Quality Control

Quality refers to the sum of the attributes or properties that describe a product. These are generally expressed in terms of specific product characteristics such as length, width, colour, specific gravity etc. in an industrial sense these characteristics must be quantitatively expressed in terms that can be objectively measured or observed. One benefit of quality is increased productivity. Better quality means reduced costs for repairs, instruction, scrap, rework and product warranties. Increased productivity results in better profits and builds customer loyalty. 8.1 Quality Control It means those activities which assure that quality creation is performed in such a manner that the resulting product will in fact perform its intended functions. The quality control is frequently used to refer to a specific organization within the industrial enterprise which is assigned responsibility for many of the activities necessary to achieve quality objectives. 8.2 Three Stages of Quality Control
Inputs Conversion Outputs

Raw Materials, Parts & Supplies

Production Processes

Goods & Services

Acceptance Tests

Control Charts

Acceptance Tests

Quality of Inputs

Monitoring quality of partially completed products

Quality of output

The quality control does not begin after the goods are produced. Rather it begins long before goods and services are delivered to customers. As illustration 8.1 shows, early in production system, raw materials, parts and supplies must be of acceptable quality before they are allowed to be used. Materials must meet the appropriate specifications, strength, size, colour, finish, appearance, weight and other characteristics. As the input of the production system proceed through production, the quality of these partially finished units is monitored to determine whether the system is operating on expected lines. The monitoring is necessary to alert operating manager to institute corrective action before poor quality goods and services are produced. Thereafter finished goods and services are inspected to determine their acceptability. 8.3Quality Assurance it includes quality control and also refers to the emphasis on quality in the design of products, processes and jobs and in personnel selection and training. 8.4 Quality Control Techniques 8.4.1 Just in Time (JIT) JIT has different interpretation indifferent firms. IBM for example calls it continuous flow structure, for HP it is called stockless production and repetitive manufacturing system, GE calls it management by sight and many Japanese firms used the term Toyota system instead of JIT. For same, it is buying materials on time, for others, it means planning and controlling production on the shop floor and for others it is a philosophy of production that permeates every facet of organization. For our purpose, JIT is viewed as a technique of quality control. JIT helps in achieving quality by following ways
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1. Production is highly standardized. Workers perform standard tasks everyday. They are familiar with their tasks. Familiarity ensures high quality. 2. In-process inventories are drastically reduced cutting lot sizes. Any interruption therefore causes production to stop until the problem has been solved. In this way JIT has been called a system of enforced problem solving. Now this stoppage in production, forces everybody to solve the quality problems, so that the defect will not repeat. 3. Suppliers of materials under the JIT system, supplies materials of perfect quality. 4. JIT system also envisages the use of intensive preventive maintenance programs in order to prevent any machine breakdown. This results in machine producing parts of perfect quality. 5. Workers are responsible for producing parts of perfect quality or with zero defects before they are passed to next production operation. 8.4.2 Quality at Source When workers are made responsible to produce parts of perfect quality before hey are passed on to the next operation, the concept of quality at source emerges. The principles of quality at source are: 1. Every workers job becomes a quality control station. The worker is responsible for inspecting his own work, identifying any defects and reworking them into non-defective and correcting any cause of defects. 2. SQC technique is used to monitor the quality of parts produced at each work station and easy to understand charts and graphs are used to communicate progress to workers and managers.
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3. Each worker is given the right to stop the production line to avoid defective parts. 4. Workers and managers are organized into quality circles groups of people who analyse quality problems, work to solve the problems and implement programs to improve the product quality. 8.4.3 Inspection The act of conformance and non conformance of the expected performance is the function of inspection. The basis for inspection is usually a specification, which is called inspection standard. Inspection is made by comparing the quality of the product to the standard. When each and every part is inspected, it is called 100% inspection. When it is less than 100%, it is called partial or sample inspection. Parts with high value and those having tendency to run into large number of rejects are subject to 100% inspection. 1. Finished products and parts are inspected to know that, correct parts are to be assembled or products are right when shipped. 2. Before an expensive processing. 3. The output of an automatic machine periodically, so that possible errors are confined to small quantities and 4. Before an operation that can not be undone for example mixing paint. 8.4.4 Statistical Quality Control (SQC) It is the application of statistical technique to accept or reject products already produced or to control the process and therefore product quality while the parts are being made. While the latter is called Process Control, the former is called Acceptance Sampling.

SQC for Process Control Mainly, SQC is used for controlling quality during production in mass production industries which produce standard products. SQC for process control is based on the probability theory. It is common that when several identical parts are manufactured, some are little large and some are little small but most will be approximately the same size. The middle or average will be the most frequent with smaller and larger sizes as extreme from the average. When the frequency or count of the items by size is plotted with size on the horizontal scale and count on the vertical scale a normal bell shaped curve is obtained.

Variation in size between 0.995 inches and 1.005 inches with most measuring 1.000 inches are due to chance causes e.g. due to slight variation in electric current. Chance causes are inherent and can not be controlled or prevented. Chance causes are ignored because any effort to eliminate them is uneconomical. However if the size measures beyond 1.005 inches or
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below 0.995 inches, it is not due to chance causes but because of assignable causes. It means part is not normal. Assignable causes include internal temperature and wear and tear of machine parts, a worn out tool, improper dimension of raw material or setting of machine. When it is known that improper size is made as a result of an assignable cause, it is possible to stop, detect the cause and rectify it. In practice, SQC for process control manifests through control charts. Chance causes of variation Chance causes are reasons for minor variations in the quality characteristics that are inspected. These causes do not cause the item to be rejected as the variations are within the tolerance limits. Assignable causes of variation These causes are external to the process and cause large variation in quality characteristics making items liable to be rejected. These cause major variations in quality characteristics. A typical control chart consists of a central line corresponding to the average quality at which the process is to perform and two other lines corresponding to the upper and lower control limits also called the tolerance limit. The vertical line indicates the quality variations and the horizontal scale has time. Sample of products are taken at specified time intervals, quality is checked and measured, averaged and plotted on the chart. If the values plotted are within the control limits, the process is said to be under control. If the values move away from control limits the process must be improved.

Upper control limit Quality variations Average quality

Lower control limit Time

SQC for Acceptance Sampling it is based on the premises, that a sample represents the whole lot from which the sample is drawn. In this method samples are taken out and are carefully inspected to detect defects. On the basis of number of defects found, the lot is accepted or rejected. If defects are few, lot is accepted. It is rejected when defects are more. Thus Acceptance sampling is used to take decisions regarding acceptance and rejection of a lot without having examined the entire lot, thereby providing economy of inspection. Advantage of SQC 1. It helps prevent defects from being made. Assignable causes signifying deviations in quality are detected and rectified. Costly rework, rejections and scrap are avoided. 2. It also helps avoidance of the risk of accepting a bad lot. 3. Emphasizing on inspection of only samples, SQC avoids inspection of the entire lot. 4. It ensures high quality standards and enables the users to build up their goodwill.

Types of control charts There are two types of control charts.

a. Control charts for variables b. Control charts for attributes Variables are those quality characteristics that can be measured on a continuous scale. For example diameter of a shaft can be measured by a dial micrometer. Attributes are those quality characteristics that can be classified into one of the two categories namely good or bad, defectives and non defectives. For example a painted surface. Quality Characteristic Applicable control chart Formula to compute control limits For X (Mean) chart CL=X UCL = X + A2 R LCL = X A2 R For R (Range) chart CL=R UCL = D4 R LCL = D3 R np chart (Number of defective chart for constant sample size n) C L = np UCL = np + 3np (1-p) LCL = np -3np (1-p) LCL = 0 if negative and p = average defectives = p k * n P chart (fraction defective chart for varying sample size) CL=p UCL = p + 3p (1-p)/ sample size LCL = p -3p (1-p)/ sample size
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Variable

X and R Chart (Mean and Range chart)

Attributes

LCL = 0 if negative and p = average defectives = p k * n

C chart (Number of defects chart)

CL=c UCL = c + 3 c LCL = c - 3 c LCL = 0 if negative and c = average defects counted.

Construction of X R chart (Mean Range chart) Step 1: Choice of variable (X) choose the quality characteristic variable which gives maximum scope for cost reduction through control of the process. Also ensures that the quality characteristic can be measured quantitatively. Step 2: Select size of sample (n) sample size may vary from 3 to 20, but 4 or 5 is the ideal size. Step 3: Choice of frequency it is the time interval between successive measurements of quality characteristic of samples e.g. sample of 3 units every half hour. Step 4: Collect about k number of samples (usually k=25) each of convenient size n. Step 5: Calculate Mean X = X n = (X1 + X2 + X3+_____Xn) n And Range R = Xmax X min Step 6: Compute Central Line, Upper control limit and Lower control limit for X and R charts.
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Step 7: Test for homogeneity compare all individual mean and range values for k number of samples with values of upper and lower control limits. If these individual values fall in between the values of upper and lower control limits, the values are said to be homogeneous and the process is said to be under statistical control.

UCL =

CL =

LCL = No. of sub groups Mean Chart

UCL =

CL =

LCL = No. of sub groups Range Chart

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Acceptance Sampling Plan when because of the following reasons 100% inspection is not done. It proves to be uneconomical as compared to the cost of inspection. Inspection or testing of the product destroy the product itself or make the product useless. 100% inspection is time consuming procedure. 100% inspection makes the inspector careless. Handling the product may cause deterioration.

In the above cases acceptance sampling method or method of sampling inspection is used. When the decision regarding acceptance or rejection of an entire lot of products or materials or parts or components is taken on the basis of number of defectives in a sample, it is called Acceptance Sampling. Acceptance Sampling is a process of evaluating a portion of production or material from the whole lot for either accepting or rejecting the material on the basis of whether it conforms or does not conforms to the set quality standards. A sample is drawn from each lot for inspection. If the amount of defectives is less than prescribed minimum limit the lot is accepted. If not, the lot is rejected. The sampling may be single, double or sequential depending on the sampling procedure and the number of samples. Single sampling plan in such a type of plan decision to accept or reject a lot is taken on the basis of the result of the first sample. Here generally a large sample is used. When lots are extremely good or bad or contain high proportion of good or bad items, decisions are taken on the basis of even a small sample. A large sample unnecessary increases the cost of inspection. In a single sampling plan, one sample is drawn randomly from the lot, and acceptance / rejection decisions are taken on the basis of inspection of this sample. For example, Lot Size (N) = 18,000
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Sample size (n) = 600 Acceptance number = 14 Sample of 600 units is drawn randomly from a lot of 18000 units. These 600 units are inspected and it 14 or less than that defectives are found in the sample, the lot is accepted otherwise it is rejected.

Lot N (N= 18,000)

Draw a Random sample n (n =600)

Inspect number of defectives k in the sample

Does not exceed c Kc

Exceed c K>c

Accept the Lot

Reject the Lot

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Double sampling plan Sometimes it becomes difficult to decide on the basis of the first sample whether a lot is good or bad. This happens in the case of borderline cases. Number of defectives may be very close to the upper control limit. Under such circumstances, it becomes necessary to inspect another sample. A second sample is therefore drawn, inspected added to the first sample and then on the basis of the combined result, decision regarding acceptance or rejection of lot is taken. This is called double sampling plan, because here two samples are taken to arrive at the decision. With a double sampling plan two values are specified for the number of defective items, a lower level c1, and an upper level c2. Procedure: Take first sample find out the number of defectives in that sample. Compare the number of defectives with two acceptance numbers c1 and c2. If the number of defectives is less than or equal to the lower value c1, accept the lot and if the number of defectives exceed the upper value c2 reject the lot. If the number of defectives is in between c1 and c2, take a second sample. Find out the number of defectives in the combined sample. Compare the number of defectives in both the samples to a third acceptance value c3. If the combined number of defectives is less than c3, accept the lot and if it exceeds c3, reject the lot.

Let us consider

lot size (N) = 18,000, Sample size n1 = 120,

Acceptance numbers c1 = 2 and c2 = 10 Sample size n2 = 300, Acceptance number for both samples c3 = 8

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Initial sample of n1 item is inspected

If the number of defectives found in the initial sample

Does not exceeds c1

exceeds c1 but does not exceeds c2

exceeds c2

Second sample of n2 item is inspected

If the no. of defectives found in the combined sample (n1 + n2)

Does not exceeds c3 Lot is accepted

exceeds c3 Lot is rejected

If n1is the initial sample of 120 from a lot of 18,000. If there are 2 or less number of defectives, the lot is accepted, if there are 10 or more defectives, the lot is rejected, if there are 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 defectives no decision is taken and a second sample is drawn.

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A second sample of 300 (n2) is drawn from the lot is inspected. If there are 8 or less defectives (c3) in the combined sample, the lot is accepted otherwise rejected. In a sequential sampling plan, units are randomly selected from the lot and tested one by one. After each one has been tested, a reject, accept or continuous sampling decision is made. This process continues until the lot is accepted or rejected. For example in the figure, units are randomly drawn from a lot and tested. The first defective is the 15th unit, putting us in the continuous sampling zone, and so we continue to sample units from the lot. The second defective is the 25th unit, and we continue sampling. The fourth defective is the 40th unit and thus puts us in the reject-lot zone; therefore the lot is rejected.

Acceptance sampling Acceptance sampling inspection can be either sampling by attributes or sampling by variables. Since in Acceptance sampling the decision to accept or reject a lot must be made on the basis of sample evidence we must accept some risks of rejecting a good lot or accepting a bad lot.
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Operating Characteristics (OC) curve The following can happen when we go for Acceptance Sampling plans 1. 2. 3. 4. We accept good lots. We reject bad lots. We may accept bad lots. We may reject good lots.

In majority of cases we do accept good lots and reject bad lots when we apply acceptance sampling plans. On rare occasion, we may accept bad lots even though sampling inspection shows the quality of the lots as good based on sample evidence, on the other hand we may reject good lots as bad lots based on the sample evidence. When a good lot is rejected, the error is known as type I error and the risk of rejecting a good lot on sample evidence is known as producers risk () which should be kept as low as possible. When a bad lot is accepted as good lot on the sample evidence, the error is known as type II error and the risk of accepting a bad lot as good lot is known as consumers risk () which again should be kept as low as possible. The OC curve describes an important feature of Acceptance sampling plans. It shows how well an acceptance sampling plan discriminate between good and bad lots. Let us say that we define a good lot as any lot having not more than 1% defectives. This is called acceptable quality level (AQL). If there are 1% defectives in a lot, the probability of accepting the lot should be as high as 95% and then the probability of rejecting a good lot is 5%. The probability of rejecting a good lot at AQL is known as producers risk (). Let us say we define a bad lot as any lot having 5% or more defectives, this is known as Lot Tolerance Percent Defective (LTPD) . The probability of accepting a lot with 5% defectives should be as low as 10 but the probability of rejecting a lot with 5% defectives or more is 90%.

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We want acceptance sampling plans that accept good lots and reject bad lots i.e. acceptance plans that discriminates between good and bad lots. Sampling plans do not provide perfect discrimination between good or bad lots. Some lots of low quality may be accepted while some lots of very good quality may be rejected due to the sample evidence. The degree to which a sampling plan discriminates between good and bad lot is a function of the steepness of the OC curve.

It can be observed that for the same percent defectives as the maximum allowable for an acceptable lot. The lager the sample size, the greater is the discriminating power. On the other hand it is seen that acceptance plans with
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smaller sizes reject more good lots and accept more bad lots. However it should be noted that higher the sample size, higher is the inspection costs. Therefore we must make trade off decisions when designing acceptance plans.

Ideal OC curve is possible only through 100% inspection.

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