Electrical Systems 100

Lecture 1 Dr Ahmed Abu Siada

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Contents

Resistance

Ohms Law Series Circuits Parallel Circuits Voltage Divider Rule Current Divider Rule Kirchoffs Voltage Law (KVL) Kirchoffs Current Law
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Hydraulic Analogy
Electricity might be compared to water: A battery could be likened onto a water pump.
Voltage (V) or water pressure (pounds per square inch).

Current could be likened onto the flow rate of water.

Coulombs per second or gallons per minute.

A wire could be likened onto a water hose.

Small diameter wire is like a small diameter water hose.

An open switch is like a closed valve . . Either way you have infinite opposition (resistance)(impedance).

Hydraulic Analogy

Circuit Definition !!
A Path intended for converting electrical energy into other forms . . . . It includes . . . - A Source of EMF - A load - Connecting Conductors - And usually a Control Device ( Switch ).
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Another Circuit
*Node Control Device

A Source of EMF

Connecting Wires A Load

Node *Nodes are a matter of preference...

Source of EMF !
Any Transducer that is capable of producing an electro-motive force. (voltage). Generator Alternator Battery Photo Cell Voltage can be compared to pressure in a water system.
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DC Generator
- A mechanically driven machine that generates a voltage. - A Device for changing mechanical energy into electrical energy. - It usually is designed to generate DC current.

Circuit Symbol - - - ->

Alternator
- A mechanically driven machine that generates an AC voltage. - A Device for changing mechanical energy into electrical energy. - It usually is designed to generate AC current.

Circuit Symbol - - - ->

The Battery
A Battery is a transducer that changes chemical energy into electrical energy . Some batteries are rechargeable such as the battery in an automobile . Some are not rechargeable like the batteries in a flashlight . Circuit Symbol - - - - - - - - - > Long & Short Bar is 1 cell .
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Symbols for independent voltage source

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Symbols for independent current source

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Symbols for a) dependent voltage sources b) dependent current sources

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Loads . . . .
Loads (anything which converts electrical energy into another form) Resistors Lights Motors Capacitors Inductors Relay Coils etc.
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Current shown Graphically!!

Given Point Conductor

1 Coulomb moved . . 6.24 x 1018 electrons 1 Coulomb Rate of Electron flow (CURRENT) is 1 coulomb per second (1 AMPERE) I = 1C/s = 1 ampere 15
0

1 second

Second Timer

Speed up Electron Flow Graphically!!

Given Point Conductor

1 Coulomb moved . . 6.24 x 1018 electrons 1 Coulomb Rate of Electron flow (CURRENT) is 1 coulomb per 1/2 second (2 AMPERES) I = 1C/.5s = 2 amperes 16
0 .5 second

Second Timer

Resistance
The flow of charge (q) in a material per unit time is current (i)

I = dq/dt
The resistance of a material is the property to resist the flow of electrons when an external electric field is applied. The resistance converts the applied energy into heat much like the mechanical friction due to colliding electrons and collisions between electrons and other atoms. The unit of Resistance is known as Ohms ()

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Resistance
The Resistance of a material depends on its length (l), area (A) and the resistivity ()

R = l/A ()
Resistivity ( () of various materials Silver Copper Gold Aluminium Tungsten Nickel Iron Nichrome Chlorite Carbon 9.9 10.37 14.7 17.0 33.0 47.0 74.0 295.0 720.0 21,000.0

The Resistivity of some materials at 20 degree celsius. The unit is CM. /ft and in SI system is Ohm-meters

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Resistance
Fixed and Variable Resistors

The physical size (or shape) of a resistor is no clue to its resistance value, but can be a rough guide to its power rating. 19

The Resistor
This is the Symbol you will draw when a resistor is represented ! It may be drawn vertically or horizontally ! It should have 3 PEAKS on either side to be of IEEE standard !

Variable resistance

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Conductances
Conductances are reciprocal of Resistances

G = 1/R (siemens, S) or Mho G = A / l (S or Mho)

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A simple resistive circuit

Electron flow direction

Conventional current direction

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Ohms Law
Ohms Law states that the current through an electric path is dependant on the resistance of the path and is given by:

V I= R
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V-I Characteristic of a Linear Resistor

V I= R V = IR V R= I

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Ohms Law states that . .

Current Current Current DOWN UP UP Voltage Voltage Voltage DOWN UP UP

2A .5A .25A 1A
+
-

20V 5V 10V

The current is directly proportional to the voltage 10 20 and indirectly proportional to the resistance. Resistance DOWN UP

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Electrical Power
Power

P = VI V P=I R= R
2 2

SI unit is the Watt (I in Amperes, V in Volts and R in Ohms). 1 Watt is 1 Joules/Sec 1 hp = 746 Watts (the power of an average dray horse over a full working day)
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Polarity references and the expression for power

If the power is Negative (P <0), power supplied by circuit

If the power is Positive (P > 0), power absorbed by the circuit

+
V

Absorb or supply ?

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Electrical Energy
Energy: Electric Energy is the Electric Power consumed over a period of time

V W = P *t = I R *t = * t = Pdt R 0
2

SI unit is the Watt (I in Amperes, V in Volts and R in Ohms). 1 Watt is 1 Joules/Sec 1 hp = 746 Watts (the power of an average dray horse over a full working day)

How to calculate the Electric Power consumed in 1 day ? 28

Electrical Energy
The unit of Energy is Watt-hours (Wh), kWh, MWh or GWh Energy (Wh) = Power (W) * Time (h) 1 kWh is 1000 Wh 1 MWh = 1000 kWh 1 GWh = 1000 MWh
We pay for electricity on the basis of kWh consumed in a specified period @ 12 cents (approx) per kWh

How many kWh is this family using ??

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Direct Current Circuits

Analysis of simple circuits with batteries, resistors, and capacitors connected in various combinations (series/parallel). Kirchoffs rules (based on law of conservation of energy and charge). Steady-state (current constant in magnitude and direction).
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A simple resistive circuit

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Circuit diagram

Vr = I r VR = I R

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Battery in Series with a Resistor

Battery

The battery has an internal resistance r and is connected in series with a resistor R.

V = Vb Va = Ir
= IR + Ir

E I= R+r

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Battery in Series with a Resistor

Multiplying by the current yields:

I = I R + I r
2 2

The total power of the battery is converted to heat in the two resistors.

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Series connection of two resistors

Req = R1 + R2
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Two Resistors in Series

Two or more resistors are in series if connected together so that they have only one common point per pair.

V = IR1 + IR2 = I ( R1 + R2 )
The current is the same through each resistor because any charge flowing through one resistor must also flow through the other.

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More than Two Resistors in Series

The equivalent resistance of a series connection of resistors is always greater than any individual resistance.

Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + ..........

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Parallel connection of two resistors

1 1 1 = + R eq R 1 R 2

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Two Resistors in Parallel

Two or more resistors are in parallel if there is an equal potential difference across each resistor.

I = I1 + I 2

1 1 1 = + Req R1 R2

The current is not the same through each resistor because any charge flowing through one resistor cannot flow through the other. But the Potential difference (voltage) across each parallel branch is identical.

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More than Two Resistors in Parallel

The equivalent resistance of a parallel connection of resistors is always less than the smallest individual resistance.

1 1 1 1 = + + + ....... Req R1 R2 R3

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(a) Parallel

connection of light bulbs, (b) series connection of light bulbs.

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Example

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Kirchoffs Laws
The sum of the currents entering any junction must equal the sum of the currents leaving that junction. (KCL) (Conservation of charge) The algebraic sum of the changes in potential across all of the elements around any closed circuit loop must be zero. (KVL) (Conservation of energy)
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Kirchoffs Voltage Law

The algebraic sum of the changes in potential across all of the elements around any closed circuit loop must be zero. (KVL)

V = 0 drops or rise
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Kirchoffs Voltage Law

V1

KVL

V2

KVL

Vdrops or rise = 0

E + V1 + V2 = 0
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A single-loop circuit illustrating KVL.

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Kirchoffs Current Law

Kirchoffs Current Law states that the amount of current entering a junction must be equal to the current leaving that junction.

I
or ,

entering

= I leaving

I =0
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Kirchoffs Current Law

I1

I
or ,
I3

entering

= I leaving

I =0
I1 + I 2 = I 3
I2 Example : I1 = 5A, I2 = 2A and I3 = 7A
Taking current entering the node as reference I1 +I2 - I3 = 0A Taking current leaving the node as reference I3 -I1 -I2 = 0A

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Kirchoffs Current Law

Example :
I1=2A I3=5A I5= 6A

I2=3A

I4=1A

Node (a) KCL I1 + I2 + I3 = 0

Node (b) KCL I3 + I4 + I5 = 0 49

Voltage Divider Rule

In a Series Circuit, the Voltage across resistances divide according to the magnitude of the resistances Consider a Series circuit with two elements R1 and R2 and the total voltage applied across them is V. Let the current flowing through each of the two elements (series) be I
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Voltage Divider Rule

E I= R 1 + R2 E V 1 = IR 1 V 1 = R1 R 1 + R2 R1 V1 = E R 1 + R2 E V 2 = IR 2 V2 = R2 R 1 + R2 R2 E V2 = R 1 + R2
+ V

V = V1 + V 2
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Current Divider Rule The current in parallel circuit elements divide in ratios according to the inverse of their resistor values. Consider two parallel elements R1 and R2 and a total current I, then the current in two elements are:

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Current Divider Rule

I

R2 I1 = I R1 + R2 R1 I2 = I R 1 + R2 I = I1 + I 2

I1

I2

I1

I2

I 53

Single Subscript Voltage Notation

Va means that the voltage of point a is Va with respect to the ground.

Va

Vb

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Double Subscript Voltage Notation Vab means that the voltage of point a with respect to point b is Vab
Vab = Va Vb Vba = Vb Va = -Vab

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If point b is at ground potential then Vab is simply Va

Vab = Va 0 = Va

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What is Vab?

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Measurement of Voltage
Voltages are measured by an instrument called Voltmeter. They can be either analog (AVO) or digital (DMM). Voltmeters are always connected in parallel with circuit where the voltage is to be measured. Voltmeters should have very high resistance, so that they do not allow current flowing through the circuit to enter in them due to their insertion.
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Measurement of Voltage

VR

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Measurement of Current
Currents are measured by an instrument called Ammeter. An Ammeter can be analog or digital. An Ammeter is always connected in series with the circuit where current need to be measured. An Ammeter should have almost zero resistance, so that they do not alter the magnitude the of the current due to their insertion.

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Measurement of Current

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Connection of voltmeter and ammeter to an element

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An Open Circuit
An Open circuit is one which have voltage across it but current through it is zero. An open circuit is represented by infinite resistance.

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A Short Circuit
A short circuit is one which allow current through it but voltage across it is zero. A short circuit is represented by zero resistance.

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(a) A short circuit (R = 0), (b) An open circuit (R=).

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