher arrived at the conclusion that the self
constructed Behavioral Assessment is a reliable and valid measure of a child with Autistic
Spectrum Disorder/ Asperger Syndrome’s readiness to venture to mainstream school for
the reason that it elicited a high coefficient value for both the reliability and validity.
Through this tool, it would be easier to interpret and predict the readiness of the child to
be put in a mainstreamed school which could also increase the chances of proper
intervention and more opportunities for their progress.

45
References

Allik H., Larsson J., Smedje, H.; Insomnia in school-age children with Asperger
syndrome or high-functioning autism; Karolinska Institutet, Dept. of Woman and
Child Health, Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Unit, Astrid Lindgren Children's
Hospital, SE-171 76 Stockholm, Sweden, 2006

Autism Society Articles from www.vaporia.com/autism/autism.faq.full.html, 2000

Baird G, Charman T, Baron-Cohen S, Cox A, Swettenham J, Wheelwright S, Drew A; A


screening instrument for autism at 18 months of age: a 6-year follow-up study.
JAMA Child Adolescence Psychiatry, 2001

Bowe, F, Early Childhood Special Education, USA, June 1995

Chakrabarti S, Fombonne E; Pervasive developmental disorders in preschool children:


confirmation of high prevalence. Am J Psychiatry, 2005

Dawson G, Carver L, Meltzoff AN, Panagiotides H, McPartland J, Webb SJ; Neural


correlates of face and object recognition in young children with autism spectrum
disorder, developmental delay, and typical development. Child Development,
2002

Edelson, S.; Learning Styles and Autism; Center for the Study of Autism from
http://www.autism.org/styles.html, 2003

Fitton L. and Ford L., from www.kcsec.org/cr_autism.htm, 1998

Fombonne E: The prevalence of autism. JAMA, 2003

Hultman CM, Sparen P, Cnattingius S. Perinatal; Risk factors for infantile autism.
Epidemiology, 2002

McCarroll, M.; A Study of Autism- Mainstreaming Children with Special Needs;


Independent Inquiry Project ; Master of Teaching Program, 2004

Multer from www.uwm.edu/Library/guides/theses/bf9999.html, 2006

National Research Council: Educating Children With Autism. Washington, DC, National
Academy Press, 2001

Pierce L., from www.bu.edu/anatneuro/dcn/.../publications/fusiform_gyrus.pdf, 2003

46
Rau, J., Is it Autism? from Find Articles.
http://www.findarticles.com/cf_0/m0BGH/4_20/100805857/p1/article.jhtml?term
=autism, 2003

Riddler, C. from www.questia.com/search/teaching-autistic-children, 1996

Serrano S. from www.l ists.repec.org/pipermail/nep-all/2004-November/000401.html,


2004

Scott JF, Baron-Cohen S, Bolton P, Brayne C, Brief report on the Prevalence of autism
spectrum conditions in children aged 5–11 years in Cambridgeshire, UK, 2002

Suniti C. M.D., F.R.C.P.C.H., M.R.C.P. and Fombonne, E. M.D., F.R.C.Psych; Pervasive


Developmental Disorders in Preschool Children: Confirmation of High
Prevalence, 2003

* Journal Articles mostly found on PubMed.com

47
Application of Krumboltz’s Theory of Social learning approach to
career decision making: Attraction of Nursing course as a second
degree
Edel R. Domingo

The study is about what are the common answers of people to take up nursing course as their
second degree. There where six females and four male respondents ranging from 21 to 50 years old.
Questionnaire research method was used. Questionnaire was prepared in order to gather more information.
The participants were either interviewed one by one or by groups. During the process participants were
relaxed and comfortable and answered the questions confidently. Nevertheless, almost all the participants
have the same answer. The reasons why they took up nursing course were to have a stable high paying job,
to go abroad and for the welfare of the Family.

Every time we go to the mall, one see a student wearing their white uniforms.
First thing that comes into the mind is that they are nursing students. Nursing is a very
popular course here in the Philippines. That is why students who graduated from high
school are taking it up. This course has a large number of enrollees, many universities
and colleges are now offering a course in nursing. According to CHED (Commission on
Higher Education) about 20,000 nursing students graduated from 350 schools as of 2005.
Not only newly graduate students are taking up this course, also individuals who are now
working and already graduated from their first course are taking up a nursing as their
second degree course, just like in the article written in a known newspaper because when
you are a nurse we can easily apply for a job, get a high payment and can even go to
abroad where in the payment is much more higher. As they say, Nursing is your passport
in going abroad; in other countries they hire numerous amounts of nurses (The Sunday
Times, 2006).

Many employees are now taking up nursing because they want to improve their
lives and to go to abroad. Their age are ranging up to 23-65 years old according to former
Health Secretary Dr. Jaime Galvez-Tan. Board of nursing of the PRC statistics, since
2004 a total of 273 graduates of business administration, accountancy and commerce
have gone into nursing (Department of Education, 2005). Francis Cueto wrote in an
article, Many second degree takers are now a student of nursing, their first choice of
course which they have already finished not even related to nursing an example of this is
computer science, economics, journalism, political science and theology. Even doctors
are making a switch. Their years of practice as a physicians are ranging from 0 to 38
years. According to PRC (Professional Regulatory Commission) 4000 doctors are now
turned into nurses and have already left the country. About 4000 more are studying
nursing and it still depends if they would pass the board exams for nurses. Age is not a
hindrance to work abroad as long as you are able to work there is no problem (The
Sunday Times, 2006).

What are the factors linked to individuals why did they take up this nursing course
as there 2nd degree? According to one theory called the Existence, Relatedness, and
Growth theory (ERG), it is similar to the theory of Hierarchy of Needs with the

48
difference that if one need is not yet satisfied you can go back to the need that is lacking
without going down level by level. One can go back to the need every time you feel that
it is not enough. We all know that we human beings have a need to satisfy for us to be
contented (NetMBA, 2006).

One can also consider the theory of career counseling of an individual before
he/she chooses a course in entering the tertiary level. In this social learning, decision
making has a great impact in choosing a career. It examines every detail of your decision
to find out what will be the output of your decisions. An example of which is an
environmental conditions and events. Under this Environmental Conditions and Events
are some unplanned and planned influences that affect a person’s decision. It may be the
number and nature of job opportunities, training opportunities, rate of return for various
occupations, labor laws and union rule, physical events, availability of and demand for
natural resources, technological developments, change in social organizations, family
training experiences and resources, educational system and neighborhood and community
influences are some factors that affects a persons sudden turn choosing nursing as there
2nd degree course. However it may still depend on the individual the outcome of these
factors. The social learning theory of career decision made by Krumboltz, allows us to
know why people enter that course or occupation and why did they shift to another
course and change occupation. This theory attempts to know what is the impact of
decision making made by an individual through his decision making. This theory has 3
factors, the antecedents, behavior and the consequences. The antecedents are the physical
appearance of the person; his skills and abilities, the action he takes and the task or
problem he is going to encounter in making that decision. Behavior it is the act by the
person who makes the decision. The consequences are the action taken by an individual
to support his behavior having a result in doing so, the response that an individual will
make and upon doing so what are the impact of that decision that he had taken to his
significant others (Career Choice and Development, Second Edition, 1990).

This paper aims to find out what are the reasons behind taking up nursing
especially those who are working and already graduated are getting a 2 nd degree and what
are their common answers why they took up nursing as their second degree course. The
researcher with the use of the qualitative approach hopes to find a deeper explanation as
to what underlying forces drive people to enter into another or 2 nd degree, more
specifically nursing.

Review of Related Literature

Everybody can say that nursing is a trendy course today; there is a demand for
many nurses around the world and many people here in the Philippines are now enrolling
and are trying to pass the board exam. Not only students are getting this course but
almost half of the population, even people with jobs and also the unemployed are already
hooked in this course called Nursing.

Their ages are ranging from 23-65 years old. They say that if they graduated from
a nursing school they have a 100% chance in getting a job. Because of the demand in this

49
course many schools offering nursing courses but in the Study of DEPED and CHED
there are only 200 schools as of 2004 are accredited to operate and the other school of
nursing that don’t meant the requirements would be shut down. And in the last 10 years
we are exporting many nurses and it is closed for about 90,000 nurses who are now
working for abroad. Those who are nurses already still need to go to school for them to
have a higher learning or for them to get a degree (The Sunday Times, 2006). In the
article of Leonard (2003) that nurses still return to school for personal satisfaction, to
fulfill requirements for certification and advanced their career as a nurse.

Wooten (2005) said that in choosing a career one has to be interested in becoming
a nurse. How do they get into the field? First of all, they need to assess your basic
interest. Why do they want to get into nursing? Are they getting ready to graduate from
high school and always wanted to be a nurse? Do they want to go into nursing, because a
relative is in the profession or your family has a tradition of graduating nurses, and it
seems like the right thing to do? Nursing seems like a nice secure profession-the pay
attracts you? You've always liked helping others and you care a lot? Have you worked in
another career field and want a change for various reasons? Does the "nursing shortage"
make you feel like you need to be a part of the "gold rush," because you have read and
heard about all of the wonderful sign on bonuses? Thorough research still needs to be
done, before the decision is made to embark upon a nursing career. It can be also joined
with what Jooste (2005) said about having a career, in nursing, purposeful career
planning is essential if nurse practitioners want to make the right decisions about their
work in order to strive towards and accomplish a meaningful quality of working life.
Nurses should identify their career goals to be able to investigate their different career
opportunities in their field of interest and direct their work according to a work strategy
for years ahead.

According to James (2005) the population of students interested in studying


professional nursing has become increasingly diverse with a significant increase in the
number of men, people of color, and individuals with diverse ethnic backgrounds. There
is also an increased number of students who are choosing nursing as a second career,
resulting in an older population of students with disparate academic preparation.

But why is it that many people are still studying nursing, are they not interested in
their first choice or did they did it because of some factors and needs that they still want
to achieve. Here in the Philippines ages ranging from 23-65 years old are taking up
nursing as there second career. There first course is not even related to nursing and yet
they still pursue this course. There are some factors why people are trying there best to
become a nurse. Many unemployed or employed and students are now taking up nursing
as there second career, not only employees are taking up this course but also doctors are
now switching to become a nurse. There are many possible reasons and factors why
people are taking up this course.

According to Sczekan (1995) it said that “The occupational characteristics which


have drawn aspirants to nursing still characterize the discipline. A study done in 1973
questioned students regarding their reasons for choosing to study nursing. Responses

50
included: a chance to help people, variety of job options, opportunities for advancement,
job security, working with people rather than "things" and, being a member of a respected
occupation.” It can also include that in the ERG theory of Clayton Alderfer this would
fall under the social need of a person where in he/she would have a stable job. In fact this
is true that we need to have a stable job in order to for us to have security in our life.

Here are some more examples what causes people to take up nursing. Like in the
article of Nehring (1997) is said that “The shortage of nurses in the profession is
tantamount to a crisis” and Magner (1989), writing in The Chronicle of Higher Education
states: "The nursing shortage varies in severity from city to city, but is a nation wide
problem...On average, about 15 percent of the nursing positions budgeted by hospitals are
now vacant,". Another article according to Rupured (2001) there are 3 broad categories
why people are studying nursing. One is for financial and in-kind support to prevent
crises and economic instability. Information and skills to better manage the demands of
work and family and lastly is education or training that will lead to a better job. In his
article we can see that people need stability to have security. Maybe that’s one factor why
Filipino people are leaving the country to have a stable job.

According to Krumboltz (1990) in his theory the Social Learning Approach to


Career Decision Making, is designed to address the question of why people enter a
particular educational programs or occupations, why educational programs or occupation
at selected points in their lives and why they may express various preference for different
occupational activities at selected points in their lives. In addressing these questions, the
theory examines the impact on the career decision- making process of such factors as
genetic predisposition, environmental conditions and performance responses and skills. It
is posited that each of these factors plays a part in all career decisions that are mad, but
the different combinations of interactions of the factor produce the multitude of different
career choices that different individuals make. Social Learning theory is concerned not
only with how the environment affects individuals but also with how individuals affect
their environment. Just as large social change efforts have been successful in modifying
the behavior of organizations with regard to the recruitment, selection and promotion of
employees, so may they be effective in improving the quality of working environments
(Career Choice and Development, 1990).

Maineiro & Sullivan (2002) their articles talks about career shifting, that an
individual’s needs for challenge, career advancement, and self-worth in contrast against a
family’s need for balance, relationships, and caregiving, intersected by the person’s need
to say, “What about me?” “How can I be authentic, true to myself and make genuine
decisions for myself in my life?” and it also says that as people grow older, their priorities
shift. For women, the desire for challenge remains but is pushed into the backdrop to be
replaced by a new parameter—the need for balance. For men, the desire for challenge
remains longer and, arguably, stronger—but the quest for authenticity shares center stage.
While women worry about whether they should start a new business to achieve flexibility
and balance, men are concerned about developing a style that is all their own. Men
continue to seek work challenges while the more prominent pattern for married mothers
is to request reduced work schedules and sublimate their needs for challenge elsewhere.

51
By restricting their work hours, these married mothers are usually removed from
consideration for more challenging work assignments that might require travel to
adventurous locations away from their families or require more face time at night and
weekends. When men and women reach their thirties, and even into the forties, there is a
fork in the road. Men continue to pursue work challenges, while most women back off to
make room for the more relational aspects of their lives. Their article is all about being
unsatisfied from their present careers that’s why they changed or shift courses to fulfill
there needs. They also talked about as you grow older the priorities on an individual
change that’s why they also have the urge to shift to a better course because they fill that
there old ways are not connected to their new priorities (Sikolohiyang Pilipino Teorya,
Metodo at Gamit, 1982).

All in all, the articles are about nursing and career shifting mention that almost all
of the individuals are now taking up nursing because of the fact that almost all of the
countries are in need of nurses. Doctors and even employed individuals are now taking
up nursing because they have now the opportunity to go abroad. Not only because they
want to go to abroad but also it says that as you grow older you’re priorities have
changed and you look for a new challenges in you’re life. That’s why many people are
grabbing the opportunity to study nursing because of the fact that other countries are
looking and hiring nurses because they have a shortage of manpower and if you work
abroad you have a high salary which then you can say that I am secured. What is the use
of having a career orientation before an individual chooses his/her future career in the
first place if he/she wants to become a nurse after finishing his/her first course? There
fore this study is about what are the common motivators behind people who are getting
nursing as their second choice of career.

52
Framework

Fig.1 Krumboltz Instrumental Learning Experiences, General Model.


Antecedents Behavior Consequences

Genetic Directly
Endowment Observable
Special Abilities results of action
and Skills

Planned and Covert and Overt actions Covert


unplanned reactions to
environmental consequences
conditions or (cognitive and
events emotional
responses)

Task or Problem Impact on


significant
others

The framework is represented by an H-shaped figure. Antecedents include genetic


endowment, special abilities, environmental conditions; events previously happened and
the characteristics of a particular task or problem. Behavioral Responses as to
Instrumental learning includes cognitive and emotional responses, and observable
behaviors. Last are the consequences, and can be immediate or delayed impact to other
person who is involved and cognitive and emotional responses from individuals who
experienced when they received these consequences as there behavior. A person’s interest
in choosing and selecting his choice of career is based upon his past learning experience.
In Instrumental Learning Experience, a person acts according to his environment and the
result is to generate his own consequences. Environmental events in a person’s life are
not controllable by an individual. Some of the events in the environment may be positive
or negative. Genetic endowment and special abilities are inherited qualities that can set
limits on educational and occupational preferences; this can be included in the
environmental events in life. In Social Learning theory of career decision, generalizations
and ability of a person is the result of his experiences that lead him to choose a career and
actions applying for a specific job. It also stated that a person choose to enroll in a course
is because if that individual has recently expressed a liking for that course or
employment.

53
Fig2. Example
Antecedents Behavior Consequences

Marie, tall with fair Graduated from


complexion, eloquent Nursing and gets
speaker in Tagalog a job offer from
and English, good aboard.
memory, observant,

Went to college Resigns and decides to go back to Goes aboard and


specializing in IT college to take up nursing as her 2nd works in as a nurse
degree course. and finally gets a
good benefit from
her work and also
helps her family
financially.

Graduated IT Family
course. Gets a job becomes more
but with inadequate economically
compensation. stable.

Applying the learning theory of career decision shown in figure 2 is an example


of an individual that took up nursing as her 2nd degree course. Under the factor of the
antecedent is a girl named Marie with a genetic endowment of being tall and with fair
complexion, she has the skills of being fluent in speaking in English and Tagalog. She has
a good memory and she is quite observant. She decided that she will take IT has her
course in college. After graduating from college, she gets a job that fits her course but she
is unsatisfied because of having low compensation. She decided to resign to her job and
go back to school to take another course which is nursing. As the consequence of her
behavior, she finishes her 2nd degree course and gets an offer to go abroad to work there.
She accepts the offer and gets a good job there having high compensation plus with
benefits she can now help her family she left behind. The outcome of her decision
making is that her family that she left behind is now economically stable. By following
the theory of social learning one can see the step by step action taken by an individual for
his decision has a great impact in our decision making.

54
Method

Participants

The students who are getting their second degree course which is nursing are the
participants. Ages 21 years old and above is the target age of participants, coming form
an Institution from the south, a class of 30 students, 10 of which are second degree takers.
They where chosen because they where available during afternoon at the same time the
researchers free time.

Materials/Instruments

The instrument the researcher used is set of guide questions. This method is the
most effective means to gather, having clearer and better insights of the data needed for
the problem at hand. The instrument asked the participants demographic information such
as age, gender, school, etc. and the test focused more on the question why they took up
nursing as there 2nd degree choice. The researcher used a video cam or a voice recorder
for the focus group discussion.

Research Design

The researcher used qualitative method in getting the needed information.


Qualitative measurements are variables that cannot be counted it can only be described.
The researcher has a set of guide questions to gather the needed information. It is a
spontaneous conversation without time limit. The researcher and the participants will
have a focus group discussion; it can be a group of 3-5 individuals. The researcher has a
set of guide interview questions to follow in having a spontaneous conversation among
the participants.

Procedure

The researcher first identified the participants needed for this focus group
discussion; the students were from an Institution located in the South of Manila. The
researcher used a set of interview guide to get the information needed. The interview was
done during the afternoon because some of the students do not have classes and it is the
perfect time to start the conversations because it’s not that hot and not to cold for the
participants to fall asleep during the discussions. It was done in the classroom or at the
house of one of the participants so they would feel comfortable. Next is the researcher
asked the participants if they would like to record the conversations; if the participants’
won’t allow it, the researcher will respect there decision. After which the researcher asked
the group their names, age, 1st course for demographic information, after that the
researcher followed the prepared guide questions, it’s a spontaneous conversation
between the researcher and the participants. The interview has no time limit so that the
researcher can obtain all the necessary information. Once the researcher gets the
information needed, the data will be generalized so that the common answer to the
conversations that was conducted can be identified.

55
Data Analysis

The gathered information was aimed at identifying the most common answers of
the participants. Based from the guide questions and answer, the data was analyzed and
generalized into the most common answers. From there, the researcher knows the reasons
why the participants take up nursing as their second degree course.

56
Results and Discussion

Table 1 Demographic Information of the Participants

Student Age Status Gender 1st course Previous


Work
A 41 Married F Tourism FA PAL
B 28 Single M Med Tech. Med Rep.
C 28 Married F ----------- Housewife
D 35 Married F Business Equitable
Management Bank
Makati
E 22 Single M BSA, CPA Newly
graduated
, None
F 29 Married M Tourism FA
G 25 Married M Tourism FA
H 23 Single F BSA None
I 34 Married F BS Biology Housewife
J 28 Married F Public Health Housewife

The participants all come from a big university of the south. Their ages are
ranging from 22-41 years old. Six of them are Females and 4 of them are Males. Seven of
the ten participants are already married. Five of them don’t have any work. Three of them
are Flight Attendants while the other two remaining are Med. Rep and a Teller at a bank.

In Krumboltz Social Learning Theory of Career Decision Making, according to


him this theory answers the question why people enter a particular course or work in a
particular point in their lives. Under this theory is the Instrumental Learning Experience
General Model an H-shaped figure that represents instrumental learning experience. This
learning experience model is composed of 3 major components. The antecedent, behavior
and the consequences.

Antecedents: Genetic Endowment

Under the Antecedent are the genetic endowment, Special Abilities and Skills,
Planned and Unplanned environmental conditions and events and task or problem. In the
genetic endowment, special abilities and skills these are inherited or may be obtain in
their exposure to environmental events. These inherited qualities may set limits on
educational and occupational preferences. This is supported by a study conducted by
Tremblay and Gagne (2001) in which it was stated that genetic influences account for a
large proportion of the difference in cognitive abilities among youth and adult
populations The significant impact of genes on human abilities is now recognized by a
large majority of measurement experts in psychology and education (Plomin, DeFries, &
McClearn, 1990; Snyderman & Rothman, 1987 stated in Tremblay and Gagne, 2001).

57
For the participants the genetic endowment is negligible for them in entering
nursing as their second degree course. Student A answered “Kahit na 41 years old na
ako, mukha parin akong bata, nakakabata kase ang mag aral ulit. Super Confident ako
sa sarili ko kaya ako nag aral ulit.Hindi dapat pinoproblema ang appearance and
characteristics.” (Even though Im already 41 years old, I still look young, studying
makes me look young again. I’m super confident with myself that is why I studied again.
Appreance and characteristics is not a problem). Similar to her answer is Student E
“hindi ako nag second thought sa pag nursing dahil matangakad naman ako tsaka bata
pa ako kaya wala akong problema pag dating sa mga kaya kong gawin” (I did not have
any second thoughts upon taking up nursing because I’m tall and still young, so I don’t
have any problems when it comes to tasks). But as for Student H she answered that
“payat kase ako kaya naisip ko minsan na mahihirapan ako sa buhat buhat pag ililipat
yung mga patient sa ibang kama pero kase sa ospital naman tulong tulong naman doon
kaya ako nag go sa pagiging nurse ko.” (I’m quite thin so I thought that I may have a
hard time transferring patients from one bed to another but inside the hospital, people
always work together so I continued on taking up nursing.). This was supported by
Student I and F who happens to be the same as Student H “ maliit ako, 5 flat lang ako
kase, naiisip ko na mahihirapan ako sa mga ganoong bagay tulad ng pagsabit ng IV at
sa mga buhat pero nung nakita ko na may mas maliit pa pala sakin na naging nurse, nag
pursige na din ako mag nursing dahil may mas maliit pa pala sakin eh.” (I’m only 5 feet,
so I thought that I will have a hard time with tasks like the placement of the IV and
carrying of patients but I saw someone that was smaller than me so I went on ahead in
taking nursing.) parallel to the answers of H and I, Student F also answered “Medyo
maliit ako, kaya nag dadalawang isip ako, eh since na natanggap naman ako sa pagiging
isang FA, siguro naman sa pagiging nurse eh pasok ako sa qualifications nila.” (I’m
quite small so I had second thoughts but since I was accepted to become a flight
attendant, I thought why not?) Like Student A and E, Student B, C, D, G and J share also
the same answers “Hindi naman appearance ang hinahanap pag nag nursing ka, basta
kaya mo gawin lahat ang mga pinapagawa ok ka para maging nurse.” (Appearances
don’t really count when it comes to nursing as long as you can do what is asked of you.)
“sa Schedule lang ang nagkakaconflict hindi sa physical appearance” (The only conflict
present is the scheduling of shifts not the physical appearance.) “Lahat naman kase kami
matatangkad kaya wala naman akong nakitang problema para hindi ako mag nursing”
(We all have tall statures so I saw no hindrance if I took up nursing.) “Wala naman
diprensya sa akin, bakit ko naman proproblemahin yung appearance ko, age lang
pinoproblema hindi yung appearance ko.” (I have no problems with my looks, the only
thing that concerns me is my age.) And “Kahit na medyo matanda na ako, kaya ko pa
naman gawin yung mga task na dapat ipagawa. Age lang naman ang problema ko dahil
baka pag graduate ko eh matanda na ko baka hindi ko na siya magamit” (Eventhough
I’m fairly aging, I can still do the tasks given to me. I worry about my age because by the
time I graduate, I may not be able to use it.) Based on there answers, all of the
participants agreed that genetic endowment is an unimportant factor in becoming a nurse.

58
Antecedents: Special Abilities and Skills

Special Abilities and Skill may be inherited or may be obtained thru exposure in
some events in life. In the early discussion, three of the participants are Flight Attendants.
As we all know being an FA, they undergo training such as carrying heavy things and
attending to the needs of the passengers. The three FA’s answered “Sanay kami sa mga
buhat buhat dahil kasama yan sa pagiging FA namin, kasama yun sa training at pagiging
FA namin. Kasama yan talaga sa trabaho naman, wala naman kaming magiging
problema sa mga buhat buhat ng mga pesenyte dahil kayang kaya namin yan. Magaling
din kami makipag communicate whether in English or tagalog dahil kasama din yan sa
trabaho namin. Kami nag aatend sa mga kelangan nila sa loob ng eroplano.” (We are
all too familiar with work that involves lifting because being an FA, it is also part of our
job. Lifting and transferring of patients won’t be much of a bother because we are able to
do it. We are also skilled in the English and Tagalog languages because it’s already been a
part of our jobs.) Like the three FA’s Student B is a Med. Rep shares the same answer
“may background naman na ko sa mga gamot kaya hindi ako mahihirapan pag naging
nurse man ako” (I have a background on medicine, that’s why being a nurse won’t
become a problem.) while the remaining participants, most of them are housewives since
they all have kids they too have a background on how to take care of people.

Antecedents: Planned and Unplanned Environmental Conditions or Events

Planned and Unplanned environmental conditions or events, these factors are


generally outside the control of ones individual. This can be supported by the answer of
Student A “My dream before was to travel to different places, but being an FA becomes
boring and since asa ibang lugar kami parati and asa airplane, life is always at risk. Life
here becomes harder here in the Philippines, I want to have a good life in the states for
my children” (My dream before was to travel to different places, but being an FA
becomes boring and since I’m always away and on the airplane, my life is constantly at
risk. Life becomes harder here in the Philippines, I want to have a good life in the states
for my children.) not only Student A answered but it was supported by Students F and G
“Dream din naming na makapagtravel sa ibat ibang bansa kaya nga lang nakakapagod
at mababa din yung sweldo, naging immigrant kase ang parent ko sa states at doon na
sila nakatira kaya gusto ko na din mag settle doon kasama nila” (Our dream is also to
travel but it takes too much effort and is a low source of income, my parents became
immigrants in the states so I also want to settle down there with them.) as for Student G
“Hindi kase sapat sa family ko yung kinikita ko tsaka gusto mabigay lahat ng kailangan
nila at kung ano mas ikabubuti ng buhay naming, financial talaga ang reason ko kaya
ako nag nursing.” (My income is not enough to support my family and I want to give
them everything they need. I really want our life to be better. My reason for taking up
nursing is purely financial.) Like Student D also share the same answer “Mababa lang
kase ang sweldo talaga dito, gusto ko kase mabigyan ng magandang future mga anak ko
tsaka immigrant na family ko sa states and RN sila doon. Wala naman akong maisip na
ibang paraan kung hindi magnursing para makasunod kami ng mga anak ko doon” (The
source of income here is very low and I want to give my children a better future also my
family is in the states and are RN. I can’t think of any other way rather than nursing so I

59
can go there with my children.) Student E answered a bit like the those who are already
mentioned “Nag punta akong states and I saw kung ano ang buhay ng mga Filipino RN
doon. Gusto ko maging lawyer kaya hindi ko alam kung aasenso pa ba ko kung hangang
ngayon ay mag aaral pa ako ng law, sa states kase nurses ang madaling makakuha ng
work, wala naman siguro sa atin na gusto ng simpleng buhay diba?” (When I went to the
States, I saw the life of the Filipino RN there. I want to become a lawyer but I don’t know
if I would still be able to succeed if up to now I am still studying law, in the US, nurses
can easily get jobs. Why would anyone want a simple life?) Like Student E, Student H
also has no work at present times, “Ate ko kase andun na sa states, pinipilit niya ako mag
nursing para makapunta din ako doon, kaya ako nag nursing dahil para magkaroon na
ko ng work at para andun na kami lahat sa states mag settle.” (My older sister is already
there abroad, and she forced me to take up nursing so I can follow, I also took up nursing
so that I could easily land a job there at to be with my family.) Unlike Student J their
whole family is already in the states, they only came home here to study nursing because
“Madaming work sa states kaya nga lang hindi ganoon kaganda yung nakukuha kong
work, hindi kase ako satisfied sa buhay ko doon kaya ako umuwi dito para mag aral ng
nursing baka sakaling palarin ako sa pag kuha ng magandang work doon sa states"
(There are many jobs abroad but I keep landing the ones I don’t like and I’m not satisfied
with my life there, so I went back to the Philippines to study nursing so that I can be able
to get a good job back abroad.)

Antecedents: Task or Problem

The last box in the Antecedent is the Task or problem, this are the difficulties that
the students encountered From Student A up to J they all took up nursing, some of them
are still working and answered “Pinagsabay naming yung work at ng pag aaral kaya
mahirap din minsan at nagkakagulo ang schedule namin” (We simultaneously took up
nursing and our jobs that’s why sometimes our schedule gets mixed up.) but as for those
who doesn’t have any work “Wala naman mahirap sa schedule naming kase wala naman
ibang kasabay yung school wala din naman kaming trabaho pa, kaya madali lang ayusin
yung schedule” (We don’t have problems with our schedule because we don’t have any
work so it’s easier to fix our time.)

Behaviors: Covert and Overt Actions

Behaviors are the covert and emotional responses as well as observable behaviors.
These are the actions taken by an individual in response to their problem at hand, like the
answer of Student B he took nursing as his second degree course because “Nursing
nalang kase mahirap parin pag ibang course din ang kukunin ko” (I chose Nursing
because it would still be as hard as the other courses.) Student C agreed “Wala ng ibang
course na mapapagkakitaan ng malaki.” (No other course gives out a large income.)
“Nursing is the easiest way I can think of” Student F said.

60
Consequences: Directly Observable results of Action

Now the Consequences, it may be immediate and delayed effect produced by the
behavior. Under this are the directly observable result or action, Covert reactions to the
consequences and Impact on significant others.

Directly observable result or action, these are the action taken by the individual in
which there are certain outcomes, it may be positive or negative outcomes. Like for those
participants who are working and at the same time studying, the only thing that is hard
for them is fixing there schedule because sometimes they have a conflict of time in work
and in school, but still manage to go to school even if they have work. But for those
participants who are housewives and doesn’t have any work they have no problem in
going and in fixing their schedules. We can see that there action to their consequences is
that even though they have work they still manage to go to school. Like what Student C
had answered “Schedule lang naman ang nagkakaconflict” (The only conflict is the
schedule.) but still they find time in working and in studying.

Consequences: Covert Reactions to Consequences (cognitive and emotional


response)

Covert reactions to consequences this is were the responses of the individuals


experience when they are the recipients of these consequences as the result of their
behavior. Like for example the response of the Student J she that “Madaming work sa
states kaya nga lang hindi ganoon kaganda yung nakukuha kong work, hindi kase ako
satisfied sa buhay ko doon kaya ako umuwi dito para mag aral ng nursing baka sakaling
palarin ako sa pag kuha ng magandang work doon sa states” (There are many jobs
abroad but I keep landing the ones I don’t like and I’m not satisfied with my life there, so
I went back to the Philippines to study nursing so that I can be able to get a good job back
abroad.) she even went home to study here, so when she come back to the states maybe
she will find a better job if she finishes and passed in being a nurse.

Consequences: Impact on Significant Others

The last box in the Consequences is the Impact on significant others. As stated by
Hairston (2000), other factors that influence career choice processes, family members,
particularly parents, are the most influential determinant of career plans, occupational
aspirations, and occupational expectations (Hines, 1997; Lee, 1984; Leong, 1995; Parham
& Austin, 1994 stated in Hairston, 2000 ) Student H said that “Ate ko kase andun na sa
states, pinipilit niya ako mag nursing para makapunta din ako doon, kaya ako nag
nursing dahil para magkaroon na ko ng work at para andun na kami lahat sa states mag
settle.” (My older sister is already there abroad, and she forced me to take up nursing so I
can follow, I also took up nursing so that I could easily land a job there at to be with my
family.) Her sister influenced her to become a nurse to so she can go tot the state with the
rest of their family. Resembling to the answer of Student H, Student E shares that “Dad
ko kase asa states na and siya and other relatives and kakilala ang nag pumilit na mag
nursing ako para makapunta nako doon and doon na din mag settle.” (My dad and my

61
other relatives forced me into taking up nursing so that I can go abroad and settle down
with them.) Like this two students the other remaining students would like to settle their
whole family there so they can have a better future in the states.

As you read this page you can see that frequent answers from them were, they are
immigrants from the states and that there job there isn’t related to the course that they
finished here in the Philippines. They also said that its hard to get a job in the states, the
easiest way to get a job there is to be a nurse. Family and their children are the ones that
motivated them in taking up this course. They want to have a good future for their family
and children. They want to have a stable job that pays a high amount of money that’s why
they took up nursing because in the states nurses are very in demand. They also want to
go abroad and lived there with there family. Some of them want also wants to help there
family here in the Philippines so they can have a better life also. In general they all
answered that they all took up nursing because of financial problems, they want to go
abroad and to bring there family there to have a better life.

Implication

The study was able to discover the reasons why Filipino people are attracted to
take up nursing as a second degree course. Based from the answers of the ten
participants, the main reason why they took up nursing was to have a high paying job and
to provide a bright future for their families.

Family is important in the Philippine society. It is part of the culture that families
are treasured more than silver and gold. Members of the family are willing to sacrifice for
the welfare of the family. They get strength and stability from their family. A typical
Filipino family consists of a mother and father with their children. The foundation of
Filipino families is to strive first and foremost for their families then for themselves.
Filipino people’s main concern is the well being and happiness of each family member.
Most especially parents they go abroad to endure long years of labor, hardships and
homesickness just to give their families a little more welfare and comfort Examples of
this are three participants who are professionals and still took up nursing as a second
degree course. Most of their attention is mainly focused on their families rather than on
themselves

The researcher recommends that not only 2nd degree takers should be the
participants. They should also include newly graduates from high school who are entering
college who will take up nursing too as to prevent immediate claims that Filipinos always
have that band-wagon mentality and to give due respect to those who really are fascinated
by the world of nursing..

62
References

Brown, Duane., Brooks, Linda and Associates. Career Choice and Development. Second
Edition. 1990.

Buchan, J, Jobanputra, R, Gough, P., and Hutt, R., Internationally recruited nurses in
London a survey of career paths and plans June 26, 2006

Gagne, F., Tremblay, T., Beliefs of Students Talented in Academics, Music and Dance
Concerning the Heritability of Human Abilities in These Fields, Roeper Review,
Volume 23 from www.questia.com, 2001

Hairston, J., How Parents Influence African American Students’ Decisions to Prepare for
Vocational Teaching Careers, Journal of Career and Technical Education, Volume
16, Number 2, 2000 from
http://scholar.lib.rt.edu/ejournals/JCTE/v16n2/hairston.html

Hsieh, M., Identity Development of East Asian Female International Students with
Implications for Second-language Higher Education

Jooste, K. The Career goals of nurses in some health care settings in Gauteng. University
of Johannesberg. 2005

Leonard, Teresa. RN to BSN- Advice on returning to school. AORN Journal. March 2003

Mainiero, L., Sullivan, S., The ABCs of the Career Kaleidoscope

Maze, Claire Denise Martino. Willingness to Serve Underserved and Disfranchised


Populations: The Influence of Registered Nurses Demographic and Educational
Characteristics and Values. Barry University. 2004.

Mcmanus, IC., Livingstone, G. and Cornelius Kartona, C., Attraction of medicine the
generic motivations of medical school applicants in relation to demography
personality and achievement Feb 21, 2006

Mitchell R, E. PA-C, The Internet Journal of Academic Physician Assistants 2004,


Volume 4 number 1, Evaluating the clinical preparation of phsycian assistant
versus nurse Practioner student and the Characteristics of their Preceptors, 2004

Nehring, Wendy M. RN, PhD, FAAN, FAAMR. Directions for the Future of Intellectual
and Developmental Disabilities as a Nursing Specialty. 1997.

NetMBA, ERG Theory, from http://www.netmba.com, 2006

Pe Pua, R., Sikolohiyang Pilipino Teorya, Metodo at Gamit, 1982

63
Rupured, Michael. Koonce, Joan. Bales, Diane. Moving the Working Poor to Financial
Self Sufficiency. University of Georgia. 2001

Sczekan, M., Caring for the care givers health promotion or nursing students, 1995

The Sunday Times, Nursing: open season for other professions, from
http://www.manilatimes.net, 2006

The Sunday Times, Nurses going abroad: We train, they gain, from
http://www.manilatimes.net, 2006

Throne, Sally. RN, PHD. Data analysis in qualitative research. University of British
Columbia Canada. 2003.

64
Effects of Conflict During Parent-Separation on the Adolescent’s
Self-Esteem
Juan Antonio A. Garrovillo

Family structures in the Filipino society have been changing. The trend of the single-parent is
growing more so by the day. This study focused on the effects of parental-conflict surrounding the event of
separation on the adolescent’s self-esteem. This study used a two-part test survey consisting of a parental-
conflict questionnaire and a self-esteem test, which was administered to thirty participants. All respondents
are children of separated parents, both of male and female gender. All of the participant’s parents had
separated during their adolescent years. This study is on the effects of these conflicts on the self-esteem
during this developmental stage. It concludes that parental-conflict during separation does indeed affect the
child who had experienced it. This study will show that the self-esteem levels are lower for the respondents
who had experienced more parental-conflict between their parents.

The family is the very basic structure in the society. It is in ones family where a
child is brought up. Here, the child will gain or miss the mental, emotional, physical, and
spiritual stability needed to live in a society. A child’s self-esteem is developed depending
upon their upbringing at home. Family structures are always changing now. Even before
the turn of the millennium, families have dealt with change brought upon by parent-
separation or divorce. Now there are so many people, so many friends who have
separated parents. This change in the home must have its effects on the child’s self-
esteem, eventually affecting the child’s behavior in society.

Conflict in families is normal. This is how children learn to deal with conflict in
the world outside. Depending on what happens in their family, they can learn to deal with
conflict well. On the other hand children may learn negative ways to manage conflict or
learn to avoid it altogether. Children are very sensitive to conflict between their parents
and they can be badly affected by conflict which continues after separation. Intense
conflict is inevitably detrimental to the children's emotional well-being and needs to be
understood if it is to be reduced.

The purpose of this paper is to first determine whether conflict amongst separated
parents affects the adolescent’s self-esteem.

The Filipino family is breaking down at an ever increasing rate and the fact that
chronic and intense inter-parental conflict is the usual outcome for separated parents
should be a cause of concern. This study is significant because it will help the Filipino
family understand the consequences of conflict in the family, and for Filipino parents to
understand that they need to maintain a positive outlook to help their children develop a
good self-esteem. This study will put into perspective in the San Beda community the
importance of having a strong bond within the family, a bond without hate and fear for a
better future for children.

65
Review of Related Literature

By the time children turn 18, approximately 50 to 60 percent of all children in the
United States have been affected by divorce (Furstenberg, 1990). Unlike some other
stressors, divorce-related problems (e.g., visitation, child support, parental custody) can
be ongoing sources of stress to children, even up to 8 years after the initial separation
(Grych & Fincham, 1997).

Both parental marital status and the parent-adolescent relationship have been
found to be related to adolescent well-being (Forehand, Middleton, & Long, 1987;
Buchanan, Maccoby, & Dornbusch 1991). Parental acceptance, interest, warmth, respect,
and closeness have been noted to be positively associated with children's and adolescents'
self-esteem (Bachman, 1970; Buchanan, Maccoby, & Dombusch, 1991).

According to research reviews (Amato & Keith, 1991; Grych & Fincham,
1992,1997; Kelly, 1993), children of divorce, when compared to children from dual-
parent families, exhibit more "acting-out" behaviors (e.g., aggression, conflict with
school authorities) as well as maladaptive, internally directed behaviors (e.g., depression,
anxiety, and withdrawal). Children of divorce also are more likely to perform less well
academically, have a lower academic self-concept (but not lower self-esteem) and are less
motivated to achieve. These adjustment difficulties are sometimes directly divorce
related, and sometimes due more to problems in parents' functioning.

Studies have shown though that parent separation is not necessarily the reason
affecting the child’s self-esteem but more of the conflict experienced by them (Dacey &
Travers 2002). It is not so much the event of the parents separating, but more of the
conflicts experienced before, during and after the separation. Such conflicts include child
custody, child support, finance of the child, time sharing, responsibilities, etc.

Although the differences in outcomes are clear, it cannot be assumed that parental
separation is their underlying cause. The complexity of factors that impinge on families
before, during and after separation indicates a process, rather than a single event, that
merits careful examination. Much of the confusion seen in media coverage, and even
academic debate about 'the effects of divorce on children' reflects a failure to distinguish
between separation as a process and separation as an event (www.jrf.org.uk).

The level and intensity of parental conflict is the most potent factor in children’s
post-divorce adjustment. Even expressions of anger between parents negatively affect
children’s emotions and behaviors. Research findings indicate that children exposed to
anger showed increased negative behaviors and effect. Exposure to conflict led to more
aggressive responses in boys and more withdrawal in girls (Brandt, 1998).

Research shows quite clearly that conflict between parents is the most critical
factor which affects children's adjustment after separation. Children who feel that they
are 'the meat in the sandwich' are the ones who are the most seriously affected by the
conflict.

66
If the conflict between parents continues, children may become distressed every
time they go from one parent to the other. Children may feel pressure to take sides. The
children may have ongoing problems at school, and, at worst, their development may be
seriously hampered.

Children who witness intense conflict or violence between parents are at risk of
developing long-term emotional problems. The effect on children of seeing or hearing a
parent being hurt is similar to the child being hurt himself (Hannum & Dvorak, 2004).

The negative effects of parental divorce upon children depend upon many factors,
including the age and sex of the child at the time of the marital dissolution, the amount of
conflict within the family unit, and the degree of cooperation between the divorced or
separated parents (Dacey & Travers, 2002). Each of these factors, alone and in interaction
with each other, influences the psychological health of the child and the ability of the
child to do well at school.

The manner by which parents interact with each other, both before and after the
divorce, may have a far greater impact on children than the actual divorce itself
(Hetherington, Stanley-Hagan & Anderson, 1989). Indeed, it is often difficult to separate
the effects of divorce from the effects of a conflicted family relationship. In this manner,
the negative effects of divorce may stem from pre-existing differences in the family unit
prior to the divorce itself, and these negative effects may be more related to the emotional
separation that precedes the legal divorce.

In general, children who have recently experienced a family dissolution have a


more difficult time with academic and social expectations at school than children from
intact families or established single-parent or blended families (Carlson, 1995). However,
there is much variability in children's adjustment to parental divorce. Under some
circumstances, children of divorce show only small negative effects that are limited in
time; and in a few circumstances, children show resilience in adjusting to the effects of
parental divorce. Indeed, children who thrive well in family dissolution are more likely to
report living in homes characterized by family support and parental control (Dacey &
Travers, 2002).

What are the circumstances of children's successful adjustment to parental


divorce? Children do better when parents provide consistent and coordinated co-
parenting in which they monitor their children and provide them with nurturance and
discipline (Carlson, 1995). Such co-parenting requires a problem-solving approach in
which the separated parents hide their own conflicts from children and avoid putting
children in the middle of parental disagreements. After the divorce, effective co-
parenting requires a business-like relationship in which parents avoid criticizing each
other in front of their children.

67
In psychology, self-esteem or self-worth refers to a person’s subjective appraisal
of himself/herself as intrinsically positive or negative to some degree. Self-esteem
involves both self-relevant beliefs (“I am competent / incompetent”, “I am liked /
disliked”) and associated self-relevant emotions (triumph / despair, pride / shame). It
also finds expression in behavior (assertiveness / timorousness, confidence / caution). In
addition, self-esteem can be construed as an enduring personality characteristic (trait
self-esteem) or as a temporary psychological condition (state self-esteem). Finally, self-
esteem can be specific to a particular dimension (“I believe I am a good writer, and feel
proud of that in particular”) or global in extent (“I believe I am a good person, and feel
proud of myself in general”) (Sedikides & Gregg, 2003).

Many factors are related to self-esteem development in adolescence; previous


research has focused on academic ability, social acceptance, body image, gender
differences, school environment, media influences, socioeconomic status, relationship
with family, age, ethnicity (Mecca, Phinney, Cantu, & Kurtz, 1997).

An adolescent’s school can have a significant influence on self-esteem


development (Chubb, 1997). An adolescent’s self-esteem development may be
disrupted by transition to a new school (Wigfield, Eccles, Mac Iver, Reuman, &
Midgley, 1991). This finding related to the interruption of student’s social networks at a
time when friends and peers are important to adolescent development.

Age, as a predictor of self-esteem, has yielded many different findings. Several


studies (Bergman & Scott, 2001; Block & Robins, 1993; Chubb, 1997; Wade,
Thompson, Tashakkori, & Valente, 1989) found that self-esteem levels remained
constant with increased age. Other researches indicated a gradual increase in self-
esteem across adolescence (Hirsch & Rapkin, 1987; Jones & Meredith, 1996; O’Malley
& Bachman, 1983; Wigfield, 1991). Conversely, other studies have shown self-esteem
decrease over time during adolescence (Robins & Trzesniewski, 2005) reported self-
esteem as highest during childhood, dropping significantly during adolescence, and
increasing again into adulthood.

Previous research on gender and self-esteem has been consistent. Majority of


these have found that during adolescence, females have lower self-esteem, and greater
depressive moods as compared to males (Cairns, 1990; Chubb, 1997; Martinez &
Dukes, 1991; Quatman & Watson, 2001). Maehr and Nicholls (1980) suggested thou
that gender differences might be due to response bias, in that girls tend to be more
modest than boys.

68
Conceptual Framework

Karen Horney’s primary concept of basic anxiety is defined as the feeling a


child has of being isolated and helpless in a potentially hostile world. A wide range of
adverse factors in the environment can produce this insecurity in a child: direct or
indirect domination, indifference, erratic behavior, lack of respect for the child’s
individual needs, lack of real guidance, disparaging attitudes, too much admiration or
the absence of it, lack of reliable warmth, having to take sides in parental
disagreements, too much or too little responsibility, overprotection, isolation from other
children, injustice, discrimination, un-kept promises, hostile atmosphere, etc
(www.wikipedia.org).

The child’s exposure to his/her parental-conflict affects the child’s concept of


his/her environment. During these years of turmoil in the family, the child experiences
these factors. If the conflict causes lack of guidance and responsibility for the child, the
child learns a life without guidance and without responsibility. A child who never
received affection from his/her parents would have trouble recognizing affection when
he/she receives it from another person. Lack of reliable warmth from parents can lead to
lack of trust or faith on others. Un-kept promises from parents can teach a child to no
longer believe in others again.

Adolescents Parental- Parental-


Self-Esteem Separation Conflict

Figure 1 Relationship of Parental-Conflict on the Adolescent’s Self-Esteem

In this diagram, the researcher viewed the parental conflict of the students as an
independent variable. It is independent because there could be multiple forms of
conflict between the parents. Also, the parental-conflict between the parents affects the
union between parents directly, thus affecting the child’s self-esteem indirectly.

69
Method

Participants

The participants of the test were thirty-nine college students, out of school adults,
and working adults with ages ranging from 18 to 30 years of age. The researcher chose
this age range because it is in the time period from the late adolescent stage and
continuing through to middle adulthood. All of the participant’s parents must have legally
separated during their adolescent years of 13 to 17 years of age. Purposive sampling was
used in determining the qualified participant’s.

Materials/Instruments

The first part of the test is the Parental-Conflict Questionnaire which the
researcher formulated. There are 18 items to this questionnaire. Here, the respondents
were asked questions concerning the family history, the time of the parents separating,
and the different conflicts between parents that the child had experienced. This has been
tested using Cronbach’s reliability test, and has a score of .658.

The second part of the test is the Self-Esteem Test, also formulated by the
researcher. The self-esteem test consists of 20 questions, all of which are true or false
items. The questions touched on self-image, self-concept, and self-confidence. This too
had been tested using Cronbach’s reliability test and has a score of .664.

Research Design

For this study, the researcher used a quantitative method of research in the form of
a survey. A two-part test was administered. The first part is a questionnaire asking on
respondent’s background of parental-conflicts, asking which conflicts he/she had
experienced. The second part is a self-esteem test, focusing on the respondent’s self-
image and self-worth.

Procedure

Before anything else, the researcher had to gather a number of participant’s with
parents who have separated. In doing this, the researcher had taken into consideration that
all participants’ personal information will be confidential at their request. The researcher
gathered all respondents from the researchers own personal network.

Once the researcher had the number of willing participants, the researcher then
facilitated the testing by email/messaging or hand-written tests.

70
Datal Analysis

The data gathered was interpreted individually, before the results were interpreted
as a whole. Once both tests results were interpreted, participants were divided into
groups. They were grouped according to the number of conflicts shared between
participants. Once they were grouped, and the tests were interpreted, then the researcher
was able to see the differences in self-esteem that conflict puts on a child.

Data gathered by the researcher using the parental-conflict questionnaire and the
self-esteem test was then analyzed and interpreted using the correlation method.

71
Results and Discussion

30 27
25
20
15 12
10 6.55
5 3

0
# respondents ave. # conflicts

Males Females

Figure 2 Average # of Conflicts by Gender

From figure 2, the researcher shows the number of respondents and the average
number of conflicts experienced. From the thirty-nine respondents, there were only
twelve male respondents. The researcher found it difficult finding male respondents.
Females are more responsive and more willing to participate in social experiments of a
sensitive nature.

16 15.75
14.56
14
12
10
8 6.55
6
4 3
2
0
ave. # ave. self-
conflicts esteem pts.

males females
Figure 3 Average Self-Esteem Points by Gender

From figure 3, you will see that the female respondents have slightly lower self-
esteem score averages as opposed to the male respondents. Although this could be
explained simply by the known fact that females (especially traditional Filipino women)

72
are usually modest compared to males, also the female respondents in this survey had
experienced more conflicts than the male respondents in their family. While the male
respondent had experienced on average three conflicts between his parents, the females
were exposed to over six conflicts between their parents.

35 30
30
25
20 15.8
15 12
9
10
5
0
# respondents ave. self-esteem
pts.

0-9 conflicts experienced 10-18 conflicts experienced


Figure 4 Average Self-Esteem Points by Conflicts Experienced

From figure 4, the researcher shows the differences in self-esteem between


respondents with less parental-conflict as opposed to those with a lot of parental-
conflicts. Fortunately most of the respondents were not exposed to too many conflicts
between their parents. Respondents under the nine and below conflicts range had an
average of only 3.2 conflicts experienced between parents. For the other 23%, was
exposed to on average 13 conflicts between their parents. Comparing the two groups,
there is a significant difference in self-esteem levels for the respondents. The group
exposed to more conflicts had lower self-esteem.

73
25

20

15
Series1
10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

Figure 5 Data Scatter Chart

Figure 5 is a representation of the respondents data scatter chart. The x-axis


represents the number of conflict experienced, and the y-axis represents the self-esteem
points the participant had. The data of all respondents have a correlation value of -0.35.

Comparing the different test results of the respondents, a few common conflicts
came about. The most common conflicts experienced by the respondents were of verbal
abuse. All respondents agreed to questions # 2 and # 4 and majority of the respondents
had been experienced conflict # 13 as well.

• # 2 One/both of my parents tend to bad-mouth the other.


• # 4 I have experienced one of my parents verbally abuse the other.
• # 13 One/both of my parents tend to bad-mouth people the other is seeing.

Conclusion and Recommendations

The results show clear signs of the effects of these conflicts on the children. The
participants that had experienced more conflict between their parents had significantly
lower self-esteem scores than the participants with less conflicts experienced. It may
seem to be small arguments and petty qualms at the time, but these have long lasting
effects on the child’s mental, emotional, and psychological development. These are long
lasting effects, which stays in the memory and the subconscious for years on end.

As for recommendations for further studies, a qualitative approach could be more


informative. The researcher could focus on fewer respondents. The conflict questionnaire
could be more elaborate with a qualitative approach. The conflict questionnaire could
have more choices instead of the basic yes or no choice. Perhaps with every question,
respondents could have more choices differentiate the intensity of every conflict.

74
If we now know the differences discretion and over-exposure brings about, the
parents must be cautious of the path they take on should they decide to separate. It is
essential to reach a level of civility in front of the people you care for the most. It would
be good even to have a business–like approach when handling these matters of family.
Head it with the right objectives in mind, putting the developmental needs of the children
first. Hold your own emotional instability in exchange for a better and healthier future for
your family.

75
References

Aldridge, J., Self-Esteem: Loving Yourself at Every Age

Amato, P.R. & Keith, B., Consequences of Parental-Divorce for the Well-being of
Children, Psychological Bulletin

Bachman, J. G., Youth in transition. Vol. II: The impact of family background and
intelligence on tenth-grade boys. Ann Arbor: Institute for Social Research,
University of Michigan

Bergman & Scott, 2001; Block & Robins, 1993; Chubb, 1997; Wade, Thompson,
Tashakkori, & Valente, 1989 found in The Relation of Age, Religion, Ethnicity,
and Risk Behaviors on Self-Esteem among Students in Nonmainstream Schools,
by Connor, J.M., Poyrazli, S., Ferrer-Wreder, L., Grahame, K.M. 2004

Buchanan, C. M., Maccoby, E. E., & Dornbusch, S., Caught between parents:
Adolescents' experience in divorced homes

Cairns, 1990; Chubb, 1997; Martinez & Dukes, 1991; Quatman & Watson, 2001 found in
The Relation of Age, Religion, Ethnicity, and Risk Behaviors on Self-Esteem
among Students in Nonmainstream Schools, by Connor, J.M., Poyrazli, S., Ferrer-
Wreder, L., Grahame, K.M., 2004

Carlson, C. Working with single-parent and stepfamily systems. In A. Thomas & J.


Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology Washington, DC: National
Association of School Psychologists

Chubb, 1997 found in The Relation of Age, Religion, Ethnicity, and Risk Behaviors on
Self-Esteem among Students in Nonmainstream Schools, by Connor, J.M.,
Poyrazli, S., Ferrer-Wreder, L., Grahame, K.M. 2004

Connor, J. & Poyrazli, S. & Ferrer-Wreder, Laura & Grahame, Dacey, J, & Travers, J.
Human development across the lifespan

Divorce and the American Family, Annual Review of Sociology

Doaj.org

Findarticles.com

Forehand, R., Middleton, K., & Long, N. Adolescent functioning as a consequence of


recent parental divorce and the parent-adolescent relationship, Journal of Applied
Developmental Psychology

76
Furstenberg FF Jr. & Nord CW, Parenting Apart: Patterns of Childrearing After Marital
Disruption, Journal of Marriage and the Family, No. 47

Grych, J.H. & Fincham F.D. Interventions for Children of Divorce, Children’s Adaptation
to Divorce

Hannum, James W. & Dvorak, Dawn M. Effects of Family Conflict, Divorce, and
Attachment Patterns on the Psychological Distress and Social Adjustment of
College Freshmen, Journal of College Student Development

Hetherington, E. M., Stanley-Hagan, M., & Anderson, E. R. Marital transitions: A child's


perspective: American Psychologist

Hirsch & Rapkin, 1987; Jones & Meredith, 1996; O’Malley & Bachman, 1983; Wigfield,
1991 found in The Relation of Age, Religion, Ethnicity, and Risk Behaviors on
Self-Esteem among Students in Nonmainstream Schools, by Connor, J.M.,
Poyrazli, S., Ferrer-Wreder, L., Grahame, K.M. 2004

jrf.org.uk

Kelly, J.B. Current Research on Children’s Post-Divorce Adjustment, Family and


Conciliation Courts

Mecca, Phinney, Cantu, Kurtz 1997 found in The Relation of Age, Religion, Ethnicity,
and Risk Behaviors on Self-Esteem among Students in Nonmainstream Schools,
by Connor, J.M., Poyrazli, S., Ferrer-Wreder, L., Grahame, K.M. 2004

Robins, R.W., Trzesniewski, K.H. Self-Esteem Development Across the Life Span

rcpsych.ac.uk

Sedikides & Gregg found in www.wikipedia.org, 2003

Wikipedia.org

Wigfield, Eccles, Mac Iver, Reuman, & Midgley, 1991 found in The Relation of Age,
Religion, Ethnicity, and Risk Behaviors on Self-Esteem among Students in
Nonmainstream Schools, by Connor, J.M., Poyrazli, S., Ferrer-Wreder, L.,
Grahame, K.M. 2004

77
Perspective on Leadership of Daughters of Political Figures
May Ann C. Lardizabal

Politics and leadership have always been closely associated. Politicians lead people in their
communities furthermore they are also parents who lead their families. The study wanted to understand the
views of leadership among the daughters of political figures. Before gender made the partition between
leadership but aside from this barrier, female began to evolve in terms of leadership and the factors with it
could be from within the issues of family. Political parents influence their offspring and adapt their skills
especially focusing daughters to be shared by four female respondents who are under the age bracket of 15
to 30 year old, all whom have political parent as well as exposed in political arena through their parent's
commitments. The researcher used qualitative method in trying to understand the factors related to
leadership perspective of daughters of political figures. Children of politician view leadership as an ability
of one individual to influence others and have power to guide all toward their common goal.

One of the most difficult jobs in the world is to be a good parent - to raise kids
and help them develop so that they grow up into happy, emotionally healthy, responsible
and intelligent adults who can contribute effectively to the world. Leadership too, is one
of the most difficult jobs. In the workplace, it is the job of leaders to help develop
employees, to assist them in growing and building their skills so that they can be fulfilled
in their work and be responsible and intelligent contributors to the organization.

As a leader and a parent one needs to know when to give an order and lay down
the law holding employees and kids accountable for their actions and when to be
collaborative and come to consensus about decisions and actions. As a parent and a leader
one will need to allow kids and employees to grow at their own speed, to make choices
themselves, and to make mistakes from which they can learn. But sometimes it is also
important for the kids and employees to simply follow the rules and orders whether they
want to or not. It is ones job to be decisive and to determinate which method is at any
given time, to project confidence in your choice, and to make sure your actions back up
your choice.

“Leadership is the process of influencing an organized group toward


accomplishing its goals”. (Poach & Behling, 1984). In this study, the researcher will find
out the opinion or perception of daughters of politicians regarding leadership and also
their experiences having a politician parent. The researcher also wants to find out if the
child’s capacity to lead is taught by his/her parents or they just imitate it. Or their parents
forced them to act as a leader or being a leader is a choice on each every one.

Through the result of this study we may learn how huge factor the environment
maybe in waking up one’s ability to lead. We will know the effect of the parents to their
children when it comes to leadership if they are only influencing their child to lead or to
act as a leader or the child just want to follow the step of their parent.

There are certain numbers of political families in history of politics here in our
country. Just like the Marcoses for example. Former president Ferdinand Marcos whose
daughter Imee Marcos Manotoc is now a Congresswoman. Another example is the

78
former president Diosdado Macapagal and his daughter Gloria Macapagal Arroyo who is
the current president of the Philippines. Another example is Senator Rene Cayetano and
his daughter Senator Pia Cayetano.

Political dynasties within Philippine Politics are very rampant. Most of the
Filipino voters rather vote known personalities as compared to less known candidates.
Carrying the name of known politician is a very good advantage. The goodness and work
quality of the successful politician parent becomes the shadow of their offspring as a
promising leader as recognized by the people. They are expecting the same or even
greater from the offspring of the leaders they admire most.

Female politicians started to capture space at Philippine politics when former


President Aquino stepped to rule the Philippines after the Marcos Regime. That was the
first time that a female leader started to run a powerful position as the leader of the
Philippines. Although there were female leaders elected as government official’s way
before former President Aquino, it is not very easy for them to just run and capture the
trust of people that they could perform the responsibility as leaders because the concept
of male politicians reflected as a strong from all leadership angles. Female leaders did
not fail to project their strength and courage as male leaders. From that, the acceptance of
a female leader became part of the Philippine politics.

The concept of leadership among children of politician is formed primarily based


on their perception of their own parents leadership style (Cruz, 1999) Being female does
not become a hindrance for them to aspire for public office notably, the number of female
law students has risen through the years even as more and more of them have excelled in
the bar examinations and, later, in practice. The law profession is no longer considered
the private reserve of the male apprentices who, after training by their mentors were
accepted and allowed to join their new colleagues at the bar. The bar is now open to the
ladies (Cruz, 1999) Television interviews of some female political figures that have
parents that are also successful politicians were encouraged by their constituents to run
for public office. These people believe that they will be as good as their parents.

Philippine politics is known by many as a dirty game. Many politicians live has
been ended by ravish and greed political rivals. It is not beyond our knowledge that there
were so many graft and corruption within politicians' ruling. As most of the Filipinos
wishing changes, they rather choose female leaders for a change, as what had happened
to former President Aquino; former president Aquino won the Snap Election for a change
from the dictatorship of Marcos.

The study is centered on the perspective on Leadership of daughters of political


figures. The research is focused and it involved female daughters of politicians. With the
purpose of observing the respondents whose parents are currently serving our country. An
area in Manila is chosen since there was convenience to the respondents and since the
researcher also is a resident of the area covered by the study.

79
In order to obtain sufficient and reliable information about the respondent’s
profile, a structured interview guide was made and used accordingly. The respondent’s
profile included age, highest educational attainment, civil status, number of siblings/ birth
order.

Generally, the study intended to find out the perspectives on leadership. The
researcher aimed to answer the following questions:
1. What are the different perspectives and opinions of the daughters of politicians
regarding leadership?
2. Being a politician’s daughter, what are the different experiences they had on having a
politician parent?

Review of Related Literature

Leadership

Some common definitions of leadership include the following: “The creative and
directive force of morale” (Munson, 1921 in Gedney 1999). “The process by which an
agent induces a subordinate to behave in a desired manner” (Bennis, 1959 in Gedney
1999). Yet another definition is as follows, “The presence of a particular influence
relationship between two or more persons” (Hollander & Julian, 1969 in Gedney 1999).
Still another reads, “Directing and coordinating the work of group members” (Fiedler,
1967 in Mitchell 1998). Leadership is also, “An interpersonal relation in which others
complies because they want to, not because they have to” (Merton, 1969 in Gedney
1999). “Transforming followers, creating visions of the goals that may be attained and
articulating for the followers, the ways to attain those goals” (Bass, 1985; Tichy &
Devanna, 1986 in Gedney 1999). And lastly, leadership is “Actions that focus resources
to create desirable opportunities” (Campbell, 1991 in Gedney 1999).

The most common definition of leadership is for a leader being a model for
his/her followers. Leaders are the pattern of the followers. The success of all starts from
the good leadership because the leader maximized each follower towards their goal. The
leader gives the right directions as per perfect timings. The leader should focus of how to
handle his/her follower as well as to be responsible for influencing all of them towards
their common goal.

Fred Fiedler’s contingency theory of leadership defined as the underlying needs


structure of the individual which motivates his behavior in various leadership situations
(Luthans, 2005). It is based on Adler’s definition of lifestyle as an integrating goal or
dominant purpose which determines the individual’s behavior. He believes that leadership
effectiveness depends on both the leader’s personality and the situation. Certain leaders
are effective in one situation but not in others (Luthans, 2005).

80
Parenting Style

Effects of perceived parental attitudes in childhood on the onset of adult


psychopathology are well studied fields (Kitamura, Sugawara, Shima 1998 et.al.). Within
a family system, children adopt roles to fit into the family (Alford, 1998). Parental
substance imparts the normal role definition within the family constellation (Alford,
1998). Parental attitudes and orchestration of the situation have also been suggested
important factors (Bischoff and Tingstrom, 1991). He conceptualized parenting as a type
of leadership that had significant influences on the total family’s group interactions and
that shaped the personality development of all the children (Dreikurs 1995). Given the
significance of a democratic style in the way parents are leaders and educators of their
children, it is surprising that few empirical studies exist that have investigated the
functional dynamics of these three parenting leadership styles in contemporary society.
Whereas studies in the parenting literature have tended to focus on methods of discipline,
the leadership processes described by (Lewin, Lippitt, and White 1939 in Hagaman 2000)
and Dreikurs (1995) consider discipline at home as only part of broader considerations
that focus on family styles of decision-making and governance.

Birth Order

Empirical evidence suggests that the amount of process or outcome feedback an


individual receives may be associated with birth order status. This implies that birth order
based differences in parental feedback may contribute to personality and behavioral
differences that have been linked to ordinal positions of birth (Claxton, 1994 in Baaco
2006).

Process feedback involves information concerning how an individual implements


a strategy while outcome feedback concerns judgment of performance (Earley et al. 1990
in Claxton, 1994 in Baaco 2006). Process feedback has a direct effect on the
development, quality and use of task and coping strategies. Parents take the time to
explain to a first-born everything he needs to know and they have more time to make sure
that the child sorts out the knowledge at his own pace. Parents need to be more patient
and understanding when giving process feedback. Process feedback is more time
consuming to give than outcome feedback, as it is more detailed and in structured
(Claxton, 1994 in Baaco 2006). It relies on the child learning things as he goes along.
First borns, above all else, want to forge ahead (Groce, 1998). According to (Adler 1932
in Uy 2005), first-born children are subjected to excessive attention from their parents
and thus to pampering. However, this pampering is short lived. With the arrival of the
second child, first-born is “dethroned”. Now the attention must be shared with, if not
relinquished to, the newest member of the family. The first-born’s perception of
inferiority is likely to be strong (Burger, 1999)

81
Environment

In an environment where learning is transmitted from parent to child, and parents


have fewer demands created by a single child than several children perhaps first born
may be exposed to more process feedback (Bohmer and Sitton, 1993 in Baaco 2006).

Gender

Such a state of affairs is hardly surprising, considering the different treatment and
behavioral expectations for girls and boys, which start at birth. The motivation of girls
and the limitation of their choice to the traditional roles of mothers, homemakers and
consumers are set by society. Girls are held closer to home and socialized to assume these
roles while boys are encouraged to take initiative and act independently (Bem and Bem,
1971 in Uy 2005). Sex specific behavioral expectations are carried on into adulthood with
established roles for men and women.

82
Theoretical Framework

The concept of leadership remains largely elusive and enigmatic. Critics have
made them aware of a range of scientific deficiencies that have plagued relevant theories
and research, citing poor methodology, conceptual problems, definitional ambiguities,
inappropriate focus, and lack of coherence. and so on (e.g., Bennis, 1959 in Gedney
1999). Others have told that leadership is best construed as a mere substitute for and,
thus, is functionally equivalent to other, more mundane organizational arrangements and
processes (e.g., Kerr and Jermier, 1978). Still others confront with disturbing evidence
that their assumptions about the direct instrumental potency of leadership on
organizational outcomes have vastly outstripped reality (e.g., Lieberson and O’Conor,
1972). Finally, there are persuasive arguments that cause one to suspect that the greater
relevance of leadership as a concept for organizational science is that it is a
phenomenological important aspect of how observers and participants understand,
interpret, and otherwise give meaning to organizational activities and outcomes (Calder,
1977; Salancik, 1978 et al.). Despite these assaults on traditional views, it appears that the
concept of leadership is a permanently entrenched part of the socially constructed reality
that we bring to bear in our analysis of organizations. And there is every sign that the
obsessions with and celebrations of it will persist. The purpose of this analysis is to shed
some light on this collective commitment to leadership.

Lewin and colleagues (Lewin, 1948; Lippitt, & White, 1939 in Hagaman 2000)
described three types of groups according to their leadership styles, social climates, and
interpersonal dynamics, Lewin and colleagues studied experimentally created groups that
differed according to these three types of styles: autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire. The
impact of their work was far-reaching and for many years influenced research on
leadership in adult groups (e.g., Peterson, 1997). The democratic style, built on mutual
respect. This style of interaction provides for freedom and order. However, in many
families, schools, workplaces, and affairs of government, the methods of interaction and
problem solving continue to follow two other processes. One is authoritarian, built upon
obedience, in which interactions provide order without freedom. Another style involves
laissez-faire processes, built on neglect and/or indulgence, in which interactions provide
freedom without order. (Ferguson (2004).

The environmental conditions and events are usually beyond the control of a
person. This contains social, cultural, political, and economic considerations. Changes in
society have had an enormous outcome on the available career selections. Social
conditions also affect the availability of and the demand for educational resources. The
accessibility of education is manipulated by both social and personal factors, such as, the
extent to which a person’s parents assess better education and have the capacity to
provide financial support. The ability to obtain the essential education to undertake a
career is just one of numerous work-related considerations. There are a number of factors
affecting jobs and the job market over which persons have slight control.

Alfred Adler first introduced the subject of birth order. He used birth order “as a
basis for predicting characteristic behavior of individual” who fell into the categories of

83
either “eldest, middle, youngest or only child” (Greenberg et al., 1963). Birth order has
been found to be “an important and complex variable in personality development” (Gates
et al., 1988 in Baaco 2006). Usually, first-born often found as political leaders from their
early siblings and early experiences of exercising authority and leadership. This means
that they also undertake more responsibility than their younger siblings. Another study
found birth order could affect your career. Early environment enhanced competitiveness
predicts future attainment.

According to a reference in a study by Andeweg and Van Den Berg (2003).


Singletons and firstborns are the most over represented birth order positions in politics.
This fact applies to U.S presidents, congress, and state governors, British and Australian
Prime Ministers, and all offices of the Netherlands’ government as well as other
countries. This cross-culture achievement and leadership of singletons has a multitude of
empirically supported data to conclude that only children, in fact, have a consistent
advantage over other birth order positions, especially later born children with multiple
older siblings, (Roberts and Blanton, 2001).

This paper examines the literature on birth order, sex of siblings, and parent-
daughter dynamics to see whether the findings for male political leaders- also hold for
female ones. The findings suggest that first-born women, like first-born men, are over
presented among female political leaders as compared with their numbers in a larger
sample population; and that fewer female political leaders have an older brother than
would be expected to occur in a larger sample population. (Steinberg 1989)

Despite mounting evidence that first-born children are overrepresented among


incumbents in political office, there is no consensus about the cause of this
overrepresentation. Some stress the impact of differential parenting, arguing that the first-
born receive a larger share of parental resources and have a greater need to live up to
parental expectations. Others emphasize the interaction among siblings, arguing that first-
born children are better prepared for power struggles, having experience both as
followers and as leaders within the family. This study, using birth-order data for nearly
1,200 incumbents in various offices in local and national politics in the Netherlands,
found more support for the parental impact perspective. Singletons were also
overrepresented among incumbents, whereas middle-born children were
underrepresented. The data suggest that this birth-order effect is weaker among younger
generations and is more pronounced among women (Rudy B. Andeweg and Steef B. Van
Den Berg (2003)

Throughout history, many have come to believe that leadership is a traditionally


masculine activity. Judith A. Kolb (1997) talked about this in her article when she stated
that “Kanter observed that if women in organizations are to emerge as leaders, it is
important that they be perceived as individuals who can influence or motive others. A
look at research on this dating back to the1970’s indicated that there was a tremendous
amount of gender bias regarding women’s achievements in the business sector. More
frightening is that as late as 1991, much of this gender bias still exists as seen by the
following. A study conducted in 1991 by Shimanoff and Jenkins revealed the following;

84
“when we reviewed this literature we were struck by the prejudice against women.
Research has demonstrated that there are far more similarities than differences in the
leadership behaviors of women and men, and that they are equally effective. Still, women
are less likely to be pre-selected as leaders, and the same leadership behavior is often
evaluated more positively when attributed to a male than to female.

Bunyi and Andrews (1985) found that when males were in the majority, they
emerged as leaders 100% of the time. When females were in the majority, females did
emerge as leaders but not beyond the expectations one would have on the basis of chance.

85
Conceptual Framework

Figure 1. Diagram of the factors affecting Leadership

PARENTING STYLE

LEADERSHI
BIRTH ORDER P ENVIRONMENT

GENDER
METHOD

This chapter discussed the research design applied, the participants involved and
the instrumentation regarding the research, the procedure to get the research done, and
plan of analysis.

86
Method

Participants

The participants were four female respondents, ages 15 to 30 years old. The
researcher chose the range age, of 15 to 30 years old because at this age, people decide
their career paths. As of the15 year’s olds, being in Junior/Senior High School, students
at this stage decides for their courses in college to pursue as a preparation for their career
goal. If one of these students chose to follow the path of their parents as politicians, most
of them take Law, Political Science or other political related courses. Although some
politicians were late bloomers in terms of politics, there are still many politicians who
started young in entering the world of Politics?

Materials/Instrument

The researcher conducted an interview with the use of a tape recorder. Interview
guidelines were taken into account and dealt primarily on the characteristics of the
respondents. The nature of the research topic called for an interview where the questions
themselves encouraged free-flowing conversations.

Research Design

The descriptive design was used in this particular study. It emphasized more on
the explanatory approach on the specific topic. The research design applied enabled the
researcher to illustrate, express, give details concerning the topic discussed, and clarify
the conditions for data collection and analysis.

Procedures

The researcher prepared and secured a formal letter to each respondent, asking
permission from them for an “in-depth interview”. Also, the researcher assured that
utmost confidentiality would be observed in order to protect the privacy of the
respondents.

The place and time of the interviews are scheduled according to the preference of
the respondents so as not to interfere their daily activities. The interview occurred in their
respected houses. The interview was recorded via tape recorder for an allotted time of 30-
45 minutes to finish off the whole session of the interview in order to get the substantial
data.

The responses acquired were transcribed, analyzed and interpreted to ascertain the
different perspectives, opinions and experiences of the respondents regarding leadership.
The analyzed results and discussion of the whole study were stated further in the research
paper.

87
Data Analysis

The data gathered from the in depth interview of the female respondents were
analyzed with the use of descriptive statistics. The answers of the respondent to the
various queries in the interview guideline were examined. The researcher identified the
perception on the daughters of political figures on leadership.

88
Results

Demographic Profile:

Respondent # 1: Ms. A
Age: 22 years old
Educational Attainment: College Student BA Psychology
Civil Status: Married
Number of Siblings/ Birth order: 1 / Eldest

Respondent # 2: Ms. B
Age: 20 years old
Educational Attainment: College Student BS Accountancy
Civil Status: Single
Birth order: Only Child

Respondent # 3: Ms. C
Age: 15 years old
Educational Attainment: High School Student
Civil Status: Single
Birth Order: Middle

Respondent # 4: Ms. D
Age: 24 years old
Educational Attainment: Graduate of Hotel and Restaurant Management
Civil Status: Married
Number of Siblings/ Birth order: 1 / Middle

Basically two out of four respondents are college students. The other is a College
graduate and the other one is a High School student. The first respondent is taking up
Bachelor of Arts in Psychology while the second respondent is taking up Bachelor of
Science in Accountancy. Two among them are married and have children. The third
respondent is still undecided on what course she would take while the last respondent is a
College Graduate in Hotel and Restaurant Management. Ms. A’s father is a Political
Adviser of former President Fidel Ramos while Ms. B’s father is a councilor of District 1
Las Pinas City for 12 years and Ms. C’s father is a councilor of Muntinlupa City for 3
years while Ms. D’s father is a former Mayor in Kalawan for 24 years.

Discussion

Leadership

According to Poach and Behling, (1984), “Leadership is the process of influencing


an organized group toward accomplishing its goals”. And for Fiedler, (1967), “Leadership
is directing and coordinating the work of group members”. Just like respondent Ms. A,
respondent Ms. B, and respondent Ms. C’s perceptions regarding leadership who

89
happened to agree with the definitions of leadership by Poach and Behling as well as
Fiedler’s. The respondents believed and stated that "leaders should be able to guide,
direct, responsible and can influence their people, and can able to understand various
situations of different kinds of people." It is agreeable that the leader should be able to
handle people in despite of their differences whether they are rich or poor, literate or
illiterate, political allies or political rivals etc. Their understandings and views should be
wider and their prospective should agree to the majority toward the goal and for the
common good. Leaders must turn their backs to greediness. If they follow their own
interest, they are definitely stray into their purpose thus beginning to stray the rest of their
people.

All of the respondents also agreed with Bennis, (1959) which stated leadership as
the process by which an agent induces a subordinate to behave in a desired manner. As
for the leaders who direct their subordinates toward the right and effective path through
their goal, they should be able to mold their subordinates to behave in a desired manner
in order to achieve their goal at a right tract, right manner and in a right place. That is
one of the important roles of the leader; they should not just leave to their subordinates
their own roles but to allow them to understand and be guided to execute their
responsibilities effectively.

Respondent Ms. A stated that "a good leader should focus into desirable things
and projects for the purpose of common good and opportunities for the community". One
of the set platforms of the leaders should be of how should they stick with and implement
rules as means for guide toward the common good and equal opportunities to all.
Respondent’s answer agreed with Bass and Avolio, (1993); Tichy & Devanna, (1986)
who stated that “Transforming followers, creating visions of the goals that may be
attained and articulating for the followers, the ways to attain those goals” Through the
leader, the followers will be grabbed toward their goal into a strategic way through the
skills of their qualified leader. Respondent Ms. A stressed that “Leader should also be
just, know how to deal with different persons' level and have an ability to understand
them". Being a daughter of a politician, it is an advantage to engage at politics because
we are already exposed at the system of our country's politics."

Respondent Ms. B pointed out that" a good leader should be responsible for they
will guide, direct and influence their subordinates. They have the ability to answer and
attend the needs of their subordinates who are relying to them".

Respondent Ms. D believed that a leader should not just direct people but a leader
should also love and know exactly what they are doing. And for her, a good factor of a
leader is to have a “word of honor”, have faith in God and have “always put feet on the
ground”. Respondent Ms. D also agrees with Merton, (1969) which states that an
interpersonal relation in which others complies because they want to, not because they
have to. But for respondent Ms. A, the important factor of a leader is approachable, and
can understand the situation of the different kinds of people whether rich or poor. While
for respondent Ms. B it is important that a leader should have a lot of patience, and

90
should always smile at people. And for respondent Ms. C a leader should be a risk taker
and down to earth.

Parenting Style

According to Lewin and Collegues (Lewin, 1948; Lewin, Lippit, and White, 1939)
there are three types of groups according to their leadership styles, social climates, and
interpersonal dynamics. Lewin and Collegues studied experimentally created groups that
differed according to these three types of styles: autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire.
According to Merton’s Theory (1969), “Leadership is also an interpersonal relation in
which other complies because they want to not because they have to”. Like for
respondent Ms. A, Ms. C and respondent Ms. D, their parents support what ever decisions
they make and respects the things they want to do through their parents also give advices
and listens to their personal opinions especially when it comes to politics. Their parents
are not forcing them to enter politics that’s why their parents are considered democratic.
Since their parents used democratic type of leadership style, they most probably are
democratic as politicians. Nurture influences on how the individual reflects on how one
fees what is right and what is wrong.

Respondent A quoted that "my parents wanted us to become a politician, he even


requested that one of us from the siblings to be engaged in politics. He even suggested us
to take Law in college, but the final decision is within us. We decide for what we want.
There were times that our decisions are different, but my father was there to guide or just
to give opinions, the decision is still up with me". Being a daughter of a politician, we
already witnessed the routines and adapt their roles as well. We were advised and do
limited lifestyle as a part of a family who is engaged in politics." Respondent A agrees
with Dreikurs (1995), in which he conceptualized parenting as a type of leadership that
had significant influences on the total family’s group interactions and that shaped the
personality development of all the children. Her father influences her family group
interactions including interactions within the community as well as their personality. It
seems that they act as politicians as their parent in many ways.

Respondent Ms. B “I don’t have the chance to choose my own career just like my
course I don’t want to take up accountancy but my dad want me to take up that course
even though interior design is the course that I wanted, well, I don’t have any choice he’s
my dad” so that respondent Ms. B’s parent is considered authoritarian because her dad
did not gave her a chance to speak and to listen to her opinions.

Environment

According to Bohmer and Sitton, (1993), in an environment where learning is


transmitted from parent to child, and parent have fewer demand created by single child
than several children perhaps first born may be exposed to more process feedback. For
respondent Ms. A and respondent B they don’t believe that leadership runs in the blood
because for Ms. A “I came from family of farmers and my dad is the only one whose in
politics so that I don’t believe that leadership runs in the blood”. Same as respondent Ms.

91
B she doesn’t believe that leadership runs in the blood “we have so many relatives whose
in public service but I think my dad was just only influenced by our relatives who’s into
politics.” While respondent C and respondent D believes that leadership runs in the blood
because almost all of their relatives are connected in public office.

The researcher asked the respondents if they want to follow the footsteps of their
politician parent. Respondent Ms. A still undecided if she would run in politics but
respondent Ms. B and respondent Ms. C decided not to pursue a career in politics because
according to them “public service is so complicated and you don’t have privacy; your life
is open to public.” and also for Respondent Ms. B “I’m not friendly and I don’t have
patience”. In contrast to respondent Ms. D she wants to follow the footsteps of her dad in
politics. “Because just like my dad I also want to help many people and since I was a kid
I want to be the first governor in Laguna.” When it comes to decision making the
researcher asked the respondents on how their politician parent influenced their decisions.
For respondent Ms. A, Ms. C, and Ms. D they have the chance to follow their own
decision with the support and guidance of their parent. While respondent Ms. B’s
decision making are greatly influenced by her politician parent because according Ms. B
her dad is so strict because she is only child.

The respondent’s experiences on having a politician parent are having a comparison


just like they experienced having a special treatment wherever they go, popularity,
exempted to traffic, but being a politician’s daughter it also has disadvantages just like
they can’t go out alone or without body guard and yaya and according to the four
respondents being popular is also a disadvantage in their lives.

Gender

According to Bem and Bem (1971), such a state of affairs is hardly surprising,
considering the different treatment and behavioral expectations for girls and boys, which
start at birth. The motivation of girls and the limitation of their choice to the traditional
roles of mothers, homemakers and consumers are set by society. Girls are held closer to
home and socialized to assume these roles while boys are encouraged to take initiative
and act independently. Sex specific behavioral expectations are carried on into adulthood
with established roles for men and women. In contrast to respondent Ms. A, Ms. B, and
Ms. C’s opinions regarding women leaders are women is much responsible than men now
a days and people tend to respect women than men. While according to Ms. D gender
doesn’t matter in politics because “as a leader it is important that you know what you are
doing and you are interested.”
Respondent A quoted that "the advantage of female politicians, the padrino
system is lesser for women as compared to male politicians. The respect for women is
greater, and the friction between it correspondents or people is not that intense as of for
male politicians".

92
Birth Order

According to Steinberg (1960-1989) the literature on birth order, sex of siblings,


and parent-daughter dynamics to see whether the findings for male political leaders. Also
hold for female ones. The findings suggest that first-born women, like first-born men, are
over presented among female political leaders as compared with their numbers in a larger
sample population; and that fewer female political leaders have an older brother than
would expect to occur in a larger sample population. In contrast to four respondents
opinions, just like for Ms. A, she’s the eldest among them but her father did not force her
to be a politician, while respondent Ms. B is an only child her politician parent doesn’t
want her to be in politics even “SK”(Sangguniang Kabataan) he doesn’t want her to be
involved. While respondent Ms. C is middle her politician parent respects their decision
regarding politics and according to her no one among her sisters wants to be involved in
politics and their parents too. While respondent Ms. D is middle also. “For me birth
order is not important in politics even you are the youngest there’s no problem about it as
long as you know and you understand what you are doing.”

Conclusion

Many of our politicians today here in the Philippines are the sons and daughters of
our senior politicians. Based on the respondents, they were still given options of what
tract to choose weather entering the arena of politics or not, parents are just there to
support them while some are just discouraging them. Their parents are not forcing them
to serve as one of the leaders of the country. Not all politician parents do agree to follow
their footsteps as two of the respondents shared. Their parents do not encourage them to
be politicians like them. But another two from the respondents are being encouraged to
enter politics. This is how political dynasty is being formed. Family has a big influence
toward each member. According to all of the respondents, they almost live as politician as
they witness the services and commitments of their parents. They already see the
advantages, disadvantages and consequences. It is how the siblings will affect their
decisions toward politics.

Gender nowadays is not a hindrance in fulfilling government leader appointments.


The respondents are all female sharing out for their ideas of being politicians
daughters. In the Philippine political tradition, male run the leadership of many offices of
the government, but many female politicians starting to come up in the list. Our current
President Gloria Arroyo, Representative Imee Marcos and Pia Cayetano, are examples of
high ranking female politicians with the bloodline of leaders. They provide successful
image as female leaders. They prove that women could be good leaders too. Leadership
does not come with males only. All of the respondents admitted that female aspiring
politicians could be good leaders as our female leaders are now showing.

Children of politicians seems to view leadership as an ability of one person to


influence his people and have power to guide all toward their common goal.

93
Implication

Leadership is important in guiding and influencing people. A leader could be male


or female. Gender is not a factor in defining good leader. Aspiring leaders who refuse to
go openly because of being a female should go out and face the challenges of being a
leader. Our President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo who happens to be the daughter of our
late President Diosdado Macapagal proved that even the highest rank official of the
country could be run by a female. Discrimination among women should be stopped.

Voters should also watch out and vote wisely by assessing their candidate through
their qualities and capabilities and not by popularity only. All of the respondents admitted
that if a daughter of a politician tried to run for specific government office, there is an
advantage of being a daughter of a politician for their names are already well known to
the voters and carrying that name will enable them to be a mirror image of their parents.

94
References

Adler, A. The practice and theory of individual psychology. New York: Harcourt, Brace
& world 1932

Alford, Leadership and Parenting Style. New York: NY free press., 1998

Andeweg, R, and Steef B. Van Den Berg: Linking Birth order to PoliticalLleadership: the
impact of parents to sibling interaction., 2003

Baaco, F. L, The Relationship of Birth Order in Leadership potential and skills among
female college students of San Beda College Alabang, 2006

Bass & Avolio, Socialized Charismatic Leadership, Values Congruence and deviance in
Work Groups, 1993

Bem, S., & Bem, D. The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of


Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42, 155-162, 1971

Bennis. Definitions of Leadership, Leadership effectiveness and Gender, 1959

Bohmer, P., & Sitton, S. The influence of birth order and family size on notable American
women’s selection of careers. Psychological record, 43, 375-380, 1993

Bunyi and Andrews, Leadership and Gender Perspectives, 1985

Burger, M. J., Personality 5th Edition New York: Mc. Graw Hills Inc., 1999

Calder, (1977); Pfeffer and Salancik, Defining leadership. Definition between Leadership
and other social influences, 1978

Campbell, Leadership characteristics and gender, 1991

Claxton, R.P., Empirical Relationships between birth order and two types of Parental
feedback. Psychological record, 1994

Cruz, I.A., Selections from the Philippines Daily Inquirer column from 1995 to 1996, on
the constitution, Law, Order, Politics, Culture, Holidays, Reminiscences and other
topics, 1999

Dreikurs, R., Algerian analysis of interaction. Group of psychotherapy. 8,298-307, 1995

Fiedler, FE, A theory of Leadership Effectiveness. New York, NY: McGraw, 1967

95
Ferguson, E. D.. (20 concepts. Journal of Individual Psychology, 60, 3-24.04). The 2003
H. L. an Democratic relationships: Key to Adlerian d R. R, d R. R. Ansbacher
memorial address:, 2003

Gates, L., Birth Order and its relationship to depression, anxiety and self-concept test
scores in children. Journal of genetic psychology, 149 (1), 29-34, 1998

Gedney, The Leadership Factor. New York, NY: Praeger, 1999

Greenberg, H, Guerino, R, Lashen, M., Mayer, D., & Pikowski, D., Order of Birth as
determinant of personality and attitudinal characteristics. The JournalOf Social
Psychology, 1963

Grose, Relationships between Birth Category, Achievement, and Interpersonal


orientation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 41(1).121-131, 1998

Hagaman, From Leadership to Parenthood: the applicability of leadership styles to


parenting styles, 2000

Hollander & Julian, Definitions of leadership, 1969

Kerr and Jermier, Transformational leadership, initiating structure and substitutes For
leadership, 1978

Kolb, J. A.,. Are we still stereotyping leadership. Vol.28 No.3, 1997

Lewin, K., Resolving social conflicts. New York: Harper & Row, 1948

Lewin, K., Lippit, R., & White, R. K., Patterns of aggressive behavior in Experimentally
created & lsquo: social climates. &rsquo; Journal of Social Psychology, 10, 271-
299, 1939

Lieberson and 0’Conor, Management and leadership seem to have substantial Effect on
how organizational outcomes, 1972

Luthans, F., Organizational Behavior 10th Edition New York: Mc. Graw Hills Inc., 2005

Merton, Definitions of leadership. Leadership effectiveness and Gender, 1969

Munson, Concepts of leadership. Sample text for Bass and Stogdills handbook of
leadership, 1921

Peterson, R. S., A directive leadership style in group decision making can be both virtue
and vice; evidence from elite and experimental groups. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 72, 110-1121, 1997

96
Poach and Behling, Leadership effectiveness and Gender, 1984

Steinberg B., The Making of Female Presidents and Prime Ministers: The impact of Birth
Order, Sex, of Siblings, and father-daughter dynamics, 1960-1989

Tichy and Devanna, The nature and implications of contextual influences on


transformational leadership. Vol. 22, No.1. 80-109, 1986

Uy, J,. V., Social Learning model of career decision of selected female corporate
executives implications on development, 2005

97
Canadian Immigration: The Influence of Positive and Negative
advertisements on Skilled Workers’ Attitudes
Christian O. Lim

The construction of this research was aimed at identifying if positive and/or negative print
Canadian advertisements had a significant effect on Skilled Workers’ immigration attitudes. The research
was established because of the recent work experience of the author wherein there was continuous exposure
to print advertisements regarding Canadian Immigration. Forty skilled workers from the vicinity of
Parañaque, Muntinlupa and Las Piñas consisting and composed of 16 males and 24 females with ages
ranging from 20-60 years old were chosen as respondents for the study. A survey of the participants’ initial
attitude provided the division for the two main groups: Pro-immigration and Anti-immigration. After the
initial grouping, the participants were divided according to the treatment they will be receiving whether
positive or negative advertisements. Both Group A (Pro-immigration; Positive Ads) and Group B (Pro-
immigration; Negative Ads) contained 14 members each while Group C (Anti-immigration; Positive Ads)
and Group D (Anti-immigration; Negative Ads) contained 6 members each. After exposure, a second
survey was conducted to verify any changes in immigration attitudes. The t test was used to test the
relationship of the variables; and was found to be significant for the Pro-immigration group (t=1.800, and
27df, p > .05) and insignificant for the Anti-immigration group because the standard error of the difference
is 0. Then, Graphical analysis was used for the two groups regardless of treatment, where it yielded a
significant change showing that there is a possible relationship between the variables. The researcher
concludes that negative advertisements pose a significant effect on attitude but this only evident to some
extent and that beliefs and/or attitudes that are deeply rooted are almost impossible to alter.

Upon waking up in the morning, after all the grunts and sighs, you get up and
begin your day with a hearty breakfast; maybe some cereal, toasted bread, jams,
milk/chocolate and coffee. Then you go to the bathroom, wash up and finally dress up. In
that situation alone, we can already name at least a dozen products that we have seen
being advertised on the TV, radio, or on establishments and billboards seen on our streets.

These advertisements are the messages projected on/in the television, radio,
newspapers, magazines, billboards, posters, on the internet, and even through face to face
communication in way of stories and they influence everyday attitudes towards the
seemingly unimportant (e.g. junk food) to the most complex paradigm that shape
differences of lifestyle (e.g. clothing). But how does this combination of dazzling lights,
sounds and pictures bring about this change in attitude?

Attitudes are the positive and negative reactions of individuals to various persons,
objects, and ideas. There are two ways on how attitude is defined by social psychologists.
One definition is by the tricomponent approach wherein attitudes are a combination of
the affective component (positive, negative or mixed feeling towards something),
behavioral component (tendency to act in a certain manner toward an object) and the
cognitive component (evaluation of an object based on relevant beliefs, images, and
memories) (Judd et al., 1991 stated in Brehm, S. and Kassin, S., 1996) and the second
one is the single-component definition, an attitude is a positive or negative evaluation of
an object, expressed at some level of intensity (Brehm, S. and Kassin, S., 1996).

98
There are always two sides to a story, a positive and a negative view and how we
react to it depends on which view has a stronger influence. This effect takes place when a
process of persuasion occurs.

The Elaboration Likelihood Model by Petty and Cacioppo states that there are two
ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change (Adroson, E.,
Wilson, T. and Akert, R., 1994); one of which is the central route to persuasion, it is the
process wherein a person thinks carefully about a communication and is influenced by
the strengths of its arguments or simply put, the communication process takes a logical
and comprehensive approach. The peripheral route to persuasion on the other hand, is
this process in which a person does not think carefully about a communication and is
influenced instead by superficial cues. Any of the two routes can be followed but this will
all depend on 3 factors, the message, the source and the audience (Brehm, S. and Kassin,
S., 1996).

Taking Brehm and Kassin’s as an example, a car salesman (the source) induces a
couple (audience) to buy a car; if the salesman gives the car’s specifications and
performance (message) to the couple, the processing strategy takes the central route since
the argument is logically processed, but if the salesman boasts about how flashy, popular
and how the car fits the current trend (message), then the processing strategy takes the
peripheral route since the audience was only wooed by superficial cues.

Nowadays, one popular form of persuasive communication comes in the package


of immigration. Why immigration? Mainly because as we slowly progress into the future,
one can’t help but notice that most of the time, what is done to meet the standards of
living isn’t enough, thus people constantly look for other ways in which it is believed that
it will be better for them and their family. Immigration gives this choice. It gives us the
option to leave what we usually have for something better. But not everyone regards
immigration as a one-way ticket to paradise; some see it as a form of abandonment to
one’s homeland and some see it as a way of helping the country by giving assistance from
abroad. This causes a great divide, the Filipinos who are for immigration and those who
are not for immigration.

Because of this division, this research works with the hypothesis that there is a
significant difference between the attitudes of finance employees about immigration
when exposed for a certain amount of time with positive and negative immigration ads.

This research will test whether exposure to positive then to negative ads (and
vice-versa) will pose significant differences with the employees’ attitudes in immigrating.
It will make a comparison on to which kind of advertisement will establish a stronger
influence on an individual.

99
Review of Related Literature

Attitude components

As mentioned earlier attitudes are the positive and/or negative responses of an


individual towards people, objects and ideas. But then how does one come up with those
positive and/or negative responses? This is possible because attitudes are comprised of
different components, (Breckler, 1984; McGuire, 1985 stated in Adroson, Wilson, and
Akert, 1994). Specifically, the affective component, which comprises of the emotions and
feelings that are associated with a person, idea or object; the cognitive component,
consists of the beliefs about the person, idea or object; and the behavioral component, are
the actions that are taken into account toward the person, idea or object.

Earlier studies on attitude change reviewed

In 1999, Kocher reviewed psychological studies on mental attitude change,


wherein the experimental method successfully produced changes in people's attitudes
under scientifically monitored conditions. In most of the experiments that attempts to
program into people a different set of attitudes, opinions, or values, were rather limited in
duration--mainly because it's hard to get volunteers to cooperate for long periods in
scientific studies. Yet the experimenters were successful and changes in personal attitude
were evident. They weren't always large changes present in the experiment, but they were
there, and they were measurable. Certainly, there were people serving as experimental
subjects who did not show any attitude changes under the experimental conditions, and
under certain conditions a few people rebelled against the communications, changing
their attitudes contrary to the direction urged. On the average, most of the attempts to
produce changes in personal values or attitudes, crude and limited as they were--were
successful (http://members.mountain.net/theanalyticpapers/attitude.htm).

In l957, Hovland, Harvy, and Sherif did an experiment that studied the effect of
propaganda on people deeply committed to issues. They found out that communications
did produce shifts in attitudes along the lines urged. Although the participants were
highly committed (e.g. W.C.T.U. members are not renowned for being the easiest people,
in the world to approach on the subject of drinking), they changed their views to some
degree even though the exposure to the propaganda was brief
(http://members.mountain.net/theanalyticpapers/attitude.htm).

Changing Attitudes thru Persuasive Communication

Persuasive communication takes place when people change their attitudes when
exposed towards a certain appeal made for the person, object or idea. How are persuasive
communications formed? The Yale Attitude Change Approach by Hovland, Janis and
Kelly deals with such, stating that people are most likely to change their attitudes in
response to persuasive messages by the product of three factors: the source, the
message/the communication itself and the audience/the nature of the audience. But how
will we know when to stress the best factor? This is answered by the Elaboration

100
Likelihood Model by Petty and Cacioppo (1986) wherein there are two routes that are
taken in changing attitudes. The central route to persuasion is the logical and
comprehensive approach toward the communication given and the peripheral route to
persuasion is when a person is only influenced by insignificant cues. (Adroson, Wilson,
and Akert, 1994). Given the two routes, advertisers can then decide which of the three
factors they can give the most stress to.

Keep in mind that of the two routes, the central route is longer lasting and has a
probable permanent effect because it deals with logical thinking rather than the peripheral
route wherein the attitude change only exists as long as the cues remain present (Reyes,
and Ymson, 2004).

Exposure of Advertisements

In persuading consumers to buy a product or service, advertisers create product or


service recognition (trademarks, slogans, etc.); product or service differentiation (selling
propositions); product or service participation (promises made by the ads) and redundant
messages as to ensure that consumers will remember what was advertised (Jamieson, and
Campbell, 2001).

In experimental studies about attitude change, it states that there are two ways by
which messages are presented: active and passive exposure. Active exposure involves in
engaging the participant to be active in the presentation of the message. While passive
exposure only involves the participant’s reading or listening skills (Reyes, and Ymson,
2004).

In an earlier study by Hovland, his colleagues, Janice and King, they found out
that active exposure had a more superior effect than passive exposure. There were many
explanations as to why active exposure was more efficient than passive exposure, but in
relation to the current study, the researcher will be using the passive mode of exposure
because of the fact that most advertisements today are passively accessed (Reyes, and
Ymson, 2004).

Skilled Workers

In 2006, Canada experienced a vast employment growth by 345,000 jobs,


marking the 14th consecutive year of increased employment. The national employment
dropped to a rate of 6.1% which matches a 30 year low. In response to the demand of
skilled immigrant workers, the Canadian government will be increasing their funds for
immigrant settlement programs by $307 million for the next two years
(CANADAVISA.com, 2007). Each year Canada sets target ranges for each year, rather
than exact figures.

101
In 2007 Canada plans to admit between 240 000 to 265 000 permanent residents,
up from a range of 225 000 to 250 000 this calendar year (CANADAVISA.com, 2007). In
the Annual Report to Parliament on Immigration, 2006, the target range of 240,000 and
265,000 admissions for immigrants is mainly composed of the skilled workers category
with the lower range falling at 90,000 and with an upper range of 100, 500 (CIC Canada.,
2007).

CIC Canada defines skilled workers as “people who can become permanent
residents because they have the ability to become economically established in Canada”.
(CIC Canada., 2007). The following are the minimum work experience requirements to
be eligible to apply as a skilled worker:
• You must have at least one continuous year of full-time paid work experience or
the equivalent in part-time continuous employment.
• Your work experience must be in the category of Skill Type 0, or Skill Level A or
B on the Canadian National Occupational Classification (NOC).
• You must have had this experience within the last 10 years.

Initial Attitude

According to previous studies, it is shown that initial attitude plays an important


role in identifying how the Elaboration Likelihood Model will affect the participants
(Reyes, and Ymson, 2004). Initial attitude is described as the original attitude of a person
toward the topic, object, etc. this is whether that person agrees or disagrees with the belief
of the subject. This means that initial attitude will serve as a way of knowing whether
after exposure to the persuasive communication process, if the individual’s behavior will
be totally or partially affected.

Canadian Immigration Attitudes

Most Filipinos want to migrate because they want to work (Baquero, 2003), and
due to the increasing unemployment rate that is running at about 11 percent and rising
and, with 700,000 new college students every year, the country cannot create enough
skilled jobs to accommodate them. Filipinos who leave the country are in search of
temporary but higher-paying jobs (Workpermit.com, 2005).

But why Canada? According to Atty. Abesamis in an article in the Manila Bulletin
in 2004, he stated that "Canada continues to be a favorite immigration destination for
Filipinos. They are attracted to the quality of life and the opportunities for personal
advancement offered by this country."

Given the following observations, the study will then test the current attitudinal
position of the participants, given the scenario that they have the chance to work abroad
with the same line of work, whether they will shift their views/beliefs when presented
with two different forms of advertisements, positive and negative, that mirror their
possible future.

102
The research is designed to study the effect of positive and negative immigration print
advertisements on the attitudes of Skilled Workers. The study aims to bring resolution to
the following queries:

1. Is there a significant effect in the Skilled Workers’ favorable attitude towards


immigration after being exposed to negative immigration advertisements?
2. Is there a significant effect in the Skilled Workers’ unfavorable attitude towards
immigration after being exposed to positive immigration advertisements?
3. After being exposed to positive and negative immigration advertisements, which
of the two kinds of advertisements had a greater influence on Skilled Workers’
attitude towards immigration?

Hypothesis

Null Hypothesis1: There is no significant effect in the Skilled Workers’ favorable attitude
towards immigration after being exposed to positive and negative immigration
advertisements.

Null Hypothesis2: There is no significant effect in the Skilled Workers’ unfavorable


attitude towards immigration after being exposed to positive and negative immigration
advertisements.

Null Hypothesis3: There is no significant effect between Skilled Workers’ initial and final
attitude towards immigration after exposure to positive and negative immigration
advertisements.

Alternate Hypothesis: There is a significant effect between Skilled Workers’ initial and
final attitude towards immigration after exposure to positive and negative immigration
advertisements.

103
Framework

Figure 1.1 Elaboration Likelihood Model (Theoretical)

Initial Attitude

Positive Attitude Negative Attitude

Negative Stimuli Positive Stimuli

Persuasive Communication
Thru
Passive/Active Mode of Exposure
On Participants

Cognitive Processing

New Cognition Old Cognition

Attitude Change Attitude Unchanged

The Elaboration Likelihood Model, explains how persuasive communication


changes the attitude of a person, whether the effect is permanent or temporary. The model
begins with the identification of the initial attitude of the audience then followed by the
persuasive communication in positive and negative forms presented in either Active or
Passive Mode of Exposure. After which Cognitive Processing begins, this is where Old or
New Cognition/s will be strengthened/formed then the resulting attitude change will
depend on what route, Central Route Process or Peripheral Route Process, was chosen.

104
Figure 1.2 Elaboration Likelihood Model (Conceptual)

Initial Attitude

Pro-immigration Anti-immigration

Negative Immigration Positive Immigration


Advertisements Advertisements

Persuasive Communication
Thru
Passive Mode of Exposure
On Skilled Workers

Cognitive Processing

New Cognition Old Cognition

Skilled Worker Skilled Worker


Attitude Change Attitude Unchanged

The framework depicts how the Elaboration Likelihood Model is used in the case of the
current research; upon determining the initial attitude of the local employees, they will be
divided into two groups, one group favoring immigration and the other group, not in
favor of immigration, then both groups will receive different treatments that they will be
receiving (e.g. Group A – Pro-immigration – Positive Ads, Group B – Pro-immigration –
Negative Ads, etc.). The treatment involves the print ads presented in the passive mode of
exposure. After the treatment, all groups are to undergo the processing of the
communication where cognitions are formed and they choose which route to take,
whether the Central or Peripheral Route. The solid arrows indicate the theoretically

105
expected response of the respondents while the broken arrows indicate the possibilities
that over time other factors can play a role in attitude change.

Method

Participants

The participants for the research are 40 Skilled workers located in the South of
Manila, within the vicinity of Parañaque, Muntinlupa and Las Piñas City with ages
ranging from 20-60 years old and composed of 16 males and 24 females.

The Canadian Embassy defines Skilled Workers as people who can become
permanent residents because they have the ability to become economically established in
Canada while possessing the following minimum qualifications:
• You must have at least one continuous year of full-time paid work experience or
the equivalent in part-time continuous employment.
• Your work experience must be in the category of Skill Type 0, or Skill Level A or
B on the Canadian National Occupational Classification (see Appendix A).
• You must have had this experience within the last 10 years.

Materials/Insruments

The research used a form that includes the demographic information (e.g. Gender,
Marital status, etc.) and a question that will identify their initial attitude towards
immigration. The research used the information from Canada’s Immigration Plan for
2007 (see Appendix A) together with print positive and negative immigration
advertisements regarding Canada. The positive ads contain subjects that positively
reinforces Canada’s image and the negative ads contain subjects that degrades Canada.
All articles/subjects are constructed in a simple sentence structure and the subject matter
that was used was retrieved from various sources (e.g. Immigration agencies,
Newspapers, etc.)

The negative advertisements (see Appendix C) used in the research are made by
the researcher. Taking into consideration that negative advertisements are not common;
the researcher used news headlines from Canadian news and fuse them with pictures that
depict the caption while the positive advertisements (see Appendix B) used in the
research are taken from the Canadian Immigration Consultancy in the Philippines. The
advertisements from the consultancy are open to the public and free for downloading.

Validation of Advertisements

In order to confirm the message presented by the advertisements, the researcher


asked 10 random participants coming from the skilled workers class, who are and had
been employed to examine the message presented and give their initial judgment if the

106
positive advertisements projected positive messages and if the negative advertisements
projected negative messages.

10 out of the 10 participants have assessed and verified that the advertisements
projected the message they were designed to give.
Question assessment for the Identification of Initial and Final Attitude

The question used is directed at the thought that being an observer, does the
participant support or not support the idea of Filipinos migrating to Canada regardless of
the reason.

6 out of 10 random participants chose the question, “Are you in favor of Filipinos
migrating to Canada? Yes or No? over “What is your stand on Filipinos migrating to
Canada? Favor or Not in Favor”, in order to identify the initial and final attitude of the
main participants of the study for the sole reason that the first question proved to be more
direct to the point thus eliminating reasoning out.

Design and Procedures

The research makes use of the Quasi-experimental design. This design makes use
of groups that have already been identified thus removing the susceptibility of random
assignments of condition/s. The design is further identified as the Pretest-Posttest Design
wherein it establishes a baseline prior to the treatment. This will give the researcher a
point of comparison in determining the before and after effect of the treatment.

The participants are briefed about the general procedures and the general nature of
the research. The general procedure takes about 5-10 minutes or less of the participants’
time. Briefing should take less than 10 minutes, while retrieval of initial data (initial
attitude) and application of stimuli (advertisements) take the rest of the time. To begin the
data gathering procedures, the researcher gives out a form to be answered; this identifies
the participants’ initial attitude group (Positive or Negative Attitude).

After determining to which group the participants belong to, they are further
divided according to the treatment they are to receive, (e.g. Positive group – Positive Ads,
Positive Group – Negative Ads, etc.). Once the treatment groups are clearly divided, they
are first asked to read Canada’s Immigration Plan for 2007 then they are given their
assigned stimuli and will have 1day (minimum) or 3 days (maximum) of exposure. The
length of exposure depends on the participants’ and the researcher’s availability

The advertisements are to be handed out in the form of a hard copy to each
participant. Finally, after exposure, participants are asked again to fill out the form to
determine any attitude change and their respective advertisements will be retrieved.

107
Data Analysis

In accordance to the recommendations given by the previous study of Reyes and


Ymson (2004), the current research will be using the t-test to prove the strength of
relationships of the variables involved in the study instead of the chi-square test. The t-
test was computed by using SPSS for Windows Version 11.0.0

Furthermore, the current research makes use of graphical analysis as to evaluate


the data gathered from the respondents’ initial and final attitude.

108
Results

Tables 1.1 and 1.2 respectively contains the summary of the respondents’
responses according to their demographic profile.

Table 1.1 Summary of responses for Gender Versus Immigration Preference


Male
Initial Final
Preference Preference
Male Male Change in Attitude
Pro-immigration 10 100% 7 70% 3 30%
Anti-immigration 6 100% 6 100% 0 0%
Total 16 13 3

Female
Initial Final
Preference Preference
Femal Femal
e e Change in Attitude
Pro-immigration 18 100% 18 100% 0 0%
Anti-immigration 6 100% 6 100% 0 0%
Total 24 24 0 0%

Figure 1.3 Gender: Male Preference Versus Immigration Preference

Male Preference Versus Immigration Preference

12
10 10
9
8 Male Pro-
7 immigration
6 6
Male Anti-
4 Immigration
2
0
Initial Final

109
Figure 1.4 Gender: Female Preference Versus Immigration Preference

Female Preference Versus Immigration Preference

20
18 18
15
Female Pro-
immigration
10
Female Anti-
6 6 Immigration
5

0
Initial Final

Table 1.1 records the responses according to Gender, the males, specifically the
Pro-immigrants lost 30% of its members, indicating attitude change, although this is very
minimal while the Anti-immigration males and females (both pro and anti) showed a 0%
shift in attitude. Figure 1.3 and 1.4 illustrates the change in attitude in terms of the
number of respondents from initial to final preference.

Table 1.2 Summary of responses for Marital Status Versus Immigration Preference
Marital Status Versus Immigration Preference
Initial Preference Final Preference
Pro- Anti- Pro- Anti-
Immigration Immigration Immigration Immigration
Single 7 4 5 6
Married 20 7 19 8
Widowed 0 1 0 1
Separated 1 0 1 0
Total 28 12 25 15

Table 1.2 shows the responses according to Marital Status where for the Single
and Married groups, there was an evidence of attitude change as seen by the difference of
the members from Pro to Anti – immigration preference. While among the Widowed and
the Separated, there was also no attitude change as seen by the consistent number of the
group members.

110
Table 1.3 Summary of Change in Immigration Attitude in the Pro-Immigration Group
Change in Immigration Attitude in the Pro-Immigration Group
Treatment Group Initial Preference Final Preference Change in Attitude
Group A Positive Ads 14 (100%) 14 (100%) 0 (0%)
Group B Negative Ads 14 (100%) 11 (79%) 3 (21%)
Total 28 25 3

Figure 1.5 Change in Immigration Attitude in the Pro-Immigration Group

Change in Immigration Attitude in the Pro-Immigration Group

100% 100% 100% 100%


% of Skilled Workers

80% 79% 80%


Group B Negative
60% 60% Ads
40% 40% Group A Positive
Ads
20% 20%

0% 0%
Initial PreferenceFinal Preference

Table 1.3 shows a definite attitude change among the Pro-immigration Groups,
wherein among 28 Pro-immigrants, 3 shifted their attitude to Anti-immigrants after being
treated with negative advertisements. Though Figure 1.5 thru graphical analysis shows
minimal change, t test results (t=1.800, and 27df, p > .05) show that there is a significant
effect between Pro-immigration attitudes and exposure to advertisements.

111
Table 1.4 Summary of Change in Immigration Attitude in the Anti-Immigration Group
Change in Immigration Attitude in the Anti-Immigration Group
Treatment Group Initial Preference Final Preference Change in Attitude
Group C Positive Ads 6 (100%) 6 (100%) 0 (0%)
Group D Negative Ads 6 (100%) 6 (100%) 0 (0%)
Total 12 12

Figure 1.6 Change in Immigration Attitude in the Anti-Immigration Group

Change in Immigration Attitude in the Anti-Immigration Group

100% 100% 100% 100%


% of Skilled Workers

80% 80%
Group C Positive
60% 60% Ads
40% 40% Group D Negative
Ads
20% 20%

0% 0%
Initial PreferenceFinal Preference

Table 1.4 clearly shows that no attitude change was apparent, as seen by a 0%
attitude shift. This is supported by the graphical analysis in Figure 1.6 of the Anti-
immigration Groups, it can be clearly seen that no attitude change was apparent. T test
results were not computed because the standard error of the difference is 0, meaning that
there is an insignificant effect between Anti-immigration attitudes and exposure to
advertisements.

112
Table 1.5 Summary of Change in Immigration attitude According to Treatment

Change in Immigration attitude According to Treatment


Initial Final
Preference Preference Change in attitude
Pro-Immigration, Negative Ad 14 11 3
Anti-Immigration, Positive Ad 6 6 0

Figure 1.7 Change in Immigration attitude According to Treatment

Change in Immigration attitude According to Treatment

16
14 14
Number of Participants

12
11
10 Pro-Immigration,
Negative Ad
8
Anti-Immigration,
6 6 6 Positive Ad
4
2
0
Initial Final
Preference Preference

Table 1.5 shows the attitude change that was observed based on the treatment
received by the respondents. It can be seen that 3 Pro-immigration respondents shifted
their attitude after being exposed to negative advertisements while those Anti-
immigration respondents remained constant even though treated with positive
advertisements. Figure 1.7 projects the attitude change as shown by the difference in
number of respondents from initial to final preference. According to t test results (t=-
1.831, and 19df, p > .05) the change showed by the respondents is considered to be
significant.

113
Table 1.6 Summary of Initial and Final Immigration Preference
Summary of Initial and Final Immigration Preference
Initial Preference % Final Preference % Total
Pro-Immigration 28 70% 25 63% 53
Anti-Immigration 12 30% 15 37% 27
Total 40 40 80

Figure 1.8 Initial and Final Immigration Preference

Summary of Initial and Final Immigration Preference

100%
% of Skilled Workers

80%
70%
60% 63%
Pro-Immigration
40% Anti-Immigration
37%
30%
20%

0%
Initial Preference Final Preference

Table 1.6 shows the change in number of participants from initial to final
preference. Pro-immigration groups lost 3 or 63% of its members after exposure to
advertisements thus increasing the number of the Anti-immigration group. Figure 1.8
shows the graphical analysis used to portray the attitude change that can be observed
form the respondents’ responses. The attitude shift between the Pro and Anti groups,
though minimal can be observed quite clearly.

Discussion

Using the demographic information particularly these of gender and attitude (see
Table1.1 and Figure 1.3.), it can be seen that only the males exhibited attitude change.
According to Slates and Bates in 1955 which was stated in Reyes and Ymson, 2004,
theoretically, gender dictates how open to a person is in changing attitudes, that females
are generally more prone to change their minds because they are emotional and sensitive
to others and the environment. In contrast, males are mostly logical, firm and non-

114
emotional. Because of such a statement, it is normally believed that females can be more
easily persuaded than males but in the case of the current study, the males showed a more
prominent change in attitude than the females. The current findings also disapprove the
claims of an earlier study by Reyes and Ymson (2004) which state that females most
often than not, has the tendency to be easily persuaded or dissuaded than males. Taking
into consideration that the findings of the earlier study were based on voting attitudes, the
findings of the current study cannot generalize who really among the two genders are
more easily persuaded or dissuaded because of the fact that the subject (immigration) that
is dealt with demands a much more in depth and lengthy time of assessment before
coming to a decision.

In comparing Marital Status to Immigration Attitudes (see Table 1.2), there was
an evident shift among the single and married groups. Most likely this shift in attitude
was triggered by the negative message presented to the participants who instead of just
receiving negative information instead receive a threat that was indirectly seen.

The results of the t-test supported the following hypothesis; there is a significant
effect in the Skilled Workers’ favorable attitude towards immigration after being exposed
to positive and negative immigration advertisements as seen in the attitude shift by the
Pro-immigration group. There is no significant effect in the Skilled Workers’ unfavorable
attitude towards immigration after being exposed to positive and negative immigration
advertisements as seen by the constant attitude preference exhibited by the Anti-
Immigration Group regardless of treatment.

While graphical analysis (see Figure 1.8) rejects the null hypothesis that there is
no significant effect between Skilled Workers’ initial and final attitude towards
immigration after exposure to positive and negative immigration advertisements. This can
clearly be observed by the upward shift of Anti-immigration respondents and the
downward shift of the Pro-immigration respondents.

Between the two forms of advertisements, the negative form was responsible for
the attitude shift that was observed. This supports earlier conclusions of Reyes and
Ymson (2004) wherein they stated that if the message is presented in its negative nature
there is an indirect but considerable effect.

Besides the given data, the researcher was able to receive feedback from the
respondents which can help in explaining why there was only minimal attitude change
present. Most of the participants who were in favor of immigration had their mind set
that the Philippines is going to the dogs, that no matter what they do or no matter how
hard they try, all their efforts would end up in vain, unlike in other countries, in this case
Canada, for them, immigration does offer that chance of starting a new and better life,
regardless of the negative information they had received. They believe that they would
still be better off there than here. On the other hand, those not in favor of immigration
possess a strong, a very strong sense of nationalism, where they believe that since one
can already see that there is something wrong within the country. Why abandon it?
Rather, help it be healed. Regardless of the positive treatment they received, for them,

115
being happy does not mean only being financially stable but rather being where they truly
belong.

The behavior exhibited by the respondents can also be explained by the Belief
Perseverance Effect stated in Reyes and Ymson (2004), wherein once we have decided
that we believe something, we will tend to keep on believing it, even in the face of
disconfirming evidence.

The results of the experiment are also consistent with the claims of Kocher (1999)
and Hovland, et.al (1957) that communications did produce shifts in attitudes although
there weren't always large changes, but changes are present nonetheless.

Conclusion and Recommendations

In the previous study by Reyes and Ymson in 2004, it was stated that “print
advertisements can be or may be effective if the information is presented is negative in
nature”, the current research does support this claim but only to some extent. One factor
that can be attributed to why it does not support earlier claims may be due to the fact that
the subject being studied (immigration) greatly involves the decision of a lifetime which
cannot be undone easily unlike in the earlier study done (voting), where in such a
decision can easily be manipulated.

Also, based from the feedback that was shared by the participants, such intangible
things like hope, luck, and nationalism come into play when making a decision even
though it is just about preference, that such beliefs greatly affect the inclination of
whether or not they should change their attitudes.

For any future studies, the researcher recommends that the study should be
continuously studied in the experimental setting wherein contamination should be greatly
diminished.

Also the current study only tackles one class that is considered for immigration,
thus it is not applicable for the other classes accepted for immigration (e.g. Provincial
nominees, Live-in Caregivers, etc.) and the results are only applicable for the year 2007.

If the study is to be replicated, the researcher suggests the following:


• All future studies should take into consideration the plans of the Canadian
Embassy for immigrants.
• Any future and/or similar studies should be continued under the experimental
setting as to fully control experimental variables, especially the extraneous
variables.
• The availability of the respondents and the researcher/s should compliment one
another as to fully maximize exposure time.
• If possible, achieve equal population for the main groups (Pro and Anti).

116
References

Adroson, E., Wilson, T. and Akert, R., Chapter 8: Attitudes and Attitude Change:
Influencing Thoughts and Feelings from Social Psychology The Heart and The
Mind, 1994

Annual Report to Parliament on Immigration, CIC Canada, from http://www.cic.gc.ca.


2006

Baquero, E., Sun.Star Cebu: POEA wary of influx of consultancy firms from
www.sunstar.com.ph, April 2003

Brehm, S. and Kassin, S., Part III Social Influence, Chapter 10:Attitudes from Social
Psychology Third Edition, 1996

Citizenship and Immigration Canada to Increase Settlement Funding, from


CANADAVISA.com, 2007

Government to Raise Immigration Target for 2007, from CANADAVISA.com, 2007

Jamieson, K. and Campbell K., The Interplay of Influence, Chapter 7: Persuasion through
Advertising, 2001

Kocher, R., Attitude Channeling and Brainwashing, The Laissez Faire City Times, Vol 3,
No 17, from http://members.mountain.net/theanalyticpapers/
attitude.htm, April 1999

Reyes, P. and Ymson, P., Changing Voter Attitude through Print Media: The Role of
Negative and Positive Political Advertisements, 2004

Skilled Immigrants in High Demand as Unemployment Matches 30-Year Low, from


CANADAVISA.com, 2007

The Manila Bulletin Online, More Pinoys migrating to Canada, says lawyer, from
http://www.mb.com.ph, 2004

Workpermit.com, New, Canada News, Many Filipinos immigrating to Canada for better
future 13 form http://workpermit.com, May 2005

117
TV Ads Exposure and Attitude towards Use of Alcohol among
College Students
Maria Fe Miave

The study aimed to know if exposure to TV advertisements of alcoholic drinks influences the
attitudes towards alcohol use among college students and if the exposure to advertisements of alcoholic
drinks on TV has an association in the level of understanding or knowledge about alcohol use and alcoholic
drinks among college students. The research design used was descriptive survey or a survey questionnaire
that used to determine the amount or number of hours the respondents was exposed to advertisements of
alcoholic drinks during prime time schedule of the two major television networks in the Philippines (GMA
and ABS-CBN). Alcohol Quiz and What do you know about Alcohol test was used to measure the attitude
and knowledge of the respondents regarding alcohol use and alcoholic drinks. This study made used of
thirty respondents, 14 males and 16 females, ranging from 16-21 years of age. The respondents of this
study were gathered through purposive sampling. General linear model of univariate analysis of variance is
used to treat the data; and was found that exposure has the only significant factor having a value less than
0.05 which is 0.46 that is considered having a small significance value but statistically significant. The
other factor used was attitude wherein it was the dependent variable and the fixed factors was knowledge
and the interaction of exposure and knowledge. Appropriate frequency and percentage was also used for
further analysis of data. The researcher recommends further study must be conducted with a more thorough
analysis of data and variables; moreover using a more appropriate statistical test in analyzing the data are
also recommended.

College freshmen are particularly engaging to a different world or atmosphere due


to the new social contextual factors that characterize the transitional period of freshmen
year. Most adults and school administrators expect college students to be matured enough
in which the students would meet their attainable growth and development as an
individual and to learn things formally because of the setting and the kind of environment
the school offers. But students, specifically college freshmen in this study, are particularly
at risk of engaging to drink alcoholic beverages and on some college campuses students
use alcohol to signify their emerging adulthood, to enhance social gatherings, and to cope
with the new societal environment.

One of the strongest influences of personal drinking for college students has been
found to be their perceived drinking behaviors of their peers. This peer group influence is
especially powerful in determining students' experiences with alcohol. For example,
entering students who join fraternities are more likely to abuse alcohol than those who do
not (Cashin et al., 1998). It seems to be considered that peer pressure in school is very
normal in the context of the social norm in a school setting because students want to be
accepted by their co-students or a certain group of students. That is why they try to
socialize and be one with them in a way they want to become and how the medium of
television could influence their social well being.

118
Most college students think of alcohol as that cheap high they get to obtain on the
weekends at social events called parties. It is the time wherein they socialize and try to
get along with others but does not know exactly what consequences they might get or
experience from it. Knowing what alcohol really is and what exactly it can do to the body
in excessive amounts over time and in any one sitting is one of the main problems with
why college students abuse alcohol. The social norm of binge or excessive drinking in
college is prevailing over the social fact of what alcohol really is and what it can do to a
person’s health. The actual definition of alcohol is a “liquid distilled product of fermented
fruits, grains, and vegetables used as a solvent, antiseptic and sedative” (McKenzie,
2000)

The alcohol use among college students has a direct correlation to socialization
(Mendelson, 2000). Students who go to college believe that drinking (alcohol) is a social
norm. That when they go off to college it's time to not only get a degree, but also a time
to drink and socialize at parties. In the end, alcohol is glamorized and often enough
abused. Ultimately alcohol becomes so much of a social norm that students do not realize
how and when alcohol becomes abusive; most students perceive a more liberal norm
when a more moderate one actually exists (Berkowitz and Perkins, 1986). That is,
students have relatively conservative personal attitudes toward drinking, but believe the
general attitude to be quite liberal. Part of this is due to the lack of knowledge that college
students have about alcohol use in general and that college students really do not know
when and how alcohol is abusive to their own well being to the fact that drinking alcohol
is the socially acceptable cool thing to do in college, which causes more people to abuse
alcohol on a regular basis (Mendelson, 2000). One of the most prevalent things is how
cheap it is for college students to obtain alcohol in college and how much the media
exposes college students to the idea that drinking alcohol is a social norm (Marcus,
2000).

Parents and peers have a large impact on youth decisions to drink. However,
research clearly indicates that alcohol advertising and marketing also have a significant
impact by influencing the attitudes of parents and peers and helping to create an
environment that promotes underage drinking to college students. Advertisers of
alcoholic drinks use the power and influence of media to convey a positive message for
their products. Alcohol advertisements glamorize drinking and play directly into the
needs of teen-agers by promising fun, popularity, relaxation and escape. That is how
advertising works, it attracts people or its target market to try and use the products it
endorses. Television advertisements of alcoholic drinks often portray the products being
enjoyed in the most appealing settings and by the most popular and attractive people like
any other advertisements do. That normalcy of advertisements of alcoholic drinks helps
demystify the product, which turns to be a good place to begin encouraging realistic,
moderate, and responsible attitudes about it or in the same way to let the viewers or
consumers know what the product or the alcoholic drinks

The researcher chose freshmen college students because they were the ones who
have much expectation to what will happen in their college lives and they have

119
tendencies to be excited in it. Giving more independence for the first time in school,
many freshmen college students try to test their limits of independence. That is why they
try and experiment different or new things that they are aware of but can not do before
because they lack the freedom to do it. One good example of that is drinking alcohol, and
one of the factors that influence them to try it is acceptance in a new social group
(Weitzman and Wechsler, 2000) and they are aware of it because of the media and the
television in particular, since majority of us are exposed to it.

Other studies suggest college students who drink in a more social atmosphere
with the intention of getting drunk seems to indicate a more recreational and perhaps an
experimental approach to alcohol use by the college students (Beck and Summons, 1985).

This topic was chosen because the researcher intends to find out the reasons if 1.
Exposure to TV advertisements affects the attitude of college students towards alcohol
use? The researcher also wants to find out if the 2. Exposure to television advertisements
has significant effect in regards to the level of understanding and knowledge about
alcoholic drinks of college students.

Review of Related Literature

Sales pitches for alcoholic beverages are everywhere: at the grocery store, in
magazines, on television, and at concession stands. Students can not avoid them even
though alcohol advertisements are supposedly aimed at adults. Researchers have long
suspected a connection between alcohol advertisements and underage drinking, but
positive correlations to date may have been due to other factors like peer and family
influences that affect both drinking and advertisement exposure. Researchers with the
Research and Development (RAND) Corporation have now made a much stronger
connection, taking a new look at alcohol advertisements and youth drinking with studies
designed to avoid the pitfalls of earlier ones. Furthermore, they tested to see if
participation in a school-based drug prevention program can counteract the impact of
alcohol advertisements. Their key findings: For adolescents, exposure to alcohol
advertisements is directly linked to subsequent drinking, but different kinds of
advertisements have different influences depending on a youngster’s prior alcohol use.
Even in elementary school, young people recognize certain alcohol advertisements.
School drug prevention programs can help blunt the impact of alcohol advertisements on
youth.

For two different studies, the Research and Development (RAND) researchers
analyzed data from thousands of Midwestern students participating in a large-scale field
trial of drug prevention curricula known as Project ALERT (for middle schools) and
ALERT Plus (for middle schools and high schools). The curricula were developed by the
RAND Corporation.

The two different studies are focused on beer advertisements because beer
advertisements are more pervasive than those for other kinds of alcohol and the
advertisements are more likely to appear where young people might see them.

120
In the study, the Research and Development (RAND) researchers found some
evidence that viewing beer advertisements on TV encourages the non-drinkers to start
drinking. However, the link was not as strong as that for advertising in magazines, at
concession stands, and with in-store displays. “It may be that the real effect of television
advertising only shows up after repeated exposure over many years. And elementary
school children may be more vulnerable to the persuasive appeals of TV advertisements
than adolescents,” according to the Research and Development (RAND) researchers.
(Collins et al., 1998) The possibility of a delayed effect of TV alcohol advertisements on
youth drinking ties in with results from a second Research and Development (RAND)
study on alcohol advertising and its impact on youth. For this study, Collins and Ellickson
in 2005 assessed survey responses from fifteen hundred 9th grade students taking part in
the ALERT Plus field test and two thousand 4th grade students from elementary schools
in the same districts. The Research and Development (RAND) team found that younger
children watch a lot of TV and see lots of alcohol advertisements. In this study, 4th
graders were exposed to an average of 376 TV beer advertisements over a seven-month
period, while the older teenagers were exposed to 286. This difference reflected that the
elementary school children watched nearly twice as many televised professional sports
programs, where beer is heavily advertised, than did their teen counterparts. One way to
learn whether children actually pay attention to advertisements that they see on TV is to
measure advertisment awareness or recognition. The Research and Development
(RAND) researchers did this, finding that young people recognize specific beer
advertisements on TV at an early age, at least as young as age nine.

“It appears that a combination of drinking experience and venue influences


adolescent responses to advertising.” “Advertising that links alcohol with everyday life,
such as supermarket displays, appears to have more influence on drinking initiation. On
the other hand, young people who are already drinkers appear to pay more attention to
advertisements in more-sophisticated venues like at sports and music events or in
magazines like Playboy and Rolling StoneM.” (Ellickson et al., 2005)

Children and teens already view far too many commercial messages in the
broadcast media that glamorize and encourage drinking. Young people view
approximately 20,000 commercials each year, of which nearly 2,000 are for beer and
wine. (Strasburger& Donnerstein, 1999)

Young people ages 12-17 spend significantly more time watching television
during "prime time" hours than any other time of the day. On average each week young
people watch 5:59 hours of prime time television (Monday-Saturday from 8:00-11:00
P.M. and Sunday from 7:00-11:00 P.M.) (Nielsen Media Research, 1999)

On the average, young people begin drinking at 13.1 years of age. According to
the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, those who begin by age 15 are
four times as likely to become alcohol dependent than those who wait until age 21.
(Grant& Dawson, 1997)

121
Research reports show that exposure to alcohol advertising shapes young
adolescents’ attitudes toward alcohol, their intentions to drink, and underage drinking
behavior. (Martin et al., 2002)

A University of Texas study of alcohol advertising over a 21-year period found


that the amount of money spent on alcohol advertisements had little relationship with
total consumption in the population. (Wilcox et al. 1994)

A research suggests that students routinely overestimate their peers' alcohol


drinking levels. The social norms approach attempts to correct this misperception through
normative feedback of actual alcohol consumption of students. This study assessed the
effectiveness of a social norms media campaign on decreasing drinking levels of
incoming freshmen. Data were collected on two years of incoming freshmen from
summer, 1999 through spring, 2001. The incoming freshmen's drinking behaviors were
assessed during summer orientation prior to their university attendance and again in the
second semester (spring) of their freshmen year. Results indicated that the majority of
freshmen consumed 0-5 drinks at each sitting and consistently overestimated their peers'
drinking levels. Incoming freshmen (summer assessment) had higher levels of drinking
than previous year's freshmen. The social norms intervention did not significantly
decrease drinking rates.

Alcohol is shown on prime-time television programs far more than any other
drink or food, and actors, including those portraying adolescents, are shown consuming
alcohol on more than 40 percent of network shows, according to a Cornell study.

"Particularly disturbing, however, is that when a character is actually shown with


alcohol, an adolescent character is almost twice as likely to drink it compared with older
characters," "However, one encouraging finding is that although characters who are
portrayed consuming alcohol have, on average, positive personality characteristics (such
as smart, admirable and powerful), adolescents on prime-time TV who drink tend to have
negative personality traits (stupid or powerless)."

"How teen-age viewers assimilate these contrasting messages and how these
messages influence behavior are intriguing questions that need further analysis."

The researcher and his colleagues analyzed the frequency, nature and meanings of
alcohol messages on 276 prime-time television programs on the four largest networks
during two non-consecutive weeks, a total of 224 hours of television viewing. Overall
they found alcohol was consumed 555 times in the 224 hours of prime time. About twice
a program and 2.5 times an hour. Non-alcoholic beverages, such as sodas and coffee,
were the next most frequently portrayed food or beverage, shown being consumed 415
times.
Teen-agers between 13 and 18 years of age accounted for 7 percent of all scenes
involving alcohol, about the same as their representation in all food and beverage
portrayals. "In other words, it's just as common for an adolescent to be portrayed with
alcohol as any other food or drink," "This is of concern because teen viewers may get the

122
impression that other teens drink (alcohol) as commonly as they eat or drink other
beverages." (Mathios, 1998)

A study concludes that greater exposure to alcohol advertising contributes to an


increase in drinking among underage youth. Specifically, for each additional
advertisement a young person saw above the average for youth, he or she was 1% more
likely to drink. For each additional dollar spent per capita on alcohol advertising in a
local market, young people drank 3% more. (Snyder et al. 2006)

Results from one study indicate that beer advertisements are a significant
predictor of an adolescent's knowledge, preference, and loyalty for beer brands, as well as
current drinking behavior and intentions to drink (Gentile, 2001).

A federally-funded study of 1,000 young people found that exposure to and liking
of alcohol advertisements affects whether young people will drink alcohol. (Grube, 2003)

An economic analysis assessed the effects of alcohol advertising on youth


drinking behaviors by comparing federally reported levels of youth drinking with detailed
reports on alcohol advertising in local markets during the same years. The analysis
concluded that a complete ban on alcohol advertising could reduce monthly levels of
youth drinking by 24% and youth binge drinking by about 42%. (Saffer and Dave, 2003)

A study found that, among a group of 2,250 middle-school students, those who
viewed more television programs containing alcohol commercials while in the seventh
grade were more likely in the eighth grade to drink beer, wine/liquor, or to drink three or
more drinks on at least one occasion during the month prior to the follow-up survey.
(Stacy et al., 2004)

Alongside of these, “the schools are not as powerful anymore.” “It is the media
that has the biggest influence on them.” It could be true. The McCann study shows that
Filipinos under 20 watch television or listen to the radio for leisure after school. There is
also “an emergence and prominence of technology-related activities like usage of
cellphones and the Internet,” especially on weekends. (Guerrero, 2002)

Television is part of the emergence and prominence of media today, and plays a
big role in the way of living, thinking and socializing of young people. It is often
considered that others are easily influenced from what they have watched or seen, one
good example is fashion; when people see celebrities and stars that they idolize they tend
to imitate the way celebrities dress and just want to be like them or they just simply like
the sense of fashion of the celebrities.

123
Method

Participants

The participants in this particular study are 30 college students ages 16-23.
Fourteen were males and 16 were females. Purposive sampling was the procedure used to
gather each respondent because respondents are particularly college students those
coming from BS Accountancy and BALM, they we’re the most accommodating and
accessible. Possible respondents are asked beforehand if they are willing to answer the
survey questionnaire. Names of the respondents are not asked to maintain the
confidentiality of the respondents in this study.

Materials/Instruments

Survey Questionnaire

A survey questionnaire drafted by the researcher is handed out at the first part of
the research. The survey questionnaire was used to know the demographic profile of the
respondents like age and gender and to know the television viewing patterns of the
respondents during primetime schedule (6:00-10:00 PM) and what particular television
advertisements of alcoholic drinks they usually see that appear on primetime television
schedule. The researcher stated only the two local major television networks (ABS-CBN
and GMA) to gain more control in the study. The researcher used face validity to validate
the survey questionnaire, the researcher pilot tested first the survey questionnaire before
handed out to the participants to know if all information that the researcher needed is
measured or asked in the survey questionnaire.

The survey questionnaire also stated a question that asks the respondents if they
have tried drinking alcoholic drinks, if the respondent answered “yes” he/she will be
asked to answer 2 tests; one is the Alcohol quiz and What do you know about alcohol
test. If the respondent have answered “no” he/she will be answering the What do you
know about alcohol test only. Alcohol quiz is a self- assessment test used to identify a
person’s attitude regarding alcohol use. It was from Palo Alto Medical Foundation
(PAMF). The What do you know about alcohol test is from Bowles Center for Alcohol
Studies that conducts, coordinates, and promote basic and clinical research on the causes,
prevention, and treatment of alcoholism and alcoholic disease.

The choices for the amount of exposure of advertisements of alcoholic drinks in


a day are 4 hours which is the approximate number of hours of primetime shows, 2-3
hours and don’t watch at all to 1 hour. 4 hours of watching primetime shows is equivalent
to 4-4.5 minute’s approximate airing time of advertisements of alcoholic drinks
categorized by the researcher while 2-3.5 minutes was categorized to respondents who

124
watch 2-3 hours and 0-1.5 minutes was categorized for respondents who watch 1 hour
and for those who don’t watch at all.

The result of the alcohol quiz is divided into three (3) categories or factors; one
is, respondents that has tendency of drinking alcoholic drinks in ways that are harmful
and the other factor is, respondents that drink alcohol but don’t drink alcoholic drinks in
ways that are harmful and the last factor is the respondents who haven’t tried drinking
alcoholic drinks at all.

Research Design

The researcher utilized the study by using the research design of descriptive
survey in which the questions asked are about the respondents’ demographic profile, and
their television viewing patterns of how many hours in primetime schedule of the 2 local
major television network and what television advertisements of alcoholic drinks they
usually see by choosing among the listed alcoholic drinks and liquor in the survey
questionnaire.

The survey questionnaire consists of 5 questions. The researcher also used the Alcohol
quiz and what do you know about alcohol test. Alcohol quiz consists of 17 questions that
measure the attitude of the respondents regarding alcohol use; the quiz is answerable by
“yes” or “no”. The test on what do you know about alcohol consists of 20 questions that
measures the literacy and awareness of the respondents about alcohol and alcoholic
drinks. Like the alcohol quiz, the test on what do you know about alcohol is answerable
by “yes” or “no” also. The 2 test are given to the respondents for further data analysis

Procedure

The researcher began to gather data by asking possible respondents if they are
willing to answer the survey. After that, respondents were asked to answer the survey
questionnaire, what do you know about alcohol test and alcohol quiz. But alcohol quiz is
for respondents who have answered in the survey questionnaire that they have tried
drinking alcoholic drinks, respondents who have answered that they have not tried
drinking alcoholic drinks need not to answer the alcohol quiz because it would not be
applicable or in use in the study simply because alcohol quiz tends to measure the alcohol
drinking patterns of the respondent and his/her attitude regarding alcohol use. While what
do you know about alcohol test aims to measure the respondents awareness and
knowledge on alcohol use and about alcoholic drinks.

Demographic profile of the respondents was also asked in the survey


questionnaire. Once the respondents have answered the survey questionnaire and tests
were collected, the surveys and tests will be tabulated and the categories for each factor
will then analyzed. First, data was analyzed by the amount of exposure of the respondents
to TV ads of alcoholic drinks into how many hours they watch television on primetime
schedule and dividing it to three categories, one is non-exposure or 0 minutes to 1.5
minutes of exposure, second approximately 2-3.5 minutes of exposure and lastly, 4-4.5

125
minutes exposure to TV advertisements of alcoholic drinks on primetime schedule of the
two television networks (GMA and ABS-CBN).

The television viewing patterns of the respondents is measured by answering the


question of how many hours in a day they watch primetime television shows in the two
television networks (ABS-CBN and GMA) and categorized by three choices, each
choices has an equivalent of how many minutes of television advertisements of alcoholic
drinks is shown or exposed, but for the respondents who answered that they do not watch
primetime shows at all the equivalent time of exposure to advertisements of alcoholic
drinks is categorized from 0 to 1.5 minutes. The equivalent number of minutes to the
remaining 2 choices of how many hours in primetime schedule respondents watch is: For
2 –3 hours the airtime of advertisements of alcoholic drinks is 2 -3.5 minutes. For 4 hours
the equivalent airtime of advertisements of alcoholic drinks is 4- 4.5 minutes.

If the respondents have answered that they watch primetime shows, there is a
question on what specific television shows on primetime schedule they usually watch and
from their observation, about how many advertisements or commercials they usually see
in one television program in primetime schedule.

The result of the amount of exposure of the respondents was used to analyze the
data of the answers on alcohol quiz and what do you know about alcohol test of the
respondents.

Data Analysis

In getting the necessary data for this study, the means or average for each factor
is then computed and would be used to tabulate the data from the Alcohol quiz and what
do you know about alcohol test. General linear model of univariate analysis of variance is
used to treat the data using SPSS. Appropriate frequency and percentage are also used for
further analysis of data.

126
Results

The results presented at this part of the study are as follows:

Table 1. Distribution of the Respondents’ Gender

Gender F %

Male 14 47

Female 16 53

Total 30 100

Table 1 show that out of the 30 freshmen college respondents, 53% or 16


were females and the remaining 47% or 14 were males.

Table 2. Distribution of the Respondents’ Age Range

Age Range F %

16 11 37

17 14 47

18 4 13

21 1 3

Total 30 100

Table 2 shows that out of the 30 respondents who contributed in the study, 47%
or 14 of the respondents is 17 years old, while 37% or 11 respondents are 16 years old
and 13% or 4 were 18 years old and the least is 21 years old that is equivalent to 3% or
1 respondent only.

127
Table 3. Respondents’ distribution list of exposure to television advertisements of
alcoholic drinks in a day

Amount expose Frequency Percentage

0 – 1.5 minutes 13 43%

2 -3.5 minutes 6 20%

4- 4.5 minutes 11 37%

Total 30 100

The table above shows, the result of the survey questionnaire that aims to measure
how much time the respondents are expose to television advertisements of alcoholic
drinks by answering how many hours in a day they watch primetime schedule (6:00-
10:00 PM) shows of the two (2) major local television networks (ABS-CBN and
GMA).Out of the 30 respondents; 11 or 37% of the respondents answered that they watch
4 hours in primetime schedule and is exposed between 4-4.5 minutes. Six or 20% of the
respondents were exposed between 2 – 3.5 minutes of advertisements of alcoholic drinks,
13 or 43% were not exposed to 1.5 minutes exposure. The percentages of distribution of
the respondents are also shown in the table above

128
Table 4. Alcohol Quiz scores distribution list in relation to exposure to television
advertisements of alcoholic drinks in a day

Has tendency of Don’t drink Haven’t tried


drinking alcoholic drinks in drinking
Amount No. of alcoholic drinks ways that are alcoholic drinks
in a harmful way harmful
expose Responde
nts
F % F % F %

0 – 1.5 minutes 13 8 28 4 13 1 3

2 -3.5 minutes 6 1 3 2 7 3 10

4- 4.5 minutes 11 3 10 7 23 1 3

30 100% 12 41% 13 43% 5 16%

Table 4 shows the results from the alcohol quiz the frequency and percentage of
the respondents categorized on how many minutes of exposure of television
advertisements of alcoholic drinks the respondents have watched. The result of the
alcohol quiz of respondents that doesn’t have enough or the least amount of exposure to
television advertisements of alcoholic drinks is 13, 8 of them has tendency of drinking
alcoholic drinks in a harmful way, 4 respondents don’t drink alcoholic drinks in ways that
are harmful and 1 respondent haven’t tried drinking alcoholic drinks at all. The result of
the 6 respondents who are exposed to television advertisements of alcoholic drinks in
between 2- 3 minutes and 30 seconds is, 1 of the 6 respondents has tendency of drinking
alcoholic drinks in ways that are harmful and 2 don’t drink in ways that are harmful and
the 3 remaining respondents haven’t tried drinking alcoholic drinks. The results of the
alcohol quiz of the 11 respondents who had most exposure to television advertisements of
alcoholic drinks, 3 out of the 11 respondents has tendency of drinking alcoholic drinks in
ways that are harmful or in the wrong manner and 7 don’t have the tendency to drink
alcoholic drinks in ways that are harmful and 1 respondent haven’t tried drinking at all.

Result shows from Table 4 that out of the 30 respondents, 41% or 12 out of the
30 respondents has tendency of drinking alcoholic drinks in ways that are harmful while
43% or 13 respondents does not drink alcoholic drinks in ways that are harmful and the
remaining 16% or 5 out of the 30 respondents have not tried drinking alcoholic drinks or
beverages.

129
Table 5. Distribution list of what do you know about alcohol test scores of the
respondents in relation to exposure to television advertisements of alcoholic drinks
in a day

Has enough Don’t have enough


knowledge on knowledge on
No. of alcohol use and alcohol use &
Amount expose Respondent alcoholic drinks alcoholic drinks
s
F F %
%

0- 1.5 minutes 13 9 30 4 13

2 -3.5 minutes 6 4 13 2 7

4- 4.5 minutes 11 6 20 5 17

30 100% 19 63 % 11 37%

The result of Table 5 shows the amount of literacy or knowledge of the


respondents regarding alcohol and alcoholic drinks by answering the What do you know
about alcohol test. The result is that, 9 respondents of non- exposure or 0 minutes to 1.5
minutes exposure to advertisements of alcoholic drinks has enough knowledge about
alcohol use and alcoholic drinks and the 4 respondents don’t have much knowledge about
the said topic. Six respondents who are approximately exposed to advertisements of
alcoholic drinks between 2-2.5 minutes have the majority of the respondents that has
enough knowledge about alcohol use and alcoholic drinks. Two respondents don’t have
sufficient knowledge about alcohol use and alcoholic drinks based on the test. Six
respondents that is most expose to television advertisements of alcoholic drinks has
enough knowledge on alcohol use and alcoholic drinks and 5 out of the 11 respondents
that has much exposure do not have enough knowledge about alcohol use and alcoholic
drinks.

Result shows that 63% or 19 out of the 30 respondents have enough knowledge
about alcohol use and alcoholic drinks while the remaining 37% or 11 respondents does
not have enough knowledge about it.

130
General Linear Model
Univariate Analysis of Variance

Table 6. Between-Subjects Factors

Value Label N
exposure 1.00 0-1 min.&
13
30 sec.
2.00 2-
3min.&30 6
sec.
3.00 3-
4min.&30 11
sec.
knowledge 1.00 has enough
21
knowledge
2.00 don’t have
enough 9
knowledge

Table 6 shows the value labels of exposure to television advertisements of


alcoholic drinks and knowledge about alcohol use and alcoholic drinks that has been used
as fixed factors in the study and the number of each respondent in each category.

Table 7. Tests of Between-Subjects Effects

Dependent Variable: attitude


Type II
Sum of Mean
Source Squares Df Square F Sig.
Corrected Model 4.167(a) 5 .833 1.786 .154
Intercept 93.633 1 93.633 200.643 .000
Exposure 3.284 2 1.642 3.519 .046
Knowledge .818 1 .818 1.753 .198
Exposure *
.182 2 .091 .195 .824
knowledge
Error 11.200 24 .467
Total 109.000 30
Corrected Total 15.367 29
a R Squared = .271 (Adjusted R Squared = .119)

The Source list from table 7 is the effects in the model. The “model” is the
overall, total sums of square which is 4.167 in the attitude variable that is explained by
the two main effects and interaction considered together. The Sum of Squares of
exposure is 3.284 while knowledge had .818. Whereas the Sum of Squares of interaction
(exposure * knowledge) is .182. This data shows the independence of each effect.

131
The error Sum of Squares is 11.200. Together with the explained Sum of
Squares, a total of 109.000 was the total variability in the attitude variable.

The degrees of freedom of each effect are stated in the table above.

The mean square of each effect is calculated by dividing the sum of squares by
its degrees of freedom. The corrected model had a mean square of .833 because it is
calculated by dividing 4.167 (Sum of Squares) by 5 (degrees of freedom). The remaining
mean square of each effect is calculated the same way as it divides the Sum of Squares by
its degrees of freedom.

The F statistic is calculated by dividing the mean square by the mean square
error. The corrected model had an F of 1.786. The F of exposure is 3.519 and 1.753 for
knowledge. The F of interaction between exposure and knowledge is .195.

Effects with a small significance value (smaller than 0.05) are significant.
Wherein table 7 shows that exposure to television advertisements of alcoholic drinks has
a significance value of .046 so it is considered significant while the remaining factors is
insignificant wherein knowledge and interaction (exposure * knowledge) has a
significance value of greater than 0.05. Knowledge has a significance value of .198 while
interaction had .824 which had a high significance value so it is considered insignificant.

Discussion

The results of Table 3 from the survey questionnaire measured the television
viewing patterns of the respondents, the most number of respondents do not watch or at
least watch for one hour of primetime shows in a day.

The result from table 4 shows that respondents even not that expose to
advertisements of alcoholic drinks on television, the 8 respondents has the tendency of
drinking alcoholic drinks in ways that are harmful and those who are most expose to
television advertisements have a result that only 3 out of the 11 respondents has the
tendency to develop drinking patterns that are harmful.

In terms of the respondents result in Table 5, it shows that respondents who do not
watch or watch for at least 1 hour of primetime shows has the most number of
respondents that has enough knowledge or literate enough about alcohol use and
alcoholic drinks.

The data analysis that has been used to calculate or utilize the data is general
linear model of univariate analysis of variance, wherein table 7 shows Tests of Between-
Subjects Effects. The dependent variable that is used in the study is the attitude in regards
to alcohol use of the respondents and the fixed factors are exposure to television
advertisements of alcoholic drinks and knowledge about alcohol use and alcoholic drinks.
Result shows that exposure to television advertisements of alcoholic drinks has the only
significant value of 0.46, having a value less than 0.05. The factors of knowledge about

132
alcohol use and alcoholic drinks had a significance value of .198, having a value greater
than and not less than 0.05 so it is not therefore significant.

Conclusion

The researcher concludes that exposure to television advertisements of alcoholic


drinks on primetime schedule has a significant influence or association on Freshmen
College students on their attitude regarding alcohol use but has no significant influence or
association on their knowledge on alcohol use and alcoholic drinks.

Result shows that attitudes regarding alcohol use of the respondents have a
significant relationship to the viewing patterns in regards to attitude and the alcohol
drinking patterns but not the literacy or knowledge of the respondents about alcohol use
and alcoholic drinks in general; of the 30 freshmen college students. Television
advertisements of alcoholic drinks might be a factor of influence on a person’s personal
preference of what to choose if he/she will drink alcoholic drinks/beverages but not
merely to greatly influence a person to drink and to be drunk. Some factors that may
influence a freshmen college student to drink alcoholic products is their peers but some
factors are also prevailing in the scene that media has also something to do with it.

Recommendations

Advertisements of alcoholic drinks on television may be performing positive role


to the society, and advertisements of such kinds normalizes the drinking of alcoholic
drinks in the minds of young viewers because advertisements of products of any kind
often portrays the product being enjoyed in the most appealing settings and by the most
attractive people. So it is strongly recommended that responsible attitudes toward
alcohol use should be based on the understanding that such beverages are yet another part
of life over which individuals have control, like exercise, personal hygiene, or diet.

Parents should also teach their children regard the substance of alcohol as neutral,
neither inherently good nor inherently bad. What matters is how it is used, and we must
convey by word and example that the abuse of alcohol is never humorous, acceptable, or
excusable.

The researcher also recommends further study must be conducted with a more
thorough analysis of data and variables; moreover using a more appropriate statistical test
in analyzing the data is also advised.

References

133
Agresti, A. (1996). An Introduction to Categorical Data Analysis. John Wiley & Sons:
New York. (A very readable introduction the many forms of the generalized linear
model)

Austin E.W. and Johnson K.K. (1997), "Effects of General and Alcohol Specific Media
Literacy Training on Children's Decision Making about Alcohol." Journal of
Health Communication, 2,
.
Beck, K. H. and T. G. Summons. (1985): "A Comparison of the Social Context for
Alcohol Consumption of College Students and Convicted DWI Offenders."
Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education 30 31-39. EJ 313 367.

Berkowitz, A. D. and H. W. Perkins. (1986): "Resident Advisers as Role Models: A


Comparison of Drinking Patterns of Resident Advisers and Their Peers." Journal
of College Student Personnel 27 146-153. EJ 334 056.

Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies, University of North Carolina. “What do you know
about alcohol test.

Cashin JR, Meilman PW, Mckillip J, Presley CA. (1998) Understanding the three
national databases on collegiate alcohol and drug use. J Am Coll Health;
46(4):159-162.

Chen M.J., Grube J.W., Bersamin M. , Waiters E., and Keefe D.B. (2005) "Alcohol
Advertising: What Makes It Attractive to Youth?," Journal of Health
Communication 553-565.

Collins R.L., Schell., Ellickson P.L., and McCaffrey D., (2003) "Predictors of beer
advertising awareness among eighth graders," 1297-1306.

Collins R.L., Ellickson P.L., McCaffrey D.F., and Hambarsoomians K. (1998)

Forging the Link Between Alcohol Advertising and Underage Drinking


www.rand.org/pubs/research_briefs/RB9073

Collins R.L., Ellickson P.L., McCaffrey D.F., and Hambarsoomians K. (2005) Saturated
in Beer: Awareness of Beer Advertising in Late Childhood and Adolescence,
Journal of Adolescent Health, Vol. 37, No. 1 pp. 29–36.

Conolly G.M. , Casswell S., Zhang J. and Silva P.A (1994). "Alcohol in the Mass Media
and Drinking by Adolescents: A Longitudinal Study." Addiction 89: 1255-1263,

Ellickson PL, Collins RL, Hambarsoomians K, and McCaffrey DF, (2005) Does Alcohol
Advertising Promote Adolescent Drinking? Results from a Longitudinal
Assessment, Addiction, Vol. 100, No. 2, pp. 235–246.

134
Gentile, D. et al. (April 2001) Frogs Sell Beer: the Effects of Beer Advertisements on
Adolescent Drinking Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior. National Institute on
Media and the Family

Grant B. F. & Dawson, D. A. (1997). Age at Onset of Alcohol Use and its Association
with DSM-IV Alcohol Abuse and Dependence: Results from the National
Longitudinal Alcohol Epidemiologic Survey. Journal of Substance Abuse, 9:101-
110.

Grube J.W. , (2003) "Television alcohol portrayals, alcohol advertising and alcohol
expectancies among children and adolescents," in Effects of the Mass Media on
the Use and Abuse of Alcohol, eds. S.E. Martin and P. Mail (Bethesda, MD:
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism), 105-121.

Kann, L., et al. (2000). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance -- United States, 1999.
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, Vol. 49(SS05): 1-96.

Levy D. T., Miller T. R., & Cox, K. C. (1999). Costs of Underage Drinking. Calverton,
MD: Pacific Institute for Research and Evaluation.

Marcus, D. (2000). Drinking To Get Drunk. U.S. News & World Report [On-line],
Available: www2.gasou.edu/library/ (Search=Alcohol Abuse).

Martin S.E. Et al., (2002) "Alcohol Advertising and Youth," Alcoholism: Clinical and
Experimental Research 26 900-906

Mathios A. (1998) “Journal of Studies on Alcohol” (Vol. 59)

Mendelson, E. (2000). Emphasis on Social Norms Can Help Curb Drinking. Chronicle of
Higher Education [On-line], Available: www2.gasou.edu/library/

McKenzie D (2000).., "Under the Influence? The Impact of Alcohol Advertising on


Youth," Association to Reduce Alcohol Promotion in Ontario,
http://www.apolnet.ca/resources/pubs/respapers/araporesearchpaper.html.

Moreau E., Austin E.W. and Knaus C. (2000) , "Effects of Advertising and Sponsorships
in Sports and Children's Expectations about Alcohol.

Palo Alto medical foundation (PAMF), Alcohol Quiz

Perkins H. W. and Craig D., (2003). The HWS experiment: A synergistic social norms
approach using print, electronic media and curriculum infusion to reduce
collegiate problem drinking. In Perkins, H.W. (Ed.) The Social Norms Approach

135
to Preventing School and College Age Substance Abuse: A Handbook for
Educators, Counselors, and Clinicians.

Perkins, H. W., (2003). The emergence and evolution of the social norms approach to
substance abuse prevention. In Perkins, H.W. (Ed.) The Social Norms Approach
to Preventing School and College Age Substance Abuse: A Handbook for
Educators, Counselors, and Clinicians.
Saffer H. and Dave D. (2003) Alcohol Advertising and Alcohol Consumption by
Adolescents, Working Paper 9676 (Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of
Economic Research, May,

Snyder L.B., Milici F.F., Slater M., Sun H., and Strizhakova Y (2006):. "Effects of
Alcohol Advertising Exposure on Drinking Among Youth," Archives of Pediatrics
and Adolescent Medicine 18-24.

Snyder L.B. et al. (2006): "Effects of Alcohol Advertising Exposure on Drinking Among
Youth," Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 160 18-24.

Stacy A.W., Zogg J.B., Unger J.B., and Dent C.W., (2004) "Exposure to Televised
Alcohol Ads and Subsequent Adolescent Alcohol Use," American Journal of
Health Behavior 28, no. 6: 498-509.

Strasburger C. and Donnerstein E. (1999) "Children, Adolescents, and the Media: Issues
and Solutions." Pediatrics, 129-139., As quoted in "Stop Liquor Ads on TV:
Talking Points." Center for Science in the Public Interest,
http://www.cspinet.org/booze/liquorads/liquor_talkingpoints.htm.

Wechsler H., Nelson T., & Weitzman E. (2000). From Knowledge to Action. Change [On-
line], Available: www2.gasou.edu/library/
(Galileo)(EBSCOhost)(Search=Alcohol Abuse).

Wilcox, G. B., Franke, G. R., and Vacker, B. (1994) Alcohol Advertisements Do Not
Encourage Alcohol Abuse Among Teens. In: Wekesser, Carol (ed.) Alcoholism.
San Diego, CA: Greenhaven Press, Pp. 132-135, p. 133.

Influence of Introversion and Extroversion on the Academic


Performance of Intermediate Students with Parents Abroad

136
Niña Christina C. Pascual

The study aimed to find out if introversion and extroversion influence the academic performance
of intermediate students with parents abroad. The descriptive method of research was used through a survey
checklist to determine who among the respondents have parents working abroad, and the Children’s
Personality Questionnaire (CPQ) to determine who among them are introverts or extroverts. The subjects of
this study were 120 students studying at Holy Infant Academy, Muntinlupa City. They were from
elementary levels IV, V and VI in school year 2006-2007. The data were analyzed using Pearson r to find
out the association between the introversion and extroversion to academic performance of students. In
support to this study, researcher was made on personality in general, school dilemmas, parent- child
relationship, and the role of education and the society in personality development. Findings showed that
introvert students achieve higher academic performance, putting more efforts on their studies, as opposed to
the extroverts’ carefree and energized personality. The preceding findings suggested that parents continue
to give quality time with their children and encourage them to maintain good relationship such as good
communication with the absent parent for a grater development of their distinct qualities. Schools on the
other hand, should adapt a learning system that will cater to the different needs of these children. Activities
should be geared toward student individuality and social mobility, promoting condusive atmosphere for
improved academic performance on both parties. Further studies should be conducted with a more thorough
analysis of other variables in student’s life so that concerned people would have awareness about such
occurrence.

Sanford in 1993 stated that “Philosophers, theologians, humanist, historians,


political scientist, sociologist, anthropologist, biologist physiologist- all study man and
cast into print the result of their observations. The butcher, the baker, and the candlestick
maker- all study man and use the result of their study as the basis for conducting their
daily lives. Each of us in his own way has studied human beings. And each of us has his
own view of a man. On the basis of what we have learned, we can predict sometimes with
great success, what people will do”

Children flourish within a functional two-parent family. If one is not functioning


and or missing, it’s really hard to carry a double load on the other part. Child training
involves the teaching of new skills to facilitate the child’s growth, development and
adaptive functioning. It has been found that facilitating the development of competence
in children is useful as preventive measure for children prior to manifestation of the
disorder rather than as a treatment. Pro social skills are developed; through the teaching
of appropriate play skills, development of friendship and conversational skills to interact
positively in their environment. And it was highlighted the need to include the family in
the training process (Webster-Stratton and Dahl, 1995).

This study hoped to give ample information for every family most especially for
parents remained at home with their children. The child is very much affected with
anything that happens within a family or to the parents. The researcher opted to study the
introversion and extroversion of children with parents working abroad to manifest her
deep concern to the academic performance of the developing child, thus giving
importance to the hopes of our future.
Personality can be defined as the distinctive and characteristic patterns of thought,
emotion, and behavior that define an individual’s personal style of interacting with the
physical and social environment. When we are asked to describe an individual’s

137
personality, we are likely to use personality trait terms- adjectives such as intelligent,
extraverted, conscientious, and so forth. Personality psychologists have historically
attempted to devise formal methods of describing and measuring personality by
systematizing the ways in which we use personality trait terms in daily life. In particular,
they attempt to go beyond our everyday trait conceptions of personality in three ways.
First, they seek to reduce the potential set of trait terms to a manageably small set that
will still encompass the diversity of human personality. Second they attempt to ensure
that their instruments for measuring personality traits are reliable and valid. Finally, they
do empirical research to discover the relationships among traits and between traits and
specific behaviors (Smith E., 1996).

Introversion-extraversion refers to the degree to which a person’s basic orientation


is turned inward toward the self or outward toward the external world. At the
introversion end of the scale are individuals who are shy and prefer to work alone; they
tend to withdraw into themselves, particularly in times of emotional stress or conflict. At
the extraversion end are individuals who are sociable and prefer occupations that permit
them to work directly with other people; in time of stress, they seek company.
(Eysenck,1976)

This study concerned itself with the influence of introversion and extroversion on
the academic performance of intermediate students with parents abroad. In line with this,
the study also aims to compare the relationship of introversion and extroversion on the
academic performance between intermediate students with parents abroad and with
parents living with their children. To present the academic performance of the students,
the researcher got the first and second quarter academic average.

The researcher limits the personality traits in two (introversion and extroversion)
to determine the general tendency to social interaction as opposed to a general
inhibitedness in all aspect of social interaction of students with parents abroad.
Participants in the study are intermediate students ages nine to twelve due to their ability
to comprehend to the instrument used.

The main purpose of the study is to present to its target readers, the parents
(present with their children or in abroad), their children’s current interests, activities and
accomplishments to which they need to respond to through some form of approval and
enthusiasm.

Review of Related Literature

Personality, Introversion and Extroversion

Every person, while he has much in common with others has his own particular
integration of motives, abilities, and behavior patterns, which makes him different from
anyone else. This unique integration is what we refer to as his personality. (Sanford,
1993)

138
Dunn (1992) describes personality, thus: The most distinctive feature of any
individual is his personality. This is the overall pattern or integration of his structures,
modes of behavior, interest, attitudes, intellectual abilities, aptitudes, and many other
distinguishable characteristics. Thus the term personality refers to the whole individual.

rPersonality differences often pose challenges for people who need to work
together. One such difference is that which separates introverts and extroverts. Just by
being themselves, introverts and extroverts can drive each other crazy. But they can also
benefit from each other's strengths. (Karten 1996)

According to Jung (1975), introversion and extraversion refer to the direction of


psychic energy. If a person’s energy usually flows outwards, he or she is an extrovert,
while if this energy normally flows inwards, this person is an introvert. Extraverts feel an
increase of perceived energy when interacting with large group of people, but a decrease
of energy when left alone. Conversely, introverts feel an increase of energy when alone,
but a decrease of energy when surrounded by large group of people. Most modern
psychologists consider theories of psychic energy to be obsolete. However, the concept is
still sometimes used in the more general sense of "feeling energized" in particular
situations. Jung’s primary legacy in this area may be the popularizing of the terms
introvert and extravert to refer to a particular dimension of personality.

Furthermore, Eysenck (1990) described extraversion-introversion as the degree to


which a person is outgoing and interactive with other people. These behavioral difference
are presumed to be the result of underlying differences in brain physiology. Extraverts
seek excitement and social activity in an effort to heighten their arousal level, whereas
introverts tend to avoid social situations in an effort to keep such arousal to a minimum.
Eysenck designated extraversion as one of three major traits in his P-E-N model of
personality, which also includes psychoticism and neuroticism. He also originally
suggested that extraversion was a combination of two major tendencies, impulsiveness
and sociability. He later on added several other more specific traits, namely liveliness,
activity level, and excitability. These traits are further linked in his personality hierarchy
to even more specific habitual responses, such as partying on the weekend.

Social psychologist David Myers (1992), on the other hand found a correlation
between extraversion and happiness; that is, more extraverted people reported higher
levels of personal happiness. The causality is not clear: it is not known if extraversion
leads to greater happiness, happier people become more extraverted, or there is some
other factor such as social status that affects both. Possibly, the results reflect biases in the
survey itself. On average, extraverts also have a somewhat higher self-esteem than
introverts. As in the case of happiness, this may be due to inherent differences in the
brain, or differential social treatment.

Extraversion is perceived as socially desirable in Western culture, but it is not


always an advantage. For many years, researchers have found that introverts tend to be
more successful in academic environments, which extraverts may find boring.
Extraverted youths are also more likely to engage in delinquent behavior (Rauch, 2003).

139
According to Ateel (2005), teachers can also consider temperament when dealing with
their pupils, for example acknowledging that introverted children need more
encouragement to speak in class while extraverted children may grow restless during long
period of quiet study.

School Dilemmas

Early adolescents face difficult personal dilemmas. For example, they need
increasing autonomy. They need acceptance by peers and the comfort of conformity and
at the same to develop unique and individual identities. They need attention and
recognition for their own unique abilities and want to be part of a crowd. Moreover, some
young adolescents experience dilemmas created by being significantly more
developmentally advanced or less matured than other students. For example, seventh
graders may look nine or nineteen in the intellectual development may lay or exceed their
emotional or physical development (Van Hoose and Strahan, 1988).

Lipsitz (1984), Dorman (1987), and Strahan (1988) stated that middle-level
education shifted its attention from relatively mechanical questions about grade
organization to the hard work of creating more responsive schools, research on the
middle grades had focused increasingly on the special characteristics of early adolescents
and more recently on the distinctive components of middle grades schools that can best
meet the students needs. They also discussed the primary needs of early adolescents for
healthy development to which schools must respond competence, success, and
achievement; self exploration and definition; social acceptance and interaction with peers
and adults; physical activity; diversity; meaningful participation in school community;
and structure and clear limits. According to (Gruhn & Devalas, 1947) these needs are
linked closely to the manifest functions of middle grades schools to provide integration,
exploration, guidance, differentiation, socialization, and articulation. The simultaneous
and often conflicting function of middle grades schools crate dilemmas for all concerned.

Schools that serve early adolescents also face dilemmas in creating programs that
respond to the needs of the students. Schools may try to individualize instruction to meet
the diversity in students starting skills but may not want to separate or label students to
meet their needs. Schools may seek to help students feel accepted by their peers but at the
same time work to guide prosocial behaviors and independent thinking that requires
students to counter negative peer pressure. Schools may want to bolster student’s feeling
of competence by providing a common curriculum to keep all students’ option for high
schools post secondary education but maybe lost when some students do not respond to
the typical instructional approaches used in presenting the common curriculum.(Levin
1987)

The dilemmas faced by early adolescents and their schools are even more
poignant for educationally disadvantaged middle grade students. For example, in many
schools, students who have fallen behind or learn more slowly have difficulties finding
opportunities to meet their needs for competence, achievement, and positive social
acceptance. Most remedial programs stigmatize the very students who are most in need of

140
social and academic support and make learning more rather than less difficult for the
students. If feeling of competence and acceptance are not gathered in middle grade
activities, educationally disadvantages early adolescents any seek self- affirmation in
non- academic domains and move toward dropping out before graduating form High
School. (Melver & Epstein 1990)

Another dilemma for schools is created by recommendations for active learning in


academic classes. With their natural energies and need for social support and interaction,
early adolescents require instructional programs that stress learning by doing, active
application of facts and skills, and interaction and work with other students. This type of
program is often purposely rejected for educationally disadvantaged students, even
though these may be the ones who most need these opportunities to become actively
engaged in challenging and exciting school projects (Dorman and Wheelock, 1987,
Epstein, Salinas, and Levin, 1987; Lipsitz, 1984; Melver and Epstein, 1990). Instead,
because many teachers of educationally disadvantaged young adolescents see active
learning as a threat to order, they tend to offer these students highly structured and
passive instructional programs that emphasize drill and practice of basic skills.

The dilemmas created seemingly conflicting simultaneous needs of early


adolescents and their schools are beginning to be understood. There are no easy answers,
however, as the diversity of the age group makes organizing programs that meet and
balance the needs of all students difficult .To promote healthy development and learning
in early adolescence, educators need a better understanding of alternatives structures,
programs and practices. (Lounsbury, 1984)

Hurlock (1993) stated that he proper understanding of our own youth possesses a
challenge to all those who, in a way or another, are concerned with them. In as much as
the youth are the future hopes of tomorrow, it is the primary responsibility of both parents
and most especially, educators to prepare them to face the complexities of life. She also
voiced this when she said: Popular recognition of the role of personality plays in
successful adjustments to modern life has given strong impetus to the scientific study of
personality. In simple cultures, personality is of major importance. Today’s parents and
teacher put great emphasis on developing personality patterns in children, which will help
them to make satisfactory adjustments both in the present and the future.

Parent-Child Relationship

Some analysts argue that growing up with a single mother is the primary cause of
many of the country's most serious social problems, including poverty, high school
dropout, teen pregnancy, and delinquency (Whitehead, 1993; Blankenhorn, 1995). Others
argue that poverty and economic insecurity are the real culprits, causing both father
absence and adolescent behavioral problems (Skolnick, 1991; Stacy, 1993).

Children who grow up apart from their biological fathers do less well, on average,
than children who grow up with both natural parents. They are less likely to finish high
school and attend college, less likely to find and keep a steady job, and more likely to

141
become teen mothers. The differences are not huge. Indeed, most children who grow up
with a single parent do quite well. Nor are they large enough to support the claim that
father absence is the major cause of our country's most serious social problems. However,
the differences between children in one- and two-parent families are not so small as to be
inconsequential, and there is fairly good evidence that father absence per se is responsible
for at least some of them. (Popenoe, 1996)

Downey, D. B (2003) stated "Children residing without biological mothers fare


worse than those without biological fathers, across most outcomes. In addition, only
longitudinal measures of mother absence directly influence school outcomes. The time
lived away from the biological mother is related to adolescents grades and school
discipline, while the number of mother changes significantly reduces adolescents college
expectations."

Adolescents from single father households are judged by teachers to be less well
behaved and to show less effort in class. They also score slightly less than their single-
mother counterparts on standardized tests, both verbal and math, and are perceived to be
less academically qualified for college. Children raised by single fathers attain on average
six months less education. When fathers live apart from their child, they are less likely to
share their incomes with the child, and, consequently, mothers and children usually
experience a substantial decline in their standard of living when the father moves out. We
estimate that as much as half of the disadvantage associated with father absence is due to
the economic insecurity and instability. Another quarter is due to the loss of parental time
and supervision, and the rest is probably due to a loss of social capital attributable in large
measure to the higher incidence of residential mobility among single mothers.
(Ainsworth-Darnell, J. W., & Dufur, M. J. 1998).

Biblarz and Raftery (1999) show that mother-absence is much more detrimental
than father-absence to children's educational and occupational attainment. They find that
once parents' socioeconomic status is taken into account, children raised by single
mothers are much better off than children raised by single fathers or fathers and
stepmothers, and are just as likely to succeed as children raised by both birth parents.

Role of Education and the Society in Personality Development

Ours is a democratic country. Since democracy requires a participative endeavor,


a dynamic personality is essential. Vigorous leadership is much needed to counterbalance
the basic substance of freedom. And well- balanced and adjusted individuals can only
fulfill good leadership. The second impetus to the scientific study of personality as
mentioned by Hurlock has come from the growing evidence that learning, rather than
heredity, largely determines what ones personality will be like. She further stated that, it
is now recognized that personality, like many other areas of development, is controllable
and that the child can, with guidance and help, develop a personality that will make
successful adjustments to life possible. In many respects, the greatest impetus to the
scientific study of personality is the realization that, since personality pattern can be

142
changed and modified in ways that lead to improved personal and social adjustments.
(Hurlock 1993)

The school therefore, as an agency of the state is one of those responsible for the
total development of the personality of each individual. The educational emphasis should
not only be more acquisition of knowledge, habits, skills, and attitudes but should lead to
the total development of the whole individual, as quoted from the Philippine Personality
Inventory manual of Directions: Personality development is more important than more
acquisition of knowledge and skill. In fact, much of the success in life depends in no
small measure upon one’s possession of desirable personality traits. (Tan E. 1994)

Gregorio also underscored the role of education in the development of the


personality of an individual when he said the primary aim of the new education is the
development of well- balanced, well- integrated, and socially adjusted personality.
Emphasis is placed on the concept of growth, on the idea of wholeness, and on the
apperceptive theory. The cooperation between the teachers and the pupils, the
encouragement of voluntary effort on the part of the students, and opportunity for original
expression are important factors in the development of personality (Gregorio H. &
Gregorio C., 1974).

Knowledge of an individual entails a lot of work and patience. This, every teacher
should know because the complete mastery of subject matter alone can cause one to fail
in his teaching if there is lack of understanding of personality of the students. This is the
very reason why a study of the students’ needs is used as a basis in the formulation of
education objectives. Tyler said that sources of educational objectives are studied of the
learners and he expounded this principle, thus Education is the process of changing the
behavior patterns of people. This is using behavior in the broad sense to include thinking
and feeling as well as over action. When declaration is viewed in this way, it is clear that
educational objectives, then, represents the kinds of changes in the behavior that an
educational institution should seek to produce (Tyler’1994).

Over the past 15 years, research on education in the middle grades has raised
awareness of the importance of the organization of transitions from elementary to middle
and junior High Schools (Simmons and Blyth, 1987). It has focused attention on the
importance of schools and classrooms that encourage students participation and decision
making for the development of positive students attitudes, self- direction, personal
control, and motivation (Arlin and Whitley,1978; Deci, Schwartz, and Ryan, 1981). It
also has shown the middle grades schools and classrooms may inadvertently or purposely
reduce student decision making just as students are able to assume more responsibility for
learning (Eccles, Midgley, and Adler 1984). Furthermore, this research has suggested that
schools’ decisions regarding middle grades practices sometimes involve trade-off
between important students outcomes because particular organizational components
affect achievement and attitudes differently. For example, departmentalized staffing
patterns in the middle grades may promote higher students achievement in science and
social studies but may negatively affect student- teacher relations and students attitudes
toward school (McPartland, 1987). These and other studies raise the level of educators’

143
awareness of the power of school achievements, organization, and practices in
influencing student outcomes.

Although educators are increasingly aware of the recommendations for middle


grades organization, information about the prevalence or persistence of these practices
has not been clear. Previous research has been limited in the location and nature of the
samples of schools and students, the breadth and dept of information on the middle
grades practices and the comparison of alternative organizations of middle grades
schools. Several new studies have focused on the state of middle grades education at the
beginning of the 1990’s and raise many questions about improving practice and
advancing research for the next decade.

Synthesis

In general, schools face the challenge of helping youngsters establish their own
identity in early adolescence, simultaneously assisting them to take steps toward
becoming more adult with active participation in their schools and communities.
Furthermore, they face the challenge of meeting students’ intellectual needs without
neglecting their emotional and social needs. The researcher was able to put together some
relevant research and studies, which explained the idea of the influence of introversion
and extroversion on the academic performances of the students.

Method

Participants

The respondents constituted three sections each of grades four, five and six having
a total population of 102, 107, and 106 respectively. Participants are currently enrolled at
Holy Infant Academy, Muntinlupa City school year 2006-2007. The whole of three levels
participated in answering the survey checklist to determine among them have parents
working abroad and those living with them, with a total of 60 respondents from each
group. A total of 120 respondents took Children’s Personality Questionnaire to identify
who were introverts and extroverts. Participants in this study are ages nine to twelve
years old.

The researcher chose intermediate students because it is in this stage, known as


late childhood that the child is marked by conditions that profoundly affects his personal
and social adjustments. To many parents, late childhood is the troublesome age- the time
when children no longer wiling to do what they are told to do and when they are more
influenced by their peers than by their parents and other family members. (Hurlock 1993)
Materials/Instruments

The researcher formulated a survey checklist determining the current status of


each respondent. It showed every child’s familial status whether their living together or

144
the other one is working abroad. Pilot testing was conducted to test the content validity
and reliability of the questionnaire.

Children Personality Questionnaire (CPQ) is a standardized questionnaire that


measures a set of fourteen factorially independent dimension of personality of pupils. The
CPQ is aimed at giving the maximum information in the shortest time about the greatest
number of dimensions of personality. It targets 14 dimensions of personality taken from a
factor analysis of personality performed by Cattell in 1950. Each form contains 140
items, ten for each dimension. The test result gave the teacher a psychologically
insightful understanding, as well as a precise, quantitative evaluation of those aspects of a
particular students’ personality contributing to, or detracting from his or her performance
in school and his or her social adjustment inside and outside the classroom. This
personality measures and concepts are equally relevant to child guidance, counseling and
classroom purposes. It has a scoring for introversion and extroversion, which measures a
factor, which predicts the child’s seeking of avoiding social interactions generally. The
CPQ is theoretically based: its scales are relevant to the hypothesized structure of
personality, reliability and validity indicates both the goodness of the hypotheses and the
adequacy of the measures of each hypothesized construct. This is termed concept validity
(Cattell,1964:Gronbach,1960).

Research Design

The researcher used the descriptive method of research to determine the influence
of personality traits to academic performance of children with parents abroad as against
those living with a complete pair. Descriptive method is designed for the investigator to
gather information about present existing conditions. The principal aims in employing
this method are to:(1) Describe the nature of the situation as it exists at the time of the
study;(2) Explore the causes of a particular phenomena. The descriptive research as
defined involves a collection of data in order to test hypothesis or to answer questions
concerning the current status of the subject of the study (Sevilla, 1986)

A descriptive study determines and reports the way things are. Just as historical
research, descriptive research has no control over what is, it can only measure what
already exists. Descriptive research deals mostly with verbal information analyzed,
summarized and interpreted along certain lines of thought for the pursuit of a specific
purpose of the study (Estolas,et al,1989). This method clearly describes the existing
condition, situations, and factors, which the researcher has conceived the problem.

Procedure

145
First, the researcher sought permission through a formal letter of request
addressed to the Directress-Principal to conduct a study about the influence of personality
traits to academic performance among the selected intermediate pupils.

Upon approval, the researcher went room-to room together with the Elementary
Guidance Counselor to distribute the survey questionnaires and to give further
instructions to the students on how they would fill up the survey questionnaire. With their
response to the survey checklist, the researcher was able to determine the respondents for
this study.

The researcher again sought permission to allow her to administer the Children
Personality Questionnaire to identify the introvert and extrovert respondents. CPQ was
taken from the Elementary Guidance office. Assurance on the test results confidentiality
was reassured between the researcher and guidance counselor.

Lastly, the researcher again requested that she may be allowed to copy the first
and second quarter general academic performance of her respondents to be used as the
determining factor in the relationship of the variables of this study.

Data Analysis

The data gathered from the survey questionnaire, from the records and the CPQ
were classified, tallied, tabulated, and analyzed

The Pearson Correlation coefficient r was employed in order to measure


relationship between two variables. It indicated the magnitude of the relationship between
two variables.

For interpreting the coefficient of correlation, 1.0-was used to show a Perfect


positive coefficient for r, and -1.0 for a perfect negative coefficient for r.

Results

146
This chapter presents, analyzes, and discuss the findings and the result concerning
the Influence of Introversion and Extroversion on the Academic Performance of
Intermediate students with Parent abroad.

Figure 1.
The Academic Performance and CPQ Scores of Introvert and Extrovert
Respondents

Figure 1 shows the CPQ scores and academic performance of introvert and
extrovert students. Based on the CPQ scores, those that fall under the scale of 1 to 5 are
considered introverts and those that fall between 5.5 to 10 are considered extroverts.
Introvert respondents whose parents living together with their children achieved higher
academic performance compared to introvert respondents taken cared of by single parents
with fathers or mothers working abroad. Extrovert respondents with parents living
together with them achieved low grades but those extrovert respondents whose parents
are abroad got lower grades compared to those respondents whose parents living with
their children. Generally, respondents regardless of being introvert or extrovert but when
living with both parents shows a higher achievement level than those who are raised by
only one parent.

Table 1

147
Distribution of Respondents According to Grade Level
Grade Level Number of Respondents Percentage
IV 34 28.3%
V 33 27.5%
VI 53 44.2%
Total 120 100.0%

Table 1 shows that 28.3% (34 out of 120) of the respondents are from Grade IV
level, 27.5% (33 out of 120) were from Grade V level and 44.2% (53 out of 120) are from
Grade VI.

Table 2
Distribution of Personality Traits of Respondents with Parents Abroad

Personality Traits Number of Respondents Percentage


Introvert 42 70%
Extrovert 18 30%
Total 60 100.0%

Table 2 shows that 70% (42 out of 60) of the respondents are introverts and only
30% (18 out of 60) are extroverts. This table indicates that a great number of intermediate
students with parents abroad were more introvert than extrovert. Based on the CPQ score
those that fall under the scale of 1 to 5 are considered introverts and those that fall
between 5.5 to 10 are considered extroverts.

Table 3
Distribution of Personality Traits of Respondents whose Parents are Living Together
with their Children

Personality Traits Number of Respondents Percentage


Introvert 45 75%
Extrovert 15 25%
Total 60 100.0%

Table 3 shows that 75% (45 out of 60) of the respondents are living with their
parents are introvert and 25% (15 out of 60) respondents are extroverts. Based on the
CPQ scores those that fall under the scale of 1 to 5 are considered introverts and those
that fall between 5.5 to 10 are considered extroverts.

Table 4

148
Testing the Relationship of Introvert and Extrovert Respondents on their Academic
Performance with Parents abroad and with Parents Living with Their Children.

Variable Computed Pearson r Verbal Interpretation


With parents abroad 0.52 High positive correlation
(Introvert)
With parents abroad 0.60 High positive correlation
(Extrovert)
With parents living with 0.64 High positive correlation
their children (Introvert)
With parents living with 0.67 High positive correlation
their children (Extrovert)
Introvert respondents 0.59 High positive correlation
Extrovert respondents 0.62 High positive correlation

Table 4 shows that introversion and extroversion has strong relationship on the
academic performance of intermediate students with parents abroad and with parents
living together with their children

Discussion

Based on the results of the study, it is shown that introvert students achieve higher
academic performance compared to extrovert students. Table 4 shows that the computed
Pearson r for the relationship of introvert respondents on their academic performance
with parents abroad is 0.52, explaining that introversion has a strong relationship with the
academic performance of intermediate students with parents abroad. The computed
Pearson r for the relationship of extrovert respondents on their academic performance
with parents abroad is 0.60, which means that extroversion has a strong relationship with
the academic performance of intermediate students with parents abroad. For the
relationship of introvert respondents on their academic performance with parents living
with their children, the computed Pearson r is 0.64, which means that introversion has a
strong relationship on the academic performance of intermediate students with parents
living together with their children. For the relationship of extrovert respondents on their
academic performance with parents living together with their children, the computed
Pearson r is 0.67, it means that extroversion has also a strong relationship on the
academic performance of intermediate students with parents living together with their
children. The computed Pearson r for the relationship of introvert respondents on their
academic performance is 0.59 and for the relationship of extrovert respondents on their
academic performance, the computed Pearson r is 0.62. It explains that introversion and
extroversion and extroversion has strongly influence the academic performance of
intermediate students.

Based on the graph shown in figure 1 introvert respondents whose parents living
together with their children achieve higher academic performance compared to introvert

149
respondents taken cared of by single parents whose fathers or mothers are abroad.
Extrovert respondents whose parents are living together with their children achieve low
grades against extrovert respondents whose parents are abroad got lower grades
compared to those respondents whose parents living with their children. Generally,
respondents regardless of being introvert or extrovert but when living with both parents
shows a higher achievement level than those who are raised only by one parent.

The results gathered in this study therefore attest what Raunch in 2003 stated.
According to him, for many years, researchers have found that introverts tend to be more
successful in academic environments, which extraverts may find boring. Extraverted
youth are also more likely to engage in delinquent behavior. In addition, Ateel (2005)
stated that teachers can also consider temperament when dealing with their pupils, for
example acknowledging that introverted children need more encouragement to speak in
class while extraverted children may grow restless during long period of quiet study.

Conclusion and Recommendations

The researcher concludes that introversion positively influences the students’


academic performance. Based on the results, introvert students tend more time and
concentration in their studies. Since they are the reserved, serious type, they are more
diligent in their studies compared to the extroverts who are carefree and less serious in
their work. The academic performance is also influenced by the proper parental guidance.
Children who are taken cared of by single parents with fathers or mothers working abroad
greatly affect their social relationship with peers. Based on the result of the CPQ test
conducted, 120 respondents, 72.5% of which are introverts and 27.5% are extroverts. It
only proves that the academic performance of these children was greatly affected due to
the absence of either parents.

It is important to implement a continuous set of distinct practices including


communication between the children and the parent as among the teachers, guidance
exploration, integration and socialization are important to have a very strong attachment
to children. The school should continue to seek help the student by guiding them towards
independent thinking that requires them to counter negative pressure that would exist.
Children at this age need acceptance by peers and the comfort of conformity. At the same
time, they need to develop unique and individual identities as much as they need attention
and recognition for their own unique abilities to be a part of a crowd.

The presence of both parents can be a significant factor in the performance of


either introvert or extrovert children. Parents should continue to give quality time with

150
their children. A good parent- child relationship with the absence mother or father
presence depends on what transpires between the parent and the child. It is very
important that when they are together, the qualities of care by parents are able to give for
their children. Therefore, it is not the quantity but the quality of time spent together that
matters. Though introversion positively influence academic performance, it is also an
advised to students to engage themselves socially for a more development of their distinct
qualities. The same study can be done in other levels grade or year so that teachers,
administrators would have awareness about such occurrence.

References

151
Ainsworth-Darnell, J. W., & Dufur, M. J. (1998). Sex of parent and children’s well-being
in single-parent households. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 60(4), 878-893
Arlin & Whitley (1978), Differentiated Psychology Individual and Group Differences in
behavior. McMillan Publishing Co., p110

Ateel S.A (2005)Personality Career Test Questions on Parenting Bookmark Inc.

Biblarz and Raftery (1999) Educational Attainment in Blended Families, August 2000.

Cattell (1964) &Gronbach (1960) Personality and Motivation Structure and


Measurement.Vol.2 p168

Deci, Schwartz, and Ryan (1981) Differentiated Psychology Individual and Group
Differences in behavior. McMillan Publishing Co., p110

Dunn (1992), Introduction to Psychology, Child Development 63 (2) 336-49

Dorman & Mc Partland(1987), Storytelling in psychotherapy with Children. Handbook of


Emotions p56

Downey, D. B (2003) "The Longitudinal Effects of Mother and Father Absence on


Adolescent School Success." Population Association of America, Minneapolis,
MN. (May 1-3, 2003)

Eccles, Midgley & Adler (1984) Differentiated Psychology Individual and Group
Differences in behavior. McMillan Publishing Co., p110

Epstein, Salinas & Levin (1987) Storytelling in psychotherapy with Children. Handbook
of Emotions p56

Estolas,et al (1989) Personality theories basic assumption, Research and Application. Mc


Grawhill Book Co. p.153

Eysenck (1976) Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology Twelfth Edition Chapter 12;422

Eysenck, H. J. (1971) (1990). Readings in Extraversion-Introversion. New York: Wiley. )


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraversion-and-Introversion

Gregorio H. & Gregorio C., (1974). Introduction to Education in the Philippine Setting
p126

Gruhn &Devalas (1947), Child rearing and personality development in the Philippines
Phil Journal of Psychology Vol. 126-134

Jung C.(1975)Retrieved last March 1995 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraversion-and-


Introversion

152
Karten N (1996) Understanding Introversion and Extroversion from
http//www.stickyMinds.com.Weekly Column from 060502006

Hurlock (1993) Childrens understanding of real and apparent emotions Child


Development 57, 106-142.

Levin (1987) Storytelling in psychotherapy with Children. Handbook of Emotions p56

Lounsbury (1984), From good intentions to willpower in Child Study Journal, 20, 154-70

Lipsitz (1984), Talking about internal states: The acquisition of an explicit theory of
mind. Developmental Psychology 18(6) 106-21

Mc Partland(1987), Storytelling in psychotherapy with Children. Handbook of Emotions


p56

Melver & Epstein (1990) The youngest minds: Parenting and genes in the development
of Intellect and emotion. Developmental Psychology 262-83

Myers, David G (1992) The Secrets of Happiness Psychology Today

Popenoe (1996) The Longitudinal Effects of Mother and Father Absence on Adolescent
School Success." Population Association of America, Minneapolis, MN.

Rauch, Jonathan (2003) Caring For Your Introvert The Atlantic Monthly; March 2003;
Volume 291, No. 2

Sanford (1993) Human Culture and Categorization of Emotion Psychological Bulletin


110,246-273

Sevilla (1986) Personality theories basic assumption, Research and Application. Mc


Grawhill Book Co p. 281.

Skolnick, 1991; Stacy, (1993) The Longitudinal Effects of Mother and Father Absence on
Adolescent School Success." Population Association of America, Minneapolis,
MN.

Simmons & Blyth (1987) Differentiated Psychology Individual and Group Differences in
behavior. McMillan Publishing Co., p110

Smith E. (1996) Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology Twelfth Edition Chapter 12;421

Strahan (1988) Talking about internal states: The acquisition of an explicit theory of
mind. Developmental Psychology 18(6) 106-21

153
Tan E. (1994) Philippine Personality Inventory Manual of Directions p36

Tyler (1994) Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction

Van Hoose (1988) Talking about internal states: The acquisition of an explicit theory of
mind. Developmental Psychology 18(6) 106-21

Whitehead, 1993; Blankenhorn, (1995) The Longitudinal Effects of Mother and Father
Absence on Adolescent School Success." Population Association of America,
Minneapolis, MN.

Wheelock (1987) Storytelling in psychotherapy with Children. Handbook of Emotions

Webster-Stratton and Dahl, (1995) Family talk about feelings states and children’s later
understanding of others emotions. Child Study Journal 20, 153-70

Background Music and Ambient Scent Interaction on Consumer


In-Store Behavior

154
Michael M. Rastrollo

Enhancing the shopping experience of a store environment is important to retailers, and such main
effects have been studied to know what and how consumers would have an excellent stay. These main
effects are mostly the pleasant ambient stimuli such as music and scent. This theoretical understanding
extended on the notion of Gestalt to consumers’ perceptions of retail environments and demonstrated that
consumers perceive it holistically. It is suggested that the arousing quality of ambient stimuli is one
dimension along which holistic evaluations occur, and that pleasant ambient stimuli are perceived when
their arousing qualities match rather than mismatch. The researcher manipulated scent and music in a 3 (no
music, pleasant low arousal and high arousal music) by 3 (no scent, pleasant low and high arousal scents)
factorial design in a setting. The researcher’s findings show that when ambient scent and music are
congruent with each other in terms of their arousal qualities, consumers rate the environment significantly
more positive, exhibit higher levels of approach and impulse buying behaviors, and experience enhanced
satisfaction than when these environmental cues were at odds with each other.

How music affects the behavior of people has been a notion in many fields. Also,
scent cues trigger a certain memory cycle and can be stimulating. It is also discussed in
biopsychology that the olfaction region is being triggered by scent cues. The combination
of these can produce certain human reactions.

The topic that atmospherics influence consumer behavior is widely accepted in


the marketing literature, yet theory development is clearly limited in this area. This kind
of notion may not have been introduced in the Philippines fully. Likewise, past studies in
different western countries have examined the effects of individual pleasant stimuli such
as music, color or scent on consumer behavior, but have failed to examine how these
stimuli might interact. To further the conceptual understanding of atmospherics on
consumer behavior, it has to be extended in the notion of Gestalt to consumers’
perceptions of retail environments.

It is mostly argued that consumers perceive stores holistically and that consumer
responses to a physical environment depend on ensemble configurations. Specifically, it
is suggested that the arousing quality of stimuli in a store is one dimension that effects
this holistic evaluation. This will be tested upon this proposition using two pleasant
ambient cues: scent and music. It is suggested that to maximize these holistic effects,
consumers need to perceive the arousing qualities of music such as fast or slow tempo to
be coherent with those of the scent such as stimulating or relaxing present in a store.
Matching ambient stimuli might lead to higher evaluations of the store environment,
more positive behavioral responses and higher satisfaction levels and than mismatching.

Optimal arousal theory suggests that minor changes in the environment, such as
adding a low level of scent or playing background music, increases the environment’s
perceived novelty and pleasantness (Berlyne, 1971; McClelland et al., 1953).
Consequently, the researcher expects that adding either a pleasant scent or pleasant
background music to the retail environment should enhance the perceived positive state
of the store environment, including the amount of pleasure associated with it. In the
context of environmental psychology, the original response taxonomy employed by
Mehrabian and Russell (1974), was approach-avoidance behaviors. However, in a

155
service/retail experience, the response taxonomy includes satisfaction judgments (Wirtz
& Bateson, 1999). Because impulse buying is an aspect of shopper behavior with
potentially important managerial implications (e.g., Beatty & Ferrell, 1998), it should be
noticed and included a measure for unplanned purchases in the battery of questions.
Combining these evaluative and behavioral responses, the researcher expects that the
presence of pleasant ambient scent or background music will increase customer
evaluations of the positive state of the store environment, impulse buying and approach
behaviors, and customer satisfaction with the service encounter. Because these main or
similar main effects have been reported in prior studies, the formal hypotheses are limited
to the interaction effects of ambient scent and background music

Because incongruent environmental cues tend to result in lower perceived unity or


less coherent ensemble effects (Bell et al., 1991), it is suggested that mismatched
environmental stimuli might lower customer perceptions of the entire shopping
experience. More specifically, the researcher propose that when the arousal qualities of
two ambient cues match [that is, high/low arousal scent and high/low arousal music], this
stimulus congruency should lead to an enhanced perception of a store. Conversely,
incongruence between the ambient factors [that is, high/low arousal scent and low/high
arousal music] should have an adverse impact on consumer perceptions of the
environment, including approach and impulse buying behaviors, and satisfaction.
Consequently, the researcher proposes the following:

Hypothesis: Matching arousing dimensions of scent and music (i.e., high/high or


low/low arousal conditions) will lead to enhanced a) pleasure, b) approach, c) perceived
positivity of the store environment, d) impulse buying and e) satisfaction, compared to
mismatch conditions (i.e., high/low or low/high).

Review of Related Literature

Arousal intensity is an important dimension in a store. In Sherman et al.’s (1997)


study both pleasure and arousal had a positive impact on money spent, whereas time
spent in the store was solely influenced by the consumer’s arousal level. Baker et al.
(1992) also found that consumers stay longer in stores, which are high in arousing
qualities probably as they are perceived as more interesting. In their study, music and
lighting were combined as a single ambient factor, thus inhibiting an examination of the
interaction effects between two ambient stimuli. Wirtz and Mattila (2000) showed that
affective expectations might drive consumers’ approach behaviors and satisfaction in a
restaurant setting, again emphasizing the role of arousal in determining consumers’
perceptions of stores.

Research in environmental psychology postulates that people respond to their


environments holistically. That is, though individual persons perceive discrete stimuli, it
is the total configuration of stimuli that determines their responses to the environment
(e.g., Holahan, 1982). In consumer research, Bell et al. (1991) introduced the concept of
esthetic complementary to advance our understanding of product evaluations. As noted

156
by Holbrook (1986), an image possesses a cue configuration when components of the
image interact in mutually reinforcing manner.

This concept of esthetic complementary is strikingly similar to the principle of


unity-invariety developed by philosophers of art (Beardsley, 1981) and extended by
consumer researchers (e.g., Holbrook and Zirlin, 1985). Some consumer objects,
furniture or clothing for example, are more likely to be paired, whereas other
combinations are avoided by many consumers due to their lack of unity-in-variety. In
their model of preferences for product styles, Bell et al. (1991) included an ensemble
effect, which was intended to measure how the product styles hang together as a
combination or configuration. Solomon (1983) postulates that consumers look to the total
collection of cues in the environment to decode meanings and to structure their behavior
accordingly. The findings of Green, Wind and Jain (1972) suggest that consumers expect
certain patterns of products to go together. In other words, satisfaction with a given
product is partly a function of its overall “goodness of fit”.

This holistic perspective is also embedded in Bitner’s (Bitner, 1992)


conceptualization of store. If the environment is perceived as a whole, while specific
arousing dimensions from environmental stimuli can be sensed by the individual, then
different combinations of ambient cues might produce differential responses. In this
study, they focused on the matching or mismatching of arousing qualities between
pleasant ambient scent and background music.

Researchers have generally differentiated scents along three different, although


not necessarily independent dimensions (Spangenberg et al., 1996). They include the
affective quality of the scent (e.g., how pleasant it is), its arousing nature (e.g., how likely
it is to evoke a physiological response), and its intensity (e.g., how strong it is). Although
scents can affect arousal levels (e.g., Lorig and Schwartz, 1988), to our knowledge, no
prior research has investigated the arousing nature of a scent independent of its affective
quality. Furthermore, prior studies have failed to explicitly measure scent presence effects
on approach and avoidance behaviors (Bone & Ellen, 1999).

Ambient scent refers to scent that does not originate from any particular object
but is present in the environment. Research on ambient scent has been less common
(Bone & Ellen, 1994; Gulas & Bloch, 1995), but may be of greater interest to retailers
and other service providers than product-specific scents. Ambient scent could affect
perceptions of the store and its products, including those products that are difficult to
scent (e.g., office supplies and furniture, Gulas & Bloch, 1995).

Scholarly research on the effects of ambient scent has been limited. A notable
exception is Spangenberg et al.’s 1996 study, which examined the impact of ambient
scents in a simulated retail environment. The findings indicated that subjects had more
positive evaluations and behaviors in the scented rather than the unscented environment.
Unexpectedly, the type of scent did not matter, as even effectively neutral scents were
able to generate enhanced perceptions. Furthermore, the intensity of the scent (within a
reasonable range) failed to have an impact on the results. Two other empirical studies

157
have examined the effects of ambient scent in a consumer behavior context. In the first
study, subjects spent more time on a catalog-shopping task in scented than in unscented
rooms (Bone and Ellen, 1994). The second study found that gamblers spent more money
on slot machines when the casino was pleasantly scented than when it was not (Hirsch,
1995).

Research on cue congruency, or whether a scent is perceived as appropriate in a


particular context, has produced mixed results. Scents that are inconsistent with the
product tend to have a negative effect on product or ad evaluations (Mitchell, Kahn &
Knasko, 1995; Ellen & Bone, 1999). However, only Bone and Jantrania’s (1992) study
provides direct support for a positive impact of cue congruency. In their investigation,
adding a consistent scent enhanced consumers’ evaluations of household cleansers and
suntan lotions.

Gulas and Bloch (1995) developed a conceptual model portraying ambient scent
as an environmental cue that influences emotional responses and ultimately shopping
behaviors. Similar to Mehrabian and Russell’s framework, we posit in this model that
scent influences consumer’ perceptions of pleasure and arousal, which in turn affect
behavioral responses to the environment. Following a better understanding of the effects
of ambient scent on human responses and behaviors, we turn our attention to another
environmental stimulus, music.

Aside from the obvious commercial issues, the role of music in consumer
research is of considerable theoretical interest (North and Hargreaves, 1998). Music is
capable of evoking complex affective and behavioral responses in consumers. Bruner
(1990) suggests that any musical composition is composed of at least three primary
dimensions: a physical dimension like volume, pitch, tempo, rhythm, an emotional tone,
and a preferential dimension like the degree to which a shopper likes the music. Although
the impact of music on consumer emotions and shopping behavior has attracted
considerable attention among marketing researchers, empirical evidence of the impact of
the physical characteristics of music is mixed (Herrington & Capella, 1994).

Prior research has shown that music can affect consumer behavior in retail
environments (e.g., Milliman, 1982, 1986; Yalch & Spangenberg, 1990) and influence
their desire to affiliate in buyer-seller interactions (Dube´ et al., 1995). Milliman (1982,
1986) conducted two separate experiments where he manipulated music tempo, one in a
supermarket and the other in a restaurant. In the first study (1982), shoppers spent more
time and money in a slow tempo retail environment. In the second study (1986)
customers in the slow music condition took more time to eat their meals compared to
those in the fast-music condition. Beverage revenue was also higher in the slow-music
condition.

Yalch and Spangenberg (1988) conducted research that builds on the Milliman
studies. In a department store setting, they compared the effects of foreground music as in
Top 40 pop hits, and background music like instrumental easy-listening, to a no music
control group. In that study, younger shoppers under 25 years old thought that they had

158
spent more time shopping in the easy listening condition, whereas older shoppers
perceived that they had shopped longer when Top 40 music was being played. The
authors concluded that encountering atypical environmental factors (e.g., unfamiliar
music) might adversely influence consumers’ time perceptions. In North and Hargreaves
(1998) study, different musical styles (easy listening, classical, pop or silence) exhibited a
significant influence on the students’ perceptions of a
school cafeteria.

Dube´ et al.’s (Dube´, 1995) study investigated the effect of music-induced


pleasure and arousal on consumers’ affiliation behaviors in a banking context. Their
results indicated that music-induced pleasure and arousal might have independent effects
on consumers’ desire to affiliate in a buyer-seller interaction, with more desire to affiliate
associated with more pleasure and more arousal. As further evidence of arousal effects,
Vanderark and Ely (1993) report that high tempo and high rhythmic content in the music
led to an increase in physiological arousal among consumers.

Conceptual Framework

159
The conceptual framework, shown in Figure A below, for this research will be
based on the proposed influence of specific environmental dimensions on retail store
patronage. Models and concepts developed by Bitner (1992), Engel, Blackwell, and
Miniard (1995), Mehrabian and Russell (1974), Monroe and Guiltinan (1975), and Shim
and Kotsiopulos (1992) will be adapted to form the framework for this study. The
following paragraphs discuss each model individually:

Figure A

SCENT
AND
MUSIC

Approach- Store Impulse


Pleasure Avoidance Environment Buying Satisfaction

1.) Environmental Responses and Approach-Avoidance Behavior

Bitner (1992) developed a framework for environment-user relationships in


service organizations. The overall objective of this model was to explore the role of the
physical environment in service organizations. Bitner’s framework proposes that
consumers and employees in service settings perceive a variety of environmental factors.
These factors are ambient conditions; space/function; and signs, symbols and artifacts.
Ambient conditions consist of temperature, air quality, noise, music, and odor. The
space/function dimension includes the layout, equipment and furnishings. Signage, styles
of décor and personal artifacts are among the sign, symbols and artifacts dimension. Both
consumers and employees respond to the environment cognitively, emotionally, and
physiologically. These internal responses then influence the behavior of consumers and
employees, as well as affect their social interactions. Furthermore, Bitner states that the
perceived servicescape (i.e., physical setting, environment in service organizations) and
environmental factors does not directly cause people to behave in certain ways. Instead,
consumer perceptions of a retail store lead to certain beliefs, emotions and physiological
actions that influence behaviors.
To discuss individual behavior, Bitner incorporates the concept of approach-
avoidance behavior (i.e., patronage behavior) studied by Mehrabian and Russell (1974)
and Donovan and Rossiter (1982). Bitner states that individuals react to environments in

160
two ways to show preference (i.e., approach) or lack of preference (i.e., avoidance) for a
particular environment. Designing environments, which enhance approach behaviors
(i.e., store patronage) and encourage social interactions, present many challenges for
service organizations because optimal design for one person or group of people may not
be the optimal design for others. For example, a setting that is conducive to an
employee’s work needs may not enhance the social interaction between employees and
consumers (Bitner). Furthermore, an environment that promotes approach or patronage
behavior for one consumer may not elicit the same response in another consumer or
group of consumers.

2.) The Consumer Decision Process

Engel, Blackwell, and Miniard (1995) developed the consumer decision process
and the store choice decision model. The decision process model can be applied to all
decisions that consumers make in the marketplace; however, the store decision model
applies only to decisions made about specific retail stores. Seven stages are included in
the consumer decision process model. They are need recognition, search for information,
pre-purchase alternative evaluation, purchase, consumption, post-purchase alternative
evaluation, and divestment. A need is recognized when a perceived difference between
the desired and the actual state of affairs occur. For instance, a consumer may recognize
the need for a new dress. Next, the consumer engages in an information search to
facilitate decision making and to reduce the perceived risk often associated with
purchasing a dress. Pre-purchase evaluation involves assessing several criteria, such as
fabric type, construction detail, and brand name to decide on an appropriate dress. At the
purchase stage, the consumer makes decisions related to whether to buy, when, what, and
where to buy, as well as how to pay for the dress. After purchase and use of the dress, the
consumer makes a post-evaluation. This evaluation involves determining whether the
dress meets the expected level of performance. The consumer often expresses their
satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the dress. Finally, after using the product over time the
consumer disposes of the dress because it no longer meets functional or psychological
needs or because the item is obsolete.

At the purchase stage in the consumer decision process, the consumer decides
where or what stores to purchase a product (e.g., a dress) once the need is recognized.
With respect to the store decision model, Engel, Blackwell, and Miniard (1995) examined
store choice as a function of consumer characteristics and store characteristics. The store
decision process involves four variables: evaluative criteria or attributes, perceived
characteristics of stores, comparison process, and acceptable and unacceptable stores. The
model proposes that consumers form images (i.e., overall perception) of stores based
on the combination of perceived criteria or attributes. Often these attributes are combined
to form categories. Some attributes include location, assortment breadth and depth, price,
advertising and sales promotion, store personnel, services, and other store characteristics.
In retail studies, consumers list attributes that come to mind when thinking about a
particular store or store type or they are often given a list. Consumers rate stores relative
to each attribute or category on Likert-type scales of importance (e.g., 1-to-7). At the
comparison process (i.e., in the mind of the consumer), the consumer compares the

161
importance of store attributes with the store’s image (i.e., overall perception) to determine
which stores are acceptable and those that are unacceptable. For example, if quality is
important to the consumer, and if Store A is perceived as having lower quality, while
Store B is perceived as having higher quality, the consumer will choose Store B rather
than Store A.

3.) Importance and Perceptions of Store Attributes

Monroe and Guiltinan (1975) discussed a model of retail patronage. They studied
the influence of four variables on store patronage. Of these variables were importance
and perceptions of store attributes. The model suggested that a consumer’s attitude
toward stores was a function of importance and perceptions of store attributes.
Furthermore, consumers engage in a comparison process (i.e., occurs in the mind of
consumers) to determine if perceived attributes and perceptions of these attributes match.
If the two variables match, then the consumer chooses the store. Engel et al. (1995)
discusses a similar comparison process. The consumer compares the importance of store
attributes with the store’s image (i.e., overall perception) to determine acceptable and
unacceptable stores. With respect to the comparison process, if a specific environmental
dimension is important and the respondent’s perception of the store is positive or the store
is perceived as offering that particular dimension, then the respondent will decide to
select or patronize that particular store. On the other hand, if the environmental
dimension is important and the respondent’s perception of the store environment is
negative, then the respondent would most likely decide to avoid or not shop in the store.

4.) Shopping Orientations

Shim and Kotsiopulos (1992) and Monroe and Guiltinan (1975) studied shopping
orientations. Orientations are shopper styles that reflect consumer needs for product and
services (Shim & Kotsiopulos, 1993). Monroe and Guitinan found that shopping
orientations directly influenced the importance of store attributes and perceptions of
attributes. Furthermore, Shim and Kotsiopulos and Monroe and Guiltinan studied the
influence of shopping orientations and the importance of store attributes on store
patronage. Both studies found that shopping orientations rather than the importance of
store attributes have a stronger influence on patronage.

Method

Participants

162
Participants were the customers coming in the store. Participants can be high
school, college, single or married people. There is no limit of participants. Participants
who have incomplete data and may have affected by extraneous variables will be
automatically scrapped out. Any other extraneous variables like music or scent that is not
included or may cause an effect to the data – i.e. people who has strong perfumes or loud
walkmans/discmans/MP3 card etc. – will be automatically disregarded.

Materials/Instruments

Mehrabian and Russell’s (1974) twelve-item semantic differential scale was


employed to measure emotional responses to the environment. Six item pairs measured
the arousal dimension of emotions (e.g., stimulated –relaxed, calm –excited, dull –
jittery), whereas the other six items tapped into the pleasure dimensions (e.g., unhappy –
happy, despairing - hopeful, melancholic –contented, annoyed –pleased). An eight-item
five-point Likert-type scale is used to assess the approach-avoidance behavioral
responses to the physical environment (Donovan & Rossiter, 1982). The items measuring
approach-avoidance behaviors tapped the following behaviors: enjoyment, return
intention, propensity to talk to strangers, to spend more money than originally thought, to
explore the store, and to avoid other people.

Fisher’s (Fisher, 1974) environmental quality scale is adapted to measure the


subjects’ evaluation of the store environment. Pretesting of the instrument, however,
indicated that six of the items were perceived as vague or not related to a retail context.
Consequently, a five-item scale is used to obtain the respondent’s evaluation of the store
environment (unattractive/attractive; uninteresting/interesting; bad/good;
depressing/cheerful; dull/bright; uncomfortable/comfortable and pleasant/unpleasant).

Overall satisfaction with the shopping experience is measured with the 5-point
Likert scale items (strongly disagree to strongly agree) taken from Westbrook and Oliver
(1981). They were, truly enjoyed coming to the store, satisfied with the store, and choice
to come to the store was a good one.

As a manipulation check, respondents will be rating the following statements on a


5-point Likert scale (1 to 5: strongly disagree/strongly agree): 1) the store smelled
pleasant of grapefruit, 2) the store smelled pleasant of lavender, 3) the fast-tempo music
played at the store was pleasant and 4) the slow-tempo music played at the store was
pleasant. The checks are placed at the end of the questionnaire so as to avoid demand
effects when answering questions related to the dependent measures.

Research Design

163
A 3 (no scent/low arousal scent/high arousal scent) x 3 (no music/low arousal
music/high arousal music) fractional, factorial design in a field setting will be employed
to test the hypotheses. A bookstore served as the context of the study.

The scents used in the researcher’s study will be selected based on two criteria:
the mood effects and cautionary effects. Taking into account these factors, the two scents
chosen for this study will be Lavender and Grapefruit (Butcher, 1998). Both these scents
smell pleasant, are suitable for use in a retail store, possess mood effects while lacking
side effects. Lavender is known to be a relaxing scent with calming properties, thus being
considered as a low arousal scent. Conversely, Grapefruit is known to be a stimulating
scent, which can refresh, revive and improve mental clarity and alertness, and even
enhance physical strength and energy. These characteristics of the Grapefruit scent are
well suited for a high arousal manipulation employed in this study. In the remainder of
the paper, Lavender will be referred to as a low arousal scent and Grapefruit as a high
arousal scent.

As Bruner (1990) states, “music is not simply a generic sonic mass, but rather a
complex chemistry of elements”. Music is composed of multiple time, pitch and texture
related variables (Dowling & Harwood, 1986). To reduce the confounding effects of
musical style and musical preference, classical music was selected for this study. Two
compact discs from the Tune Your Brain TM series by Elizabeth Miles, an
ethnomusicologist, were chosen as stimuli for the music manipulations. The low arousal
music used for the study was the Relaxing collection, featuring slow-tempo music, while
the high arousal music consisted of the Energizing collection, featuring fast-tempo music.
In the rest of the discussion, the two types of music will be referred to as either low or
high arousal music.

Procedure

The study was conducted 10 days each in the fractional, factorial design which
sums u p approximately 90 days. The store will be scented for 10 minutes before five
independent passersby will be asked to enter the store and perform a smell check. The
study will only proceed when the five “judges” find the scent to be of appropriate
intensity. Music will be played through the store’s piped-in sound system using an auto-
reverse CD player. The respondents will be randomly selected from the customers
entering the store giving out the questionnaire. There will be seven clerks distributing and
helping on the survey. The computed data on the store’s average customers coming in
everyday is 68 (67.7).

Results

164
A total of 1098 customers were asked to participate in the survey. Of those
approached, 864 agreed to answer the survey, yielding a response rate of 74.9%. Seventy-
four questionnaires were rejected due to incomplete data, thus resulting in an effective
response rate of 71.5%. Nearly 65% of the respondents were female, and close to 73%
were young people less than 20 years old. 73.0% of the respondents reported having
purchased something during their visit to the store.

Table 1. Reliability Tests

Construct Indicator Variables and Treatment Alpha

Arousal 6-item scale from Mehrabian and Russell’s 0.81


semantic differential scale of emotional
situations and environments (arousal).

Pleasure 6-item scale from Mehrabian and Russell’s 0.85


semantic differential scale of emotional
situations and environments (pleasure).

Approach- 8-item verbal measures of approach-avoidance 0.80


Avoidance from Donovan and Rossiter’s adaptation of the
original Mehrabian and Russell scale.

Store Environment 7-item environmental scale adapted from Fisher. 0.89

Satisfaction 3-item satisfaction scale taken from Westbrook. 0.74

As indicated in Table 1, all measures used in this study displayed acceptable


reliability of more then 0.70.

Table 2. Means of Manipulation Check for Ambient Scent

165
Manipulation check question Experimental Condition
No Scent Lavender Grapefruit
(low arousal) (high arousal)

The store smells pleasant of lavender 4.3 5.5 2.6


(low arousal scent)
The store smells pleasant of grapefruit 3.6 3.3 5.1
(high arousal scent)

The mean scores of the experimental conditions for each of the four manipulation
check questions are presented in Table 2 for scent and Table 3 for music. Only the scent
main effect is significant for the scent related questions. Similarly, only the music main
effect is observable for the music-related manipulation checks. Overall, the results from
these manipulation checks indicate that the ambient conditions were perceived as
intended.

Table 3. Means of Manipulation Check for Background Music

Manipulation check question Experimental Condition


No Music Slow Fast
(low arousal) (high arousal)

The slow-tempo music played at the store 3.6 5.6 2.4


was pleasant; (low arousal music)
The fast-tempo music played at the store 3.8 2.7 5.4
was pleasant; (high arousal music)

Table 4. Cell Means for Arousal by Scent and by Music Experimental Conditions

166
Experimental No Music Low Arousal High Arousal Main Effect

Conditions Music Music Means

No Scent 3.70 4.51 4.85 4.36

Low Arousal
Scent 3.94 4.79 5.21 4.65

High Arousal
Scent 4.27 4.85 5.45 4.86

Main Effect
Means 3.97 4.72 5.17 4.62

To ensure that the subjects’ self-reported arousal levels differed between the nine
experimental conditions, a two-factor ANOVA was performed. As expected, the main
effects for scent and music are significant. The interaction effect is insignificant. The cell
means shown in Table 4 indicate that the no scent and no music conditions were
perceived as less arousing than the experimental manipulated environments. The planned
contrasts between no scent and low arousal scent is marginally significant, and the
planned comparison between no scent and high arousal scent is significant. Similarly, the
planned contrasts for the no music and slow/fast tempo music are significant for both
contrasts. These results suggest that the arousal manipulation was successful. The two
main effects are significant. The interaction effect is insignificant.

The cell means on the dependent variables as a function of the scent and music
manipulations are shown in Table 5. As expected, the scent main effect is significant for
approach behavior, store environment, marginally significant for pleasure and
satisfaction. For music, the main effect is significant to pleasure, approach behavior,
positive state evaluation of the store environment and satisfaction. However, neither of
the main effects is significant for impulse buying. The insignificant results may have
been due to an interaction effect.

The cell means in Table 5 show that pleasure, approach behavior, consumer
evaluations of the store environment, impulse buying and satisfaction are influenced by
the congruency between music and scent in terms of their arousal levels. The match
conditions elicited more positive responses than the mismatch conditions, according to
what was advanced in hypothesis 1.

167
Table 5.Mean Cell Values by Dependent Variable

Dependent Match/Mismatch Conditions


Variables Match Match Mix Mix
High Scent - Low Scent - Low Scent - High Scent –
High Music Low Music High Music Low Music

Pleasure 5.66 5.46 5.30 5.16


Approach 5.42 5.25 5.15 4.77
Store
Environment 6.23 5.99 6.11 5.75
Impulse
Buying 4.38 5.53 2.67 3.00
Satisfaction 5.82 5.67 5.30 5.17

Dependent Single Stimulus No Music -


Variables No Scent - No Scent - No Music - No Music – No Scent
Low Music High Music Low Scent High Scent Condition

Pleasure 5.00 5.11 4.62 4.80 4.48


Approach 4.69 4.84 4.55 4.64 4.55
Store
Environment 5.72 5.60 5.57 5.40 5.33
Impulse
Buying 3.50 3.62 3.44 2.65 4.45
Satisfaction 5.11 5.06 4.75 4.95 4.62

168
Table 6.ANOVA Results

Dependent Scent Main Effect Music Main Effect Scent x Music Interaction
Variables (low and high arousal (low and high arousal (match and mismatch
scent conditions) music conditions) conditions)

F Sig. Eta Square F Sig. Eta Square F Sig. Eta Square

Pleasure 0.02 >.10 0.00 0.87 >.10 0.00 3.15 0.08 0.03
Approach 0.45 >.10 0.00 3.37 0.07 0.03 6.32 0.01 0.06
Store
Environment 0.15 >.10 0.00 3.53 0.06 0.03 1.25 >.10 0.01
Impulse
Buying 1.82 >.10 0.01 0.00 >.10 0.00 4.79 0.03 0.03
Satisfaction 0.02 >.10 0.00 0.50 >.10 0.01 7.63 0.01 0.07

To test the hypothesis directly, it is conducted in a series of 2 (low and high arousal scent) x 2 (low and high arousal music)
ANOVAs. The ANOVA results in table 6 show that the music by scent interaction is significant for approach behavior, impulse buying
and satisfaction. Matching the arousing qualities of the two ambient stimuli resulted in higher levels of approach behaviors, impulse
buying and satisfaction, than the mismatch conditions. The interaction between music and scent is marginally significant for pleasure,
and insignificant for store environment. In conclusion, the results largely support H1. Also, it is noteworthy that none of the scent and
music main effects is significant at the 0.05 level, as both stimuli were manipulated to be pleasant. What mattered was the interaction
between the two stimuli.

169
Discussion

Consistent with past research, the findings show that adding pleasant
environmental cues enhances shopping experience. More importantly, the researcher
found that such environmental stimuli should not be considered in isolation, since it is the
total configuration of cues that influence consumer responses. It is also demonstrated that
the arousing quality of pleasant stimuli is one dimension along which these holistic
evaluations occur. The objectives of this study were to add to theory development on
atmospheric effects on consumer behavior by using Gestalt perceptions as a framework
for studying the congruency effects of environmental cues.

Research in environmental psychology postulates that people respond to their


environments holistically. That is, though individuals perceive discrete stimuli, it is the
total configuration of stimuli that determines their responses to the environment. The
notion of cue congruency is reflected in Bell et al.’s notion of ensemble effects, in
Holbrook and Zirlin’s principle of unity-in-variety, in Solomon’s consumption
constellations and in Green et al.’s discussion on overall goodness of fit of product cues.
This holistic perspective is also in Bitner’s conceptualization. If the environment is
perceived holistically, but the individual can sense specific arousing dimensions from
environmental stimuli, then different combinations of ambient cues might produce
differential responses. To our knowledge, this is the first study that empirically
demonstrates the Gestalt notion of consumer evaluations of the perceived notion.

The results of this study showed that when the arousal levels of ambient scent and
background music matched, consumers’ evaluations of the shopping experience were
enhanced. For instance, scenting the store with low arousal scent (Lavender) combined
with slow tempo music led to higher evaluations than using that scent with high arousal
music. Or playing fast tempo music had a more positive effect on approach behaviors
when the store was scented with Grapefruit (high arousal scent) rather than with
Lavender. In sum, the findings provide further empirical support for the intuitive belief
that when the stimuli in the environment act together to provide a coherent atmosphere,
the individual in the environment will react more positively. The importance of continuity
and coherence in environmental design is among the guiding principle in designing
services.

Conclusion and Recommendations

The first limitation involves the use of a single retail store in the field experiment.
The context of this study was a bookstore, and hence, it can be argued that this type of
retail environment might be unique – less noisy and smaller, or requiring more cognitive
effort than other retail outlets. Consequently, the extent to which our findings can be
generalized across different types of service providers or retail stores needs to be
established. The second limitation concerns the use of only two types of ambient cues.
Combining other atmospherics, such as color schemes and spatial layout, with scent and
background music might provide additional insight into how consumers perceive service
environments. Finally, guidance on scent selection, the choice on olfactory cues was

170
largely based on literature on aromatherapy. Given the diverse characteristics of service
environments, future research should aim at testing more varieties of ambient scent and
background music.

This study provides evidence that improving a store’s ambient conditions


enhances consumers’ evaluations of and behaviors in the shopping experience.
Strategically manipulating the environment’s arousing qualities via scents and
background music can help retailers to differentiate their stores from otherwise similar
competitors. Moreover, appropriate aromas and music might encourage shoppers to
engage in impulse buying. However, great care is needed to ensure that the effects if
different environmental stimuli match. As this study has shown, consumers respond more
positively toward the environment, when the stimuli match to provide a coherent
ambience. Bookstores such as “Power Books” or “Shepherds” might induce people to
linger by playing slow tempo, classical background music combined with a relaxing
scent. Or to stimulate excitement, organizers of sports events might consider scenting the
seating areas with highly arousing aromas and playing fast tempo music. Regardless, the
particular scent or music style should be perceived as congruent for the retail store as a
whole. Consequently, changes in the service environment should not be carried out in a
piecemeal fashion but should be coordinated.

A word of caution is needed in interpreting findings. Retail stores with relatively


narrow target markets might reap higher benefits from environmental manipulations than
stores aimed at multiple market segments. Beauty lies in the eyes of the beholder, and
how individuals or target segments respond to, for example, music may depend on
individual response moderators. Specialty stores aimed at teen-agers, for example, may
use funky scents and rap music to attract clientele, whereas the manipulation of ambient
cues in a department store needs to be subtler. Or consumers’ consumption-related goals
might influence the impact of environmental stimuli on their evaluations of the shopping
experience. Task-oriented shopping environments such as grocery stores might have a
more difficult time in inducing positive feelings via environmental cues than stores that
are patronized for more recreational purposes. Because the novelty and stimulation of a
particular music and scent combination might wear off relatively fast, retail stores that
rely on heavy frequent-visit patterns might not be prime candidates for these types of
environmental manipulations.

To conclude, due to the holistic perception of its many dimensions, this design is
often considered an art. This research is only the beginning of understanding how
“ensemble effects” influence consumer perceptions of retail environments and their
shopping behaviors.

171
References

*Reference list lost due to technical problems

172
Factors Affecting on the Involvement of Young Fathers with his
Child
Judy Ann S. Sanchez

This study aims to present the different factors affecting the involvement of young fathers with
their child. Qualitative research was used in this study there are 3 single young adults participated in this
study and relate their story about their involvement and relationship with their child. In the findings two of
the three young fathers have a positive relationship with the mother of the child and with the parents of the
mother and only one young father said that he is not close with the parents of his then partner. The
researcher therefore stated in this course study that young fathers involvement increase over time due to
their specific and personal perspective.

Parenthood is a hard work at the best of times, but being a young parent is one of
the most difficult situations to be in. An increasing number of young men and teenagers
were becoming father at a very early age. For sure this is one of the toughest jobs anyone
can take on. According to Schwarts in the year 1999 that being a father in an early age is
an even harder proposition. Because teenage fathers almost never plan pregnancies, their
initial reactions may be denial, fear, and a desire to escape.

While Batten & Stowell in the year 1996, Knitzer & Bernardin in the year 1997
state that young fathers frequently face family rejection, barriers to contact with child and
mother, a lack of ways to contribute financially, and an inability to envision future
achievements enabling them to function effectively as a father. They also may believe
that they are simply unwelcome and inadequate as parents Their emotional state is further
complicated by the need to reconcile the contradictory roles of adolescent and father and
assume the responsibilities of adulthood before they are sufficiently mature (Kahn &
Bolton, 1986). As the researcher begins to understand the importance of men's
involvement with children, the concept of fatherhood is gaining increasing currency
throughout the world.

An increasing amount of research has shown that lack of paternal involvement


can increase the likelihood of poverty, crime, school problems, and cycles of repeat
pregnancy (Argys, Peters, Brooks-Gunn, & Smith, 1998; Lerman & Sorenson, 2000;
Rhein et al., 1997). The negative impact of father absence upon children has brought
father involvement to the forefront in social policy and research.

According to Nord, Brimhall, & Westin the year 1997 there are compelling
reasons to promote the involvement of fathers in their children's lives: the value of their
positive influence, their effectiveness in increasing children's academic achievement, and
the importance of their financial support. Teenage and young adult males may need extra
help to assume the full fatherhood role, but most, if aided, will work hard to be successful
parents. Public interest in fostering fathers' involvement is increasing because of the
recognized benefits of fathers' contributions to their families

173
This study aims to present the different factors impacting the involvement of
young fathers with their child. This would bring about awareness for single parent which
would eventually transcend to having more parental involvement in the upbringing of
their child. In the light of this, this study would diminish if not totally prevent having a
dysfunctional family in the society. This study would tell about that the acceptance of the
parents is important to extend their understanding to the young couple instead to outcast
the father of the child.

This review concerns itself with the research that focused on the teenage father.
Specifically, his emotional support value (lack of) to the child and teenage mother when
he is involved in the his child’s life, the impact of having a teenage father on the child,
the impact of being a parent on the teenage father himself, and the research that looked at
support structures and needs for the teenage father.

Review of Related Literature

Teenage Father Involvement

Research found (Speak 1997, Rivara 1986) “that teenage fathers were not always
as keen to avoid responsibility as is generally thought by society, that they were often
very enthusiastic about the prospect of becoming an involved parent, wanting to learn
how to do the job properly. Although, as the subjects of these studies were often the
teenage fathers that cared enough to go to prenatal clinics, the findings obviously do not
apply to all teenage fathers.”

As Speak et al (1997) further asserts that " “It is important to acknowledge that
not all fathers – whatever their age - want to be involved with their children and that not
all children would benefit from their father’s involvement. Fathers are no more
homogenous as a group than mothers are."

Furthermore Rivara et al (1986) found that “those who lived with the mother and
child were in the minority of teenage fathers, and the percentage decreased further with
time. Eighteen months after the birth, thirty seven percent of the teenage parents studied
lived together or had daily contact (7.5% were married). Although at thirty six months
only one father had no contact with his child, only twelve percent still lived with the child
and twenty five percent still saw the child daily.”

The most common reasons given for not living with the child were that the baby
was too young, finances, and problems in the relationship with the woman. Speak et al
(1997) found that “there were various external factors that were barriers to the fathers'
contact with their children, such as the mothers' or her parents' attitudes, lack of support
and encouragement from health professionals, the fathers' accommodation, and his
financial situation”.

174
The Effect of the Teenage Father on Mother and Child

Some teenage father’s report that the teenage mothers are reluctant to let them
become involved The inexperience and immaturity of a young father was Found to be a
factor in his relationship with the child and the mother Dallas et al (2000).

Jaffee et al (2001) found that background and behavioral problems were a factor
in teenagers becomes uninvolved fathers, and that they would need serious help before
their involvement with their child should even be encouraged.

Furthermore, Dallas et al (2000) believe “the lack of developmental knowledge


and unrealistic expectations for their children’s behavior shown by the subjects they
studied might lead some young parents to mistake their children’s developmental
immaturity for deliberate misbehaviors, which could then lead to inappropriate
discipline”. The teenage fathers thought physical discipline appropriate for children under
three, even under one year old. The children of adolescent parents experience higher rates
of physical abuse and infant homicides, but this is also statistically true for children of
single parents overall (Overpeck et al 1998).

Previous study like Speak et al (1997) “believed that simply encouraging young
absent fathers to be more involved in their children's lives is not necessarily in the best
interests of the children unless significant help can be given to the fathers: “Otherwise
they may simply exacerbate the difficulties already faced by single mothers and their
children.” However, the researcher emphasis that many of the young fathers in their
sample study were highly involved parents who were have a good relationship with their
in laws, and supportive of the mothers of their children, and that their “data clearly
demonstrates that it is not early fatherhood that marks a young man as an uninvolved
father, but rather the combination of individual and family-of-origin risk factors that
situate him on a path ending in under-involved.

Effects on the Father

Having a child is a life changing event for a teenage mother, but the teenage
father may be little affected physically, if he is out of the picture for whatever reason.
Emotionally, however, the birth of his child can have a big impact on the teenage father.
Fifty five percent of the ninety five adolescent fathers interviewed by Hendricks et al
(1983) “were unhappy with not being able to see the child as much as they wanted. Less
than ten percent said they were having a problem coping with being a father. Fourteen
percent said they had not yet faced any problems as an unmarried adolescent father”.

Nevertheless, Rivara et al (1986) established that there was no difference in the


employment status of teenage fathers compared to non-fathers of a similar age, although
the teenage fathers left school earlier than non fathers. Teenage fathers, regardless of their
marital status at conception or age at first birth, were much more likely to have been high
school dropouts than were other male teenagers. Those with a maritally conceived child
had a particularly high drop-out rate - almost sixty two percent. (Marsiglio 1987).

175
However, Rhein.(1997) found “that lack of employment was one of the factors that
contributed to the absent teenage fathers disinterest in his child.”

Stouthamer-Loeber (1998) “also investigated what effect fatherhood had on the


behaviour of teenage males. Although they found out that fatherhood did not reduce
delinquent behaviour in teenagers, fathers were more than twice as likely to be delinquent
than non-fathers, but being a father didn't necessarily cause the delinquency, rather, the
factors related to young fatherhood were a subset of those for delinquency.”

The Mother Factor

The most common reason given by the fathers for not having more contact with
their children was the mothers' reluctance to let them, or problems in their relationship
(Rivara,1986 et al).

Similarly, in a study of 173 teen fathers, 167 teen mothers, 76 paternal


grandmothers and 79 maternal grandmothers the teenage fathers interviewed were more
likely to attribute their lack of involvement to resistance from mothers and maternal
grandmothers than to other factors. With the information derived from the other
interviewees, however, the researcher concluded that it was the young fathers' own
disinterest in child rearing that most consistently predicted uninvolvement. Of those
fathers who cited disinterest, there was an with association lack of money and lack of
knowledge of child care. (Rhein et al 1997)

The National Network of Health found in their study based on research from1976
to 1997 that teenage fathers were less likely than the mothers to care about their
education: less likely to have wanted a child or to have considered abortion, but that most
teenage fathers planned on being involved with the life of their child, including wanting
to take part in childcare training. Factors found that contributed to teenage fathers not
becoming involved or losing contact were parental disapproval (both sets of parents), the
teen mother's rejection of the father's involvement, and the failure of health care
professionals to encourage paternal involvement.

As presented in the Review of Related Literature there were different factors that
affect the involvement of the young fathers with their child such as Speak et al (1997)
found out that the mothers' or her parents' attitudes, lack of support and encouragement
from health professionals, the fathers' accommodation, and his financial situation. While
Jaffee et al (2001) emphasized out that the background and behavioral problems were
factors in teenagers becomes uninvolved fathers, and that they would need serious help
before their involvement with their child should even be encouraged. On the other hand
based on the data gathered by the researcher it was found out that either the own mother
or the mother of the partner was very supportive with their role as a young father, either
emotional or financial, some of them even praised their in laws for being understanding
and supportive.

176
Another factor given in the Literature was that As Rhein et al (1997) established
that lack of employment was one of the factors that contributed to the absent teenage
fathers disinterest in his child, differed from the result of the case study done by the
researcher one of the respondent said that their being unemployed give them a chance to
have more time to spend with their child since he was staying at home all day. Some of
them even confessed that it was the parents of his partner who gives financial support for
their child.

177
Conceptual Framework

FINANCIAL
STABILLITY

PARENTAL
UNEMPLOYMENT
DISSAPROVA
L

PATERNAL
INVOLVEMENT

PROBLEMS IN THE
LACK OF
RELATIONSHIP
MATURITY
WITH THE
MOTHER

BEHAVIORAL
PROBLEMS

Figure 1.
Factors that could affect the involvement of the young fathers with their child

178
Conceptual Background

Previous studies such as Rhein et al (1997) on young fathers indicate that it is


common for them to experience multiple barriers to paternal involvement. These include
lack of maturity due to lack of developmental knowledge and unrealistic expectations
for their children’s behavior shown by the subjects they studied might lead some young
parents to mistake their children’s developmental immaturity for deliberate misbehaviors,
which could then lead to inappropriate discipline.

Due to lack of economic support, young fathers also experience resistance from
maternal and paternal grandparents, as well as from the mothers, therefore, providing
economic support to their children becomes a monumental challenge for young
fathers(Rhein, 1997). Despite the barriers these fathers face, it has been found that many
desire to be involved with their children (Barret & Robinson, 1985; Glikman, 2004).

The unemployment, and low educational attainment found by Rivara et al (1986)


is one of the given factor for the young father being uninvolved parent. Few studies
among low-income fathers indicated that these fathers still tend to view the provider role
as their primary duty. For example, some low-income fathers, who are unable to provide
for their families due to poverty or job loss, seem to have negative or decreased
interactions with their children (Harold-Goldsmith, Radin, & Eccles, 1988; LaRossa &
Reitzes, 1993).

Paternal involvement of middle-class young fathers has been in the forefront;


much less is known about paternal involvement among low-income fathers or young
fathers (Johnson, 2001; Miller, 1994). Few studies among low-income fathers indicated
that these fathers still tend to view the provider role as their primary duty. For example,
some low-income fathers, who are unable to provide for their families due to poverty or
job loss, seem to have negative or decreased interactions with their children (Harold-
Goldsmith, Radin, & Eccles, 1988; LaRossa & Reitzes, 1993).

However, the roles and levels of involvement of middle-class fathers in the family
have expanded since the 1970s. Fathers are no longer seen only as breadwinners, but may
take on other roles as caretakers and nurturers. This could include feeding the child,
playing with the child or other caretaking activities. It does not include merely being in
the same house as the child. Availability is a father's presence with the child which
provides opportunities for other types of interactions. This dimension does not require
face-to-face interaction and an example includes a father cooking while a child plays at
his feet or is in the same room. Responsibility is defined as arranging for resources and
meeting the needs of the child. Ensuring that the child has clothes to wear, and that the
child visits the pediatrician when she is sick are examples of responsibility. It is important
to note that the authors do not define responsibility as a breadwinner/provider role, rather
they characterize it as responsibility for everyday caretaking. (Cabrera, Tamis-Lemonda,
Bradley, Hofferet, & Lamb, 2000; Pleck, 1997; Pleck & Pleck, 1997; )

179
The last factor is the problems in the relationship with the mother, that Although
both parents thought the father should be involved in the child’s life, they differed in what
form that involvement should take. The male providing financial support and the woman
caring for the child at home, the females felt the father should provide emotional support
for the child and mother share basic childcare tasks with the mother. In contrast the
fathers saw their relationship to the mother as separate to their relationship to the child.

Method

180
Participants

Participants were 3 single young male adults and not living with their partner,
whose age range falls between seventeen to twenty one (17-21) years old at the time they
became father, the said age range represent the young adults stage, and a Filipino citizen.
The entry criterion for the interview was for the participant to have had his first child at
age 21 or younger, from a middle-class family that refers to people neither at the top nor
at the bottom of a social hierarchy, this socioeconomic status was chosen due to limiting
the respondents to middle-class only, the status of his relationship with the mother of the
child or with the child himself did not matter.

Materials/Instruments

The instrument used is the interview guide made by the researcher. The
questionnaire has 3 parts; the first part is the demographic profile which includes the
respondents’ age, civil status and the socio economic status. The second part of the
questionnaire is the kind of relationships the father have with his child, partner and to the
parents of his partner. And the third part would be the questions regarding his experiences
concerning his social life before and after he had a child, means of support, the problems
he encountered during the pregnancy of his wife/live in partner. To validate the answers
of the three respondents the researcher did an added interview with the mother of the
child and with the parents of the mother.

Research Design

Qualitative research method was used in the study. Qualitative interviewing is a


versatile approach to doing research. Every step of the interview gives information and
opens windows into the experiences of the people you meet. It can understand
experiences and reconstruct events in which the researcher did not participate. (Rubin,
1995).

Sampling Procedures

Purposive Sampling was used for the purpose of selecting the individuals that will
provide the information for the study and often used in qualitative research. Initially the
researcher aimed to have 5 participants however; due to the availability of the
respondents only 3 young adults were interviewed. The dimensions or factors according
to which the sample is drawn up are analytically and theoretically linked to the research
question(s) being addressed.

Procedures

181
Participants were approached by the interviewer and were asked for consent to
participate in this research, and they were informed that they could stop the interview at
any time or refuse to answer specific questions without repercussions. The participants
were interviewed confidentially at a place of their own choice, which often was their
home. A video camera was used to record the interview to enable the researcher to
observe closely all the verbal and non-verbal communications and actions of the
respondents. The first phase of the interview was the rapport building, to establish
trust with the researcher.

The second phase of the interview was the structured interview. An interview
guide was used to gather information regarding the relationship and involvement of the
respondents with his child, partner, parents of the mother of the child and the different
factors that would affect their involvement with his child. As the interviews progressed
most of the young men needed only little encouragement to extend on specific points.
Interviewer generally allowed the young men to talk about the questions at length or
deviate from the actual question, and the questions were not necessarily asked in the
order they appeared on the interview guide, as the interviewer considered it more
important to let the respondents voice their issues than stick to the structure of the
interview. The interviewers encouraged

the participants to elaborate on points that seemed important to them, and sometimes
asked about their stories and their lives. Some questions and concepts were explained by
the interviewer if the respondent did not seem to understand them, and the wording of the
question was often deviated from during the interviews to make the meaning of the
questions clearer. The interview lasted approximately 10 to 20 min. for every respondent.

After all the data has been gathered, the researcher transcribe the interview,
prepared a table representation and the analysis of the data.

Data Analysis

Data was interpreted by reading each transcript of interview responses. Each


answer was categorized according to the most common factors that could affect their
involvement with their child up to the very least answers.

Results and Discussion

182
1.1 Demographic Profile

Name Respondent A Respondent B Respondent C


Age 21 20 21
Civil Status Single Single Single
Socio economic Middle-class Middle-class Middle-class
status
Occupation Food Service Student Unemployed
Assistant
No. of Children 1 1 2

Three single male young fathers were participated in this study, of these two of
them aged and the 21 and the other is 20. All of them are in the middle-class family. One
of the respondents is presently a college student with a 1 and half year old son, another is
already working with a 3 year old daughter and the last respondent is unemployed with 2
children, a boy and a girl ages 3 and 1 and a half

1.2 Relationship with the mother of the child and in laws

Questions Respondent A Respondent B Respondent C


Is your relationship Yes, bec. If you Yes, it affects my No
with your in laws don’t have a good role as a father for if
plays an important relationship w/ your not for them I think
role in fulfilling n laws, it’s awkward I wont be able to
your duty as a that they meet you fulfill them.
father to your child? in angry manners
bec. He get scared.
What kind of Since the parents of It’s ok my in laws I have a good
relationship do you my girlfriend are are nice to me. For relationship w/ my
have with regard to abroad, she stays us not to separate, in laws. Bec. The
your in laws? with her my in laws help to parents of my
grandparents, we maintain our girlfriend were both
have a good relationship. nice.
relationship and in
their own way I can
see that they have
accepted me.
when my in laws
come, I will feel
awkward bec. were
not close and I
never got the chance
to be w/ them.

Questions Respondent A Respondent B Respondent C

183
Yes, when it’s my Sometimes, just Sometimes when its
Do you spend time day off at work, recently we went to Sunday the 4 of us
for your family? sometimes we go to ATC to watch dora, go to church & and
the mall, we bond things like that. sometimes we also
we watch tv. go out
How’s your It’s nice, happy Steady, she’s still We’re ok, I love her
relationship with although sometimes my girlfriend, were so much
your wife? we fight but it’s ok transitioning to a
its normal. more mature stage.
Were portraying the
responsibilities of
being a parent.

Those in a relationship with the mother at the time of the interview consistently
answered the mother of the child amongst the most important factors, and often elaborated
that she was his most important support person, with regards with their relationship all of
them said that they have a good relationship although respondent A admitted that sometimes
they were having problems, contrary to what Rivara et al (1986), Speak et al (1997), Cohen
(1993) said that the mothers' of the child were reluctant to let them become involved, or they
were having problems in their relationship.

Mothers were often highly praised: either the own mother or the mother of the
partner. Some young men related the story of how the mothers of their then-partners had
received the news of their daughters' pregnancies as a complete shock, but had gradually
accepted the fathers into the family, and sometimes supported them even in their financial
situation. Opposite to what Speak et al (1997) found out that the mothers or her parent’s
lack of support could be one of the external factors that were barriers to the fathers'
contact with their children.

Only 1 out of 3 respondent said that the parents of the mother of the child could
be one of the factor that could affect his involvement with their child, since the parents of
her partner are both abroad during the pregnancy happened.

1.3 Parenting

184
Questions Respondent A Respondent B Respondent C
What are your Financially you will My wife celemar We played every
involvements in have to buy the takes care of the now & then, we’re
rearing the child? diapers, the milk. child and I assist happy
her, it’s like she
When he was still a makes the milk
child I was scared while I hold the
bec. I didn’t know child.
how to bathe him.
Then my wife
taught me.
How would you Given that the Whatever she ask We are the same
compare your mother is more me to so, I do it
involvement with responsible and because not really
the mother in terms closer to the child that good in
of rearing the child? bec. There always handling the child.
together.
What are positive More responsibility I cant go out late at I’m happy when I
and negative effects but on the other night, he makes me see my children, my
of having a child? hand he’s my happy exhaustion
inspiration in disappear.
working hard. Sometimes the kids
are naughty and out
of control
What are some of We watch tv, play We play catch and
the activities that computer games, what else? He has a
you do together? and bond together. small guitar, so he
takes after me, I
teach him.

All of the three respondents said that they were hands-on in handling their child,
and has their own time for bonding with their child.

When asked, however, what is the positive and negative effect of having a child?
Respondent C said that one of the negative effect of having a child is that the impact on
social life, such as going out or staying late at night with friends.

1.4 Support

185
Questions Respondent A Respondent B Respondent C
What is your mean Financially, its your Not much Sometimes I can
to support the child? responsibility to buy financially, its not support my family
the milk and diapers really who gives the but if there’s nothing
and other necessity financial to give my in laws
of the child. compensation but are always there for
my parents. Its fall back.
segregated if the
child is with us, we
have our own milk,
if its time for
injection and the
child is with us, we
pay out for that. But
if the child is with
them and he got
sick, they shoulder
the expense.
Do you think this is No its not sufficient, For me its better, its I believe its not
sufficient? it would be better if sufficient, you can sufficient, but there
I can see him study see both parents will come a time
in a private school, shouldering the that my means of
to see him graduate, expenses. support that my
to see him study mean of support will
well and you know, be enough for my
to see your child family.
that he is in a good
stature, then you’ll
be ok.
What are the I go to their house Sometimes I sleep I am welcome In
paternal privileges everyday after work. ther, I was the one their house.
that you enjoy? When I and her who got close to
family is going out may in laws rather
im always with than celemar to my
them, there’s no parents.
problem I’m close
to her family.

Questions Respondent A Respondent B Respondent C

186
How much time do When its my day-off Only after school. I’m with them the
you spend with your I play a nd bond w/ whole day since I
child? him the whole day, don’t have work, but
but when I have before I only see
work I spend a little them in the morning
time w/ him. before I go to work.
What do you do to I want to show my That question is so I will prove to them
strengthen your child that as a father hard. Nothing that I’ll love them,
bond with your I can also be his special I just teach and I will do
child? friend. I am his best him naughty tricks. anything for my
friend all his wife. If For example there’s children so that our
he asks questions I a pig and my older bond gets stronger.
answer him sister is fat so I
properly. when he teach him to call
want something I tita, that he knows
tell him if we can’t when she sees a pig
buy it now when my on tv he says tita.
salary comes we
can. I explain this
things to him
properly.

Respondent C confessed that he is unemployed during the interview happened


and acknowledged that his in laws is their major source of financial support, while
respondent B a college student also said that his parents are the one who gives financial
support to his child and only respondent A is employed and gives financial support to his
child though he also said that it is still not sufficient because he wanted to give more such
as seeing his child go to a exclusive school in the future. Differed from what Rhein et al
(1997) found that lack of employment was one of the factors That contributed to the
absent teenage fathers disinterest in his child, such as respondent C have told the
interviewer that he has much more time to spend with his children because he stayed all
day in the house rather than before when he used to have a worked.

1.5 Outside Factors

187
Questions Respondent A Respondent B Respondent C
What are the factors Maybe the thing that Immaturity in My in laws were
that could affect we don’t get to be handling the child, never a bother in
your involvement together everyday, he always falls. I am fact they help us
with your child? and when my in the type of father through hard times.
laws come, I will who wants to
feel awkward bec. nurture my child
were not close and I strong. I get mad
never got the chance when de’s really out
to be w/ them. of control.

Another factor is my
school bec, like
today I don’t have
time, instead that I
am there with my
child my I am still
here in school

“Immaturity” in giving discipline was one of the given factors by respondent B no


different from what Dallas et al (2000) believed that “the lack of developmental
knowledge and unrealistic expectations for their children’s behavior shown by the
subjects they studied might lead some young parents to mistake their children’s
developmental immaturity for deliberate misbehaviors, which could then lead to
inappropriate discipline”.

"Work/School" was amongst the given factors impacting on time and bond with
baby for the young fathers. 2 out 3 respondent said that work is one of the factors that
affect their involvement with their child as respondent C said, while respondent B said
that his studies is one of his given factor that could affect his involvement with his child.
Only respondent A said that work could not affect his involvement with his.

“Friends” was one of the given factors by respondent B because he could not
refuse to go along with his friends sometimes and stay with them until late at night.

Conclusion and Recommendations

Contrary to the theories and studies of Rivara et al (1986), Speak et al (1997) and
Cohen (1993) that young fathers involvement decreases over time, the researcher has
proven with the course of this study that it is otherwise and that young father become
more involved with the life of their child regardless of their civil status. The interviews
with young fathers suggested that fathers feel appreciated and supported in their role, and
their increasing involvement over time may have something to do with the feeling of
usefulness and self worth.

188
Virtually, all of the young fathers acknowledge the fact that the mother of the
child is indeed a major key person for their own bonding and strengthening of
relationship. If they are together in a relationship, they expect their partners to be their
main source of support in their new role as a father. Most commonly, it is the mother’s
prerogative to make or break a father’s relationship with the child, thus enabling the
safety and welfare of the child and not for personal gain. Both parents should be aware
that their involvement has a deep impact in the lives of their children. Certain actions and
circumstances during this period can instil an irreparable damage to the relationship to
both parents. In addition to the pre-existing findings with the other researcher like the
theories stating that most of the relationship of young fathers with the mother of the child
did not work (Rivara et al 1986, Speak et al 1997) but with the findings in this case study
all of the relationship of the three respondents did work out and that they all have a good
relationship with their partner and to the parents of their partner.

Although at present the fathers acknowledge that they are in no position to


support the child alone and the mother, most of them said that having a child is a major
change in their lifestyle, goals and everyday living. Setbacks are usually not allowed and
a more promising future should be planned ahead for their family’s sake. The actions
taken upon very rampantly were to find fulltime and long-term jobs. Save up money for
the family to repay reward. Staying at home instead of staying with friends late at night.
They had personal reasons why they wanted to change but more so because of the child
that is now giving them a sense of direction to do it right and well with their lives. This
symbolized their eagerness to live up to stereotypes of a proper, responsible father.

The significant impact of this study is that it would diminish if not totally prevent
having a dysfunctional family in the society. This study would tell about that the
acceptance of the parents is important to extend their understanding to the young couple
instead to outcast the father of the child.

The implications of this study are that young fathers can live up to be mature
individuals when their going gets tough. They acknowledge their new responsibilities and
change for the better. They plan ahead of time for the welfare of their family. They put
aside their personal likings and prioritize the child or the family first ahead of everything.
They secure the relationships with the key persons involve and are highly present for the
growth of the child. The researcher has therefore stated with this study that young fathers
involvement increase over time due to their specific and personal perspectives.

References

189
Argys, L., H. E., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Smith, J. R. (1998). The impact of child support on
cognitive outcomes of young children. Demography, 35, 159-173.

Batten, S.T., & Stowell, B.G. (1996, October). School-based programs for adolescent
parents and their young children. Bala Cynwid, PA: Center for Assessment and
Policy Development.

Barret, R. L., & Robinson, B. E. (1985). The adolescent fathers: In S. M. Hanson & F. W.
Bozett (Eds.), The dimensions of fatherhood (pp. 353-368). Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage Publications.

Cabrera, N. J., Tamis-LeMonda, Bradley, R. H., Hofferth, S. & Lamb, M. E. (2000).


Fatherhood in the twenty-first century. Child Development, 71(1), 127-136.

Cohen (1993) "The Parenting Trap: Forgotten Fathers" www.edweek.org, 11/3/1993

Dallas, C. M., & Chen, S. C. (1998). Experiences of African American adolescent fathers.
Western Journal of Nursing Research, 20(2), 210-233.

Dallas, Wilson, Salgado (2000) : "Gender Differences in teen parents' perceptions of


parental responsibilities." Department of Maternal-Child Nursing, University of
Illinois at Chicago, 60612, USA. Published: Public Health Nursing Vol.17
(2000)No. 6 pp 413-433

Glikman, H. (2004). Low-income young fathers: Contexts, connections, and self. Social
Work, 49(2), 195-206.

Harold-Goldsmith, R., Radin, N., & Eccles, J. S. (1988). Objective and subjective reality:
The effects of job loss and financial stress on fathering behaviors. Family
Perspective, 22, 309-325

Hendricks L, Hawkins T, McCoy M, and Howard CS (1983) : Suggestions for reaching


unmarried black adolescent fathers." Howard University Institute for Urban Affairs
and Research. Published in Child Welfare Vol.62 No 2 pp141-146 1983

Jaffee R, Caspi, Moffitt E, Taylor Dickson (2001): Redicting early fatherhood and
whether young fathers live with their children: prospective findings and policy
considerations." Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, UK.
Published:Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry 2001 Sep Vol. 42 No.6 pp
803-815

Johnson, W. E., Jr. (2001). Young African American fathers: Indicators of their paternal
involvement. In A. M. Neal-Barnett, J. M. Contreras, & K. A. Kerns (Eds.), Forging
links: African American children clinical developmental perspectives. Westport, CT:
Praeger.

190
Kahn, J.S., & Bolton, F. G., Jr. (1986). Clinical issues in adolescent fatherhood. In A.B.
Elster & M.E. Lamb, Adolescent fatherhood. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Knitzer, J., & Bernard, S. (1997). Map and track: State initiatives to encourage
responsible fatherhood. New York: National Center for Children in Poverty. (ED
410 020)

Kiselika S (1995): "Multicultural counselling with teenage fathers: a practical guide


(multicultural aspects of counselling Vol 6)" Paperback Vol 006 (September 1995)
Sage Publications; ISBN: 0803953372 From Book News, Inc. National Fatherhood
Initiative

Lamb, M. E., Pleck, J. H., Charnov, E., & Levine, J. (1997). A biosocial perspective on
paternal behavior and involvement. In J. Lancaster, J. Altmann, A. Rossi, & L.
Sherood (Eds.), Parenting across the lifespan: Biosocial dimensions (pp. 111-142).
New York: Aldine de Bruyter.

Lamb, M. E., Pleck, J. H., Charnov, E., & Levine, J. (1985). Paternal behavior in humans.
American Zoologist, 25, 883-894.

Lerman, R., & Sorensen, E. (2000). Father involvement with their nonmarital children:
Patterns, determinants, and effects of their earnings. Marriage and Family Review,
29(2/3), 137-158.

Marsiglio W. (1987): "Adolescent fathers in the United States: their initial living
arrangements, marital experience and educational outcomes." Oberlin College
Published Family Planning Perspective 1987 Vol 19 No.6 pp:240-251

Miller, D. B. (1994). Influences on parental involvement of African American adolescent


fathers. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 11(5), 363-378.

National Network of Health, The: Fathers of Children born to adolescent mothers.


www.nnh.org/products/fathers.htm

Nord, C.W., Brimhall, D.A., & West, J. (1997, October). Fathers' involvement in their
children's schools. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center
for Education Statistics. (ED 409 125)

Overpeck, M.D, , , A.C., i, L.B., & Berendes, H.W. (1998.) “Risk Factors For Infant
Homicides In The United States”. New England journal of Medicine, 339. 1211-
1216.

Pitt E.(1986) "Targeting the adolescent male". Journal of Community Health 1986; Vol 11
No 1 pp:45-8

191
Rhein LM, Ginsburg KR, Schwarz DF, Pinto-Martin JA, Zhao H, Morgan AP, Slap
GB.(1997): "Teen father participation in child rearing: family perspectives." Section
of Adolescent Medicine, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
Published : Journal of Adolescent Health 1997 Vol 21 No 4 pp:244-52

Rivara FP, Sweeney, Henderson BF. (1986): "Black Teenage Fathers: What happens when
the child is born?" Published: Pediatrics 1986 Jul; Vol.78 No.1 pp151-158

Schwartz, (1999): "Young fathers: new support strategies" . Teachers College, Columbia
University http//eric-web.tc.columbia.edu/digests/dig141.html

Speak S, Cameron S, Gilroy R (1997): "Young, single, non-residential fathers: their


involvement in fatherhood." . Centre for Research in European Urban Environments
at the University of Newcastle upon Tyne. Great Britain. The full report, Young
single fathers: Participation in fatherhood - bridges and barriers by Suzanne Speak,
Stuart Cameron and Rose Gilroy is published by the Family Policy Studies Centre
ISBN 0 901455 10 6

Stouthamer-Loeber M, Wei EH. (1998) : "The precursors of young fatherhood and its
effect on delinquency of teenage males." Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic,
School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA. Published:
Journal of Adolescent Health (1998) Vol.22 No. 1 pp55-65

Westney OE, Cole OJ, Munford TL. (1988) : "The effects of prenatal education
intervention on unwed prospective adolescent fathers." School of Human Ecology,

Newspaper Job Ads: A Content Analysis Study


Juan Rafael S. Saulo

192
The study attempts to identify skills and competencies present in newspaper job advertisements.
The study utilized a total of 798 newspapers, 5220 job ads related to the study starting form January 1 2006
to September 24, 2006 from the three leading newspapers of the Philippines namely the Philippine Star,
The Manila Bulletin and The Philippine Daily Inquirer. Content analysis was done to job ads related to the
field of Psychology. Other things that the study revealed were: First, most of the companies (about 90%)
that post for job vacancies look for single employees. Second, most of the positions that are advertised in
the newspapers (about 70%) are Rank and File. Third about 75% of job vacancies look for women whose
age range from 22 to 35 years of age. The researcher did not find any trends in the companies that
advertised for job vacancies. The companies however preferred hiring individuals with one or two years of
work experience. Finally the companies that advertised for job vacancies required at least an MA in the
field of Psychology with at least 5 years of work experience for a Managerial position. Implication for
career counseling of Psychology Majors were discussed. The skills identified by the Job ads were:
Computer Literacy (95%) Interpersonal Skills (90%) Flexibility Skills (89%) and Personality( 85%) and
Decision-Making (20%) through the newspapers.

There are many ways of searching for jobs. One can search the internet for job
openings. One can even job hunt the hard and tedious way which is to go from one
company to another submitting resumes and then play the waiting game with the hope
that a company calls the house. The researcher is not saying that this technique is wrong.
What he is simply saying is that this technique only favors those individuals who have
ample time in their hands and have nothing to lose. There is another way to look for jobs.
It is through reading the job ads section of the newspaper that one realizes one of its
values.

Many recent studies were done regarding jobs, advertisements like the study of
David Demets entitled “Where the jobs are” (Demets 1998) which relates job
advertisements to statistics. Recent studies also talk about pay ambiguity in relation to the
reactions to 'help wanted advertisements. (Effects of Attribute Set Size and Pay
Ambiguity on Reactions to 'Help Wanted' Advertisements, 1998) Still other studies talk
about the work in libraries. (Lynch,Smith, 2001)

So what if there are current researches done on job and job advertisements? Does
that make it important? What do jobs and job ads have to do with fresh graduates of
psychology? Maybe these are just some of the questions that come to mind that need
some answers.

Yes, jobs are important. They are very important especially after one finishes
college and eventually grows up. Jobs also give a sense of security, in the form of money.
Job ads or more specifically newspaper job ads provide the individual an easier option of
finding jobs.

Newspaper job ads more importantly look for skills and competencies with
regard to job openings and vacancies. That is why this study was made for the purpose of
identifying skills and competencies through the analysis of newspaper job ads in the
Philippine setting. Based on studies conducted between the year 2000-2007 the
researcher was not able to find any study having the same topic.

193
Review of Related Literature

“Choosing a career path begins with making career choices that can link academic
knowledge and real world experiences to establish a path that leads to one’s future
professionally.”(Talusig, 2005)

According to the 2002 National Career Information System online journal the
terms career, vocation and occupation are used interchangeably since the time of Parson
in 1909. Such a narrow view of career is problematic in that it aligned with paid
employment. (Talusig, 2005)

Problems with such a narrow understanding of career have been taken into
account for over 20 years and writers thus began to expand the career concept into pre-
occupational and occupational roles. (Super in Taluisig, 1980, 2005)

According to Miller Tiedman’s concept of “career,” it is the integration of all


aspects of an individual’s life including paid employment, if it is applicable. (Miller
Tiedman in Talusig, 1988, 2005) It is none than likely that the careers of people will have
periods of underemployment or unemployment. Thus many career combinations are
possible. (Talusig, 2005) Since this definition of Tiedman’s concept of career includes all
aspects of the life of the individual, it is also includes job hunting and all the job-related
aspects in the life of the individual. In this regard, a content analysis study was done by
Lynch and Smith (2001) on the changing nature of work in the academic libraries. The
study highlights the changes that have occurred in the library scene since 1973 until
2001. An instructional role for librarians (2002) gives an overview and content analysis
of job ads.

The evolution of international studies skills was done by Todd(1995) where he


analyzed the job skills of IS students from the 70’s to the 90’s.

One study related sex-biased jobs and discrimination by Bem in 1973 where he
found out that both sex-biased wording in job advertisements and the placement of help-
wanted ads in sex-segregated newspaper columns discourage men and women from
applying for "opposite-sex" jobs for which they might well be qualified.

Another study reported the 1999 data on the job market in diagnostic radiology
detected using a help wanted index of job advertisements and to profile trends in practice
type, location, and subspecialty using our previously published data as a basis for
comparison.(Covey 2000)

Another content analysis study was done by Ang (1996) on IS job ads and relating
them to insourcing and outsourcing arguments.
The study by Campbell in 1998 studied a conceptual modeling approach to data
including job ads in the web.

194
Other job related literature describes a multi-lingual internet employment where
job ads are submitted as e-mail texts, analyzed by an example-based pattern matcher and
stored in language independent schemas in an object-oriented database.

Users can search the database in their own language and get customized
summaries of the job ads.

Thorsteinson (2003) on the other hand conveyed the effects of goat farming in
job advertisements on organizational attractiveness which aimed to determine the reason
for the greater attractiveness of the gain-framed ad compared to the loss-framed ad. Two
possible explanations— valence-based encoding and regulatory focus—were examined.
Results suggest that both valence-based encoding and regulatory focus mediated the
relationship between framing and organizational attractiveness.

The study by Belle and Adams ( 2002) studied the job trends in the library job
market and found that growing number of electronic-related advertisements in the past
decade has led to the addition of a third division to be investigated, namely the systems
and automation librarian.

An article entitled “Enforcement of Employment Security Regulations, On The


Job Search and Unemployment Duration” (1998) was found The study showed that
contrary to the popular wisdom, European labor markets are characterized by relatively
large job turnover rates.

David Jalajas (2001) studied the role of self-esteem in the stress process which
related the results form job hunting. Results from the study showed self-esteem as both
the moderator and mediator in the stress process.

Another article discussed unemployment and job hunting scenarios in China and
examines coping strategies, successes and failures in job searches and in job creation and
their relationship to demographic variables (Tsui, 2002). Granovetter, on the other hand,
studied the relationship of contracts, careers and job hunting. Diaz once discussed the
ethnic job-search strategies of Atlanta Boston and Los Angeles (1999) and found that
recent research on employer hiring and worker search behavior has emphasized the
importance of social ties in matching workers to job opportunities.

The Consequences of women’s formal and informal job-search methods for


employment in female dominated jobs study (1998) assessed the extent to which job
search methods affect gender composition in a job. Women using formal job search
methods had jobs with fewer women in them compared to not using these methods. For
men, job search methods were not associated with the gender composition of the job.

The Validity of the Job Characteristics Model: A Review and Meta-Analysis


(1987) assessed the validity of Hackman and Oldham's Job Characteristics Model by
conducting a comprehensive review of nearly 200 relevant studies on the model as well
as by applying meta-analytic procedures to much of the data.

195
The article “Welfare Recipients’ Job Skills and Employment Prospects (1997)
examined how jobs and the capacity of the labor market to absorb workers influence
current welfare recipients' success in finding employment and the wages they are likely to
earn.

Lastly in the article Applying Trained Skills on the Job: Importance of Work
Environment (1995), the influence of the work environment on the transfer of newly
trained supervisory skills was examined. The social support system appeared to play a
central role in the transfer of training.

According to Corfield (2000), one of the things an employer looks for when hiring an
individual is skills .Moreover he stressed that the right person will be punctual and good
at time management. Budgeting and organizing skills will come in handy, as well as,
attention to detail and the ability to schedule events. Knowledge of home economics
would be an asset. An awareness of safety is important when working with children and
even confidence with shopping would be a selling point. Being able to handle
paperwork competently would be a definite advantage.

The Literature highlights three main points. The first one being, “choosing a career
path begins with making career choices that can link academic knowledge and real world
experiences to establish a path that leads to one’s future professionally.”(Talusig, 2005)

Second, the review of related literature is divided in 3 parts namely the topic on job
ads, job analysis and job skills.

Finally Self esteem plays both mediator and moderator in the stress process
(Jalajas,2001)which makes self-esteem and job skills very important.

Theoretical
Job Ads Framework

Figure 1

Skills and 196


Job Positions
Competencies
As Figure 1 clearly shows the researcher will analyze job ads which show skills of
the employee. Now, if these are the same skills that the employers are looking for, then
the employee gets the job.

The researcher’s study is all about Philippine job ads in the newspapers that
advertise job positions. These ads also look for skills that are needed to get the job
position. According to Career Guide (2003) the top 10 worker qualities employers seek
are: Communication Skills, Initiative/Motivation, Teamwork Skills, Interpersonal Skills,
Flexibility/Adaptability, Analytical Skills, Computer Skills, Organizational Skills,
Honesty/Integrity and Strong Work Ethics. This study will rank the job ads found in
today’s newspapers and rank them according to the demands of work at present.

Method

Research Design

197
By analyzing job ads which particularly had openings for psychology graduates
the study used the descriptive method particularly content analysis

The study looked for the skills of psychology graduates that would enable them to
get the job position they will be applying when they graduate from college.

Procedure

The researcher gathered all job ads in the Philippine Daily Inquirer, Philippine
Star and Manila Bulletin from January 1, 2006 to September 24, 2006. The researcher
ranked the job ads using percentile. The researcher gathered job ads of all Sunday edition
of each newspaper. The job ad with the highest percentile is ranked number 1 and the job
ad with the lowest percentile is ranked last.

Reasons for choosing the newspapers mentioned: The newspapers mentioned are
read by majority of the people in the Philippines. Both old and young people alike read
these newspapers. Second their credibility has been tested to the passage of time thus,
there is no need to question the newspapers’ validity in delivering true and authentic job
ads within the country.

The researcher wanted to make the job ads as recent as possible thus, choosing
January of 2006 as his starting points in getting this job ads and he ended with the date
September 24, 2006 because this is the date closes to his thesis defense.

Results

The total number of psychology job ads analyzed was 5220 psychology job ads
from the three newspapers. (Refer to Table 1) The study also showed that there were an

198
average of 580 job ads per month, 840 job ads came from the Philippine Star, 1630 form
Inquirer and 2750 from the Manila Bulletin. (see figure 2 for breakdown) The results of
the study also showed the positions that the companies were looking for namely Human
Resource Manager, Human Resource Supervisor, Human Resource Assistant; HR
Assistant Supervisor, HR Clerk, HR Specialist, HR Director and HR Officer. The number
of job ads for January 2006 is 500. 250 job ads came from Manila Bulletin 200 job ads
came from the Inquirer and 50 job ads came from Philippine Star (see Table 1)

Table1 :
Month Manila Bulletin Inquirer Star
January 250 200 50
February 350 160 90
March 400 150 150
April 450 260 90
May 350 300 250
June 470 240 40
July 160 150 40
August 150 70 30
September 170 100 100
Total 5220 2750 1630 840

For the month of February the total number of job ads was 600 90 of which came
from the Philippine Star,350 from the Manila Bulletin and 160 from the Inquirer.

For the month of March the total number of job ads was 700; 150 of which came
from the Philippine Star, 400 from the Manila Bulletin and 150 job ads from the Inquirer.
The job ads for April were divided as follows: 260 job ads form the Inquirer 90
from the Philippine Star and 450 newspaper job ads from the Manila Bulletin for a total
of 800 newspaper job ads. (See Table1)

For May the divisions were: 250 newspaper job ads came from The Philippine
Star, 350 from the Manila Bulletin and 300 from Inquirer having a total of 900 job ads.
Please see Table1.

For the month of June there were a total of 750 newspaper job ads 40 of which
came from the Philippine Star, 240 from the Philippine Daily Inquirer and 470 from the
Manila Bulletin. Please see Table1.

Table1 shows the division of job ads for the month of July; with 40 ads coming
the Philippine Star, 150 from the Inquirer and 160 job ads from the Manila Bulletin for a
total of 350 job ads
For the month of August the total number of job ads was 250. 150 came from the
Manila Bulletin, 70 from the Inquirer and only 30 job ads from Star.

199
There were a total of 370 newspaper job ads for September. 170 job ads came
from the Manila Bulletin and Inquirer and Star each having 100 job ads.

Table 2
Skills Frequency Percentage
Communication Skills 5116 98%
Initiative/Motivation 5011 96%
Interpersonal Skills 4959 95%
Teamwork Skills 4907 94%
Analytical 4855 93%
Computer Skills 4802 92%
Organizational Skills 4750 91%
Work Ethics 4698 90%

Table 2 summarizes the skills that are found in the newspaper job ads.
Communication Skills is the most common skills that employers seek through newspaper
job ads at 98%. Motivation is the next common skill at 96% followed by interpersonal
skills at 95%, teamwork skills at 94%, analytical skills at 93%, computer skills at 92%,
organizational skills at 91% and a strong work ethics at 90%.

Table 3
Job Position Frequency Percentage
HR Clerk 1148 22%
Encoder 730 14%
Secretary 522 10%
Sales Assistant 522 10%
HR Assistant 261 5%
Research Assist. 261 5%
Research Analyst 261 5%
Marketing Assist 261 5%
Supervisor
Customer 261 5%
Service Rep
Assist Team 104 2%
Leader
HR Assistant 104 2%
supervisor
Sales Supervisor 104 2%
HR supervisor 104 2%
Marketing 104 2%
Officer
Sales Officer 104 2%
HR Officer 104 2%
Team Leader 104 2%
Sales Mgr 52 1%

200
Marketing Mgr 52 1%
HR Mgr 52 1%
Total 5220 job
ads

Table 3 shows the job positions available for Psychology graduates The very first
position is HR clerk it comprises 22% of the total number of newspaper job ads. It is then
followed by the encoder 14%, secretary 10%, sales assistant 10%, HR assistant 5%,
Research assistant 5%, Research analyst 5%, Marketing Assistant Supervisor 5%
customer service representative 5%, assistant team leader, HR assistant supervisor, sales
supervisor, HR supervisor, marketing officer, sales officer, HR officer and team leader
each with 2% and 1% respectively for the sales manager , marketing manager and HR
manager positions.

Discussion

Manila Bulletin had the most number of newspaper job ads followed by the
Philippine Daily Inquirer while the Philippine Star had the least number of job ads mainly
because the Philippine Star had a lot of sponsor ads like that of Globe, Smart and
Suncellular, The classified Ads section of the Philippine Star is inconsistent. On
weekdays, it seldom appears inside the paper. Manila Bulletin on the other hand has a
consistent classified ads section everyday. The Inquirer also has a moderate grade when it
comes to consistency.

All of the three newspapers analyzed have many job ads on Sundays but again,
Manila Bulletin is the thickest of the three. Therefore one might say that when it comes to
credibility in terms of the number of job ads that can be found, the Manila Bulletin is the
most credible among the three.

Although there are no evidences of trends when it comes to the number of job ads
per month May’s total number of job ads remains to be the highest mainly because
students are trying to apply for summer jobs.

As one’s position gets higher and higher in the work place the decision making
skill needed for a higher position also goes up. One can then conclude that the higher the
decision making skill the higher the responsibility and the higher the salary. On the other
hand, when one starts at the bottom one’s work is more technical. Yet there are some
skills like personality and interpersonal skills that are a must in all levels of the work
place. One has to have a little bit of personality and interpersonal skills in order to
survive in the place of work because no man is an island and a person will more often
talk to a person in the work place. This is a form of bias since the employers seek the
employees with the skill that they need but very few companies are willing to train their
employees since training is an additional cost to the company.
What did the results mean? Communication skills are the most common skills that
companies that advertise in the newspapers look for. Communication skills would include

201
English proficiency and the proper usage of non-verbal communication such as proper
eye contact, hand movements, voice projection and body posture.

The next skill that employers look for after Communication Skills is motivation.
Motivation is very important to employees too. Motivation psyches-up the employees to
work hard and do the best they can so that they contribute to the success of the company.
This is one of the reasons why companies have benefits and incentives so as to motivate
people to work hard and be the best that they can be. Without motivation employees
would not do their respective jobs well. This includes going the extra mile in finishing the
work that needs to be done.

Interpersonal Skills would be the third skill employers look for. This would
include convincing skills confidence when talking to people, know what to say, how to
say it and when to say it. These are people skills.

Team Skills would be another skill employers look for. Teamwork Skills on the
other hand include cooperation of a group. In a world where people are now globally
competitive employees need teamwork skills to survive in the workplace.

Analytical Skill is the fifth skill employers look for.Analytical Skills include
decision-making skills and the ability to interpret data This skill is a necessity when it
comes to top management positions.

Computer Skills would include the knowledge in using computers It is a must in


today’s workplace. It is the sixth skill employers look for in hiring employees

Organizational Skills is the seventh skills companies look for in employees.


Organizational Skills would include leadership skills and career development. The
employee must follow the rules and regulations of their company to ensure that they stay
in the company.

Lastly, Strong Work Ethics include the ability to work under pressure, employee
attitude in the workplace and work conduct. It is the last skill employers look for when
individuals apply for a job position.

One more element that is very important in order to assure that psychology
graduates get a high paying job is work experience of at least one to two years.

The researcher noticed that more often companies that advertise in the
newspapers look for women instead of men.

One disadvantage of looking for jobs in the newspapers’ classified section is


companies don’t advertise high paying jobs often. These high positions are occupied
ether by succession or by appointment from the outside the company.
One advantage of looking for jobs in the newspaper is the information that is
easily accessible. It is affordable and reasonable.

202
Conclusions and Recommendation

One can get a lot of information just by looking at the classified section of a
newspaper. One can find out what skills are necessary for a job position. Skills are
necessary to do a certain or a specific job well. Job positions and other information are
easily accessible since all that one needs to do is read and find the job position that one
wishes to apply for.

However, companies that advertise in the newspapers also look for one to years
work experience from their applicants. Not all job positions are advertised in the
newspapers. Top ranking positions like CEO and Vice President positions are occupied
by succession or by appointment.

The study can be used as a basis to modify the psychology curriculum of schools
and universities in order to prepare the psychology graduates in applying for job positions
in the workplace.

These job positions may not pay much but they will be a good source of work
experience for the psychology graduates to eventually land the job of their dreams.

The researcher therefore recommends that further studies be done having the
similar topics to further confirm the findings of this study as this is the first time a study
of this nature has been done.

References

203
A Brief History of Content Analysis (2006)
http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/research/content/com2a1.cfm

An instructional role for librarians: (2000) An overview and content analysis of job
advertisements:http://alianet.alia.org.au/publishing/aarl/33.3/full.text/clyde.html
2002
Beile Adams (2000)Other Duties as Assigned: Emerging Trends in the Library Job
Market
http://www.ala.org/ala/acrl/acrlpubs/crljournal/backissues2000b/july00/beile.pdf

http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=2xgEIBTTdVUC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&sig
=uh_P7XpyuVX-LMSetsV8HqIy1ak&dq=Job+hunting

Drentea (1998) The Consequences of women’s formal and informal job-search methods
for employment in female dominated jobs
http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0891-
2432(199806)12%3A3%3C321%3ACOWFAI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-K

Bem (1973) Does sex-biased advertising aid and abet sex discrimination
http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1973.tb01290.x

Black (1997) Multilingual Generation and Summarization of Job Adverts


http://acl.ldc.upenn.edu/A/A97/A97-1040.pdf -

Brinkerhoff (1992) 101 COMMONSENSE RULES FOR THE OFFICE, Malaysia,


Golden Books Centre SDN, BHD

Burtless (1997) Welfare Recipients’ job skills and employment prospects


http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=1054-
8289(199721)7%3A1%3C39%3AWRJSAE%3E2.0.CO%3B2-J

Campbell (1998) A conceptual modeling approach to data extracting in the web


http://www.springerlink.com/content/uy80xbe31rdu1edm/

Career Guide (2003) Jobstreet.com

Corfield, (2000) HOW YOU CAN GET THAT JOB, London, Kogan Page Limited

Covey (2000) The Job Market in Diagnostic Radiology 1999 Updated Findings from a
Help Wanted Index of Job Advertisements
http://intl.ajronline.org/cgi/content/abstract/175/4/957

Demets 1998 Where the Job Ads Are

204
Enforcement of Employment Security Regulations, On-The-Job Search and
Unemployment Duration (1998)
http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=106850

Granovetter (1995) Getting A Job: A Study of Contracts and Careers

Hackman (1987) The Validity of the Job Characteristics Model: A Review and Meta-
Analysis.
Jalajas (2001) The Role of Self-Esteem in the Stress Process: Empirical Results From Job
Hunting

Lee Rogers (2000) The Radiology Job Market,


http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&se=gglsc&d=5001390351&er=deny

Managing Transition: Unemployment and Job Hunting in Urban China, Tsui, 2002
http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&se=gglsc&d=5002529050&er=deny

Nuendorf, (2006) The Content Analysis Guidebook


http://academic.csuohio.edu/kneuendorf/content/resources/flowc.htm

Talusig (2005) Job Tracer: A Study of College Graduates of San Beda College Alabang

Tiedman, AL (1988) Lifecareer the Quantum Leap into a process theory of career

The Changing Nature of Work in Academic Libraries by:Beverly P. Lynch and Kimberley
Robles Smith
http://www.ala.org/ala/acrl/acrlpubs/crljournal/backissues2001b/september01/lync
h.pdf

Thorsteinson (2003) Effects of Goat Framing in Job Advertisements on Organizational


Attractiveness Todd:http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1559-
1816.2003.tb01891.x

Todd (1995) The Evolution of IS Job Skills: A Content Analysis of IS Job Advertisements
from 1970 to 1990 http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0276-
7783(199503)19%3A1%3C1%3ATEOIJS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-N

Tracey (2005) Applying trained skills on the job: the importance of the work environment

205
Tracy (2001) Get paid More and Promoted Faster, San Francisco, Berrett-Koehler
Publishers Inc.

Parsons, F. (1909) Choosing a Vocation

Super (1980) A Life-span life space approach to career development, Journal of


Vocational Behavior, 16, 282-298

206
The Effect of Exposure to Television Advertisements on the Body
Image of the San Beda College Alabang College of Arts and
Sciences Female Students
Zebedee R. Usana

This study aimed to discover if female models in present day television advertisements affect the
body image of the female students of San Beda College Alabang College of Arts and Sciences. The
participants for this study were 30 female college students from San Beda College Alabang College of Arts
and Sciences ages 15-25. Purposive sampling is the sampling procedure used to gather each respondent
because respondents are particularly female college students. The conclusion of the first category was there
was no significant difference on the amount of exposure of the female students of San Beda College
Alabang College of Arts and Sciences to television advertisements because the Body Esteem Scale scores
showed no significant change between the non exposure to television advertisements and 16-19 minutes
exposure. In the second category (BMI) there was a significant difference in the body image of the
participants depending on their category (under weight, normal weight, overweight, and obese).which
explains that the overall appearance of the individual in relation to what is known as beautiful does affect
their body image.

Almost everyone has, at one time or another, wished that they could change
something about themselves. For many people, the desired change involves something
about their appearance. What is this focus that people have on their body parts and their
body as a whole? It is their body image.

Body image is something that everyone has. Body image affects the young and
the old, and impacts the poor and the rich both males and females are influenced by their
body image. Just how important is body image in the society? In Western culture, it
seems that for many people, young females’ in particular, looking good is an extremely
significant part of their lives (Barlow; Durand, 1995). For some people, happiness and
self-worth come to be largely determined by their body image. Whether or not an
individual’s body size, body shape and measurements and so on match society’s ideals
decide how satisfied they are with themselves. Sometimes, this body image becomes
even more important than one’s health and well-being. Unfortunately, for many people
the ideal body of their times is difficult, if not impossible, to achieve. This make some
people feel dissatisfied with their appearance. In other words, their body image is
negative.

Research has suggested that biological, psychological and social factors play an
important role in the development of one’s body image (Barlow; Durand, 1995).
However, it appears that social factors play the key role.” Different images of the woman
in advertising have been presented to the female consumer beginning in the 1920s
women from ads in the 1920's up to the 1990's have gotten progressively thinner. Women
typically have a larger percentage of fat on their bodies for childbearing purposes. Since
the birth of the modern advertising industry in the 1920s, marketers have sought to foster
insecurity in consumers" (Jacobson; Mazur 1995) this image continues to pervade the
advertising network but other images have also worked their way into the advertising
world. Although television advertising has a relatively short history, today a person can

207
hardly escape from it. Advertisements are specifically targeted to age-related and
demographic groups. By focusing on self-perception and by targeting a low self-concept,
advertisers create in consumers the desire to feel good about them. The self-concept
regarding female beauty is targeted (Bedore,J. M., 1992).

This study tackles how female models in present day television advertisements
affect the Filipino college females who watch these advertisements. This study wants to
find out the following; Is there is a significant difference between the exposure to
television advertisements and the body image of the Filipino college female? Does the
actual physique of college female students a factor affecting their body image? The
reason for focusing more on television advertisements, particularly the models rather than
on media as a whole is to keep the study controllable and to avoid having a problem of
not knowing exactly where the independent variable is arising from. This study will
particularly target the female students of San Beda College Alabang College of Arts and
Sciences. The study on females was preferred because most current research has shown
that females are more prone to experiencing decreased feeling of attractiveness and self
image (Polce-Lynch 2001).

Review of Related Literature

According to Center for young Woman’s Health Children’s Hospital Boston.,


body image is based on the thoughts and feelings about a person’s body looks.
Sometimes the way a person thinks of how others are judging his or her appearance can
influence his or her body image. Poor body image comes from negative thoughts and
feelings about a person’s appearance, and a healthy body image is made up of thoughts
and feelings that are positive. Body image is a major factor in self-esteem; which is the
way a person think and feel about themselves as a person. Females who are constantly
pressured by society to look like models seen on cover of magazines who are extremely
thin, look passive and childlike and have physical characteristics like youth, long legs,
straight noses, or even pale tanned skin( Boston 2005).

The general topic of attractiveness is important to members of virtually every


culture, especially to the young who seek romantic partners and to those who seek to
extend their influence in society through contact with others. Attractiveness is significant
to each individual and to most people whom the person meets and the effects of
attractiveness could extend to virtually every other impression a person makes.
Attractiveness to a psychologist means how others perceive and rate the desirability of a
person's features. (Human Facets Navigator 2003)

According to Center for young Woman’s Health Children’s Hospital Boston, if a


female teenager with a scar, birthmark, or uniquely shaped face, she would probably
know how hard it can be to look different from everyone else. She might be reminded of
that difference every time she look in the mirror or see someone staring in her direction.
Major differences in appearance due to burns, birth defects or other diseases and
disorders can contribute to a poor body image and low self-esteem. The effects of body
image on self-esteem can be especially powerful during the teenage years. Although it's

208
perfectly normal to have negative thoughts and feelings towards your facial difference,
finding ways to be positive is the key to building a healthy body image and good self-
esteem (Center for young Woman’s Health Children’s Hospital Boston 2005).

Body image problems often rear their ugly heads in college, although they are
often masked, mistaken for vanity, shyness, cautiousness, or even normalcy. With
widespread pressure among college students to look a certain way, to have exact amounts
of muscle or body fat, or to achieve perfection, a negative body image may actually be
the norm. But how can colleges and universities suffer from a looks-obsessed culture
when they are training the future thinkers, doers and leaders of the world? (Bradford,
2006).
The stress of college life can strike blows to anyone's self-esteem, though there
are other forces at work. A large part of the problem comes from our culture. Just look at
the trademark bodies of the 1990's Kate Moss' black-and-white waif in the Calvin Klein
Obsession ads; the tanned, washboard-bellied Diet Coke guy; the incredible shrinking
female cast of Friends. Youth and beauty seem to go hand-in-hand in mainstream culture,
and many college students strive for the complete package: intelligence, looks, and status.
(Bradford 2006). “College is a very stressful time, full of new responsibilities, new
friends and a completely new environment,” Justine Karduck, nutrition education
coordinator at McKinley Health Center at the University of Illinois said. “It can be very
frightening, lonely and confusing, and there is a lot of pressure to fit in socially.”Peer
pressure, the media and academics are factors that may cause students to be susceptible to
low self-esteem and stress (Aceret 2007).

Traits of Media

Many people suffering from a poor body image cite the media as one source of
concern. While the motives of advertisers aren't exactly complex (sell, sell, sell!), it's
interesting to wonder why people have internalized their 'ideal body image' (Aceret, E.,
2007). They sell everything from toothpaste to cars, sporting goods to lingerie. And
although the agencies and executives who are responsible for these campaigns may be
focused only on the revenue that they will generate, today's consumer-driven, ad-based,
beauty-obsessed culture can have serious effects on the average American woman
( Nestel, P., 2004).

All evidence that has been being gathered over the years, by a number of
reputable researchers, points to the fact that media consumption is the main culprit in
disorders such as bulimia and anorexia nervosa, affecting young females in particular (To
further emphasize on the image that the media habitually presents, the statistical evidence
shows that they exemplify on images that show females to be on average a height of 5”11
and 120 pounds. This is totally opposite what exists in the real-time world. An average
female is around 5”4 and 140 pounds (Holmstrom 2004).

Though this is a normalcy, the media contradicts it by pushing the idea that
females in this range are not tall enough nor thin enough either. Really it is simply
ludicrous to strive to be what the media is projecting (Holmstrom 2004). It is unhealthy

209
and impossible for a good portion of females to even reach these types of goals, yet they
keep being bombarded with them. Furthermore, these falsities are causing extreme
negative emotions to develop such as, sadness, depression, anxiety, and discouragement
about ones own self image (Holmstrom 2004). On the other hand, even though the ideals
might not be acceptable to some, they do give a number of females the encouragement
and personal initiative to try and better themselves and build a better and healthier body
that they can feel satisfied with. Even though this is a minute few, it still has some small
amount of positivism associated with it, because it can lead to a healthier lifestyle for
healthier lifestyle for some females. (Holmstrom 2004). .

Females are going to great lengths to try and be equal to what the media
represents. It has come to the point where the issue has surpassed simply body size, but
gone on to facial characteristics as well. This has lead females to look into areas of
change that involve, cosmetic surgery, liposuction, face-lifts, and miracle diets in an
attempt to look their best and achieve perfection (Rodin 1992). However, the truth of the
matter is, no person is flawless in the real world and the images that the media present
have been airbrushed, enhanced, camouflaged, and have been closely examined to try and
portray the females in a way that qualifies them as females of perfection, when they
actually are not. In relation to these a study done by Newton JT and Minhas G in
regarding to the exposure of ideal faces images and its effects to people. The study
reveals that such exposure ideal facial images to people results to reducing of facial
satisfaction. Females need to be aware of this, and more than anything else, find
happiness with who they are and what they have been endowed with. Rodin’s article
(1992) accurately expresses what the media has done to many females, and even men are
not wholly immune to this fanatical phase

Recent studies of media effects on body image satisfaction and eating disturbance
have shifted the focus of research from testing media effects to identifying possible
mediating variables of the effects. Harrison (1997) introduced interpersonal attraction as
a mediating variable in explaining the effects of "thin" media images on female viewers.
She found that interpersonal attraction to thin media characters was the most significant
predictor of a variety of eating disorders. Viewing "thin" TV shows was also positively
related to college females' drive for thinness and anorexia. Reading fashion magazines,
which contain extremely thin models, was positively related to general eating disturbance
and body dissatisfaction. Harrison (1997) argued that the interpersonal attraction to thin
characters may be associated with some sort of modeling behaviors, and such modeling
may be positively related to eating disturbance. Thus the more attraction a female
demonstrates to thin characters, the more likely she would show tendencies of eating
disturbance.

Further more it has been argued that the media play a powerful role in
communicating prevailing standards of ideal beauty (Sahlstein ; Allen, 2002). Heinberg
and Thompson (1995) examined the effects of media exposure and the role of awareness
and internalization of societal standards of physical appearance. They found that
participants exposed to appearance-related ads reported less satisfaction with their body
shape than those with nonappearance-related ads. They also found that females who

210
scored high on the measures of awareness and internalization of societal standards of
appearance indicated the most negative emotional experiences after exposed to
appearance-related ads. Cusumano and Thompson (1997) discovered that the awareness
and internalization of societal standards of appearance accounted for a significant amount
of variance in body image dissatisfaction and eating disturbance. However, no significant
direct effects of exposure to magazine messages on body image dissatisfaction, eating
dysfunction, and self-esteem were found.

211
Conceptual Framework

Figure 1

EXPOSURE TO FEMALES BODY IMAGE


TELEVISION
ADVERTISEMENTS

ACTUAL BODY
PHYSIQUE

The phenomenological perspective stresses on the importance of an individual’s


perception of oneself and one’s world in understanding personality. It emphasizes that for
each individual, reality is what is perceived. This means that a person’s ideal can affect
how he sees himself, others and the world around him.( Ermita M.;Juan 2003).

As shown in the diagram the independent variable is the exposure to television


advertisements. This variable is used, as standard to what should females these days think
their physical appearance should be like. For example a seventeen-year old model seen in
a commercial that at over five feet nine inches tall weighs less than one hundred twenty
pounds, has no wrinkles, blemishes, or pores. The characteristics shown are what most
women would dream to posses because of the society’s pressure and might change their
own perception of self when looking at their own reflection at the mirror. (Wolf, N.1992)

The diagram shows that the independent variable affects the dependent variable
which is the body image of females according to Naomi Wolf in her book “The Beauty
Myth “, says that the media, who does flawless and unrealistic illusions created by
makeup artists and photographers, unobtainable perfection negatively affect females, by
inviting females to compare their unimproved reality with the air-brushed, illusive
`Beauty Myth' models. The media has a great role for defining societal standards of
beauty. (Wolf, N.,1992)

212
In conclusion the conceptual framework shows the belief that the physical
appearance of models seen in television advertisements that is considered to be ideal
standard of beauty of females can affect a females self image in ways that they may cause
to see themselves as physically unattractive or physically abnormal. Looking at them at
these aspects may cause them to be unsatisfied with themselves physically striving to be
thin, tall and flawless instead of accepting themselves and being proud and confident for
who they are which is someone who is physically normal.

213
Method

Participants

The participants for this research were thirty (30) female college students from
San Beda College Alabang College of Arts and Sciences, ages 15-25 from all year levels
(freshman – senior year). That age bracket was chosen to represent both adolescents and
that in early adulthood because past researches have shown that this is a crucial time for
them. In this time there is an increased self-awareness, self-identity, self-consciousness,
preoccupation with image, and concern with social acceptance (Slater;Tiggemann, 2002).
Further more, Research shows that at this time of their life the media helps them define
social meaning in different ways. At these age groups they look to television programs to
help them construct meaning into their lives (Granello, 1997).The decision to choose
females only from San Beda College Alabang was made to make the research as
controlled as possible due to the time limitations. Purposive sampling is the sampling
procedure used to gather each respondent because respondents are particularly female
college students. The researcher approached and asked several college female students
from any year level if their willing to participate and that all information will be
guaranteed confidential and will be used for research purposes only.

Materials/Instruments

Survey Questionnaire

A survey questionnaire was distributed on the initial stage of the research. The
purpose of the survey was to gather information about the participant regarding their
actual physique and exposure to television advertisements. The results were used to get
the BMI of each participant using their actual weight and height as well as how much
exposure they had on television advertisements in terms of how many hours they watch
local television programs, specifically from ABS-CBN and GMA on primetime schedule
(5:30-9:30).The reason for choosing the two local channels is because the two channels
are the two giant networks in the Philippines. Fucanan,T,B.,(2005).And so most of
television advertisements today are aired to the two said stations. The reason for
narrowing it down to prime time schedule is because most television advertisements
which had beautiful models are aired during this time. The researcher recorded
commercials which had beautiful models aired on the local television programs for both
stations (ABS-CBN and GMA) during prime time schedule during week days and
weekends as well. There were four choices to be check, in terms of how many hours they
watch local television programs, first is “do not watch at all”, 30minutes – 1 hour, 2-3
hours and lastly 4 hours. Each category has its equivalent in terms of how many minutes
are television advertisements which has models of beautiful and ideal bodies are aired.
For 30 minutes to one hour the air time of television advertisements which had beautiful
models are two to nine minutes, for two to three hours the air time are 10 – 15 minutes
,for four hours are 16 – 19 minutes and for do not watch at all is zero minutes.

Body Mass Index (BMI)

214
According to the Children’s Hospital Boston (2001) (cited in Body Mass
Index for Age, 2001) Body Mass Index (BMI) gives fairly accurate assessment of how
much a person’s body is composed of fat.

In this study, BMI was the numerical value computed by the researchers
using the BMI formula developed by the Belgian satisfaction Adolphe Quetelet between
1830 and 1850. Using this formula, the adolescent respondent’s weight in pounds will be
divided by the square of the respondent’s height in inches. To obtain the respondent’s
BMI the quotient will be then multiplied by 703. The scores were then converted to
percentiles. The World Health Organization describes people with a Body Mass Index
ranging from less than 19 of being “under weight” 19-25 as being “normal weight “, 25-
29 as being “over weight”, and higher than 30 as being “obese”.

Body Esteem Scale

The main instrument used for this is called the Body Esteem Scale(BES) by
Franzoi and Shields. This test enables participant to rate thirty-five individual body parts
for woman on a five point Likert scale, in which indicated strong negative feelings. This
test measures one’s body image satisfaction and will help indicate whether each
participant has a positive or negative affect on her own body image due to such exposure
to television advertisements. A factor analysis indicated that three factors emerged for
males and females. These factors are (1) Physical Attractiveness (PA) for males Sexual
Attractiveness (SA) for females, (2)Upper Body Strength ) (UBS) for males Weight
Concern (WC) for females and (3) Physical Condition (PC) for both males and females.
Since this study focused on college females the factors Sexual Attractiveness, Weight
Concern and Physical Condition were used. The means for each factor were then
computed and measured using the five point Likert scales, which showed whether or not
each participant had a positive, negative or no feelings at all toward their body image.

In terms of validity and reliability, the BES has exhibited high test-retest
reliability and internal validity. (Franzoi, 1994) Internal consistency has ranged from
0.83-0.93(Cecil and Stanley, 1997)

Research Design

The researcher used a descriptive survey as the research design because the
data was derived from surveys and qualitative methods for gathering the information to
inform the conclusions and recommendations of the study. The surveys were handed out
in order to find out how often the respondents are exposed to television advertisement in
terms of how many hours do they watch local television programs in a day on prime time
schedule, their actual height and weight and administered the Body Esteem Scale to all
participants for further data analysis.

215
Data Gathering and Procedure

A survey questionnaire was drafted by the researcher in which the respondents


were asked to participate and answer questions regarding their actual weight and height
and their exposure to television advertisements. Attached to it is the Body Esteem Scale
to determine their body image. These were distributed to the respective participants. After
the surveys were collected, they were tabulated and the means for each factor were
calculated which determined the participants’ over all body image. The results were then
analyzed and then compared according to the three factors from Body Esteem Scale,
which were Sexual Attractiveness, Weight Concern and Physical Conditions: these were
divided into three subcategories. First, data was analyzed in terms how may hours were
the participants exposed to Television advertisements 2-9 minutes, 10 – 15 minutes and
16 – 19 minutes and non exposure at all. Second, the data was also analyzed by
separating the participants according to the results of their Body Mass Index, which
determines the healthiness of their height and weight ratio and can range from
“underweight” to “obese”.

Data Analysis

The means for each factor were then computed and measured using the five point
Likert scale, 1 = have strong negative feelings, 2 = have moderate negative feelings, =
have no feeling one way or the other 4 = Have moderate positive feelings , 5 = have
strong positive feelings .The results were analyzed and then compared according to the
three factors from BES, which were Sexual Attractiveness, Weight Concern and Physical
Conditions:

216
Results

The participants for this research are thirty (30) female college students from San
Beda College Alabang. This is a presentation of the results gathered from the 30
participants regarding their Body Mass Index, amount of exposure to television
advertisements and their body image.

Is there is a significant difference between the exposure to television advertisements and


the body image of the Filipino college females?

Table 1.1 Participants categorized according to television advertisement exposure in


a day

Amount Exposed Frequency %


Non exposure 2 7%
2-9 minutes 3 10%
10-15 minutes 18 60%
16-19 minutes 7 23%

According to the results from the survey on how often are the participants were
exposed to television advertisements, it showed that seven percent of the 30 participants
were not exposed to the television advertisements as categorized by the researcher, 10%
of the participants were exposed between 2-19 minutes, 60% of the participants were
exposed between 10- 15 minutes, and 23% of the participants were exposed between 16-
19 minutes.

Table 1.2 Body Esteem Scores in relation to exposure television advertisements

Amount Exposed Sexual Weight Physical Condition


Attractiveness Concern
Non Exposure 4 4 4
2-9 minutes 3 4 4
10-15 minutes 3 4 3
16-19 minutes 4 4 4

The participants who were exposed to television advertisements for 16-19 minutes
and who were not exposed at all had a mean of four for the three categories of the Body
Esteem Scale. The participants who were exposed for two to nine minutes and 10-19
minutes both had a mean of three for sexual attractiveness and had mean of four for their
weight concern. The participants who were exposed for 10 -15 minutes scored the lowest
when it comes to their physical condition having a mean of three.

Does the actual physique of college female students a factor affecting their body image?

217
Table 1.3 Participants categorized using BMI results
BMI SCALE FREQUENCY %
Under Weight 12 40%
Normal Weight 15 50%
Over Weight 1 3%
Obese 2 7%

After calculating the BMI scores of each participant, the results showed that 50%
of the participants fell in the category of “normal weight”, 40% of the participants were
“underweight”. , Three percent of the participants fell in the category of “overweight”
and seven percent of the participants were “obese”.

Table 1.4 BES Scores in relation to BMI

BMI SCALE SEXUAL WEIGHT PHYSICAL


ATTRACTIVENESS CONCERN CONDITION
Under Weight 4 4 4
Normal Weight 4 4 4
Over Weight 4 4 3
Obese 3 3 4

The mean results from the three factors of the BES showed that among the 12
“Under weight” participants and 15 participants who fell under the “Normal Weight” had
a mean of 4 in the 3 categories which meant over all; the participants had moderate
positive feelings on their sexual attractiveness, weight concern and physical condition.
The participants who fell under the “overweight” category had a mean of four in both
“sexual attractiveness” and “weight concern” category and had a mean of three in
“physical condition” category. The participants who fell under the obese category had a
mean of three for both “sexual attractiveness” and “weight concern category, which
meant that overall; the participants had no feelings towards their own sexual
attractiveness and did not care much about their weight. The results towards the physical
condition were a four meaning they had a moderate positive feelings towards their
physical condition.

Discussion

The results from the Body Esteem Scale showed that among the participants who
were segregated based on their BMI scores, all three categories such as sexual
attractiveness, weight concern, and physical condition, normally fell on the mean of four.
Those participants who fell under the obese category scored the lowest when it came to
their weight concern having a score of three. This showing that they are not happy of
their weight since four is the mean score showing some positive outcome towards body
dissatisfaction. Since studies show that if ideal body is difficult and impossible to
achieve, this make some people feel dissatisfied with their appearance.

218
Based on sexual attractiveness, those who fell on the obese category again fell
lowest on the four categories with a mean of three which shows that they are still not
satisfied with how they look since four is the mean score showing some positive regard
towards body satisfaction. Also according to Barlow, if an individual’s body size, body
shape and measurements match society’s ideals, it decides how satisfied they are with
themselves. The three groups that scored a mean of four showed that they hold their
sexual attractiveness in positive regard. Those who were overweight fell lowest when it
comes to their physical condition having a mean of three.

The results based from the body esteem scale showed that among the participants
who were also segregated based on their exposure to television advertisements, the two
groups that were exposed to 16-19 minutes and non exposure to television advertisements
had a mean of four in all categories.

Conclusion

In conclusion it is safe to say that there is no significant difference between the


women who were exposed for 16- 19 minutes and non exposure at all to Television
Advertisements (which are the two extremes of the scale) so it can be pointed out that
television advertisements do not make a significant impact on the body image of females
in San Beda College Alabang College of Arts and Sciences unless they already feel
inadequate about their own body even before they watch Television Advertisements. This
is supported by the scores from the Body Mass Index compared to Body Esteem Scale
that showed significant differences between scores for all the three subgroups. When an
individual already shows either a genetic disposition or maintenance of their own bodies
to level the standard of beauty seen on these advertisements their body image will still
remain high regardless of their exposure to television advertisements or not, the same
way that if an individual already perceives herself as overweight and unattractive
regardless if she was exposed to television advertisements or not will not make a strong
difference on their body image.

The results of the Body Esteem Scale of the groups that were divided according to
their BMI results help the researcher conclude that the null hypothesis was incorrect to
say that television advertisements today has a significant impact on the Filipino female
adolescents’ body image when other factors like an unhealthy BMI (25-up) are not
present. Television advertisements do not bring about great effects on the body image of
adolescents even though a lot may feel that the height, weight and the physical
appearance of its models is ideal. Filipino female adolescents may come to accept that
they do not have the ideal body seen on models of television advertisements and bring it
to positive stride

Recommendations

For students who would like to continue this study, the researcher would like to
recommend using convenient sampling , which may help to gather information that will
able to capture the major objective of the study

219
This study can also be further continued not just using television advertisements
as a factor affecting the Filipino women’s body image but other branches of media
present in the Filipino society well.

This study can also be continued by using the male population of college, which
might also show data about their body image and how images from the media affect
them.

References

Aceret,E( 2007). The Rebel Yell University of Nevada Lasvegas from


http://www.unlvrebelyell.com/article.php?ID=590

Bierma,P 2002, Body image from http:/www.girlpower.gov/press/research /inthemix.htm

Botta, R. A. (1999). Television images and adolescent girls’ body image disturbance.
Journal of Communication, 49(2), 22 – 41.

Barlow, D.H., & Durand, V.M. (1995). Abnormal Psychology: An Integrative Approach.
Pacific Grove: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.

Bradford, A (2006).UT Austin U magazin mexico Here's Looking At You


Is body image being taken too seriously? from
http://www.colleges.com/Umagazine/articles.taf?category=features&article=body
image

220
Bedore, J (1992).Warning: This Television Advertisement May Be Hazardous to Your
Self-Concept.from http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal & objectId=
0900000b8011eafe

British Orthodontic Society (2004). Journal of Orthodontics, Vol. 31, No. 1, 17-19,

Cecil, H & Staneley, M. (1997).Reliability and validity of adolescents ‘scores on the


body esteem scale Educational and Psychological Measurement

Center for young Woman’s Health Children’s Hospital Boston(2005) from


www.youngwomenshealth.org

Children’s Hospital Boston (2001) Body Mass Index

Cusumano, D. L., & Thompson, J. K. (1997). Body image and body shape ideals in
magazines: Exposure, awareness, and internalization. Sex Roles, 37, 701-721.

Ermita M. & Juan C.(2003) .The Body Esteem of St. Benedict College College of Arts
and Sciences Females in Relation to The Exposure of 2002 Fashion Models: An
Analysis

Fisher, S(2004). Development and Structure of the Body: Volume2 Lawrence,


Erlbaum&Associates

Franzoi,S.L&Herzorg M.E(1986). The Body Esteem Scale : A Convergent and


Discriminant Validity Study: Journal of Personality Assesment

Franzoi and Shields, S.A.(1984) The Body Esteem Scale: Multidimensional structure and
sex differences in college population. Journal of Personality Assesment,48, 173-
178.

Fucanan,T,B.,(2005) Youth, driving force of arts, entertainment from


http://www.manilatimes.net/national/2005/dec/28/yehey/top_stories/20051228top
8.html

Genove,M,C.,(2006) Orient express Bacalod City,Negros Occidental, Philippines from


http://www.visayandailystar.com/2006/Starlife/2006/February/19/orientexpress.ht
m

Granello, D. H. (1997). Using Beverly Hills, 90210 to explore developmental issues in


female adolescents. Youth & Society, 29(1), 24 – 54.

Harrison, K. (1997). Does interpersonal attraction to thin media personalities promote


eating disorders? Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 41, 478-500.

221
Harrison, K., & Cantor. J. (1997). The relationship between media consumption and
eating disorders. Journal of Communication, 47(1), 40-67.

Heinberg, L. J., & Thompson, J. K. (1995). Body image and televised images of thinness
and attractiveness: A controlled laboratory investigation. Journal of Social and
Clinical Psychology, 14, 1-14.

Holmstrom, A (2004).“The Effects of the Media on Body Image: A Meta-Analysis”


Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media Volume 48 1.

Human Facets Navigator, (2003)“Data Face Pychological Appearance and behavior of


the Human Face” http://face-and-emotion.com/dataface/facets/deception.jsp

Jacobson, M.F.; Mazur, LA(1995). Marketing Madness Colorado:


Westview Press.

Nestel,P(2004).America’s Distorted Body Image from


http://www.tcnj.edu/~unbound/spring2005/articles/l2

Newton JT, Minhas G (2005) Department of Oral Health Services Research & Dental
Public Health, GKT Dental Institute, King's College London, Denmark Hill,
London, UK. tim.newton@kcl.ac.uk

Polce-Lynch, M., Myers, B. J., Kliewer, W., & Kilmartin, C. (2001). Adolescent self-
esteem and gender: Exploring relations to sexual harassment, body image, media
influence, and emotional expression. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 30(2),
225 – 245.

Rickins, M. L. (1991). Social comparison and the idealized images of advertising.


Journal of Consumer Research, 18(1), 71 – 83.

Rodin, Judith(1992). “Body Mania” Psychology Today. Volume25:1

Sahlstein, E., & Allen, M. ( 2002). Sex differences in self-esteem: A meta-analytic


assessment

Schmidt N., Oxley, R., & Barrett, L. (2002). Facial attractiveness judgements reflect
learning of parental age characteristics. Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London B, 269, 873-880

Slater, A., & Tiggemann, M. (2002). A test of objectification theory in adolescent girls.
Sex Roles, 46(9/10), 343 – 349.

Tiggeman, M., & Pickering, A. S. (1996). Role of television in adolescent women’s body
dissatisfaction and drive for thinness. International Journal of Eating Disorders,
20(2), 199 – 203.

222
Weiderman, Michael. (2000): “Women’s Body Image and Self Consciousness during
Physical Intimacy with a Partner” The Journal of Sex Research Volume 37 1

Wolf, Naomi.,(1992.)The Beauty Myth: How Images of Beauty Are Used Against
Women. NewYork: Anchor Books

Assessing the Levels of Student Career Maturity with the


Introduction of Vision Therapy
Maria Laika F. Varela

This study aimed to assess the level of career maturity of selected freshmen students in San Beda
College Alabang. The researcher aimed to integrate an intervention which is Vision Therapy and to find out
whether such a process would result to an increase in the levels of career maturity. The study used
quantitative data analysis in a two group design, using a control group and experimental group to determine
whether there is a significant difference in the levels of career maturity of selected freshmen students before
and after the intervention. A value of t (30) = 6.33, p<.05 indicate that there is no statistically significant
difference in the levels of career maturity among control and experimental groups before the intervention.
The value of t is again computed and yielded a value of t (30) = 3.24, p<.05 with the introduction of vision
therapy for the experimental group and indicated that there is no statistically significant difference in the
levels of career maturity of both groups even after the experimental group’s exposure to the therapy.
Likewise, a value of t (15) = .38, p<.05 indicates that there is no statistically significant difference in the
levels of career maturity of the control group and t (15) = .39, p<.05 for the experimental group after the
pre-test and post-test phase of the study.

223
“If one advances confidently in the direction
of their dreams, and endeavors to lead a life
which they have imagined, they will meet
with a success unexpected in common
hours”
- Henry David
Thoreau

People want to be successful in life. Each person has a dream, a goal to achieve.
Each individual has a purpose and would have a blueprint in order to act and achieve that
vision. The achievement of a goal would often lead to a feeling of happiness. According
to Edwin Locke (in Janda, 2004), “One’s highest moral purpose is the achievement of
one’s happiness”. This feeling of happiness can be translated into self-satisfaction, which
can gage personal growth. For Locke, the best way to achieve happiness is to understand
the values that are important to an individual and set a goal that reflects these values
(Janda, 2004). Frankl (1984) says that the search for meaning is man’s primary
motivation. In order for a person to find the meaning of life, that person determines
essential values and sets a goal, which is the objective one needs to achieve. How can a
person experience personal growth by having a vision? How can values clarification and
realization of one’s purpose influence the actualization of these goals?

Children are often asked by their parents what they want to be when they grow
up, and children would say they want to be a doctor, a police officer, a lawyer, a scientist,
etc. Clearly, at some point when a child is asked that question, he/she seem sure of what
he/she want to become, sometimes children might even portray as such. Keeping a career
track would seem easy but eventually as people grow older, people view some things
differently as before. In particular the in-demand jobs abroad become the courses people
like to take up in the country. There was Information Technology, Physical Therapy and
right now Nursing and jobs as call center agents What happens to most of the fresh
graduates? Either most of these fresh graduates take up a second degree course leading to
the hottest jobs available abroad or end up working on graveyard shifts in call centers, but
is this the way the people who make certain shifts in their careers want their lives to be?
Is there self-satisfaction? Did they attain their goals?

Most people admit that they want control over their lives (Cramer and Perreault,
2006). Controlling different aspects and future outcomes leads to personal growth and
fulfillment of goals (Langlois et. al., 2002). People want to live and manage their lives in
the context of their values, goals and purpose. If one has a clear possible vision, there is
big possibility that the goal is attainable. Eventually for some the accomplishment of a
goal cannot be easily attained because of several obstacles that come across considering
the fast paced changes in the world and demands for employment.

John Powell introduced the concept of vision therapy. According to Powell (1965,
from Mores, 2006), this therapy enables a person to find misconceptions and distortions
in himself that results to unhappiness and suffering. Mores (2004), states that vision
therapy helps the person explore his vision and goal and life and come up with ways to

224
handle obstacles in the attainment of these visions and goals. Through vision therapy, the
person assesses and clarifies his values and establishes a goal. Likewise, he prepares
himself for possible barriers that can interfere with the fulfillment of his goals.

A goal-oriented strategy for finding happiness applies only to areas in which the
primary motivation is to achieve (Janda, 2004). The premise of vision therapy is the
recognition of one’s purpose, setting a goal, knowing the barriers towards the
achievement of the goal, redefining one’s values, and affirming the self in order to obtain
success and enable a person to cope with the obstacles, rediscover the self to have self-
satisfaction and success. Being satisfied with one’s career is one of the most important
aspects of happiness (Henson, 2003).

Career maturity is the readiness of an individual to make appropriate career


decisions (Lundberg, et.al., from Kerka , 1998). It is the ability of an individual to make
appropriate career choices which include the awareness of what is required to make
career decisions, and the degree to which one’s choices are both realistic and consistent
over time (Levinson, Ohler, Caswell and Kiewra, 1998, cited in Patton and Creed, 2001).

The purpose of this paper is to assess career maturity and the possible effects of
the intervention of vision therapy to the levels of career maturity of freshmen college
students. As a construct, career maturity represents a repertoire of coping behaviors and
one’s readiness to employ these behaviors toward career-related events encountered at
various life stages (Rojewski et.al, 1995). It reflects a person’s capability, competence
and preparedness in entering the world of work. Vision therapy on the other hand,
engages in understanding the meaning and purpose of one’s existence for personal growth
and career success (Mores, 2006).As such, the purpose of this paper is to evaluate the
career maturity of college freshmen students, and through an intervention of Vision
therapy, evaluate whether or not Vision therapy will have a significant implication on
levels of career maturity.

Review of Related Literature

Career Decision Making

Each personality is unique. Each individual has his own interests, likes and
dislikes. These interests would most probably define or outline a person’s goals, a career
path, or a sense of direction towards the achievement of that goal.

Choosing a career path begins with making career choices that can link academic
knowledge and real-world experience to establish the path of one’s future profession
(Talusig, 2005). Managing and choosing a career is influenced not only by an individual’s
preference. Factors such as economic demands, amount of competition and family
constraints would somehow restrain a person from choosing a career that best interests
him but leaves him pursuing a course that would enable him to do not as much as his true
capabilities are.

225
According to Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad and Herma (1951, from Henson, 2003)
there are three periods in the career choices process: the fantasy stage which involves
play and imagination regarding future work; tentative stage which concerns the interest,
abilities, and values, including knowledge of the work, and identifying four periods - the
development of interests, development of capacities, development of values, and the
transition period which is the realistic stage occurring after the age of seventeen, and
includes the specification of career choices.

Planning a career is simply planning for one’s life (Henson, 2003). According to
Kelly (1996, from Greene, 2002) choosing a career is a lifelong process that demands
accurate perceptions of ability, potential and achievement. One chooses a career path that
is desired and is similarly influenced by its suitability to a person’s best interest and
ability. The individual should learn what he wants, where he is good at and what comes
his values or he will end up in a destructible career (Henson, 2003). Having defined the
purpose, the capacity and the beliefs that envelopes a person contributes to the success
and personal growth of an individual.

226
Career Development and Career Maturity

Individuals go through certain stages and different phases in their lives as they
mature (Henson, 2003). Career development is generally a lifelong process which
incorporates general education, occupational training, and work, including social and
leisure life (Umali, 2006). Career development would as well induce the wholeness and
wellness of an individual in the entire life span. Donald Super (1957, from Henson
,2003) and other theorists of career development recognize the changes what people go
through as they mature. The career development model formulated by Donald Super is
divided into five stages (Henson, 2003):
1. Growth Stage (birth – 14 years) wherein self concept is formed, the person
develops his attitudes, interests and needs.
2. Exploratory Stage (14 – 24 years) is the “try-out stage” wherein the individual is
constantly conscious as one explores the world of school and work.
3. Establishment stage (25 – 44 years), the individual becomes stable to a certain
area of expertise.
4. The Maintenance stage (45 – 59 years) concerns on certain adjustment a person
must go through to retain as well as improve his current standing.
5. Disengagement stage (60 years - above) prepares the individual to retirement as
their output is reduced because they become choosy on the things they do.

Career maturity also referred to as vocational maturity is an individual’s readiness


to make informed, age-appropriate career decisions and cope with career development
tasks Sacvickas (1984, in Patton and Creed, 2001). Donald Super (1955, from Henson,
2003) described career maturity as having the following components:
1. Orientation and vocational choice
2. Information and planning about a preferred occupation
3. Consistency of vocational preference
4. Crystallization of traits
5. Vocational independence
6. Wisdom of vocational preference

Career decision status is a specific aspect of career maturity, defined by the Career
Decision Scales as certainty or indecision (CDS; Osipow, 1976, from Patton and Creed,
2001), making career maturity as a measure of readiness to make career decisions in the
bases of attitudes toward and knowledge of career decision making (Powell and Luzzo,
1998, cited in Patton and Creed, 2001). Accordingly, the assessment of career indecision
provides information about specific issues that might inhibit individuals in making career
decisions, and the extent and nature of career indecision becoming a relevant aspect if
career development maturity, would be a useful theoretical construct for providing a
criterion index for the development and evaluation of career interventions.

Students would find career maturity beneficial since they are trying to lay a solid
foundation for their future, and in relation to this, they become aware of different career
decisions and choices they will have to make in the future (Henson, 2003).

227
Factors affecting career maturity

Studies done by Buchanan and Flouri (2002), Etzel and Kornspan (2001), Patton
and Creed (2001), Rojewksi et.al (1995) identifies factors affecting career maturity.

Career maturity, a main concept in Super's theory, is manifested in the successful


accomplishment of age and stage developmental tasks across the life span, it is also
influenced by race and ethnicity, locus of control, work salience, and gender (Naidoo,
1998, in Patton and Creed, 2001). According to Patton and Creed (2001), the complex
interaction of these factors affects an individual’s readiness to succeed in mastering the
tasks appropriate to various stages of career development. Although, related literature and
studies seem to contradict each other in terms of considering age as a dominant and
significant factor for career maturity.

Vondracexk and Reitzle (1998, in Patton and Creed, 2001) criticizes on the focus
of career maturity on the individual, its ties to developmental stage models, and its lack
of inclusion of contexts of time and culture, thus suggesting that the identifiable age-
related maturational regularities in career maturity might as well be also affected by other
variables such as historical time, cultural and economic context and the individualization
of educational pathways.

Theoretical assumptions suggest uniform development in career maturity,


practical considerations such as planning activities needed for immediate decisions and
transition points imposed by the education system suggest uneven development (Patton
and Creed, 2001). Accordingly some researchers commented that career maturity may be
more differentiated by grade rather than age due to the influence of the educational milieu
as the primary agent of the development of career behavior and the grade-related career
decisions students are required to make (Watson and Van Arde, 1986, in Patton and
Creed, 2001). Another study by Powell and Luzzo (1998, from Patton and Creed, 2001)
expresses that there is no relationship between age or grade of participants and their
levels of career maturity. These may be due to different career programs of career
development activities, perceptions of occupational opportunity and exposure to different
alternatives available. Buchanan and Flouri (2002) states that age is positively related to
career maturity however, in a research by Etzel and Kornspan (2001), results indicate
that age is a significant variable to career maturity but is however a weak predictor of
such.

A study done by Niece and Bradley (1979, from Patton, 2001), indicates that there
is no consistent monitoring pattern across age and grade levels regarding certainty or
indecision. However, a study done by Watson and Stead (1994, from Patton, 2001),
provides the data that highlights transition points in career certainty, particularly in school
based subject and course selection.

In a cross sectional research done by Patton and Creed (2001), data indicates a
complex pattern in terms of career certainty. The pattern shows higher certainty at ages
13 and 14, and during the age of 15 there was a drop in certainty and an increase again by

228
age 16 which continues at 17 only for the males. In conclusion to the study, these
transitions show that decisiveness is clearly affected by external pressures within the
school system.

As to race and ethnicity being a factor to career maturity, a study done by West
(1988) indicates that ethnic minority students often score as less career mature than non-
minority comparison groups. In comparing the career maturity of rural youth and
metropolitan based-youth Rojewski et.al (1995) identifies that the rural youth in the
particular study were considerably less career mature than the group of metropolitan
based adolescents, and considerably less mature in career competence as well that is
explained by the role of discrimination, social attitude, cultural expectations, and
stereotypes in career development. Conte (1983, Rojwesksi et.al) noted that negative
cultural perceptions and social expectations can impose lower status and devalue the role
of an individual resulting to limited career choices, restrictions in career opportunities
and narrow employment possibilities.

Perron et. al. (1998, in Kerka, 1998) suggested that increased ethnic identity may
lead to greater awareness of potential barriers lowering career maturity. Lundberg at. al.
(1997, in Kerka, 1998) found out that Anglo ninth-graders had higher career maturity
scores than Mexican – American students, which the researcher attributed to the limited
access to information about the world of work. The study also concluded significant
differences between the two groups on the Myers Brigss Type Indicator highlighting the
influence of personality on career maturity.

In terms of socio-economic status, some studies fail to show that it has an


influence on career maturity (Naido, 1998, in Kerka, 1998). However, according to Shaft
(1997, in Kerka, 1998) concepts such as career exploration and planning may not apply to
poor individuals who choose to leave school in order to take jobs for economic survival.

Existential Phenomenology and Human Behavior

Existentialism regards to the awareness of man to be aware of what he is and to


take full responsibility of his existence (Sahakian and Sahakian, 1970). It opposes the
Freudian concept of the Psyche. Therefore, the approval or tolerance of certain values
imposed by the society is a free choice, when people live by these values and norms.

Rollo May (in De Avila, 1996) states that difficulty arises in being able to open
our vision to more or human experience. The existentialist thought, conceives the idea
that there are no set of standards for self-identity, either for individuals or people in
general, so to say that there is no such thing as “human nature” providing to view the
individual and the world they participate (De Avila, 1996).

Viktor Frankl (1984) introduced existential therapy to emphasize the concept of


man’s search for meaning. For Frankl, the striving to find meaning in one’s life is the
primary motivation of human beings. It concerns the individual to realize one’s worth,

229
conceptualize a goal in relation to one’s purpose and depicted meaning, which develops
to actualization and achievement of these goals.

Existential therapy would therefore not attempt to find out repressed pain from the
past, but rather deals with present anxieties that overcome an individual to cope with the
difficulties in life (De Avila, 1996).

The Viktor Frankl Institute in 2006 identifies that in Logotherapy or Existential


Analysis the search for a meaning in life is the primary motivational force in human
beings. This kind of approach is based on three philosophical and psychological concepts
namely: freedom of will, the will to meaning, and meaning in life. In freedom of will
humans are not subjected to conditions but have the free decision and capable of taking a
stand on different conditions. The will to meaning, is essentially every person’s
motivation as seen to the desire of man to achieve goals and purposes. Lastly, the
meaning in life sees the idea that meaning is an objective reality, in which logotherapy
encourages man to develop the best in themselves and in the world by recognize and
realize the meaning of each situation they are in.

Implications of Assessing Career Maturity

Henson (2003) states that the concept of career maturity simply implies an
individual’s coping abilities to the world of work, and that assessing student’s career
maturity is relevant because during that particular stage, students most especially are
experimental in various aspects of their lives. Consequently, they are very concerned of
their future careers, considering the fast changing career trends.

According to Gysbers (1988, from Umali, 2006) students have the following
career developmental needs:
1. The need of improved and expanded opportunities to become aware of and
develop their career (self) identity.
2. The need of improved and expanded opportunities to conceptualize
students’ emerging career identity through continuous and sequential
career exploration activities.
3. The need of improved and expanded opportunities to generalize emerging
career identities through effective placement and follow-through
adjustment activities.

These needs touches the absolute necessity of having a career guidance program
that would benefit the students, in such a way that it would provide them with
opportunities of developing themselves as complete individuals as they are equipped with
the proper skills and knowledge on how to achieve their goals as they continuously cope
with the fast changing industry while demonstrating competitiveness and competence.

Career maturity being the repertoire of coping behaviors and one’s readiness to
employ these behaviors toward career-related events encountered at various life stages
(Rojewski et.al, 1995) would then be a useful measure for career guidance.

230
Several studies assessing career maturity focused mainly on age, gender and other
psychological factors. Jepsen (2003) suggests using interventions that are designed to
stimulate public career exploration activity and clear expressions of occupational choices
or goals such as career counseling interventions, and other simulations.

Synthesis

The route to lasting change and getting what you really want in life is through a
sustained vision of the future (Marano, 2002). A clear vision of a future one desires
serves as a positive motivation, as one already has a clear definition of what he wants.
People can easily get somewhere when they have a clear plan or path to take to get there.

Career decisions involve a process and certain factors like ability, potential and
likewise interest (Kelly, 1996 in Greene, 2002) and career maturity would be an essential
factor into getting oneself to that desired future. The problem now lies on how to
establish the career maturity of a person to make appropriate career decisions and help
them develop themselves and reach their full potential.

According to Mores (2006), Vision therapy combines the construct of cognitive


behavior therapy and existential therapy. It allows the individual to reconsider himself
and provide a clear picture of what he is, in the past and in the present and what he wants
to be in the future. It responds to the individual’s needs of finding the meaning of one’s
life, by seeking out the negative thoughts and values one believes into and reconstructs
these negative feelings and behavior to achieve positive outcome. By engaging to this
realization, a person thus becomes aware of certain obstacles and in turn figures out ways
on how to solve them in order to achieve the desired outcome. Vision therapy is about
realizing the responsibilities and purpose that lies within the understanding of one’s
meaning in life.

Career Maturity projects a person’s capability to handle and make proper


decisions regarding his career (Henson, 2003). This is reflected by a person’s
preparedness to engage in the diverse and challenging world of work. Having a high level
of career maturity would then imply that a person is competitive and equipped with the
proper skills.

Career maturity implies that a person is able to cope with the developmental tasks
as they are able to make appropriate decisions in terms of their careers as well as
preparing for a career. The relevance of assessing career maturity would mainly project
the individual’s capacity to succeed in a career and give direction to one’s life.

Studies indicate a complex pattern of different variables that may affect the levels
of career maturity. However, researchers suggest using interventions that would stimulate
the individual to increase one’s level of career maturity (Legum, 2004).

231
Theoretical Framework

Vision therapy is a “therapy through meaning”. Its aim is to assist individuals find
meaning and direction in their life, by taking into consideration their wrong beliefs that
hinder growth which is focused on values and self-affirmation. It is focused on enabling
the patients or clients to overcome life's "tragic triad" of pain, guilt, and suffering by
"helping [them] see meaning in life" (Frankl, 1997, from Carden, 2003, in Mores, 2006).

The assumption and thesis of vision therapy is that each of us has unique and
highly personalized perception of reality, a way of look at things, a vision (Powell, 1976,
in Mores, 2006). By this, people look at their lives differently, as such defining a certain
idea or goal that one assumes to caress in the future.

Theoretical bases for vision therapy include cognitive behavior therapy and
existential therapy (Mores, 2006).

For Hardin (1999, in Mores, 2006), the basic premise of cognitive behavior
therapy is negative thoughts lead to uncomfortable emotions that lead to ineffective or
self-destructive behaviors. Cognitive behavior therapy supposes that misconceptions and
wrong beliefs result to feelings of unhappiness, and that when these wrong beliefs are
modified; a person would be able to utilize his full potential and achieve more in life.

According to Atkinson et.al. (2000), cognitive behavior therapy is a general term


for treatment methods that use behavior modification techniques as well as procedures
that are designed to change maladaptive behaviors. It involves recognition of unhealthy
or unhelpful patterns of behavior including thoughts and emotions and attempts to modify
or formulate alternative ways to replace these misconceptions with realistic ones in order
to overcome troubling thoughts, feeling, and behavior

Cognitive behavioral therapy takes into consideration of the everyday


observation that people respond differently to the same situation (Scott et. al., 1995).
Beck et. al, (1979, from Scott et. al., 1995) explains that an individual’s interpretation of
a situation has a major influence on his or her subsequent emotions and behavior, and that
the primary task in cognitive behavior therapy is to help clients see whether they are
making the most adaptive and rational interpretation of a situation engaging them in
behaviors consistent with a new interpretation of events.

232
Existentialism on the other hand supposes that individuals are not the victims of
circumstances, because to a large extent they are what they choose to be (Corey, 1996,
from Mores, 2006). It predisposes the individuals fight or flight response to the situations
which they encounter. Having the choice to act as such lies on how a person sees himself
in the situation he is facing and that these actions are not merely forced by certain factors
that leaves a person having with no choice at all. Existential analysis tries to make the
patient fully aware of his responsibilities, leaving him with the option for what, to what,
or to whom he understands himself to be responsible (Frankl, 1984). Awareness to
responsibility then reflects the search for the meaning of life.

Vision therapy converge cognitive behavior therapy and existential therapy to


better understand the self, to realize how a person can improve himself to be able to
reach or achieve what he desires.

Vision Therapy
Existential Meaning
Goal Setting
Cognitive Existential
Behavior Therapy
Creative Visualization
Therapy
Cognitive Disputation

Values Clarification

Positive Self-
Affirmation

Figure 1. Theoretical Bases of Vision Therapy


By Mores, E.T., MA. (2006)

233
Conceptual Framework

Career maturity is the readiness of individuals to make decisions related to their


career and their capacity to deal with environmental demands (Henson, 2003). Career
maturity describes one’s ability to successfully cope with vocational developmental tasks
such as crystallizing, specifying and implementing career choices that are encountered
across the developmental continuum from exploration stage to the stage of withdrawal
(Rojewski et. al, 1995).

Career maturity refers broadly to the individual’s ability to make appropriate


career choices, including awareness of what is required to make a career decision which
is both realistic and consistent over time (Lewinson et. al, 1998, in Patton and Creed,
2001)Career maturity identifies the development of individuals in terms of making
appropriate decisions to achieve their career goals.

In combining the efforts of vision therapy and counseling there is an attempt to


converge strategies to assist individuals who are struggling to find meaning and direction
in life (Mores, 2006). Vision therapy is a way to help individuals achieve their goals by
realizing their full potential, reaffirming their values and as well as having good
dispositions in life.

Vision therapy incorporates the concepts and techniques of existential meaning,


creative visualization, cognitive disputation, values clarification and positive self-
affirmation. Each technique having specific objectives (Mores, 2006):
1. Existential meaning aims to help the clients understand, acquire and appreciate
the value of having meaning in life as a tool for effective living.
2. Creative Visualization enables the person to learn how to focus on their goals as
they see these goals come true using their imagination.
3. Cognitive Disputation aims to help the clients recognize their irrational beliefs
that thwart their personal development, as well as to examine their frame of
reference a seeing reality as well as their belief system with end view of changing
it with something positive. This technique helps the person face negative beliefs
for him to have a more healthy perception of himself.
4. Values formation seeks of helping the individual learn the importance of values in
life, re-examine the values he presently upholds. It is a tool that would help the
person clarify and choose alternatives and decide on what has meaning to him.
5. Positive Self-Affirmation aims to build and enhance the self – esteem and self
image of a person, to recognize one’s strengths and abilities allowing the person
to select quality thoughts and implants them to the subconscious so that one can
feel and perform better. It gives opportunity to the person to be able to do the best
and be the best he can.

234
Conceptual Paradigm:
Race and
Ethnicity

CAREER
MATURITY
Age Gender
Work Salience
Locus of control

Vision Therapy

Figure 2. Factors affecting Career Maturity

Figure 2 shows the factors affecting career maturity. The researcher intends to
determine whether an intervention which is vision therapy would contribute to the levels
of career maturity.

Related literature suggests using interventions that are designed to stimulate


public career exploration activity and clear expressions of occupational choices or goals
such as career counseling interventions, and other simulations Jepsen (2003). Findings of
Legum (2004) indicate an increase in career awareness and competency levels
subsequent to a career intervention, which through a weekly class one period a day for
nine weeks. Such findings are consistent with previous studies done such as Outen (1995)
(in Legum, 2004) and OBrien et.al (1999) (in Legum, 2004). Powell and Luzzo (1998,
from Patton, 2001) suggests that other aspects that can contribute to career maturity
would be programs of career development activities, perceptions of occupational
opportunity and exposure to different career alternatives available. It could be noted that
these three aspects lies on the basic premise of vision therapy.

Using vision therapy as a form of intervention would possibly answer the


limitations of previous studies that intended to assess career maturity in terms of
demographic and psychological factors. This study assumes that vision therapy would
result to an increase in the levels of career maturity based on the premise that it promotes
realization through insights, therapy outputs, setting of clearer goals and determining
obstacles, therefore making the individual prepared in the future. This study is set forth
to integrate vision therapy and career maturity and see the implication of such effort.

235
Method

Participants

The participants for this study were a total of thirty (30) freshmen college
students, currently enrolled in San Beda College Alabang, age ranges from sixteen to
eighteen (16 - 18). The participants were pre- selected students and assigned in random
into control group (15 participants) and experimental group (15 participants).

Age Distribution of the Control Group of Respondents

4, 27%
5, 33% sixteen (16)
seventeen (17)
eighteen (18)

6, 40%

Figure 3. Graph of the age distribution of participants in the control group

Figure 3 represents the age distribution of the control group. It is evident that the
distribution of age is almost in equal proportion. 33% of the respondents are aged
eighteen (18), 40% are seventeen (17) and 27% are sixteen (16).

Age Distribution of the Experimental Group of


Respondents

4, 27%
5, 33% sixteen (16)
seventeen (17)
eighteen (18)

6, 40%

Figure 4. Graph of the age distribution of participants in the experimental group

Similar in the experimental group, age is in equal distribution. 27% of the


respondents are aged eighteen (18), 40% are seventeen (17), and 33% are sixteen (16).
The ages of all respondents are balanced in distribution to both control group and
experimental group. The figure above represents the distribution of age of the
experimental group participants.

236
Gender Distribution of the Control Group

4, 27%

Male
Female

11, 73%

Figure 5. Graph of the gender distribution of participants in the control group

The figure above represents the gender distribution of the participants in the
control group. It is evident that the males which are 78% of the sample are in greater
number compared to the females which is only 27%.

Gender Distribution of the Experimental Group

Male
7, 47%
8, 53% Female

Figure 6. Graph of the gender distribution of participants in the experimental group

In the experimental group however, the distribution of gender of the sample


respondents are almost equal. The experimental group composed of 53% males and 47%
females. Figure 6 represents the gender distribution of the participants in the
experimental group.

Materials/Instruments

The Career Maturity Assessment is a 40 – item test, developed and validated by


the researcher using the sub-scales (CMI Attitude Scale and CMI Competence Scale) of
the Career Maturity Inventory (CMI; Crites, 1978, from Rojewksi et.al., 1995). The
reliability value of the Career Maturity Assessment is .903 and a .773 validity coefficient.
The measures career maturity based on attitudes and competence. The test uses a 4-point

237
Lickert scale, equivalent to (1) strongly disagree, (2) agree, (3) disagree, and (4) strongly
agree.
The Vision Therapy Seminar/Workshop Module by Mores (2006) which
composes of different techniques was adopted as a guide in conducting the therapy
sessions.
Standardized equipment includes a consent form indicating the purpose of the
study, and a journal for each of the participants belonging in the experimental group for
writing in reflections and personal realizations after each therapy session.

Research Design

The researcher applied quantitative data analysis for the purpose of this study. The
changes in the level of career maturity was measured and compared before and after the
introduction of vision therapy. Using the two group design, participants were assigned to
either control or experimental group, the researcher aimed to determine whether there is a
significant difference in the level of career maturity of the control and experimental
groups before and after the intervention. The control group did not undergo vision
therapy while the experimental group went through the therapy process. A pre-test and
post test was administered to both groups of participants in determining the effect of
vision therapy to the levels of career maturity.

Procedures

The study consisted of three phases. The first phase includes the orientation and
briefing of the participants in both groups explaining the nature and flow of the
experiment and the measures that will be taken up during the entire procedure of the
study and the gathering of personal data through a Demographic Information Sheet and
the assessment of career maturity of both control and experimental groups.

The second phase constitutes the therapy sessions, wherein participants of the
experimental group will undergo vision therapy. Each participant was provided with a
journal to write on exercise outputs during therapy sessions as well as their views,
insights, realizations after each session. Unlike the experimental group, the control group
was not exposed to vision therapy or any other variable.

The 2 –week intervention is composed of 15 therapy sessions on a daily basis for


15 days with 30 minutes allotted per session. A life satisfaction quiz is taken as a
precursor at the start of the therapy session. Exercises and activities include triadic
sharing, listening tasks, relaxation and visual imagination techniques and reflections
writing.

The third phase is the post assessment of the career maturity of all participants
(control and experimental group) 10 days after the last therapy session.

238
Data Analysis

In analyzing the effect of vision therapy on the career maturity of the students, the
researcher used a T-test for two dependent samples to compare the career maturity of both
control and experimental groups prior and subsequent to the vision therapy sessions.
Likewise, in order to determine whether there is a difference in the career maturity of the
control and experimental groups a T-test comparing two independent samples was
computed. The levels of significance are set at 0.05 (two-tailed).

239
Results

LEVELS OF CAREER MATURITY OF BOTH GROUPS


(Pre-Assessment)
12
10
8 PRETEST Control Group
6
4 PRETEST Experimental
2 Group
0 gh

ow
e
gh

w
hi

ag

el

lo
hi

er
ely

at
av

er
at

od
er
od

m
m

Levels of Career Maturity

Figure 7. Graph of Pre-test score results of both groups

Figure 7 shows the initial levels of career maturity of the both control and
experimental groups gathered during the first phase of the study. The distribution of the
levels of career maturity indicates that a high frequency of the respondents reflects to a
moderately high level of career maturity indicating that they are in track on terms of
having the right frame of mind in pursuing a career that best suits their interests and
ability to perform certain tasks required in achieving such career goals.

A t-test for two independent samples was used to analyze the difference between
the career maturity levels of the control and experimental groups. Results yielded a value
of t (30) = 6.33, p<.05showing that there is no statistically significant difference in the
levels of career maturity of both groups before the intervention. Thus, indicating that
there is equivalence between the control and experimental group of respondents based on
their scores in the pre-test phase of the study.

240
LEVELS OF CAREER MATURITY OF BOTH GROUPS
(Post -Assessment)
14
12
10
8 POST TEST Control Group
6
4 POST TEST Experimental
2 Group
0

gh

ow
e
gh

w
hi

ag

el

lo
hi

er
ely

at
av

er
at

od
er
od

m
m

Levels of Career Maturity

Figure 8. Graph of Post-assessment scores of both group

The figure above represents the levels of career maturity of both control and
experimental group gathered after the completion of the second phase of the study. The
graphic representation reflects that there is no extreme differential between the levels of
career maturity of the both groups after the exposure of the experimental group to Vision
therapy aside from the observation that some respondents belonging to the experimental
group had high levels of career maturity compared to the average levels of those
belonging to the control group.

When the value of t was computed it yielded t (30) = 3.24, p<.05. Such value
indicates that there is no statistically significant difference in the career maturity scores
between the two groups even after the additional process the experimental group went
through which is Vision therapy.

LEVELS OF CAREER MATURITY OF THE CONTROL


GROUP OF RESPONDENTS

14
12
10 CONTROL GROUP Pre-
8 assessment
6 CONTROL GROUP Post-
4
assessment
2
0
gh

ow
e
gh

w
hi

ag

el

lo
hi

er
ely

at
av

er
at

od
er
od

m
m

Levels of Career Maturity

Figure 9. Graph of the Levels of Career Maturity of the Control Group

Accordingly, a t-test for two dependent samples was used to compare the levels of
career maturity of both groups before and after the intervention. The control group not

241
undergoing vision therapy yielded a value of t (15) = .38, p<.05 indicating no significant
difference in the scores of the respondents. However, the graphical representation
indicates that there is an increase within the moderately high level and decrease in the
average level of career maturity, although the group was not exposed to any other
variable in the process of the study. Figure 9 represents the Career Maturity levels of the
control group both in the pre-assessment and post-assessment.

LEVELS OF CAREER MATURITY OF THE EXPERIMENTAL GROUP OF


RESPONDENTS
14
12
10
8 EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
Pre-Assessment
6
4 EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
2 Post-Assessment
0
gh

w
e

w
gh

lo
hi

ag

lo
hi

e
er
y

at
el

av

er
at

od
er
od

m
m

Levels of Career Maturity

Figure 10. Graph of the Levels of Career Maturity of the Experimental Group

The figure above represents the levels of Career Maturity of the experimental
group before and after the therapy. When the value of t was computed using two-
dependent samples it yielded a value of t (15) = .39, p<.05 indicating that there is no
significant difference in the level of career maturity of the respondents before and after
the therapy. The researcher observed that in the graphical representation of career
maturity shows it reflects that there is an inconsistency with the scores of the respondents
indicating that there are changes in the levels of career maturity but such changes are not
evident when computed on statistical analysis.

Such observation could have been affected by the number of sessions completed
by each of the participants. Out of the fifteen pre-selected participants in the experimental
group, eight were able to complete the 15 sessions, three were able to attend 10 sessions,
and the four were only able to attend half of the required number of sessions. The
attitudes and behavior of the selected participants towards the experiment and its
procedure is a crucial factor as well. How well they relate to the procedure, how
interested they are in participating in the study, how well they understand the crucial pre-
test and post test phase of the study and how honest they are in answering the Career
Maturity Assessment.

242
Discussion

The focus of this study if to assess the levels of career maturity of selected
freshmen students and introduce an intervention in the form of vision therapy and
measure if such intervention would result to an increase in career maturity. This particular
research is a collaboration of the concepts of career maturity and vision therapy which
aims to assist students in evaluating themselves and assess their preparedness for work.
Results indicate that there are no significant differences in the levels of career
maturity of both control and experimental groups in the pre-test phase of the study. The
career maturity of the control group was assessed twice in order to determine if such
variable would differ. Results indicate that the levels of career maturity of the control
group had no significant difference after the completion of the whole duration of the
study.

COMPARISON OF MEANS ( x ) OF BOTH GROUPS

300

250

200
Experimental Group
150
Control Goup
100

50

0
Pre-asssessment Post-assessment

Figure 11. Graph of Comparison of Means of Both Groups of Respondents

Figure 11 shows the comparison of means of the two groups in the pre-
assessment and post-assessment phase of the study. The figure represents parallelism
indicating that there is no significant difference in the levels of career maturity between
the groups before and after the intervention.

Likewise, the results of assessment of the levels of career maturity of the


experimental group indicate that there is no statistical significant difference in the scores
of the group. Such results mean that career maturity would not have readily increased
given a short period of intervention.

Career maturity is said to be affected by many factors. The researcher tried to


assess whether the introduction of Vision therapy would result to an increase or change in
the levels of career maturity. Crites (1976, from Patton and Creed, 2001) states that career
maturity is central to a developmental approach to understanding career behavior and

243
involves am assessment of an individual’s level of career progress in relation to his or her
career-relevant developmental tasks. Career development is said to be a life-long process.
As such, the short period allotted for Vision therapy in this particular study did not
necessarily result to increased levels of career maturity.

Conclusion and Recommendations

This study is limited to assessing career maturity and the possible change in the
levels of career maturity with the introduction of Vision therapy. Results indicate that the
respondents acquire moderately high to high levels of career maturity even before the
intervention. Likewise, when career maturity is re-assessed to find out whether there is a
significant change before and after the intervention, results indicate that there was none.
Such findings are consistent with previous researches done.

This study identified that career maturity would have not necessary change or
increase within a short period of time even with the introduction or injection of an
intervention. It supports the theory that career development is a lifelong process.

Given that the effect of Vision therapy to the career maturity of the respondents
would not have easily be or manifested in a short period of time. The bulk of the success
of this particular study relies on the active cooperation and participation of the selected
respondents, more importantly those belonging to the experimental group. The researcher
observed that though they reflect high levels of career maturity its behavioral
manifestation in terms of attitude and motivation, and actual performance is not observed
during the duration if the study.

The researcher suggests for further studies to have career interventions that are
developmental in nature and not but only a short term process in order to fully help the
individual attain and fulfill self-growth and enhancement. Also, since the sessions are
based on the availability of the respondents, it is suggested to conduct the experiment or
the process in a more controlled environment having all respondents in one session to
avoid other extraneous variables that might have affected in the results of the study.
Likewise, the researcher suggests assessing the relationship of career maturity to the
actual academic performance of students.

244
References

Atkinson, Rita L., et. al (2000). Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology. 13th Edition.
Wadsworth Group. 577 – 580.

Barnes, Paul E. and Carter, David (2000). Assessing Student Career Maturity:
Implications for School Counselors. from http://www.ohiocounselingassoc.com
retrieved July 28, 2006

Buchanan A. and Flouri E. (2002) The role of work-related skills and career role models
in adolescent career maturity - Special Section: Adolescent. Career Development.
Career Development Quarterly from
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0JAX/is_1_51/ai_92036445 retrieved July
28, 2006

Cramer, Kenneth M., and Perreault, Lynn A.(2006). Effects of Predictability, Actual
Controllability, and Awareness of Choice on Perceptions of Control. Current
Research in Social Psychology, Vol. 11, Number 8, 111 – 126 from
http://www.uiowa.edu. retrieved June 20, 2006.

De Avila, Diana Teresa. (1996). Existential Psychology, Logotheraphy and the Will to
Meaning. from http://www.existential-psychology.net/exist.html. retrieved July
21, 2006

Etzel E. and Kornspan A. (2001). The relationship of demographic and psychological


variables to career maturity of junior college student-athletes. Journal of College
Student Development. from
http://calbears.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3752/is_200103/ai_n8948278
retrieved October 11, 2006

Frankl, V.E. (1984). Man’s search for meaning. New York: Washington Press.

Greene, Meredith J. (2002). Recurring Themes in Career Counseling of Gifted and


Talented Students. from
http://www.gifted.ucon.edu/nrcgt/newsletter/spring02/sprng022.html. retrieved
August 2, 2006.

Henson, Rhia Marie S. (2003). Development of a Career Maturity Inventory Based on


Selected College Students and Professionals. Unpublished Thesis, San Beda
College Alabang.

Janda, Louis Ph. D. (2004). Are you happy?: 24 self-tests to assess your happiness.
Penguin Group Inc. 78 – 85.

245
Jepsen, David A. (2003). Continuity in life-span career development: career exploration
as a precursor to career establishment. Career Development Quarterly. from
http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_M0JAX/is_2_8/ai_100389275.
retrieved October 11, 2006.

Kerka, Sandra. (1998). Career Development and Gender, Race and Class. From
http://library.educatiojworld.net/a2/a2-17.html retrieved July 28, 2006.

Langlois, M. W., et. al. (2002). Delineating the unique effects of predictability,
controllability and choice in perceptions of control. Current Research in Social
Psychology, Vol. 9, 163 – 181. from http://www.uiowa.edu. retrieved June 20,
2006.

Legum, Harry L. (2004). Impact of a career intervention on at-risk middle school


student’s career maturity levels, academic achievement and self esteem. from
http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_M0KOC/is_2_8/ai_n8580066 retrieved
October 11, 2006.
Marano, Hara Estroff (2002) Lasting Change. Psychology Today Online.

Mores, Elmerando, M.A. (2006). Junior Career Development Association of the


Philippines: Second General Convention Seminar – Workshop. Theme: Vision
Therapy: “Becoming Fully Human, Fully Alive, Living My Vision into Reality”.
July 20, 2006

Patton, Wendy and Creed Peter. (2001).Developmental Issues in Career Maturity and
Career Decision Status. Career Development Quarterly. from
http://www.allbusiness.com/periodicals/article/828307-1.html. retrieved July 28, 2006

Rojewski, Jay W. et. al., (1995). Effects of Gender and Academis Risk Behavior on the
Career Maturity of Rural Youth. Journal of Research in Rural Education. Vol. 11.
No. 2,1. from http://arches.uga.edu/~wickone/research/EFECTS.html retrieved
July 28, 2006

Sahakian, William S. and Sahakian, Mabel Lewis. (1970). Realms of Philosophy.


Philippine Copyright. Schenkman Publishing Company Inc. 562 – 578.

Scott, Michael J. et. al., (1995). Developing Cognitive Behavioral Counselling. Sage
Publications.

Talusig, Dianne Lou T. (2005). Career Tracer Study on College Graduates of San Beda
College Alabang. Unpublished Thesis, San Beda College Alabang.

246
Umali, Conchita Ph.D. (2006). Career Development Association of the Philippines
Annual Convention Seminar: Re-thinking the role of Counselors as Career
Development Practicioners. September 22, 2006.

Viktor Frankl Institute. What is Logotherapy and Existential Analysis? from


http://logotherapy.univie.ac.at/e/logotherapy.html. retrieved August 3, 2006.

West, Dennis K. (1988). Comparisons of Career Maturity and its Relationship with
Aacademic Performance. Journal of American Indian Education. Vol. 23. No. 3.
from http://jaie.asu.edu/v27/v27s3.htm. retrieved July 28, 2006

247
The Psychological Effects on Early Pregnancy on Teenage Mothers
Ma. Isabel P. Velayo

This study was about the emotional and mental effects of early pregnancy on the teenager’s
mother by having a personal interview with three (3) female respondents aged 38 – 56. It was to identify
the mother’s social relationship and perception in handling and working out their emotions in going
through the situation of their teens. This involved the demographic profile of the three respondents and the
information concerning the different psychological effects of early pregnancy on them. The three mothers
may have different initial reactions in learning that their daughter was pregnant. They were angry or
disappointed at first, but they had the strength in setting aside their feelings to support their daughter’s early
pregnancy. These mothers had the protective factors in keeping their families whole in spite of their
condition. They communicated with their daughters and other family members as well, and had a positive
attitude of hope to buffer this trial from family crisis.

Teenage pregnancy in the Philippines is increasingly becoming a major cause of


concern. There is a rising trend of young women becoming mothers and majority of
whom are unmarried. Young pregnant women are more vulnerable to death during
pregnancy while childbirth and a huge number are not physically and emotionally
prepared for motherhood. This is a direct reflection that there is inadequate and
inaccurate information on adolescent pregnancy and not enough priority is given to
maternal and child health care. (The Fair and Fearless Freeman: Teenage Pregnancy, a
rising trend among young women, 2005)

If pregnancy occurs, teenagers and their families deserve honest and sensitive
counseling about options available to them, from abortion to adoption. Special support
systems, including consultation with a child and adolescent psychiatrist when needed,
should be available to help the teenager throughout the pregnancy, the birth, and the
decision about whether to keep the infant or give it up for adoption. There may be times
when the pregnant teenager's emotional reactions and mental state will require referral to
a qualified mental health professional (American Academy of Child and Adolescent
Psychiatry: When Children Have Children, 2004).

The ability to talk openly about problems is one of the most important aspects of
the parent and child relationship. Developing this relationship and open communication
takes time, persistence, and understanding. The relationship develops gradually by
spending time with the child. Meal times, story telling, reading, playing games, outings,
vacations, and celebrations are important opportunities for parents to spend time with
their child. Parents should also try to spend some individual time with each child,
particularly when talking about difficult or upsetting things. This relationship creates the
foundation for talking with the child when struggles and conflicts emerge during
adolescence (American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry: Parenting:
Preparing for Adolescence, 2001)

Whatever feelings you're experiencing, this is likely to be a difficult time for your
family. The important thing to realize is that your teen needs you now more than ever.
Being able to communicate with each other - especially when emotions are running high -

248
is essential. Teens who are carrying a baby to term have special health concerns, and your
child will have a healthier pregnancy - emotionally and physically - if she knows she
doesn't have to go it alone (Homeier, 2005).

While this fact isn’t fully discuss yet, the researcher would attempt to illustrate
more of the psychological effects of early pregnancy on three (3) teenager’s mother aged
38 – 56 from the City of Las Piñas. The main objective of the study is to consider the
mental and emotional behavior of the mothers all through out the pregnancy of the
teenager. It is to include the details like what are the mother’s initial reactions upon
knowing, the actions they went through, how this situation affected the whole family, and
the emotional and mental effects they have gone throughout the pregnancy.

Review of Related Literature and Studies

Teenage Pregnancy comprises a series of crisis, trials and action. This review of
research evidence was arranged from the teen sexual activity, teen pregnancy, role of
mothers, and family problem.

Teen Sexual Activity

According to Guttmacher (1999), the likelihood of teenagers' having intercourse


increases with age; however, about 1 in 5 young people do not have intercourse while
teenagers.

Based on Young Adult Fertility and Sexuality Study (2004), a number of young
adults also experienced reproductive health problems and symptoms. Nineteen percent of
young females said they have experienced painful urination while 6% have had abnormal
vaginal discharges. Three percent of males said they have had penile discharges, 23%
have had painful urination, and 3% have had warts or ulcers in their penis.

Raymundo and Lusterio (1995) found 18 percent of the youth (26% of the boys
and 10% of the girls) all over the country have had pre]-marital sex experience.

Derived from Alan Guttmacher Institute," Sex and America's Teenagers (1994),
More than half of 17-year-olds have had intercourse. Most young people begin having
sex in their mid-to-late teens, about 8 years before they marry.

As said by Moore KA et al. (1998), while 93% of teenage women report that their
first intercourse was voluntary, one-quarter of these young women report that it was
unwanted.

Teen Pregnancy

Teenage pregnancy itself is perceived by our society as a deviation from normal.


It has been placed alongside drug abuse and crime on Government initiative agendas
(Mowlam, 2000; Gilham, 1997).

249
As stated by (Baker, 1999) this overt pathologisation reinforces a culture of
disapproval of teenage pregnancy; having babies when you are young is seen as a bad
thing

In line with Guttmacher, Teen Sex Overview: Teen Pregnancy (1999), Each year,
almost 1 million teenage women--10% of all women aged 15-19 and 19% of those who
have had sexual intercourse--become pregnant.

According to Henshaw, S.K. (1998), data from the mid-1990s indicate that 43
percent of pregnancies to teens aged 15-19 ended in unintended births and another 35
percent ended in abortions.

Maynard, R. (Ed.) (1997) said, mothers who do have a teen birth are more
disadvantaged, on average, than are other teens and have children who face negative
health, cognitive, and behavioral outcomes.

Teenage pregnancy is also linked with low educational achievement, non-


participation in education, training or employment, sexual abuse, mental health problems
and crime (Social Exclusion Unit, 1999).

Role of Mothers

Parents are given little advice on how to talk with their children about sex and
school-based sex education is patchy and often under-developed and inconsistent. As a
result there is a considerable amount of misinformation and ignorance among youths
about sex, and how to cope with puberty and adolescence (Social Exclusion Unit, 1999).

According to Homeier, M.D (2005), whatever feelings you’re experiencing; this is


likely to be a difficult time for your family. The important thing to realize your teen needs
you now more than ever. Being able to communicate with each other – especially when
emotions are running high – is essential.

Based on Children's Defense Fund (1996), that is, the challenges of adolescence
derive from the fact that youth today are both in need of parenting that promotes their
positive development and, at the same time, historically unprecedented numbers of
adolescents are themselves becoming parents and, typically, unmarried parents.

250
Family Problem

The degree to which these families and their children are able to manage such
stressors is likely to affect their level of adjustment according to Kazak, Segal-Andrews,
& Johnson (1995).

Based on Melamed (1991) Families with children who have chronic illnesses or
physical disabilities face multiple burdens due to frequent hospitalizations, financial
strain, time-consuming medical regimens, and other stressors.

McGreW (1991) stated, The teenagers' parents are often thrust into the role of
raising two children--the teenager and his or her child. Further, they find themselves
stressed emotionally and economically at a time when they were looking forward to their
children becoming self-sufficient.

251
Theoretical Framework

Fig. 1. HILL'S ABCX MODEL OF FAMILY STRESS


PROTECTIVE FACTOR ( Social Relationship)
(B) Attachment, positive family bonds, effective communication, social relationships

FAMILY
FAMILY CRISIS
STRESSOR
(X) domestic violence,
A) Depression, arguments, substance abuse (relapses),
never have time to relax, illness from weakened
seldom talk about the immune system, accidents,
feelings, stress at work, stress death
at school, trivialize, single
parent, teenage pregnancy

PROTECTIVE FACTOR ( Perception)


(C) cognitions and attitudes between
hope and personal effectiveness
vs. despair, helplessness

The two protective factors helps to buffer the family from acute stressor and
diminish the relationship between stressors and family crisis. Social relationships are
further distinguished as being within family variables, e.g. attachment, positive family
bonds, effective communication, as well as across family variables: i.e. social isolation
vs. informal and formal social support networks; Perceptions (C Factor) include the
range in cognitions and attitudes between hope and personal effectiveness vs. despair, and
helplessness. These two complex factors relate together with the acute stressors and
ongoing social context of chronic stressors, to predict family crises.

252
Conceptual Framework

Teen pregnancy became known to be one of the most serious social problems in
the whole world. The youths today are at high risk of becoming an early and immature
parent who are expose to a malevolent behaviors. This issue was a severe family stressor
that may quickly lead to a family crisis. The researcher studied the psychological effects
it brings about to the mother.

This conceptual paradigm illustrated the factors affecting teen pregnancy and the
psychological effects of this concern the mothers.

Individuals who experienced too many stressors at one time, i.e., too many
changes in their daily routines and circumstances, are at increased risk within one year
for having an accident, for becoming physically ill (Ell, 1984), for having an impaired
immune system, for becoming violent, or for relapsing (Pianta, Egeland and Sroufe,
1990; Rutter, 1983). An acute family stressor came quickly to a family crisis. These
family crises included domestic violence, substance abuse, and illness from weakened
immune systems, divorce, accidents, and children being abused or neglected.

Hill’s theoretical constructs included the protective factors in surviving multiple


contextual stressors and continued proficiently parent despite chronic and acute stressors.
The two protective factors included the social relationships, which distinguished as being
with in the family variables like attachment, positive family bonds, effective
communication and the social isolation vs. informal and formal social support networks.

The other factor was the perception in which it ranges in the cognitions and
attitudes between hope and personal effectiveness vs. despair and helplessness. These two
complex variables were theorized to buffer the family from acute stressors and reduced
the direct correlation between multiple stressors and family crisis.

Research studies have since offered support for Hill and McCubbin's theoretical
constructs. The combination of high stress with social isolation (the "B" variable) for
families has been highly correlated with many forms of dysfunctional family outcomes
(Garbarino and Abramowitz, 1982; Belle, 1980; Cyrnic, Greenberg, Robinson and
Ragozin, 1984; Egeland, Breitenbucher and Rosenberg, 1980; Ell, 1984; Lindblad-
Goldberg, 1987; Marks and McLanahan, 1993; Simons, Beaman, Conger and Chao,
1993; Tracy, 1990; Wahler, 1983). The “B” variable that is social relationships must be
important especially for an individual who are undergoing stress. Social isolation means
the increase in the impact of multiple stresses of family functioning.

253
If a family experiences multiple stressors AND 1) they are socially isolated and
emotionally disconnected to one another, AND 2) they are depressed, hopeless, and
disempowered, THEN they will be at increased risk for illness, accidents, child abuse and
neglect, and substance abuse, delinquency and school failure (Attneave, 1986; Belle,
1980). The content of the concept explained that an individual who were in high pressure
and anxiety and did not find positive relationships with his family were at increased risk
for experiencing aggravated family crisis.

Some families had positive appraisals towards the problem, which increase their
ability to accept their circumstances. A family that shared perception about the stressor
prevented them from opposing a family crisis. They have positive set of cognitions,
empowered attitudes and active informal and formal support network. In this way, there
would be a reduction in a stressful life experiences.

Since the world today is a place of evil temptations, the families of high-risk
youth must identify, understand and strengthen family protective factors. There must be a
positive social connections and empowered outlook. In addition, the family together with
the youth survived the multiple chronic and acute stressed of poverty and neighborhood
disorganization over time to reduce their drug dependency and associated crime.

Positive bonds and social relationships (B Factor) are directly promoted on six
distinct levels of the child's social ecology (Bronfenbrenner; Garbarino). This idea refers
to the child-to-parent bond, family units bonds, parent-to-parent bond, parent-to-self-help
group bond, parent affiliation to school and parent linkages to community.

Interactive activities within the family, like eating meals together, attending mass
every Sunday, vacations, playing game board, watching movies etc. decreases the
influence of family stress on the family functioning.

254
Results and Discussion

Demographic Profile

Case # 1: Mrs. A
Age: 46
Religion: Catholic
Occupation: Government Employee
Civil Status: Married
Daughter’s age when she got pregnant: 18

Case # 2: Mrs. B
Age: 56
Religion: Christian
Occupation: Homemaker
Civil Status: Married
Daughter’s age when she got pregnant: 17

Case #3: Mrs. C


Age: 38
Religion: Catholic
Occupation: Homemaker
Civil Status: Married
Daughter’s age when she got pregnant: 17

Psychological Effects of Teenage Pregnancy on Mothers

Professor Reuben Hill’s theoretical constructs included the protective factor to


survive multiple contextual stressors and to continue to proficiently parent despite
chronic and acute stressors. The two protective factors included the social relationships
and the perception.

According to Reuben Hill (1983), social relationships were distinguished as being


within the family variables; examples are attachment, positive family bonds, effective
communication as well as across family variables: that is the social isolation versus
informal and formal social support networks. Perceptions in contrast, included the range
in cognitions and attitudes between hope and personal effectiveness versus despair, and
helplessness.

Mrs. A remembered she had the “mother instinct” that something’s wrong with
her daughter; “Napapansin ko na lagi siyang malungkot at laging maga ang mata” (I have
observed that she was always sad and have bloated eyes).

255
Her intuition became stronger when she found out a Sytotec in her daughter’s
room. This was the time she already confronted her daughter and asked if she’s pregnant.
“Hindi ako nagalit sa anak ko, nagalit ako sa nangyari sa kanya” ( I did not get angry to
my daughter, I was angry for what happened to her), exclaimed Mrs. A. However, she
was very down and disappointed with what happened to her daughter, since she gave her
everything she wants; “Ni hindi siya sakin nakatikim ng sampal o ano” (I never get
aggressive nor physical with her). In the course of the interview, I saw and felt how low
Mrs. A was during those times.

In spite of how sad Mrs. A was, she accepted the situation and showed her
concern. “Kung may baby na talaga yan, kelangan na niya ng medical attention para
maalagaan siya at hindi naman siya lumabas na kung ano” (If you’re already carrying a
baby, you should receive medical attention to make sure the baby will be given special
medical treatment). She also explained to her daughter that she may hear negative things
from other people, “Marami kang maririnig na sabi-sabi ng mga tao, ng mga kapitbahay,
huwag mo isipin yun, ang importante andito kame sa likod mo, at alagaan mo yang asa
tiyan mo, dahil magka-diperensiya yan problema pa rin natin lahat yan” (You may hear a
lot of things and comments from other people, you should not be bothered, what’s
important, were hear to support you and you must take care of your baby inside your
tummy).

Another thing that concerned Mrs. A was the fear that her daughter may not be
able to finish her studies. Yet this fear was gone when she saw her daughter exerting
effort in going to school everyday though her stomach was getting bigger; “Na ano
naman ako sa kanya dahil pumapasok pa siya, hindi siya nahiya, wala siyang ni-reklamo
sakin” ( I appreciated her effort to continue her studies, she was not ashamed and she
never complained anything).

Mrs. A evoked that she was sure not to allow her daughter to receive the
sacrament of Matrimony. “Iniisip ko kasi pano kung hindi sila mag-click, papaano na,
ang hirap hirap magpa- annul ng marriage, tsaka magkakaroon ng psychological effect,
aksidente yan at pareha pa silang bata” (I imagine if they did not get along, it’s hard to
have an annulment and it may bring psychological effects on them, it was an accident and
they were still very young) explained Mrs. A.

In the flow of the interview, I know Mrs. A was still confused during that time yet
she handled her emotions well because she had the positive attitude and perception
towards the problem. She also said that she knows how her daughter feels since she also
got pregnant outside marriage.

Like what Prof. Hill points out, Mrs. A obtained the two protective factors to
reduce the correlation between the stressor and family crisis. Mrs. A had a stronger bond
with her daughter, they became closer, and she also talked to the other family members
especially the father.

256
She also mentioned that she doesn’t care how others may react towards the
incident because this would not help her daughter. The way she accepted the fact, she did
not get mad and took it as a lesson for the whole family.

“Monthly naka monitor ako sa kanyang menstruation magbuhat noong


magkaroon siya” (I monitor her menstruation period ever since she had) as Mrs. B
admits. This was the reason why she already had a doubt that her daughter was pregnant
when a month and a half passed without her period. Mrs. B brought her daughter to the
hospital and found out that it was positive. “It saddened me, pero para magalit hindi, kasi
alam ko na nagsisinungaling na siya bago pa” (It saddened me, but I did not get mad at
her because I knew from the start that she was already lying), like with Mrs. A’s initial
reaction, Mrs. B felt disappointed.

“Andyan na yan, hindi ako ang magpapalaglag niyan, siguro maaaring palaglag
ko yan kung hindi ako Kristyano” (It’s already there, I will not be the one to abort that, I
may only to do it if I am not a Christian) strongly stated by Mrs. B. It was her new
religion (Christian) that prevented Mrs. B in letting her daughter prevented an abortion.
She reasoned out that her daughter was still studying and was young for that
responsibility.

As a brave woman, Mrs. B did not care on what their relatives and neighbors
would comment them; “Yung mga kamag-anak namin hindi nga makapag-tanong dahil
alam nila matapang ako at kaya ko. Wala rin kami pakialam sa mga neighbors namin kasi
their family is not perfect also!” (Our relatives knew that I am a brave person so they did
not even ask anything about it. I also did not mind what our neighbors would say, because
their family is not perfect also!)

Mrs. B worries about their future because her family is not well off; “Yung budget
naming mag-ina sakto lang tapos eto ngayon buntis siya, mahahati pa lalo para doon sa
baby” (Our money is just enough for us, since she’s already having a baby, we will
budget it now.) Mrs. B’s first concern was their financial status although they know that
the boyfriend will cover everything.

She also believes that she was old enough to nurture another child; “Kaya nga isa
lang ang anak ko dahil ayoko mag alaga at matanda na rin ako para diyan” (That’s why I
only have one child because I don’t like to take care, especially now I am too old for that)
She was concerned that she would look after the baby because her daughter is still
studying and definitely could not afford to get “yaya.”

In contrast with Mrs. A, she wanted her daughter to get married but since they are
not yet at the right age, this did not happen. She also confessed that it was heartbreaking
to see her daughter having her own family so soon. While Mrs. B continued sharing her
stories and her sentiments, her eyes began to become watery

257
The attitude Mrs. B had, which pushed her to go on was her braveness to face the
situation. Her positive outlook in life, being supportive, her love to her daughter, and a
stronger mother-daughter relationship helped them to cope with the circumstances.

Same with Mrs. A, their perspective regarding criticisms was not far more
important than anything else but surviving the trial.

Compared to the two respondents, Mrs. C was really angry to her daughter when
she found it out; “Sobra kasi talaga ang trust ko sa kanya kaya hindi ko akalain na
magiging ganyan siya” (I trusted her so much that I never imagined that she will get
pregnant). Same with Mrs. B, she also monitors her daughter’s monthly menstrual period.
When the time came that it was almost six months that her daughter was not having her
period, she still did not had the doubt because of so much trust. Until the time her
daughter was complaining of stomach annoyance, they learned that her teenage daughter
is six months pregnant. Her initial reaction was anger, because she gave her full trust and
this trust was not valued. She confessed that she was irritated every time she sees her
daughter because of extremely disappointment and annoyance; “Hanggang sa nanganak
siya, galit talaga yung naramdaman ko” (Until she gave birth, I was mad at her).

Mrs. C was also young when she got pregnant, and believes that their small age
gap between her daughter have nothing to do with early pregnancy; “Kahit magka dugo
pa kame, alam naman niya yung ginagawa niya” (Even though we are blood related, she
knew what she’s doing).

The same with Mrs. B, she was also concerned with their financial aspect. She
worries about the future of her daughter with the baby; if her daughter could pursue her
studies and if she could handle the responsibilities of being a mother. Although she
knows that her daughter is as brave as she is, but being a mother at an early age is a very
difficult job.

During the interview, Mrs. C was obviously fighting over her feelings of sorrow.
She seemed to be uncomfortable to discuss what she has gone thru and was not serious
enough since she keeps on laughing. One way or another she still recalled her emotions
throughout her daughter’s pregnancy.

“Parang problema lang na dapat bumangon” (It was just another problem that we
need to get up and have strength) as what Mrs. C sees the situation.

It was not really a crisis, like what she said; “hindi naman ‘to yung parang
binagsakan ka ng langit at lupa” (This is not like the end of the world). It was her hope
that they will go through the problem and her support to her daughter that helped them in
surviving.

258
In relation to Hill’s theory, in spite of Mrs. C’s being irritable to her daughter, she
still managed to talk and supported her daughter in overcoming the instance. She knew it
was just another problem in life that must conquer. These things helped her to overcome
the trial and prevent it from becoming a family crisis.

Implication

Given the conclusion, the following implications are enumerated: In view of the
fact that the parents who have unconditional love for their child will still be the persons
who would help and support her all the way. Admitting to their parents is the only
solution in this situation, and not abortion. Teenagers must understand that it is normal
for parents to have reactions of anger and frustration since they know that young teens
are not yet fully matured for such responsibility. It will be very painful for them but later
on they will learn to accept this circumstance. Nevertheless, these teens must tell their
parents as soon as possible so that they will be given special medical attention.

Young teens should know that no matter how intense their mistake is, their
parents will always forgive, understand, support and love them without end. The hope
and positive attitude of the parents toward a suffering is a proof of their love to their child
and to the whole family.

In spite of the parent’s sentiment, they must communicate with their daughter and
to the whole family. Parents must talk to their teens so they will know that they will not
go alone all through the pregnancy. Setting aside the parents’ emotional reactions and just
focus on how they will support their daughter is necessary to get through this trial. They
must help their daughters to become physically and emotionally strong. The daughters
need consistent medical check ups to have a healthier pregnancy. Parents should also
explain to their daughters that the different reactions of their relatives, friends and
neighbors are not important and would not help their situation.

Parents must communicate with the whole family to solve the problem at once.
They have to help the other family members to view the circumstance as a lesson for
everybody. Parent – daughter relationship is far more essential during these days. The
parents should talk to their daughters about their future and their future child’s. Both can
make decisions if their daughters are ready to receive the sacrament of matrimony. They
can also discuss the financial support they can give to the new baby, like clothing, milk,
and medical check up. Parents should help their daughters to understand their new and
big responsibilities as mother since they are not fully developed and their physically,
emotionally and mentally immature from. Guidance of the parents is still necessary in
nurturing the new baby.

Supporting teenage daughters can only be achieved if they work on their feelings
of anger, disappointment, guilt and anxiety. Parents must consider the fact that this is the
moment they are needed most by their daughters.

259
For the therapists and counselors, they must give strength to the parents in
overcoming this condition by means of advice. They should help the parents in
developing a positive attitude to view it as a trial and having the hope that they will come
through all of it. Counselors may give advice or suggestions on how the parents will work
on their emotional conflicts so they can fully support their child. They can also propose
some ideas on how these parents can prepare their teens for bigger responsibilities.
Counselors may also talk to other family members to apply techniques in understanding
their present difficulty and help them prevent family crisis.

Since pregnancy among teenagers is becoming an epidemic, the schools may help
in controlling this issue. Schools can run a program which aimed to attach the teenagers
to their parents. There can be activities and seminars that tackle about the viewpoints of
both parents and the teenagers regarding love and premarital sex. These school programs
must help the students in dealing with whatever problems they may encounter without
considering violence.

Conclusion

In these cases, protective factors are important to buffer the family stressor that
may lead to a family crisis. All the three respondents may have the feeling of
disappointment and irritation but their hope and positive attitude made them strong to
pass through the circumstance. They all believed that in spite of their daughters’mistakes,
this is the time they are needed most. With those attitudes, teenage pregnancy became just
a problem that should not be allowed to destroy the whole family.

260
References

Alan Guttmacher Institute," Sex and America's Teenagers" New York: AGI, 1994, pp. 19-
20.

American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry: When Children Have Children.
Updated July 2004, from
http://aacap.org/page.ww?name=When+Children+Have+Children&section=Facts
+for+Families

American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry: When Children Have Children.
Updated June 2001, from
http://aacap.org/page.ww?name=Parenting%3A++Preparing+For+Adolescence&s
ection=Facts+for+Families

Baker, (1999). Teenage Pregnancy and the Midwife: Exhuming the Social Exclusion
Report. 2002, from http://www.radmid.demon.co.uk/teenpreg.htm

Children's Defense Fund (1996). The Parenting of Adolescents and Adolescents as


Parents: A Developmental Contextual Perspective: On the Nature of Parenting
from http://parenthood.library.wisc.edu/Lerner/Lerner.html

DeLambo K, Ievers-Landis C, Drotar D, and Quittner A, Association of Observed


Family Relationship Quality and Problem-Solving Skills with Treatment
Adherence in Older Children and Adolescents with Cystic Fibrosis,
http://jpepsy.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/29/5/343

Henshaw, S.K. (1998). "Unintended pregnancy in the United States." Family Planning
Perspectives, 30(1):24-29, 46
Homeier B (2005). When Your Teen is having a Baby,
http://kidshealth.org/parent/positive/talk/teen_pregnancy.html

Kazak, Segal-Andrews, & Johnson (1995). Longitudinal Study of Observed and


Perceived Family Influences on Problem-Focused Coping Behaviors of
Preadolescents With Spina Bifida. Journal of Pediatric Psychology. 2001, from
http://jpepsy.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/26/1/41

Melamed (1991). Longitudinal Study of Observed and Perceived Family Influences on


Problem-Focused Coping Behaviors of Preadolescents With Spina Bifida. Journal
of Pediatric Psychology. 2001, from
http://jpepsy.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/26/1/41

261
Maynard, R. (Ed). (1997). Kids Having Kids: A Robin Hood Foundation Special Report
on the Costs of Adolescent Childbearing. New York: Robin Hood Foundation.

McDonald L, Hill’s Theory of Family Stress and Buffer Factors: Build the Protective
Factor of Social relationships and Positive Perception with Mulit-Family Groups,
http://cecp.air.org/vc/presentations/2selective/3lmcdon/HILL'S_FAMILY_STRES
S_THEORY_AND_FAST.htm

McGrew M.C, The Problem of Teenage Pregnancy,


http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0689/is_n1_v32/ai_10380944

Moore KA et al., A Statistical Portrait of Adolescent Sex, Contraception, and


Childbearing, Washington, DC: National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy,
1998, p. 11.

Mowlam (2000) & Gilham (1997). Teenage Pregnancy and the Midwife: Exhuming the
Social Exclusion Report. 2002, from
http://www.radmid.demon.co.uk/teenpreg.htm

Occupational Outlook Handbook, Counselors,


http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/ooh20022003/ocos067.htm

Raymundo and Lusterio (1995). Filipino Youth Views on Premarital Sex


and Unmarried Parenthood from
http://www.teenfad.ph/library/nonfad/filyouth.htm

Social Exclusion Unit, (1999). Teenage Pregnancy and the Midwife: Exhuming the Social
Exclusion Report. 2002, from http://www.radmid.demon.co.uk/teenpreg.htm

Teen Sex Overview: Teen Pregnancy, 1999, from


http://www.teencarecenter.org/index.php?s=factsheets&p=sheet8

Teen Sex Overview: When Teens Start Having Sex, 1999, from
http://www.teencarecenter.org/index.php?s=factsheets&p=sheet8

The Fair and Fearless Freeman: Teenage Pregnancy, a rising trend among young women,
June 1, 2005, from http://www.thefreeman.com/lifestyle/story-20050601-
31122.html

262
The National Campaign To Prevent Teen Pregnancy, Ten Tips for Parents to Help their
Children Avoid Teen Pregnancy,
http://www.teenpregnancy.org/resources/reading/tips/tips.asp

The National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, Fact Sheet: Dad Makes a Difference,
http://www.teenpregnancy.org/resources/reading/fact_sheets/fatherfs.asp
Young Adult Fertility and Sexuality Study (2004). Filipino Youth Think They Have
Immunity From HIV/AID, from
http://www.remedios.com.ph/fhtml/mk1q2005_fytt.htm

263

Você também pode gostar