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  • Twophase Flow in Pipes (Beggs &amp Brill)

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    two phase flow in pipes

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    5K visualizações640 páginas

    Twophase Flow in Pipes (Beggs &amp Brill)

    Enviado por

    William Hardy
    two phase flow in pipes

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    Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
    Baixe no formato PDF ou leia online no Scribd
    Sinalizar o conteúdo como inadequado
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    SEY AY (spss) MD BH) Hip 2129 pire eg ‘a | a @ TWO-PHASE FLOW IN PIPES by Dr. James P. Brill Dr. H. Dale Beggs Sixth Edition ‘Third Printing January, 1991 Copyright-© 1978 by Dr. James P. Brill and Dr. H. Dale Beggs FORWARD, ‘The notes included herein were prepared by Dr, James P. Brill ‘and Dr. H. Dale Beggs for use in short courses taught by either or both of them and as a textbook in a graduate level course at The University of Tulsa, Publication of this material in whole or in part Is prohibited without approval from the authors, ‘The notes should not be considered to be a thorough review of all Published works on the subject of two-pha flow in pipes. ‘The authors have attempted to compile, ina concise and uniform format, a collection of information necessary to perform pertinent engineering calculations frequently necessary in designing two-phase flow facilities ‘Mastering material contained in these notes will provide an individial with a firm foundation in the important concepts which differentiate single from two-phase flow, This material is not designed for students to merely ead about a correlation and then use off-the-shelf computer programs to solve ditticult design problems. Competent computer programmers could Program correlations covered after mastering concepts, or modify existing in-house programs to méet specific objective TABLE OF CONTENTS PRINCIPLES OF TWO-PHASE FLOW Page 1.1 Introduction. 1-2 1.2. The General Energy Equation. 1-2 1.2, Supplemental Material 1-5a 15a 15a 1-5e Turbulent FLOW enews 1-5 Example $1 Single-Phase Liquid Pressure Drop... 1-5f Non-Newtonian FIWdS someon 15h Power Law Model. 1-58 Generalized Reynolds Numbér. 1-5i Non-Newtonian Friction Factor. 1-5} Frictional Pressure Gradient. rename 1-51 Example $2 Non-Newtonian Oil-Water Mixture Pressure Drop .... 1-51 References.. 1.3 Evaluation of Friction Losses - The Friction Factor CONCEP nnn Laminar Single-Phase Flow. Turbulent Single-Phase Flo ‘Smooth Wall. Rough Wall... 1.4 Single-Phase Flow Elevation Change Component. Friction Loss Component. Acceleration Component. cece 15 Definitions of Variables Used in Two-Phase Flow... sowie 1-5 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont) 1-PRINCIPLES OF TWO-PHASE FLOW 1.6 Modification of the Pressure Gradient Equation 1.8 Calculation of Pressure Traverses Procedure for Iterating on Length Increment Procedure for Iterating on Pressure Increment 1-28 Procedure When Temperature Distribution is Unknown Heat Transfer. Mixture Enthalpy. Effect of Slippage on Composition wien Coupling Algorithm. 1.9 References .... 1.10 Problems. TABLE ‘OF CONTENTS 2-FLUID PROPERTY CORRELATIONS 2.1 Introduction... 2.2 Solution Gas-Oil Rati Lasater Correlation, Standing Correlation 2.3 Oil Formation Volume Factor. Vazquez Correlations. 2.4 Condensate Systems. 2.4 Supplemental Material. Compositional Model. Soave-Redlich-Kwong (SRK). Peng-Robinson (PR) Computer Algorithm. 2.5 Oil Compressibility.. 2.6 Solubility of Natural Gas in Water.. 2.7 Water Formation Volume Factor. 2.8 Water Compressibli 2.9 2.10 Oil Density 2.11 Water Densit Pseudocritical Pressure and Temperature. Compressibility Factor... TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont) 2-FLUID PROPERTY CORRELATIONS Page Effect of Non-hydrocarbon Impurities On Zamannnm 2-40 Calculation Algorithms for z-factor. eveneee 204 Z-Factor Comparison Study mmm 2-458 2.13 Liquid Viscosity. 2-48 Oil Viscosity. 2-48 New Correlations for Oi! Viscosity. 2-538 Water Viscosity... 2-53 Emulsion Viscosity... 2-55 2.14 Gas ViscO8itY mun 2-58 Carret al. Correlation. 2-58 Lee et al. Correlation... 2-60 2.15 Surface Tension. 2-64 GS-0) nr 2-64 Hydrocarbon Surface Tension - Compositional Model non 2-658 Gas-Water. 2-66 2.16 References .... 2-68 2.17 Problems. 2-71 TABLE OF CONTENTS 3- VERTICAL FLOW 31 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 Aziz, Govier and Fogarasi cw Chierici, Ciucti and Sclocehi. Beggs and Brill 3.7. Evaluation of Pressure Loss Prediction Methods, 3.8 Flow in Annuli 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 Temperature Prediction wn. 3.15 References .. 3.16 Problems yeeeey ahooE ee a SSazasssessc ow www a sesas TABLE OF CONTENTS 4-HORIZONTAL FLOW 4.1 Introduction... 4.2, Horizontal Pressure Loss Prediction Methods. Eaton et al. Correlation. Beggs and Brill Correlation. Dukler et al. Correlation (Case II - Constant Slip) Guzhov et al. Correlation.... Lockhart and Martinelli Correlation. Yocum Correlation. Oliemans Correlation... Other Liquid Holdup Correlations. 43 44 4.5 Evaluation of Liquid Holdup Correlation: 4.6 Prediction of Horizontal Flow Patterns. 47 4.8 Miscellaneous Pipeline Design Problems. Pigging.. _ a 4-66 Prediction of Liquid Slug Characteristic 4-70 Design of Slug Catchers.. 4.9 Use of Gradient Curves.. 4.10 References 4.11 Problems 5. 5.2 5.3 54 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 TABLE OF CONTENTS 5-INCLINED FLOW Equation for Inclined Flow... Beggs and Brill Correlation Griffith, Lau, Hon and Pearson Correlation. PIPELINES senmnennnne Flanigan Correlation, Guzhov, Mamyev and Odishariya Correlatio Beggs and Brill Correlation Gregory, Mandhane and Aziz Method. Downhill Flow. Bonnecaze, Erskine and Greskovich Correlation. Gallyamov and Goldzberg Correlation veanu. Greskovich Method. Other Methods. Evaluation of Inclined Flow Correlations. Hilly Terrain Pipelines... References .. Problems. 6.1 6.2 6.3 64 6.5 6. FLOW THROUGH RESTRICTIONS Introduction -- ++ Description of Restrictions - Critical vs Suberitical Flow « Single-Phase Subcritical Flow - Liquids Gases ‘Two-Phase Flow..... Introduction Critical Flow Correlations. 19 Suberitical Flow Correlation: 6-32 Evaluation of Correlations sees BAL Prediction of Two-Phase Critical Flow ...... es References. Pan 6-47 Problems... 6-49 Ad AD AS Ad AS As At A As A.10 Aa APPENDIX FORTRAN Listings of Pressure Gradient Subroutine FORTRAN Listings of Fluld Physical Property and ‘Related Subroutines ~~ ~ Properties of Saturated Water: temperature table - Properties of Saturated Water: pressure table - = = - Properties of Water: superheated vapor table ~~ - - Properties of Water: compressed liquid table - = = Enthalpy-Log Presmure Diagram for Water and Steam = Vertical Flow Gradient Curves: 1,995 In, LD. = ‘Vertical Flow Gradient Curves: 4.494 in, LD. = Horizontal Flow Gradient Curves: 2.0m, LD, - Horizontal Flow Gradient Curve 401m, LD, = ao area formation volume factor compressibility factor specific heat dtameter depth frtetion factor fraction acceleration of gravity gravitational constant mass flux rate ‘gas or Liquid holdup atlo of specifi heats, ¢,/¢, axtal Length molecular vetghe nolt Reynolds number Froude number Liquid velocity mmber 5 velocity number ianeter number Liquid viscosity mumber ye auyre? wt we a S01 ~epe volumetric flow rate-in-situ conditions volumetric flow rate-standard conditions 2s constant in situ gas-liquid ratio Producing gas-otl ratio solution ges-oil ratio tne temperature velocity volune specific volume sass flow rate Uortzontal Length Presnure ratio across choke, p/P, sole fruction sau compressibiltey factor vertical Length GREEK LETTERS roughness spect tie gravity difference angle slip gas or liquid holdup viscontey density - standard conditions snaity ~ inesitu conditions Anterfactal tension Bre ye Flat afte ad a rr smipo pr pe air acceleration bubste bubble potne base conditions bean or choke erieteal dtaneter dissolved elevation formation (rock) free friction Froude wae sas velocity tntetat kinetic ene Mute Lqutd velocity mixture no-slip ott Preudo-reduced Peeudo-erkttcal Reynolds sneot a y solution sitp, sonte standard conditions superfietal Mqutd superfietal gas horizontal direction vertical direction 1,2,3, ete. time of Location Je1=upstream, 2 = downstream aut CHAPTER 1 PRINCIPLES OF TWO-PHASE FLOW Le 1 = PRINCIPLES OF TWO-PHASE FLOW 1.1 Introduction The prediction of pressure gradients, liquid holdup and flow patterns occurring during the simultaneous flow of gas and Liquid in pipes is neces 7 for design in the petroleum and chenical industries. Petroleum engineers encounter tuo-phase flow most frequently in well tubing and in flovlines, The flow may be vertical, inelined or horizontal and methods must be avail- able for predicting pressure drop in pipes at any inclination angle. Off shore producing has necessitated transporting both gas and Liquid phi over long distances before separation. Besides being able to size these Lines from a pressure loss standpoint, the engineer aust be able to calcu Late Liqutd content in the pipeline at various flow conditions in order to design separation and slug catching facilities. Tworphase flow occurs frequently in the chemical processing Andustry and the design of such fac{lities as condensers, heat exchangers, reactors and process piping requires methods to predict pressure érop, Liguid holdup, and for he: transfer purposes, flow pattern. ‘The purpose of this manual is to present the basic problens Anvolved {n two-phase design, outline the correlations currently available for design purposes, and to denonstrate the application of the various correlations. 1.2 The General Eneray Equation ‘Tne theoretical basis for masy fluid flow equations is the general energy equation, an expression for the balance or conservation of energy. Between evo points ina system. The energy equation is developed first, and using thermodynamic principles, is modified to a pressure gradient equation. The energy balance simply states that the energy of @ fluld entering a control volume, plus any shaft work done on or by the fluid, plus any heat energy added to or taken from the fluid, plus any change of energy with time in the control volune sust equal the energy leaving the control volume. Figure L.1 may used to illustrate this prinetpl 13 Figure 1.1 Flow System Control Volume Considering a steady eta written as jaten, the energy balance may be wns, oy Lewes tm tag tah tat ws tay yt vhere: U"= internal energy, pV = energy of expansion or compression, a = kinetic energy, 25, mgt = potential BY, ergy added to fluid, at Vf + vork done on the fluid, and 2 = elevation above reference datum Dividing this equation by m to obtain an energy per untt mass balance and writing in differential form give avy (B) +e Sti ez ¢ da tau, «0, Tats form of the energy balance equation is difficult to apply because of the internal energy term, so it {8 usually converted to a mechanical ‘energy balance using well known thermodynante relations, From thermo- dynamics: wea Lt soe eh nes ote du tas +42. setae 3 were he specific enthalpy, S = entropy, and T = temperature. Substituring Eq. 1.3 into Bq. 1.2 gives For an irreversible process, the Clausis inequality states that ase tty Tas edatdly» luo to trreversibilities, such as friction. Using this relationship and assuming no work 1s done on or by the fluid, Ee Lb becomes AB EAE Bear 8 a = Oe reece eee oT 8 Té ve consider a pipe inclined at some angle 9 vo wie nortzontal, as in Fig. 1.2, since az = dl ain et a cit at, Be 8. Muteiplying the equation by —E atv pee eer tbh +t paint es sel Fig. 1.2. Flow Geometry 15a 1.2, Supplemental Material Conservation of mass Conservation of mass simply means that for a given control volume such as a segment, of pipe, the mass in minus mass out must equal the mass accumulation’, For a constant area duct, B20) For steady state flow, pv = constant, and no mass accumulation can occur. Equation S1 then becomes SL Bev) = 0 ennninnnannin Conservation of Momentum ‘Application of Newton's First Law to fluid flow in pipes requires that the rate of momentum out minus the rate of momentum in plus the rate of momentum accumulation in a given pipe segment must equal the sum of all forces on the fluids’. Figures 1.1 through 1.3 define the control volume and pertinent variables. Conservation of linear momentum can be expressed as a a HOM) + SOV?) = Td ~ 1B pg sino However, the rate of momentum efflux term can be expanded as follows $4 2 @yyay ay OM =v az ov+pvsy Combining Eqs $2, $3 and $4 and assuming steady state flow [8(pv)/at = 0] to eliminate the rate of accumulation of linear momentum gives 1-5b Solving for the pressure gradient, one obtains which is also frequently called the mechanical energy balance equation and is identical to Eq. 1.7. Thus, the steady state pressure gradient equation is actually a result of applying the principles of conservation of mass and linear momentum, Eq. S6 clearly shows that the steady state pressure gradient is made up of three components. The first component is due to friction or shear stress at the pipe wall and will be described in greater detail below. Friction losses normally represent 5-20 % of the total pressure drop in wells and nearly all of the pressure drop’ in near-horizontal pipes.. The second term in Eq. S6 is the pressure gradient due to elevation change (often called hydrostatic head or elevation component). It is normally the predominant term in wells and contributes from 80-95% of the pressure gradient. The elevation component is much smaller for pipelines, but is often comparable in magnitude to the friction component in billy terrain pipelines. The final component is due to change in velocity (often called acceleration or kinetic energy component). It is normally negligible and ‘can become significant only if a compressible phase exists at relatively low pressures. For upward flow, pressure always drops in the direction of flow. It is common to adopt a sign convention that pressure drop is positive in the direction of flow. Eq. S6 must then be multiplied by -1 to yield a positive pressure gradient. Evaluation of the wall shear stress or friction losses can be accomplished by defining a dimensionless friction factor that is the ratio of the wall shear stress to the kinetic energy of the fluid per unit volume!. Thus, pv where f is a Fanning friction factor. Throughout this monograph we will adopt a Darcy-Weisbach or Moody? friction factor, which is 4-times larger than the Fanning friction factor. Eq. S7 can then be solved for shear stress . $8 Substituting Eq. S8 into Eq. $6, the frictional component of the pressure gradient equation becomes which is often called the Darcy-Weisbach? equation. Calculation of frictional pressure gradients requires determining Values for friction factors. The procedure first requires evaluating whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. Laminar flow is considered to exist if the Reynolds number is less than approximately 2,000. The Reynolds number is defined as 810 For laminar flow, an analytical expression can be derived for the friction factor. The velocity profile for laminar flow can be integrated to yield the pressure gradient. This was done for flow in horizontal capillary tubes to give Eq. S11 which is the Poiseuillet equation, . SIL Since the pressure gradient in Eq. S11 is due only to wall shear stresses or friction, the pressure gradient is identical to Eq. $9. Combining these equations gives lz f siz en ONRe ev Our ability to predict flow behavior under turbulent flow conditions is a direct result of extensive experimental studies of velocity profiles and Pressure gradients. These studies have shown that both velocity profile and pressure gradient are very sensitive to characteristics of the pipe wall, A logical approach to defining friction factors for turbulent flow is t0 begin 15e asa with the simplest case, i.e. the smooth wall pipe, proceed to the partially rough wall and finally to the fully rough wall. Smooth pipe is seldom encountered in the production of oil and gas. However, laboratory studies conducted with glass or plastic pipes often approach smooth pipe. Numerous empirical equations have been proposed for predicting friction factors for smooth pipe. The equations most often used and their suggested ranges of applicability are: Drew, Koo and McAdams: f= 0.0056 + 0.5 Ngo? 3000 3x 10° 1316 x Ne Nge < 10" 84 Although the Blasius equation is considered less accurate, it receives ‘greater use due to its similarity to the laminar friction factor equation. Both can be expressed in the form f= CNR ‘The inside wall of a pipe is not normally smooth In turbulent flow the roughness can have a significant effect on the friction factor, and thus the pressure gradient. Wall roughness is a function of the pipe material, the method of manufacture, the age of the pipe, and the environment to which it is exposed. From a microscopic sense, wall roughness is not uniform. Individual protrusions, indentations, etc. vary in height, width, length, shape and distribution, The absolute roughness of a pipe, €, is the mean protruding height of relatively uniformly distributed and sized, tightly packed sand grains that would give the same pressure gradient behavior as the actual pipe. Dimensional analysis suggests that the effect of roughness is not due to its absolute dimensions, but rather to its dimensions relative to the inside diameter of the pipe, e/d. In turbulent flow, the effect of wall roughness has been found to be dependent on both the relative roughness and on the Reynolds number. If the laminar sublayer that exists within the boundary layer is sufficiently thick, then the behavior is similar to a smooth pipe. The sublayer thickness is directly related to the Reynolds number. Nikuradse's? famous sand grain experiments formed the basis for friction factor data from rough pipes. His correlation for fully rough wall pipe is given as Eq. S15 and is still the best one available. 1 dpa1-210¢(28) S15 The region in which f varies both with Reynolds number and relative roughness is called the transition region or partially rough wall. An empirical equation describing the variation of f in the transition region that is the basis for modern friction factor charts was proposed by Colebrook*. Qe 18.7 ) 2000 the flow is turbulent. The relative roughness for the pipe is § = 200006 - o.o00144 () From Eq. S16, S18 or Fig. 1.4, f = 0.0155. Calculate the pressure gradient from Eqs. $6 and $9, neglecting acceleration effects. sp _ 10.0155)(62.4)(9.531)? _ (62.4)32.2)sin -90") a $)e22 al 32744-62400 = 59.126 FE 00027 + 04889 = o4i06 ‘The pressure change is then ‘4p = (-0.0227 + 0.4333) (8000) 181.9 + 3466.4 = 3284.5 psi ‘Note that the pressure change consists of a loss due to friction of -181.9 psi and a gain due to clevation change of +3,466.4 psi. 15h * In the examples in this text, the gravitational conversion constant, &¢ = 52.2 Ibm fillbg s* appears when problems are solved using customary units. Non-Newtonian Fluids Fluids encountered in the petroleum industry often act as non- Newtonian fluids. These include: many of the drilling muds; fluids such as cements, frac fluids and spacers used during well completion acti and, many of the oils and oil-water mixtures that are produced. The material presented previously in this section is valid only for Newtonian fluids. ‘The design of non-Newtonian piping systems becomes complicated since the use of conventional friction factor correlations is not directly applicable. These non-Newtonian fluids may assume any type of theological behavior depending on such factors as shear rate, temperature, and fluid composition. Two methods are commonly used to design piping systems transporting il-water mixtures, The first method treats the mixture as a Newtonian fluid with an apparent viscosity that can vary with water fraction, This method is covered later and involves combining the viscosities of each phase to obtain a mixture viscosity. The second method teats the mixture as a non-Newtonian fluid and is based on the following assumptions'?; 1. The mixture is homogeneous. 2. Slippage between phases is neglected. Thus, in-situ holdups are the same as their respective input volume fractions. 3. The theological behavior of the oil-water dispersion system is suitably described by the power-law (Ostwald-de Waele) model’. Power Law Model ‘The power-law stress-strain relationship can be expressed as xr If n° is unity, Eq. S19 will describe Newtonian behavior, and K’ will be equal to the constant viscosity, .. For a typical oil-water mixture, n' will usually be less than unity, and Eq. $19 will describe pseudoplastic (shear thinning) behavior. It is also possible for an oil-water mixture to have n’ greater than unity, resulting in dilatant (shear thickening) behavior. The type of behavior that a fluid system will follow is normally unknown and can be determined from laboratory experiments using an appropriate viscometer. These tests must be conducted for a specified set of the following operating conditions: input water fraction, temperature, and droplet size of the dispersed phase (or, indirectly, mixing speed). Once the fluid system is correctly characterized, the prediction of frictional pressure gredients for pipe flow of this particular oil-water dispersed system can be readily determined. Generalized Reynolds Number Metzner and Reed" introduced the concept of a "generalized Reynolds number" into the field of non-Newtonian flow. The usual Reynolds number definition is 64 64 ee wri siz which can also be written as pvd i &y ve (2282 & Ad ) fae Where tw is the laminar wall shear stress, while the quantity ( S¢) is aso the true shear rate at the pipe wall or ($%), for a Newtonian tw fluid. Thus, the ratio ( g Fy ) corresponds to the Newtonian viscosity, pL. For non-Newtonian flow, the relationship between the true shear rate and the apparent shear rate can be expressed as 1si 1-5) 8 where n° is the slope of a logarithmic plot of tw vs G2. From the same plot, the equation of the tangential line to the laminar flow curve can be written as : . $22 . $23 and where NRey.p is the generalized Reynolds number, and nm is the apparent viscosity of the mixture. Eqs.S23 and $24 clearly reduce to the normal Reynolds number and the Newtonian viscosity for a Newtonian fluid, when n’= 1 and K’ ‘Non-Newtonian Friction Factor ‘Laminar_Flow: Following Metzner and Reed, the Fanning friction factor for non- Newtonian laminar flow can be written as: . $25 Dodge and Metzner'®proposed the following implicit friction factor equation, Govier and Aziz'® suggested the following friction factor for power- Taw pseudoplastic fluids flowing in rough pipes : ral 827 where fy-R = friction factor calculated from Eq. S26, and fy = Fanning friction factor for rough pipe, calculated at the same generalized Reynolds number, f' = Fanning friction factor for smooth pipe, calculated at the same generalized Reynolds number. 16 Torrance'® recommended the following; 14.07, (4 vi log (S)+60 - Eq. S28, for Newtonian fluids, essentially reduces to the von Karman equation, S28 .06 log (4) 3.36 nen $29 Frictional Pressure Gradient Once the Fanning friction factor, f', is determined for the particular dispersion system, the frictional’ pressure gradient can be calculated from, (2) 2f onva s30 AL py d Fe As can be seen from the above equations, K’and n’ are the two important parameters which will affect the frictional pressure gradient calculation for a dispersion system. These two parameters can be experimentally determined with an appropriate viscometer. Example _S2_Non-Newtonian Oil-Water Mixture Pressure Drop A horizontal pipe discharges an oil and water mixture at atmospheric pressure. Determine the pressure at the inlet of the pipe required to maintain a constant volumetric flow rate of the dispersion for an input water fraction of 20%. The following are also given: = 30 f3/s d@ = 20 in, ft L 10,000 ft Tbm/ft3 py = 62.23 Ibm/ft3 n= 0.8589 K = 71,475 Ibf st £12 a. Calculate the mixture density, using Pm = Po fo + pw fw = 55.4 Ibm/ft3 b. For the given flow rate and water fraction, calculate the generalized Reynolds’ number Pat Neyo "ST + 997108 15m ‘The criterion for turbulent flow is considered to be NRoyy p > 1,500. For this example the flow regime is turbulent. c. Compute the friction factor for turbulent flow of pseudoplastic fluids in rough pipes, using f, f= fur (#) 0.007 (1.006) = 0.00704 where, * fy.r is given by Eq. $26, f, is given by Eq. S14, fr is given by Eq. S16. 4. Calculate the pipe inlet pressure, pj ; L2 PL=P2 +2f pm G Ym = 2059 psia References 1, Knudsen, J. G. and Katz, D. L. : Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer. McGraw Hill Book Co., New York (1958). 2. Moody, L. F.: "Friction Factors for Pipe Flow," Trans. ASME (Nov. 1944) 66, No. 8, 671-684. 3. Allen Jr., T. and Ditsworth, R. L. : Fluid Mechanics, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York (1975). 4, Poiseuille, J. L. : Compte Rendus, 11, 961 and 1041 (1840): 12, 112 (1841), 5. Drew, T. B., Koo, E. C. and McAdams, W. H. : Trans, Am, Inst, Chem, Engrs., 28, 56 (1930). Lesa 6. Blasius, H. : Z. Math. Phys., 56, 1-37 (1908) 7. Nikuradse, J.: Forschungsheft, p. 301, (1933). 8. Colebrook, C. F.: J. Inst. Civil Engrs, (London),11:133 (1938). 9. Brill, J. P. & Beggs, H. D.: Two-Phase Flow in Pipes, The University of Tulsa (1978). 10. Zigrang, D. J. and Sylvester, N. D.: "A Review of Explicit Friction Factor Equations,” Trans. ASME, J. Energy Res. Tech. (June 1985) 107, 280- 283. 11, Theory and Practice of the Testing of Gas Wells, 3rd Ed. Energy Resources Conservation Board, Calgary, Alberta (1975). 12, Martinez, A. E., Arirachakaran, S., Shoham, O. and Brill, J. P. : "Prediction of Dispersion Viscosity of Oil-Water Mixture Flow in Horizontal Pipes" SPE 18221, presented at SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Houston, TX, Oct. 2-5, 1988. 13, Bird, R. B., Stewart, W. E. and Lightfoot, E. N. : Transport Phenomena. John Wiley & Sons, New York (1960), 14, Metzner, A. B. and Reed, J. C. : "Flow of Non-Newtonian Fluids Correlation of the Laminar, Transition, and Turbulent-Flow Region: AICHE J., ( Dec. 1955) 1, no.4, 434-440. 15, Dodge, D. W. and Metzner, A.B. : "Turbulent Flow of Non-Newtonian Systems,” AICAE J. ( June 1959), 5 , No. 2, 189-203 16. Govier, G. W. and Aziz, K.; The Flow of Complex Mixtures in Pipes, ‘Van Nostrand Reinhold Co,, New York (1972). 16 ‘This equation can be solved for pressure gradient, and if ve jure drop ds being positive in the direction of flow seed 4p. a paind+_pvdv + (dp* a "5, gat (Cate where Cae PSHE te th adtent due to viscous sh Cab )p = STE to ene pressure gradient doe to viscous shear oF friction losses. 1,3 Evaluation of Friction Losses - The Friction Factor Concent. In horizontal pipe flow the energy losses or pressure drop 1 caused by change in kinetic energy and friction losses only, Since ‘most of the viscous shear occurs at the pipe wall, the ratio of wall shear stress (*,) to kinetic energy per unit volume (5v7/2 g,) reflects the relative importance of wall shear stress to the total losses. This ratio forms a dimensionless group and defines a friction factor. fe —™ ev/2g, To evaluate the vall shear stress, a force balance between jure forces and vall shear stress can be formed. Referring to Fig. 1.3, Fig. 1.3. Force Balance y(n a aL ok $e ccsseeeeesseeee subectevting Eq. 1.9 tte Eq, 1.8 an eolvag for the prantore gradient tue go frtecion gives Lao hich ta the well fnown Panning equation. In terms of a Darey-Wet! cr Woody friction factor, f= At! and ‘The friction factor for laninar flow can be determined analyti- ‘cally by combining Eq. 1.11 with the Hagen-Potseuille equation for laminar flow ita ‘Example 1.1 ‘An oll which has a viscoalty of 50 op (0.05 kg/m-sec) and a density of $0) Cs (oo. sien) flows in a1 in, (25,4 mm) dlanieter pipe at the rate of 0.07 f/aec (0.00198 m°/sec), Determine the proasure drop which will occur over a 100 ft (30.48 m) section of the pipe. Solution: v= q/A=0.01/[0/(h x 12°) = 12, 84 ft/a00 Nae" P¥a/n = (60/12, #4)0,0883)/50/1488 = 1588 Flow is laminar, since Nj. <2000 ‘Therefore f= 64/Np, = 64/1699 = 0,04 ‘Ap = fv" AL/2g, 4 = (0,04)(50)22, 24)"(100)/(2(32.2)(0. 0892) 617 tot/n? = 42,85 pal (295,45 k Pa) The equivalent expression for the Fanning frietion factor ie pea sehae AIA ‘The Darcy-Weisbach or Hoody* friction factor will be used throughout the renainder of this text, so the subscript, m, will be roped. Turbul Single Our ability to predict flow behavior under turbulent flow con- ditions is a direct result of extensive experimental studies of velocity Profiles and pressure gradients. These studies have shown that both velo- city profile and pressure gradient are very sensitive to characteristics of the pipe wall. A logical approach to defining friction factors is to begin with the simplest case, fe, the snooth wall pipe (Sk), proceed to the partially rough wall (PRM) and finally to the fully rough wall (FR). Only the most accurate enpirical equations avatlable for friction factors are presented here. Although studies of velocity profiles are important, thetr use is purely acadenic. Smooth Wall For smooth wall pipes, several equations have been developed, each valid over different ranges of Reynolds numbers. The equation which Ls now used most comonly since it ie explicit in £ and also covers a range of Reynolds numbers 3000

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