LUDERS CURVES

A.
B.

STEEL.

C
I'AP.F. Vol.

Square punch hole, Wcardalc Steel. Beni and punched butt strip of Dredger Bucket, Shelton Steel. Portion sheared off end of bar of Hush Steel (ij" x "). HUNTKK: sre Art. 1190. SftctmflU due to Mr. J.
I'..

II.,

Part

II.

1"
.e<

A HISTORY OF

THE THEOKY OF ELASTICITY

AND OF

THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

I-

ROM GALILEI TO THE PRESENT

HY THK LATE

TIME.

ISAAC TODHUNTER, D.Sc,

EDITED AND COMPLETED

F.R.S.

FOR THE SYNDICS OF THE UNIVERSITY PRESS

BY

KARL PEARSON,

M.A.

B OF APPLIED MATHEMATICS, UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON, FORMERLY FELLOW OF KINo's COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.

II

SAINT-VENANT TO LORD KELVIN.

PART

II

CAMBRIDGE: AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.

1893.
[All Righti racrved.]

Cambridge
PRINTED BY
C.
J.

CLAY, M.A. AND SONS,

AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.

CHAPTER

XII.
:

THE OLDER GERMAN ELASTICIANS F. NEUMANN, KIRCHHOFF AND CLEBSCH.

ERRATA.
PART
II.

p. 282,

Frontispiece, Specimen B, for butt strip, read cutting hip. L 20 for Arts. 20711 read Arts. 207* 11".
in bottom for Davier read Darier. .m bottom for A kit

] ">68.

<iiami,

,ui .> i-ii m. inn unit lam "J^i a> aiimn^ IMC inmr in Franz Neumann's lectures on elasticity were givm in Konigsberg
i

>i

|><

at .litVrivnt

tinn-> In.in

Is.'iT

hi

l<S74,Wld

in

s^

"'

\\i-rr
\\itli

under the supervision

Vorlc

pnhlislird
tin

die Thearie der Elasticitdt der festen

i

K',

Baalachiitz,

,i. list Von der Muhll, Minnigcrode, Zdpprits, Wangcrin and Baumgarten Me prufaoe to lh Yo
1

1,,

CHAPTER

XII.
:

THE OLDER GERMAN ELASTICIANS F. NEUMANN, KIRCHHOFF AND CLEBSCH.

SECTION

I.

Franz Neumann.

WE have already had occasion to deal with three of F. Neumann's, which fall into the period memoirs important our first a work volume, and we have now to turn occupied by
[1192.]
t

his which, if only published in 1885, still in substance mainly belongs to the years 1857-8. To Franz Neumann's teaching in
ot

Konigsberg

is

due much of the impulse which

mathematical

physics received in the fifties in Germany; the most distinguished man physicists of the past forty years have been nearly all pupils of Neumann's, and tins remark is specially true in the field

Of those who attended his lectures on this subject of elasticity. and received probably from him their first stimulus to original investigations, we may name Kirchhoff, Strehlke, Clebsch, Borehardt. Carl Neumann and Voigt as among the more important
1
.

nz

Neumann
Mip.-i

>

!<< -ture.s

on
(I

:inVr-nt time> Iron. |s:>7

elasticity were given in Konigsberg to 1*71. and in 1885 were published

Iv

under the

isi.n

>t'

Meyer

of Hiv-laii with the title:

iiber die Theorie

in

der Elaxticitdt der fasten Korper

Von der
:

>

O.

IM, Saaluchutz, Wangerin and Baumgarten

Meyer

in. lu.l. -s

the

list

Me

Miihll, Minnigerode, Zdpprits, preface to the

4
uml des
is

K.

NEUMANN.

[1193

LiclUdtfiers.

The volume

contains xiii+374 pages, and

based on the notebooks of the brothers L. and O. E. Meyer for the years 1857-60, and those of Baumgarten and W. Voigt for the years 1869-74. According to the Editor the work contains The exact all that was of importance in Neumann's lectures. I several shall endeavour amount of originality in the investigations
to point out in the course of

my

analysis,

and

I content myself
:

here with the following remarks from the preface Zu den Gebietcn, mit wclchen Professor Neumann sich
;

in jiingeren

und

Vorliebe beschaftigt hat, gehort auch die spateren Jahren mit besonderer Theorie der Elasticitat es konnte daher nicht fehlen, dass seine Vorlesungen Seinem ausgesproiiber diesen Gegenstand haufig eigene Arbeiten betrafen. chenen Wunsche, dass alle in verse hiedenen Semestern vorgetragenen eigenen - \Vn-k aufgenommen werden sollten, bin ich gern Untersuchungen in di* aoweit nachgekommen, als es mir zu erreichen moglich war (S. v-vi).

The work

is

divided into twenty-one sections of which

we note

the important points in the following articles.

In Section 1, Einleitung (S. 1-7), we have first some remarks [1 193.] on the origin of the theory of elasticity. Neumann attributes it not so much to a development from the isolated problems of Bernoulli and Euler as to the impulse given by FresnePs new theory of light. He
says:

Die exacte Beurtheilung seiner Beobachtungen

fiihrte Fresnel

zu That-

Bachen, welche im geraden Widerspruch standen zu den anerkannten In der Schallwelle Principien der Wellenbewegung in elastischen Medien. ist die Bewegung der Theilchen parallel dern Strahl, die Welle eine longitudiFresnel fand, dass in der Lichtwelle jene Bewegung senkrecht gegen nale rahl gerichtet, die Welle also eine transversale ist, und doch soil der 3 Unternchied der Eigenschaften beider Medien, der Luft und des Lichtathers, nur quuntitativ, nicht qualitativ sein. Die Mechaniker jener Zeit laugneten liMoglichkeit einer solchen Bewegung, weil sie unvertraglich sei mit den hydrodynamischen Grundgleichungen, welche auf elastische Fliissigkeiten, auf Luft nur longitudinale Wellen kennen lehren. Fresnel, sich apswandt vertheidigend, machte darauf aufmerksam, dass moglicherweise in diesen GBeichuDgen nicht alle Krafte beriicksichtigt sein mochten, welche in elaHtiHchen Medien zur Wirkung kornmen konnen. Er fand in der That,
;

in den hydrodynamischen Gleichungen nur solche inneren Krafte enthalten wind, welche aus einer Verdiinnung oder Verdichtung des Mediums eotltobfla un.l welche wiederurn eine Aenderung der Dichtigkeit hervorbrinllto sich daher die Frage, ob es in einem elastischeu Medium .iiilTi-ii Kriifte gebe, ob in einem solchen System, wie es die Theilchen eincH elaMtischen Korpers bilden, nicht auch Krafte entstehen konnen aus riiM-r Vertohiebonfl der Theilchen, durch welche die Dichtigkeit nicht geandert \\'io jet/t die S.ichen winl. liegen, ist es leicht, den Staudpunkt, auf den Fresnel sich stelltc, klar zu machen (S. 1-2).
<l.i>s

This account of the origin of the theory of elasticity, attributing it to the inability of the hydrodynamical equations to offer any explanation

1194]
of the

F.

NEUMANN.

phenomena

the review of our

T.
12,

first

of light, has been accepted by several writers (see volume in the Bulletin des sciences mathetnatiques

the

but it must l>e distinctly borne in mind that of the theory was Navier, an elastician of the old, or Bernoulli-Eulerian school, who both in theory and practice had fivijiuMitly di'.ilt with clastic stresses by the old methods, and whose
p. 38, 1888), first propounder

of 1827 was preceded not by optical investigations but by arches on the elasticity of rods and plates. Neumann after briefly referring to the labours of Navier, Poisson and Cauchy concludes his first section by defining stress on their lines, i.e. by supposing inter-molecular force central and a function only of the central distance.

memoir

The second section is entitled: Allgemeine Lehrsdtze uber [1194.1 Dni'-kkrafte (S. 8-25) and develops the usual stress equations without regard to any molecular hypothesis. The third section (S. 2636) discusses Gauchy's and Lame's ellipsoids of stress and the principal tractions without reference, however, to those writers see our Arts. 610*, (iv), and 1059*. The fourth section entitled: Das System der DUatationen (S. 37-51) deals with the geometry of small strains, and discusses the ellipsoids of strain and the principal stretches. The fifth section is entitled Beziehungen zwisehen den Di^uckkrdften und den It deals only with uncrystalline and preVerrtickungen (S. 52-9). sumably homogeneous and isotropic bodies. Neumann remarks that experiment shows us that stress and strain vanish and arise coevally ; hence he argues that one must be capable of being mathematically He then states that there can expressed as a function of the other. be no doubt that in uncrystalline bodies the axes of principal stretch and principal traction must coincide, and lie continues:
die
: :

\nnahnie, da>s die Dilatationcn kleinc <iros>en scicn, folgt, dass die Druckkrafte, welche wir als Functionen jencr aii/n-.-lu-u hal>m, in dcr Gestalt eincr Kntwirkelnng nach Poten/en dcr Dilatationcn dar^estellt wenlcn koimen. Da ferner nach iiuserer Annahme die Dilatationm >.. k ^en *ind, daxs wir nnr ihrc erste Potonx x.n iMTiiek-iehti.u'm l>rauchon, so -in nnd uiptdruckkraf'tc HIKMIV Kunrticncn d<T Dilat.it mum
!

init

jcncn zugleich vensc-hwindcn,

..line

eines

r-

<

;ii-d'^

ilmm

Hin/ufiigung

cinf.ioh proporti'iial /u s.-t/cn sein (S.

falls

Obviously here
in his

Neumann
1>-J7
!>

into the

--i/nitxr as

memoir
.*),
1'V

>t'

our Art. 614*), as

in
1

Max w,

Cauchy

-II

in

cur
obtain-

or

lAm6
f,,,

WJ

1850 (see

tran-t-'i-niation
.,,,

tlie

,s ...... ur An. Neumann then 1051*), ordinary stress-strain relations and the

body-shift equations

onr

0,

A - H

for

our

-J/i.

and
liis

He employs for isotropic elastic solid. II tor our A. Kurth'-r he uses pressures
\v..rk.

not traetinn^ tln-ou^lmut Tin- Sections 2-5 of

elasticity, at least so not

Neumann's work form an elementary theory of far as isotropic bodies are concerned. They do
in

possess

any particular advantages

the

present state of our

science.

6
[1195.]
directly

F.

NEUMANN.
of

[11951196
work
(S.

Tho

sixth

section

the

60-6)

is

entitled

Jfavier'i Differentialgleichungen.

by Navier's method (see In uni-constant iaotropy and avoids all introduction of the stresses. starting with Navirr's investigation Neumann adopts the historical He points out the objections to Navier's process (S. 66 see our plan. Art*. 531*-2*), and then turns to Poisson's and Cauchy's treatment of Poisson's Ableitung der tin problem in his seventh section entitled: Neumann's <;/,,'</< tuiyen (S. 67-79). investigation follows aUgctHfitien He deduces the shift-equations for fairlv closely Poisson's of 1828.
:

It deduces the body-shift equations our Art. 266*) ; this method leads to

The

the cases of isotropy and of three rectangular axes of elastic symmetry. latter system he speaks of as crystalline, although it is often by working in bodies without crystalline structure. He says

produced

Zu diesen Krystallen, deren Zahl sehr gross ist, gehoren alle Fornien des regularen, vicrgliedrigen /wei- und zweigliedrigen und sechsgliedrigen Systems f.isnahnie gewisser, hemiedrLscher Formen, bei deneu die parallelen Wir nennen diese iltiachen iehlcn, /.. B. beini regularen Tetraeder. F>nuen die geneigtfliichigen Hemieder. Ferner findet eine solche symiiirtnsche Vcrtlieiliing nicht mehr statt bei alien Krystallen des zwei- und
eingliedrigen

und des

eiu-

und

eingliedrigen

Systems

(S. 75).

resulting equations involving six independent constants agree those which would be obtained by substituting the stress-strain relations of our Art. 117 (a) with the rari-constant conditions d = d', e = e', f=f, in the usual body stress-equations. The seven sections with which we have already dealt belong to the 1857-8 notebooks. Section 8 is taken from a notebook of 1859-60,
witli
virtttelleti

The

Entwickelung der Gleichungen aus dem Princip der This is a reproduction of Geschwindiykeit (S. 80-106). see our Art. 667. the method of Carl Neumann's memoir of 1860 F. Neumann, I think, supposes the first application of the principle of virtual moments to the theory of elasticity to have been made in tlic above memoir, but this is hardly correct see our Arts. 268* and 759*. The method of the Vorlesunyen is somewhat clearer and briefer than that of C. Neumann it is also applied to bodies with three axes of

and

is

entitled

ic

symmetry.

Section 9 (S. 107-20), taken from a notebook of 1857-8, [1196.] deals with the thermo- elastic equations in the method previously adopted have seen that Neumann in hul'umel and Neumann himself. 1-y 1841 (see our Art. 1196*) claimed priority in the deduction of these equations, and the Editor of the Vorlesungen (S. vi) apparently looks

We

The results uj>on this section as an original part of the present work. do not seem to be more general than those of Duhamel (1838, see our Arts. 868* and 877*) and in all cases of doubt, priority of publication must be decisive. Neumann like Duhamel limits his equations to the range in which His body-stressextension is proportional to rise in temperature.

1197]

F.

NEUMANN.

S. 113, are equivalent to equations involving thermal effect (2) and (3), and Equations (2) of our Art. 883*; his surface stress- equations (1) S. 114, to Equation (3) of the same article; his remarks on the (2), relations between temperature and normal pressure, and between the th.-i mo-elastic-constant, the stretch-modulus and the thermal stretchcoefficient are equivalent to those of Duhamel in our Arts. 875* and

888*.

[1197.]
line bodies the

58

(S.

uiiKinn questions

115-8) is entitled: A'r</*t<i!lini8c?ie Korper. In whether the thermo-elastic constant is in crystalfor all directions.

same

He
<f

suggests equations of the

form (KM cur Art. 883*):

cK?
<te

d3 +
dj
<%y

dq

fc'P'dc'
<i&

dZ$

dq

in

whieh he assumes, I suppose, the body to have three rectangular The of elastic symmetry, coinciding with the thermal axes. surface stress-equations will now be given by:

X' = (

- /?,#) cos I + 7$ cos m +

+ J? cos m +

cos n,

T = 7} cos / + (n - fitf) cos m + ^ cos n,

Z = Z* cos
so that

- /3gq)

cos n,

it is obvious that a rise of temperature is no longer equivalent to a uniform surface traction see our Arts. 684-5.
:

ierauf beruht die Entscheidung durch die Beobachtung. Man best! mint durch directe Messung die Aenderung der Winkel, wenn der Druck auf die U geandert wird, wenn man ilm /. Oberflache de aus dem Drucke r Atuiowphare in den von 10 AtrnosphJiren odor in den luftleeren Haunt Auf dieselbe Weise misst man die Winkel-inderung, welche durch bringt. auf KXI luTvori:l.raeht wird. hung der Temperatur, /. 1>. v..n dt man l>eide Male ein entnprechendes System von \Vinkclandcrungen, HO sind alle drei Werthe von /9 unter sich gleich befolgen die Aendenn
1 1
1'..
i

iesetze,

so sind sic ver.schieden (S.

d. -scribes
:..

16-7).

Neumann

th'-n

method

of

making the needful nn -a

;
;
i

!! MUM'! M- ..f M i! -ch- i-!;.-l .1 oife tingen der Berliner Akademi'. 1815, S. i.'PJ) uj>on calcspar. This mat. rial \j,ands in the direction of its axis owing to a rise of temperature and contracts The stretch for 100 C. increase of temperaperpendicular to the axis. te nid to be -00286 and the squeeze - -00056. Thus the dilatation was '00174. similar result was exhibited by gypsum which in three ditl'Tent dj had dill-ient stretches or 8qi
,

F.

NEUMANN.

[1198

Neumann

does not cite any experiments to determine how far the thermal results for these crystals are in accordance with those which would be produced by uniform surface tractions. He merely remarks that rods might be cut in certain directions from such crystals so that they would not change their length with change of temperature
:

Hier

oft aehr gewiinscht

lost also eine krystallinische wird (S. 118).

Substanz ein Problem, dessen Losung

The section concludes with a paragraph deducing the amplified form This is in of Fourier's differential equation for the conduction of heat. accord with Dnhamel's results cited in our Art. 883*, Equation (i).

[1198.]

The tenth

section

of
(S.

the

Vorlesungen

is

entitled

Of this section 60 121-32). reproduces Kirchhoff's proof of the uniqueness of the solution of the equations for the equilibrium of an elastic solid: see our Art. 1255 61 (S. 125-8) extends the proof of the uniqueness of the solution to the case of vibrations. This, I think, had not
Kirchhofs allgemeine Lehrsdtze
:

been

done

by either Kirchhoff or

Clebsch

and

is

original

as in the previous paragraph, supposes isotropy. If there be two solutions, then will indicate his method of proof.

Neumann,

We

their difference, given say by the shifts U, V, W, must satisfy the body- and surface-equations with abstraction of body-force

and

surface-load.

Consider the quadruple integral

M
f \

/ (PV P
~dt*

(XTy
~dsc

dyy_

d^
dyz
-J"~~
i

dyz\dY
~fa)
J*~~-\ u zz \ ~dt
,71 CL
\

uz*
r

T^v
~*~

"*

aa;

ay

a /

^i

r
}

at

which is zero owing to the body stress-equations. Integrate the stress terms by parts the surface integrals then vanish owing to the surface Substitute for the stresses from the stress-strain relastress-equations. tions, and the whole will be found a complete differential with regard to the time. Integrating out with regard to the time we find
;
:

The whole
I

Clebflch'fl Treatite.

see our Art.

of this section is due to the lectures of 1859-60, and thus precedes Kirchhoff's investigation was first given in the memoir of 1858
:

1199]

1.

NEUMANN.

follows that all the squared terms must separately vanish at all points of the body. \Ve see then that U, V, are not functions of tin- time and that they can only express a translation and rotation of the body as a whole.
it

Hence

[1199.]

62 of the Vorlesungen
AVy.>7/////'.

is

entitled

Verallyemeinerung

ties

It is a not very satisfactory extension of tinproof of the preceding section to bodies for which the stress-strain relations an- of the form
:

to

hod its
/A/-*-

pos8'** rari e.,n>tane\

tal.

which we can assume rari-constancy ami Even it' we suppose far axes of elastic symmetry. >uch bodies an- by no means the only existing type of Further Neumann's proof depends on the conditions that
for
rx-titii'iii
.

a>e+f,

b>f+d

od +
KS

e .................. (i).

Neumann demonstrates this as follows. Crystals, he states, do not we according to experiment differ widely from isotropic bodi<
inn
t

have

3X = a - K =
I

b
e

KS ,
tDr

X=
wln-nII:<<

(I

vr

l=

ur2 =y*

3,

K
,

it

K, -,. tr,, ars are very small (juantiti.-s as compared with A. This true. follows that the relations (i) above must !,
.
i

ion supposes again the limit to le uni-constaiit is. .tic; to this sort of proof is that relations :il<in to (i) may hold, and certainly ami other tinimiijiu-nr.ss of thr solution must hold, for wood Nfiimunn's conrludinu in which then- i^ no approach to isotropy at all. 'he proposition prM to Hlgged that hr 00 ior aU bodfei whi.-li OOOOf in Ottmrt, In a footnote tin- r.-mark is h. ih it the laws of doul.le refraetion rccjtiire that in he caso of the
i i

hoiihl

have

a. 3 (*+/-'').
and
ih.r
;

'>

= 3(/+</
ODlj

).

-3(r/4--/)
'

Iftf

llM

'

tor the ether.

i:.

Thai lelations (u)

.,.,

,,/ al-,,!ul.U

i.

IT.

11.

|0
on the 148
1-jln.

F.

NKl'MANN'.

[1200

elastic jolly theory of the ether

has been indicated in our Art.

:

more complete proof

t

iciiy is

of the uniqueness of the solution of the 1 see our Arts. -iven in Kirehhoff's Vorlesungen

1-J.V)

and 1278.

63 (S. 129-32) belongs to the lectures of 1873-4. an investigation of the elastic energy of the stresses for an in it is so far more general than that to be found isotropic solid the usual text-books, in that it regards possible changes of tem[1200.]
It is
;

ire

dm- to the

strain.

Let X, 7, Z be the body-forces at the point x, y, z of the solid, and A', )", %' the surface-load at the element dS of the surface. Then the n deduce from the thermo-elastic equations (see our Art. 1197)
following relation
:

-(SH*)'}***
lffp(Xu+
+ !t(x' <" JJ\

Yv + Zw)dxdydz

du

d + # -}ds rdt dt)

-f

-v +

+ ft

(o-,,

or,,/)}

dx,lydz
..(lii),

ur Art. 885*). if X', V, Z' are independent of t, i.e. if the surface load be t i'ln;i in tlie ; same, we may integrate the whole of this with regard to

Now

except the
in

last

term of the last

line.

This last can be integrated easily

two
(i)

ens

Steady temperature, or q no function of

t.

We

have

/// p

(Xn

+
'

Yv + Z,r)
-V

,r.,'.t,

/f lz
*)

+ ff(X'u + Y'v + Z'w) dS

A*

V+

(y? + <r?J +

The importance
IK-

fotiiul

which

of this proposition lies in the result, that if any partirulmthis satisfiofl isfiofl all tho conditions of an elastic problem,

eolation ia the only iultnissililc on.

1201]

T.

MK 'MA NX.

11

(ii) Suppose we neglect the first term on the right-hand-side of equation (iv), as for example in Newton'.- hypothesis as to the velocity of sound, then wo have
:

= /// p (Xu + Yv + Zw) dxdydz + //(JTu + TV + Z'w) dS

J

/ {A* +

2/i

(**

+ I/ +

O+

ft

(V + er'

4-

[1201.] wex<

The eleventh

section (S. 133-163)

is

is

entitled:

An-

'"f imkrystallinische Korper, and

occupied with the

application of the equations of bi-constant isotropic elasticity to certain simple problems. The object of this section, we are told,
is

to clear

up the doubtful points of those

theories which star

from the molecular hypothesis reach uni-constant isotropy. Neumann ht-iv. however, does not seem to lay sufficient stress on tinin the ->il)ility of various distributions of elastic homogeneity
l>

rods, wires,

may

hollow cylinders and spheres of which he treats. note one or two pointa

W-

He refers (S. 136-8) to the experiments of Cagniard de la (a) Tour. Ile-nault, \Vertheim and himself on the magnitude of the stretch He himself s.piee/.e ratio: see our Arts. 368*, 1321*, 1358* and 73G. had found that for iron-wire iy= 1/4 nearly, but that it was m-nnr 1/3 for other substances, which he unfortunately does not specify.
S. M1--J Neumann i^ives a theory of Wertheim's cylinder He remarks on the of determining 17: see our Art. 802. me importance of ascertaining the value of rj for truly isotioj.i. ln.di.-s. a> tin- development of the molecular theory dt'jxMids so entirely tho stress in a hollow cylinder due upon it. in investi^atini; on S.
(l>)

On

in.

hod

."

takes a stress-limit of strength and Both DO to me applies the theory of elasticity to rupture. unjustiliahle: see our Art. 5 (a) and (c), 169 (c) and 320-1.
to

internal

pre.sMiiv,

Neumann

153 deal with the of trconsidered problem of the hollow Neumann discusses Oersted's theory of the pie/...m. and MOW Colladon and Sturm were correct in supposing that a hollow sj.herical >li-ll witli ejual internal and external prpRHUrofl ontractH as a solid sphere would do under t,ho same external presuHe a|.pli.-, the tlu-ory to th.-rmoin me our -<G*-C90*. ^ of the them ..... liullts, and in particular shows how tl with the tul.e iii a \erti. -al than \\ith the tul.e in a hori/outal ]\ Inthel.iill. owini^ to the internal |uiek sil \
.ph'-rieal shell.
,

12

F.

NEUMANN.

[1202

He shows by a numerical example case. being greater in the former "the ditH'ivnee of the reading in the two positions might amount
C.

Bei Thermometorn, welche Cylinder statt Kugeln haben, ist dieser Fehler nirht so bedeotend, wril sic in der Regel cine starkere Wand besitzen. llierin liegt ciner der Vorziige der Cylinderthermometer (S. 151).

The consideration (S. 151-3) of the strength of an isotropic with the strength of a cylindrical spherical shell and its comparison is for reasons we have frequently referred to, very questionable
.

\\lirn

applied to glass vessels

see our Arts.

1358* and 119.

74 (S. 153-5) deals with the problem of an isotropic solid sphere surrounded by a shell of different isotropic elastic material, to the outer surface of which is applied a uniform pressure. NY u maim finds that the solid core will contract more or less than it would do, if the external pressure, were directly applied to it, according as 3A + 2/x for the core is greater or less than it is for the shell.
(rf)

tic

75-76 (S. 155-61) are introduced by the Editor, and give 8 (e) methods of determining the elastic constants by torsion and uniform These are practically the methods flexure (i.e. flexure by a couple). adopted by Kirchhoff and Okatow to determine rj see our Arts. 1271-3. The final paragraphs of this section (S. 1613) entitled Beobachtunyen zur Bestimmung des VerhdUnisses der beiden Elasticitiitsconstanten are also mainly due to the Editor and give a short resume of the various experimental determinations of rj due to Cornu, Mallock, Kirchhoff, )katow, Schneebeli, Kohlrausch, Loomis, Baumeister, Rontgon, Amagat, W. Voigt, Littmann, and Everett. Accounts of the researches of these writers will be found under their names in our index, and the results of later researches under the title stretch-squeeze We can only remark here, that several of them still leave open r>'tio. to question the true isotropy of the materials experimented on, and they cannot thus be said to have finally settled the elastic constant -mtroversy see our Arts. 925*, 932*, 192, 800, and 1271.
: :

<

[1202.]

The

twelfth section
S.

is

entitled:

Elasticitdt krystal-

164-202. This section is taken Stoffe from lecture notes of the years 1873-4. Neumann here rejects the rari-constant equations for crystals with three axes of elastic symmetry such as he had previously adopted in his work, and on
S.
hi/i

and occupies

relations involving
'!<;

expresses the stresses in terms of the strains 36 constants. Thus he writes

:

by

linear

im Allgcmeincn nicht auf eine Jedoch verringert sich in den allermeisten wenn der Kry.stull in Bezug auf eine oder mehrere Ebenen syrnmetrisch gebildet ist. Nur in den seltener vorkommeuKl.usticitJitscoustantoii la.sscn sich
ihl /uriirkfiihren. l-n ilnv Zalil sdiici-lM'l.lidi,

1203]
den Fallen dcs
liegt
(S. 165).

F.

NEUMANN.

13

fin- und cingliudrigcn S.-t^ m>. wiu /. B. beim Kupfervitriol, kein theoretiacher Gruiid fur erne Veruiinderung ihrer An/ahl vm-

This statement of course

work

It-ads

is hardly true, for the principle of us at once to the reduction of the 36 constants to 21.

section contains a

Notwithstanding this necessary modification (S. 179 ftn.), the good deal of valuable and, till 1885, unpublished work of Neumann. The results should be compared with those Ranking MJU our Arts. 450-1.
t
:

[1203.]
in

We reproduce briefly

Neumann's

stress-strain relations

our

own

notation and with the additional relations between the

to Green's principle: see Arts. 78, 117, etc.

-tants
(a)

due

zx.

Crystal with one plane of elliptic symmetry, taken as that of S. 1G8.) (Zwei- lutd eingliedrigen oder inonoklimschc, Krystatte.

M = 08X

+f'sy +

e's z

Ajo-se,
,

+ + d"su +

d'8z
as.,

+ h 9<r!a:

+k^rtmt

^ = k"trxy + d<r
we ought
to

yz

Neumann
and

has thus twenty constants, hut

put

/,',

//.',

A;,'-/*!, h, y

7t

re.si>ectively,

or leave only thirteen constants.

(6)

n as zx

Crystal with two planes of elastic syntin'tr and yz. (Zwei- und zweiyliedriye Krystalle.
,

S. 169.)

Tin-ni

ijuaiions

also

hold

for

crystals

with

tJn-fi-

planc.s

of
ire
uts.

and have twelve constants according to Nnnnami, Inn to ought put d" = d\ e"=e' and/" =/', which leaves only n
-try,

(c)
i

Crystal with

two equal

ti.w#,

taken as those of x and

y.

atte des viergliedrigen Systems.)

Tin-so equations ju-.-..rdini; to Neumann havo seven oonstauts, " =*e so that wo have only six constants.

IMI!

14
(*l)

F.

NEUMANN.

[1204

three rectangular equal axes Kryular Crystal*, or those having

x, y, s.

taken MS those of

= (rt -/')
These have
tfiree

8Z

+f'0,

7y=."

independent constants.
passes
to

[1204.]
crystals.
(e)
(

Neumann now

hexagonal and rhouibohedral

Hexagonal Crystals.

(Sechsgliedrige Krystalle.)
:

M these

Neumann

writes

bleiben noch die Krystalle dos hexagonalen Systems zu untersucheu deren Gruiidform die auf einem regularen Sechseck stehcnde gleichDie drei Diagonalen dieses Sechsecks bilden die M-itige Doppelpyramide ist. drai gleichwerthigen Axeu der Krystallform, deren vierte Axe von jcnen verdie Gesetze dieser Art von Symmetric auf ein rechtwinkliges soliicilen ist Coordinatensystem zu beziehen, benutzen wir die Formeln [Art. 1203 (6)], welchc gUltig sind, da die beschriebene Krystallform durch drei auf einander kommt als rechtwinklig stehende Ebenen symmetrisch theilbar ist. Dazu zu einer von der /wc'ite Art der Symmetric, dass eine Drehung um 60 fiihrt (S. 174). unspriinglichen nicht unterschiedeneu Stcllung
11-

iibrig,

Um

Turning the axes of x, y through 60 round z, calculating the corresponding stresses and strains and causing them to have relations of the same form as in Art. 1203 (b), we find that we must have
:

/"=/',

a = b,

= d,
:

2f=a-f,

d"

= e"

and

d = e.

\\Y thus obtain the system

^ = (2/+/') sx +f's

A.

,<,!(

ling to

Neumann
=
e

principle tells us that e"

there are thus six constants: but Green's also, or leaves only^e constants.

(/)

Rlwmbohedral Crystals.
that a similar process to that of
(e)

Neumann remarks

enables us

to obtain formulae for a rhombohedral crystalline system

(Jriindform als cine dopi>eltc dreiseitige

Pyramido auf/ufasson

ist,

jodoch mit

das Gcsetz der Symmetric, dass ciut-r I'liidic der ol>eren Pyrarnide nicht cine gleiche der untercn cntspricht, soiidcni dasH cine Fliiche der oberen mit ciner Kante dor iiiiteren Pyramids auf dei-nellxin Scitc des Krystalles liegt, und umgckehrt. Ein Rhomboeder int also nicht durch mehrere auf einander rechtwinklige Ebenen symmetrisch
cinci- Milclu-n

licstimmung

iibcr

theillxir (S. 176).

120")]

l-\

\KTMA.\N.

15

Neumann takes the chief axis of the crystal for axi.s of ~ and the plane of zx perpendicular to the face of one of the pyramids and so that an edge of the second pyramid also lies in it Then zx is the only coordinate plane which is one of symmetry, and the formulae (a) hold for this case. rotation, however, of 120 round the axis of z cannot affect the form of the stress-strain relations. This leads to the reduction of (a) to the types

V />r +/'** +
TV =/'*

*'" -.- /ttr

;

>

+ (?/'+/') e"sx + e"s

*,

+ 68, +

/MT

e"

has eiy/U constants, but Green's principle shows that leaves only six. If we put h = h" = we obtain the hexagonal system as a particular case.
II

re

Neumann

= e', and h" = h or

Neumann now turns to some interesting problems on [1205.] These problems have been crystals involving the above formulae.
tin-

.starting-point of several important experimental investigations

by Voigt, Baumgarten, Coromilas and

can-ful study.

others,

and therefore deserve

85
<ln

fh

nil*'

Mil fact

ZunamHtendrticfaiHy eiiies be the uniform pressure applied to the of a crystal, then the surface-stress equations will be satisfied it
(&.

179-81)

is

entitled:

it'xjen

Dmwk.

Let

ff

and thcsr will obviously satisfy also the body-stress equations. Hence a possible and therefore the only solution is to suppose the shifts linear
functions of the coordinates

y, z.

Suppose we
JT//,

tak<-

U=

J/.r,

W=

Pz,
:

then from Art. 1203, (d)

we

find for a regular crystal

tin

eiliiet

boundary Suppose we t

its

of uniform j>ressure on to a similar form.

re^ul

il

i>

only to

n=J///,

v
I

/'.,

and apjily these ID

1

he e|iiat

ion.-,

.f

Ail.

L'n

<

/'i

t.,i

hoiiil.nhi

.lr..l

1,

we

h,

./,.:/

/.

It,

F.

NEUMANN.

[1206

itraction of a rhombohedral crystal (or of a hexagonal, Tim since the result does not involve h: see our Art. 1204 (e) and (/)) is .lit!', rent for different directions. spherical surface becomes an It is also possible, Neumann thinks, that olution. i-llips-

M
,s

Since y* and of opposite sign. are probably not very on the rari-constant different from each other and from e hypn thesis), this would seem to involve c<e', or a given stretch

and

/'

may be

f (ff

would have more Neumann adds

:

effect in

producing lateral than longitudinal

stresses.

der allseitig gcprcsste Krystall sich in eincr Richtung /usamwiihrend er sich in einer andern ausdclmt, analog der schoncn von Kilhard Mitechcrlich gcmachtcn Entdeokung. dass cin Krystall durch Erwiiriming .sich nicht allcin unglcichmiissig ausdclmt, sondern sogar in gewissen
I'.inn wiirdc
nirii/.iehen,

Kichtungon sich xnsammenziehen kann

(S. 181).

[1206.]

Neumann

next turns to the

still

more interesting

problem of a crystalline prism in the shape of a right six-face under uniform tractive load on a pair of parallel faces.
Suppose a rectangular coordinate system x, y, z to have relation to the axes of the crystal, and a second to give the directions of the 77, of the prism, so that the tractive load T is applied to the faces or in the direction of Then it will be found that parallel to i? the body-stress equations and the surface-stress equations can all be satisfied by taking the stresses equal to the constants as follows
, :

= T cos
=

(fe
(

x) t
y),
),

& = T cos (, y) cos (,

Tx

z),
j

T cosTy Tz = T cos (
2

T cos (, Zi = T cos
(
:

z) cos
a;)

(&

a?),

(i).

cos (, y)

The

shifts are thus linear

and of the form

u = MX + p'y + nz = MX + J (p
.*;

+p') y

-f

| (n + n)

z-{

(p

-p) y+^
m') z

(n

ri) z,

4-

Xy + m'z
\

-^(p + p')x + Ny +

(m + m') z-\(m

...(ii).
-J-

(p

j)') x,

w = n'x +
J (n

my+J
ri)

':

x + J (m + m') y + Pz - J (n -

ri)

x + % (m - m') y

Tht second method of writing these equations shows that we can only f bo del ennine the six + ri), quantities M, N, P, ^(m + ), ^(n

/>

+;/) by substituting in

(i)

for the

terms with

fly a rotation of the

prism as a whole.

1206]

F.

NEUMANN.

17

Neumann first considers the case of a regular crystal. once from Art. 1203 //:

We

have at

T
/' /'

cos'-'

(, *)

(a

-/')

^ +/'*,

<*

"0 = ^ cos (, y) cos (fc s),

/*')

cos' (fc y)

cos2 (, c)
,

= (a -/') .V +/'0, = (a -/') /' -f f'O,

J/ =

(H +

- Tcos

(fc s)
,

cos

(f, *),

d (p +

;/)

r cos (f

cos (6 y),

W1H

Let
/,,

r
/*,,

M,,
*r

be the stretch in the direction r having direction with regard to x, y, z, then we easily find from our Art. 54*:
l'
2

~,

cos2

((,

x)

m* cos

(& y)

4-

<

cos2 (f, s) -

-~

This may he compared with Neumann's investigation of 1834 our Arts. 795*-9* and Con^igenda to Vol. I., p. 3, and compare our An. 309. Suppose we wish to find $, then, I, = cos (, 2), "i - cos (, y), = cos (, ^) ; and after slight reductions we have: 7*,

*=T

JL _
{(

i^)

(fc

x) f cos^ (f y)
,

cos^

({,

(cos^

,))

(in

for alum by experimentally verified BeckenkftBp; % -iV.-r// ///>/'/// lid. In, 8. 41, 1885. From the above equation find at oner Neumann's biquadratic surface for the stretch-modulus see our Art. 799*. T/st) In the ease in whi<h the prism is cut parallel to an axis of tincrystal, we have for the stretch-modulus
A'/7/x/"//< "//"/>/,//,
:

This n-sult was published by W. Voigt as from Neumann's /'nt/t/.-tn/ni-i/s Annalen, Ei-<i<tn-.niuj8-]>and vil., S. 5, 1{S7C>) ami has

<+
whidi \alue
<>f

stands

in a

>impl' relation to the

(iii)

dilat.it ion

modulus
-

Up, B85J deduced from the Equations

of

tl,

as

18

K.

NEUMANN.

[12071208

Neumann next investigates the directions in which the [1207.] it-modulus as given l>y (iv) takes maximum or inininium values. To obtain these values Neumann transfers to polar coordinates with the axis of 2 as polar-axis, or he takes :
cos (, x)

= cos a,
or

cos (& y)

sin a cos <,

cos (, z)

= sin a sin <.

He thm
is

olitains the following directions in

which the stretch-modulus

to the faces of the

maximum

minimum, namely the normals

:

following geometrical crystalline forms

(i)

The cube sin a = 0,

a+f

cosa-0, cosa-0,
(ii)

cos<
sin<
1

The octahedron tair< = tau'a = 2,

tan 2 a =

j
1, /

3(o + 2/')

3d'

(iii)

The rhombic dodecahedron

1,

cos
sin
<

=
=

0,

taira=l, cos a = 0,

0,
1,

tan2

We easily

find

\\ln-nce the relative magnitudes of Ec D) may be determined Since we have \JEC + 3/.# = 4/A^, we according as 2d is > or < a -f. cannot determine the three elastic constants a, /', d by ascertaining the values of the stretch-moduli D c JS0)
, ,

[1208.]
'ii.

j;alcs

In the following paragraph ( 89, S. 188-90) Neumann the lateral squeeze which accompanies a longitudinal In this case lit ni lt of our Art. 1206 are subject to the

condition

and the formula

.'

(iii)

of that article can then be thrown into the form

cos= (f , x)

|(a \ fl

) (l?

<
is

cos 2

((,

y)

-t-

n? cos (,

denoting the lateral stretch, which

(a)

here a squeeze.

8up])OBC the prism cut in any

way

parallel to

an axis of the

1209]
crystal, then

F.

NEUMANN.
/,,
//t

19
are zero and

two out

ot the three

i^

we have from

(v)

and

(vi):

a-f
ratio is in this case constant in all directions in Art. 1206 perpendicular to the traction, and by aid of the value of we see that it is given by:

Hence the stretch-squeeze

v
hedron, then
cos2 (f , x)

=//(+/')

Suppose the traction in the direction of a normal to the octa-

= cos2

y)

- cos'

(fe

1/3,

and therefore from

(iv)

~
'I'his

r
(2rf~
S. 189.
still

from that given by Neumann on queen modulus is here more complex, but is directions in the plane of the cross-section.
i

.suit differs

The

stretchall

constant for

Suppose the traction in the direction of a normal to the (c) rhombic dodecahedron, then cos- (, a;) = cos2 (, y} and cos (, z) - 0, and if x l>e the angle the direction of the squeeze makes with the of z we have
,
:

Thus the squeeze varies with

(li>o!).]
ji

the direction in the cross-section.

190-5) entitled: At.'wt.-rnwj far Winkel eines durch Druck deduces expressions in terms of the nits for the changes in the angles of a crystalline prism under uniform lon;/itudinal traction. By simple optical methods, which indicated by Neumann, these changes can be easily measured and \\e thus have a further means of ascertaining the elastic constai I'misider a plane whose direction-cosines with in regard to x, y, tin- unstrained condition are given by cos a,, cos/?!, cosy,, and hi tor strain become cos (a, + 8a,), cos (/?, + 8)3,), cos (y, + Sy,). Then with the notation of our Art 1206 Neumann easily shows that:
(S.
;

DO

i*t'ilU

cos (a, + 80,) = (cos aj cos (ft + 5ft ) - (cos ft cos (y + 8y,) (cos y,
(

- M cos a, - /> cos ft - n' cos y,) 7, - ;/ cos a, - N cos ft - m cos y,) 7. - n cos a, - m'cos ft P cos y,) 7,
:

|
)

^hres of small
1

ulding, neglectiuu' th(

uan tities and taking the root, to be

/' cos^,
4-

.l/cc

a,

+ ^cc*3ft +
+ (n +

(m +

;/*')

coe ft cosy,

n') cos y, cos a,

(/t

p) cos o, OOH ft ...

20

F.

NKIMANN.

[1209

.u id

Let a second plane be given by coscu, cos ft, cosy., in the unstrained Mi(eu + 8u), cos (ftj + 8ft), cos (y3 + Sy.j) in the strained position, thru \v h ,.\. if <r, <r be the angles between the two planes after and :;iin, from equations of the type (i):
<

-.

COS V

= {COS <T - 2 (if COS O

-

COS 03

+ JV COS ft

COS ft +

P COS y

COS y,)

cos y3 + cos ft., cos y^ (111 + m) (cos ft - (u + n) (cos x cos cu + cos 2 cos a,) y y + cos 2 cos (P + P) ( cos a cos
i

an expn-ssion similar to q 1 in (ii) but involving cu, ft, y 2 7 Nruinann Ukes only the special case when the planes are originally at right angles and therefore <TO = 90, cos <TO = 0. Hence, if <r = o- + 8<r, the values of the we may replace cos o- by So-, and substituting constants given in our Art. 1 206 we reach the result
i^
.

&r =

2T
77 {cos

(, x) cos a x cos

cu

+ cos 2

(^,

y) cos ft cos ft

+ cos2 (,

^;)

cos yj cos

y.,}

T + ^

{cos (, y) cos
(^, s) (^, a;)

(^,

z) (cos ft cos y,

+ cos ft cos
+ cos y2 cos

y,)

+ cos
+ cos

COS (, a) (cos yx cos cos

(ft

a.,

t^)
......

y) (cos c^ cos ft

+ cos a 2 cos ft)}

:

(iv).

Neumann
(i)

takes two special cases of this

C/uinge in angle between the two rectangular faces of a prism

jyarallel to the direction

which are

of the traction.

Here:

hence multiplying these together,

we have by

(iv)

+ cos2

(ft

y) cos ft cos ft

cos2

(ft 3)

cos

y cos y 2 { ............ (v).

l

If the traction be in the direction of an axis of the crystal or of a normal to the octahedron, it is easy to shew that 80- = ; if in the direction of a normal to the rhombic dodecahedron we have
:

whm;
(ii)

a,

^90

-a,.

Cliange in angle between a loaded face of the prism

and a free

face.

1210]

F.

NEUMANN.
y),

21

Here
1)

a,, ft, y,
\

are (,

*),

(,
jr)

2;)

respectively, hence

/> = cos(,

fcosa/i
| cos

*)

+ co. (*,

( C08

ft

{
(iv)

ww
we
find
:

and by multiplying these and using

s)cosyj ............... (vi).

Various special cases are deduced from this general formula,
S.

194-5.

Neumann noxt indicates methods of dealing with the like [1210.] problems in the case of prisms cut from rhombohedral crystals. He takes in 91 (S. 195-9) the case of a uniform longitudinal tractive load applied to such a prism. We have now to solve equations liko (i) of our Art. 1206, when the values of the shifts (ii) in that article are substituted in the stress-strain relations (f) of our
Art.
1204.

Neumann

p + p' on

S. 195,

+ w', n + n', gives the values of J/, JV, P, and taking the chief axis of the rhombohedral crystal
cos (, x)
s$

an polar axis, so that cos (& z)

lie

cos y,

=
in

sin

y cos

<f>,

cos (, y) = sin y sin fa

obtains for the stretch

tbe direction

of

tin-

traction

in Art.

1206:

- +
Ka /

sin'

y+

-K,

cos<

- - \K,
3<
I

sin 2

*J

y cos y
\
i i

sin 3

y cos y cos

........................

),

of the stretch modulus \[Et( s^T) is ji\en 4 Putting \JE^ proportional to 1/r \\li radius-vector we have a biquadratic surface, the pn.pri-tii^ of which
reciprocal
tor

Thus the
e\ery

dirt-ction.

maun

discusses at

chirf axis (z) the equatorial section ia a circle thioii'_rh the axis of z making an an^h- of I'.n
that by tin- plane
//-

Perpendicular to the the section by a plane with the I ami are alike and are oval omnrea of the tyj>e
(S.

some length

196-9).
;

/<<-,

A
<

r.iiiia

Bn
that
in

or minima of r are given by < = 0, GO and 120; and for -0 It is found he |.lane o) theae are investigat by Neumann. general there are in that plane three direetions of maximum
.

-.

or

minimum
1

/.
I

Kvperim.
161
.

,.

me^aiien on calcspar (Poggfmdorffs 1874) and OoromflM on gypsum and

i

(/. //-/,/-,/>

/',/,

K ,,!*(,

ill,

.iir.ti.l,;,',

I'.d

i ,

nann's theoretical result*.

We

-pear to

some

exf.-nt to

note from ejn.in..n <\n>

22

F.

NEUMANN.

[12111212

however, that only four relations between the six constants of a rhomlrthedral crystal can be found by pure tractive experiments.

The next problem dealt with is that of a rhombohedral uniform surface pressure ( 92, S. 199-200). Substitute under crystal th. \.ilut-s (ii) of Art 1206 in (/) of Art. 1204 equating the tractions the shears to zero, we find to ;> and
[1211.]
:

= h(tf- M) \-d(n + n'), (2/+f) N+e'P + h (n + n'), =f(p+p') + h (m + m). -p = *'M+e'N + cP, = = = NM= and n' n + m' see that m + we + Win-nee p p

M
c-e'
/

P
2(f+f'-e')
nj

-p
2 {(/+/') c -**}'"

a result agreeing with that in our Art. 1205.

v

Further the piano

.

-j

+ ^ MJ
+

-^=
\j

is

converted by the uniform pres-

into the plane

~=l,

whence wo can

ascertain the change of angle between any two planes as in our The dilatation will give the value of 2J/+P, the change whence it follows that in angle can be so taken as to give can be found. These are not functions of the coefficients which and Thus we obtain two further relations occur in (vii) of our Art. 1210.
Art. 1209.

M-P,

Neumann, who has eight and not six constants, does not shew how the remaining two relations He concludes this section with the words are to be found.
to determine the six elastic constants.
:

Eine experimentclle Untcrsuchung dieser Verhiiltnisse wiirdo auch fur dio Beontwortung dor Frage von Bedeutung sein, ob die Ausdehnung eines Krvstalbi durch Wa'rme und .seine Zusammenziehung durch Abkiihlung li-nselben Gesetzen folgt, wie seine Fomiveranderung durch Vermindemng
Steigening des Dmckes. Findet man, dass beide Vorgange in glcidinzu P bei Erwarmung vor sich gehen, und dass das Verhaltniss von

x-ii

mnstanten Worth annimmt, welchen es

.

bei

Zusammendiiickung

so wiii-do daraus folgen, dass die in 58 (see our Art. 1197) /ur Minition 1 <>S thcnnischen Dmckes eingefiihrten Constanten ^,t , /3y , ^I andi in rincin Ixrystalle fiir drei Axenrichtungen den gleichen Werth besitx(Mi
v.t,
I

WO).

This section of the lectures concludes with a [1212.] 93, S. 201-2) added by the Editor and entitled: Neuere Unterauchungen itber die Elastidtdt der Krystalle. The Editor remarks that Neumann, besides the problems on crystals considered in the present
(5^

tint- (see our Arts. 1202-11), has also dealt with the two important problems of tin- iloxure and torsion of small prisms cut in any direction see our Art. 1230. The results of his researches from a crystal
l<
<

1213

1214]

K.

NMMANN.
1

'23

have been published by W. Voigt, who has himself written many valuable memoirs based upon Neumann's investigations which fall into a later period than that of our present volume. For rock salt Voigt has found (last memoir cited in our footnote) in terms of the constants for regular crystals given in our Art. 1203, (</):
,

a = 4753,
wln-iv a
stress of

/' = 1313,

rf=1292,
is
. <

the unit.

one kilogramme per square millimetre Here we have almost exactly f' = d, i.e. \xjryy
tant notation,

taken as
in th<

if

thus the additional condition of rari-conv is nearly satisfied: see our Art. 116, ftn. It is very doubtful this holds for all regular crystals. Voigt found for fluorspar:
<

a = 14550,
while for the same material
ll'i.'tlemanns

/' = 2290,

</=3380,

Klaug with an inferior theory and method Annalm, Bd. 12, S. 331, 1881)
:

o=13200,
II.

/' = 4250,

rf=3300.

oUservers therefore agree in the inequality of/' and </, but in senses. Although numerous other regular crystals have had their elasticity investigated, there is still scarcely material enough for us to consider the iniilti- or rari-constancy of crystalline structures 2 as finally determined
.th
>.vite
.

The next five sections of Neumann's lectures (S. [1213.] :>!)!)) are entitled: Gesetzefilr die Fortpilau -uncj ebener \Ycllctt, :in<l belong properly to the History of the Undulntory Theory of
'KY.\

Lii^ht.

contents.
:in<l

here only briefly refer to their in his usual semi-historical UK tho. proceeds with his characteristic clearness; hence these hundred pa
\Ve
shall

therefore

Neumann

accompanied as they are by editorial references to most instructive, and the student is hardly likely
intioduetion ti the elastic jelly theory of the cth-r.

later work, ant

find a better

is entitled: Theorie der II ://.>',.This Molekularhi/potkese (Lecture Notes of 1857-8). d'-als with tin- laws of polarisation ami double -refrart ion of li^li \ Mf-mnir^ p. 293. j.r-\ ioii.lv in\csti^at-d by Cauchy ( -')!) and Netiniann himself (Poggtmdorffk AnitcUeii, Bd.

(Ull.| nd

13(8.203-40)

<ler

1832)
1

on the rari-constant
Annakn,
Erganzungs-1'. m
n.
I

hy|>othesis.
I

Neumann
177,
l*7r,
:

explains

Poggendarfft

vn.

S.

u.

21X,W
'U,nd, 1884, 8.

An

iiiiiHiitiiiit

OMi
fall
'

1HM2; Sit:un<i<l>,Tic l,t,- ,1. 989-1004, and many others of later date. indeed made ly NYmimm.
If-.

rs

namely

illy

For example,

i-

it

'/

crystalloRraphicnlly and rlantically int.. tho *amt claaMR. it-iin tl>at a regular crystal lographic cryntal inanipriori

24

P.

NEUMANN.

[1214

in the following words why he starts from this narrow basis, instead of the more general crystalline equations which he has given in the previous section:
nicht nur in Rucksicht auf die geschichtliche Entwickelung Thoorion, welche uns jetzt besehiiftigen werden, sondern auch doshall, weilcM nil-lit imthwcndig ist anzunehraen, aass die Bewegimgen des Lichta'thers in Krv>tallcn genau dflOttlbeo Kraften und Gesetzen unterliegen, wie die ~ wagbare Substanz des Kcrpers selbst (S.

Wir than das

lor

Neumann starts from elastic equations involving only six constants, or from the equations of the stresses as given in our Art. 1203 (6), \\ li< Te on the rari-constant hypothesis all the accents are to be removed, ' = ",/=/'=/" and d = d' = d". He determines in the usual ie. = manner three pairs of waves, each pair having a different velocity but its members consisting of waves propagated with the same velocity in He shows (S. 207-8) how the arbitrary functions opposite directions. may be determined in terms of the initial disturbance ; and further, how for each pair of waves the direction of the shift is different, but for the same pair is the same at all places and for all times, and is independent of the initial disturbance (S. 210-11). He then investiof wave-propagation (Fortpfotnagates (S. 211-13) the ellipsoid ungsellipsoid), and discusses some interesting general problems of wave-motion (S. 215-23), concluding this part of the section with a He next turns to the determination of the wave-velocities (S. 225).
more purely
optical applications of his formulae, especially to Fresnel's laws of double-refraction and of the polarisation of light in crystals. IIremarks that (on the rari-constant hypothesis) the formulae of our Art. 1 203 (b) must for various optical media be thus simplified
:

(a)
(b)
(c)

Uncrystalline

Regular crystal Uniaxial crystal

Biaxial

(d)

( e = e' = e", medium a = b = c = 3d = 3e = 3f,\ d = e=f, and J /=/ =/', a = b = c, [ = d' = d". a = 6, d = e, ( d ) = e e' = e", /=/=/", d = d'=d". crystal

227-8),
in
l>

After an investigation of wave-motion in uncrystalline media (S. Neumann deduces Fresnel's laws for the velocity of propagation

In in'

biaxial crystals, provided the plane throuyli the direction of the wave

and

of polarisation be defined (tx fh>' the direction of tJie vibration.

\>y

The
as

plane of

polarisation

is

thus perpendicular to that given

I'Yi-.-iml's

definition, and the above is usually spoken of in Neumann's definition (Neumanrische Definition) of the

Germany

polarisation.

The deduction

plane of of Fresnel's laws even with this definition

requires the following relations to hold >n Ait. 148):

d)
\\lii
li,

among

the six elastic constants

4d?t

(a-e)(c-e) =

W, (b-f) (a-f) = 4f*

ofd
3
t

-,

neglecting the squares of the differences

e,f,

may

be replaced

by:

a=3(+/-d),

= 3(/+rf-e),

c =-

(rf

-/),

1215]

F.

NEUMANN.

25

see our Art. 1199. Neumann remarks that the differences of d, e, /are small as they depend on the differences of the refractive indices of the

two rays

1 and neglecting the differences of d, e, he demonstrates the transversality of two of the waves (S. 229-240). Of the third or !"iiiritudinal wave he gives no physical account in this section.
,

In Section 14 entitled: Theorie der Lichtwellen im i<> 241-56; Lecture Notes of 1859-60) F. Neumann 8 follows Carl Neumann in supposing the ether incompressible and so of the He remarks disposing longitudinal wave.
[1215.]
i

Aet/fi- (S.

'iirvhfuhrung dcr auf der Hypothese der Incomprossihilitiit lieruhondon Reehnun:: win! uns nur auf tran>ver>al Wellen fiihren und Restiltate liefern, die sich mit don licMiltatcn der Beolvu'htun
rs

vollknmmener

Ciiiiu-idonx liciinden (S. 241-2).

This seems too strong a statement. Carl Neumann's equations are of the type

d?u

-T

d?u
-. .
</.'*

+/

f d~u
-i-,t,

d*u
e

...
-i-

d?v
-

tbj-

dz*

-^

2/ J

+ 2e

tli>

dxdy

dxdz

-f<lx

to the condition

du dv dw = -j- + j- + -7az dx dy
dp
dp dp

0.

involving this condition, the theory introduces the terms

into the iM-dy shift equations of the previous remarks of these, equations
:

section.

F.

Neumann

Sie

Men ein^efiihrt' hat eine iKMimmte j<hysikali>ehe IVdoutuiuj. diT duivh die liewe^un- elitstehende //j/itruxtit',' !>'(. Denn die fttbttMftan hllerential^leiehun^en sind im (irunde nur die hydr>d\nahen, in welche au er den au>-eren Kraften n<>ch die inneren Slolekularkraf irt >ind, wiihrend die in jenen Ileiehun^en vorkommenden der Gteechwindigkeiten dem (:nindpnnci|K der 111 ustidtMtstheorie
i>t
I <

nre,-liend
lii
tl

f.,rt

fallen ;S.

'1

If)).

of the flection

it is

shown
'

that

dx
1

dy

J
i

Those differences do not always seem small, e.g. in the case of Iceland Spar. does not seem by an The is tukeu from the Lev l^tmctly states that Se -ti-n Notes ction itm -It ruferenoe to Carl Neumann the
3

Mr

<

'

<>f

to a
.!.. .in.-,

the theory of an paper l.y him i- l'*>:t

1

ut

th.

earliest reference

i/-.1

m.i.nt.

Carl

t.^he Drehwi Neumann communicated

natiotuetxnf the idea to

i..

fore
ii.

1859?
:\

i.

2i;

F.

NEUMANN.
:

[1216

so that for a non-crystalline

medium p = a constant

und dieser con>tante Worth muss, p = 0, gleich dem Worthe im Weltenrauiue >ein. tit wir UIIM den letzteren mcht al* /usammengedriickt vorstellen
.

253).

It does not, however, seem more difficult to suppose the ether in than to suppose it rigidly fixed at an space under high pressure, infinite distance as required by the recent theory of Sir William

Thomson
F.

(Phil.

Mag. November, 1888).

deduces the laws of Fresnol from the above type of the same relations as in the previous Ixxly-shift equations, provided section hold among the elastic constants (see our Art. 1214) and is parallel to the vibrations. The provided the plane of polarisation

Neumann

advance made by C. Neumann's hypothesis is confined to the diswave and to the exact trans versality appearance of the longitudinal F. Neumann (see his S. 252) seems especially of the other two waves. satisfied with the hypothesis of an incompressible ether and he remarks with regard to the coincidence of the planes of polarisation and vibration
:

Hierauf
iHK-h

ist

selir verbreitet

fiihren /u

dem

besonderes Qcwicht zu legen, weil die entgegengesct/te Ansicht Alle strengen Durchfiihmngen der Theorie alter ist. von der gewohnlichen Meinung abweichenden Resultate.

judicious remarks, due I think to Neumann's Editor, occur on ought not to expect the same relations necessarily to hold for the elastic constants of the ether in a crystal as hold for the elastic The vibrations of the constants of the crystalline material itself. For exmaterial and of the ether may follow quite different laws. ample, an optically uniaxial crystal possesses the same optical elasticity

Some

S. 256.

We

for all directions perpendicular to the optic axis.

Hence

for the ether

in such a crystal, Neumann's Editor considers that the relations But such relations do not hold for the elastic b = c = 3d, must hold.

ef,

material of the crystal itself, for were its elasticity the same in all directions round the axis, its crystalline form could only be cylindrical.

[1216.]

Section
(S.

15
.

is

entitled:

KrystaUtn

257-75).

Neumann

He the ether in crystals 1 viously considered have been theoretically deduced only for media symmetrical about three rectangular planes, but experience shows that Fresnel's laws are true also for unsymmetrical crystalline forms. Such crystals may have three rectangular axes, in relation to which the medium is optically symmetrical. Hence a generalisation of our theory
in

Theorie transversaler Welien in here deals with Lame's theory of remarks that the theories we have pre-

very desirable.
There
is

Neumann

gives Lame's

theory with considerable

a mere footnote reference to Green's

memoir

of

1839:

see

our

Art.

'.(IT

1210]

F.

NEUMANN.

27

modifications and I think improvements. The hypotheses from which he starts are the following (ft) the medium possesses the property of propagating />A(/<> waves; (b) accurately transverse vibrations are ible in it; (c) there are stresses in it which arise and disappear with the strains; the stresses obey the general laws of statical equilibrium ; and (d) they are assumed to be linear functions of the
:

strains.

Neumann

These hy|K)theses enable us to reduce the 36 constants to 12, and puts the body-shift equations into the form
:

-=- + Z>, ay <p* n do D de ft n -v "5- + " T + A

d*u
dfi
.

=A

de -f + dx
ttx

tie
Lf
. l

_ de
-.(/-.

dv
H
;

d\v
///

'

'/:

./

,n\-

, '

-7<<-.

.ii,/:

(ft'

<///
.

</.c

~
~1 i ff-

&

i '

de 1 ax

de
i

tie
-r- -f

du
j

dv
-9il.r
,

~T~ 4- C/

dy

az

di/

F=-yryz w=-i
\-pressing the twists,
a.s
'

('

and

the dilatation

Neumann apparently treats these equations as if we independent constants, but if we apply Green's principle to the stresses on S. 261 we find
usual (S. 2G1).
\'l

hal

indej>endent constants. shows that by a transformation of the \ve can '^-i r'nl either of the coefficients A B^ C or of the e<.ellieients a, ft, y, and that the axes for whieh tin's.- Croups II. K marks: !y vanish are not necessarily the same.
>r,

we have only .wen

N. HIM

:n linatc axes
i

s.

LM.-J-7)

I'lisere
iii-of.-rn

Betrachtun^

fiihrt
.

uns also auf einc I)"piMlnatur des Me<liuni>,

\er-<-lii.',lenei-

niiinlich, Axeiiaystemn ImKiclu'ii

h.it'tru

Art sieh auf vrr-i-hi^lenr

\vir

knnen,

ein

1'uukt, atif

den

/uriirkkoiiinie!;

Neumann
double
-r\ation

later

sy.st.-n, ,,f

hold ami HO A^
Tin-

=
is

in his work makes a iHe point <f this axes, but it seems to me that it' the principle of the v applies to the ether in a crystal, thru (ii) must = C, = for all axes. /?,
-liiff
:

t\|...
\

,,t'

bodj

eqii.itiMns.

when

\\e

niMsfunn them

that

./,

/i,

uii^h,

^iv'ii by
.

*/-'i/
,

dB
-j-

,/<>

Ii

+ C,

,/r,.
/
,

d*

</,,

32

o.S

F.

NEUMANN.

[12171218

122 (S. 267-8) Neumann deals with the MongiIn [1217.1 tmlinul wave'; it is not exactly longitudinal unless (ii) holds, but is it would thus be better ; m-irki'd by the existence of a dilatation 123 (S. 269-71) the problem of ftmtd the presaural wave. In tnUYene waves is dealt with. The wave surface deduced is accurately and his laws are shown to be absolutely correct provided we
Duel's,

In-

hydrostatic

of the plane of polarisation. In supposes the ether incompressible and puts thru introduces terms into equations (iii) corresponding writes them in the form pressure and
'inn's

definition

124

Neumann

=
to

^*ar

d~u_

dr^

drxy
d,,

dp

~TX--

These practically agroe in form with Carl Neumann's equations, only p F. Neumann seems to see in such has a slightly different meaning. waves a completely satisfactory system giving only two f<iuations and tli.-s.- with purely optical properties:
welche in jeder Hinsicht den durch die Erfahrung gelieferten Geset/en

niNprechen

(S. 272).

ment

have considered somewhat at length Neumann's treat[1218.] 125 (S. 272-4) he takes the double of Lame's theory because in the basis for some important considera1216 as of Art. of axes system tions with regard to the different kinds of axes in crystals. He remarks that the properties of the longitudinal and transverse waves seem to lie depend upon different systems of rectangular axes, and hence argues that the different physical properties of a crystal can be distributed symmetrically about

We

We

different

systems of rectangular planes.

this

have seen (Art. 1206) that so far as

argument

is

based on

there being different sets of axes for longitudinal and transverse waves, it is only valid if we suppose the ether in a crystal not to obey Green's Neumann thinks that these systems of axes will fall toPrinciple. when the material of the crystal is symmetrical about tin vc gether only that the rectangular planes, in which case, he adds, experience shows 1 of physical kinds those of other with axes coincide elastic optical

symmetry.

symmetry does not exist in the crystal, it is still that the various systems of axes may coincide, but theoretically possible tliis is not the result of experiment, so far as concerns at least the optical and thermal axes (axes of greatest and least stretch by heat). Neumann here refers to his memoir of 1833 see our Art. 788*, in which he had shown that the difference between the thermal and optical
If this triple-plane
:

s
1

was
I

for

gypsum not

sufficiently great to

be measurable, but he

use the term 'optical axes' for the three rectangular axes about which the a crystal is optically, or, on the elastic theory, elastically symmetrical. They are not necessarily the elastic axes of the crystalline material, and must not be confum-cl with the 'optic axes' or normals to the circular sections of the optical ' The optical axes are the axes of this ellipsoid. ellipsoid of elasticity.'
rtlier in

1219]
luul in
Ji

K.

NKIMANN.
'

29
81-95 and only be an

lat-r research
1

(Pogymdotfft

5,

>.'.">)

omvino-d

Antta/'tt, IM. o5, S. himself that this result could

approximation to the truth:

Thatsut-he,
v<>n Mitschcrlk-h cntdcckten eines BWQUudflQD Krystalls ihrc Lagc gcgcn i.ci Knviirmung <>dor Alikiihlung wKodern, InMnrrkto dor \Yrl U-idiMi Axen sich mit ungieicher Gcschwindigkcit bcwcgcn, und mai-hto damit die Kntdet -kun^, dass nicht bloss die beidcn Kichtunp-n her Liichtbrechung, s<.nd<Tn an<-h d;us rcchtwinklige Axcnsy.stem, v<>n linn <lic optischen Eigcnschaftcn ahhiingcn, cine mit der Tenmentur Ilieraus folgt, da.ss die <>pti>rliri, idorlirhe L-o- ini Kry.xtall hat. a niclit lci jeder Teinperatur mit den thcrmi.schcn zus.-immi-MEs giebt also in der That in dcrartigen Krystallcu xwei fallen koniicii.

cincr

genaucrcn

Untcrsuchung dcr

das.-,

die iptischcn

Axcn

.ic

renduedeDflr Richtung

(S. 273).

results in Art. 792* must be corrected in the sense of this later conclusion of the same scientist.

Our

stiitcmcnt therefore of

Neumann's

then briefly refers to the other systems of which have been investigated. Pliicker found that the diai Magnetic phenomena in crystals depend upon their optical axes (see Bd. 72, S. 315-50, 1847, and Plucker u. Beer: <jrffs Amutlen, IM. 81, S. 115-62, 1850, Bd. 82, S. 42-74, 1851), but Angstrom has shown that the chief axes of conduction of heat (directions of maximum and minimum capacity for propagation of heat), which also form a nu'ular systrm, do not coincide with the optical axes (see our Similar results were obtained by Seuarmout (Comjttes Art. US.")). x\i. T. xxv. pp. 459-61, 1847, Annales de <-h /////, T. retulus, a and The 1847 XXH. 1848 T. 179-211, 457-470, pp. ). pp. want of coincidence appears to be true for the axes of
[1219.]
ialliiu-

Neumann
s

a\

liution

(Wiedemann
77. s.

Foggendorjfs Anniil,-^
1^

I'.d.

76,

S.

404-12,
88,

1849,

lid.

534-7,

tamKmi
:

Amides de Mmie,T.
(sc.-

Art. US/i) and "f aiiiiosphrrir disintegration (Papc Pofffpnd&rfft Annalen, IM. 1'JI, 1865, Bd. 125, S. 513-63, 1865, Bd. 133, S. 364-99, 186S, and IM. l:J5, S. 1-29, 1868), which have all relation to dill..
pp. L'."7-78, 1850), of distribution of hardiu-ss
,.ur

ntly situated systems of axes.

kHuiig dcr Verhiil?
'

:iilirh*t<v:
.iii.l'

1T dii'MT
-.-m al'hiin-t, Jails nirlit
(S. 274).

IMC
eiii--

\\

\Vahreincin
ji

schun

der ^enannten

that there b a >u' of the optic axes of elasticity (in Fresnel'a sense of the won!). Thun each colour has its own axes not only in magnitude but in position (gypsum). Further these axes change with the temperature and each differently (gypsum, borax, adularia). 9 Sc'narmont shows that in gypsum and crystals of the unsymmetrioal prismatic \<\o relation between the position and magnitude <>: system there thermal axes and the axes of optical elasticity.
'"///;'.//
/.

This paper

is

entitled: Utbcr die optitchcn Eigcntchaftcn

'id

/r hem prismi

>

Neumann snows

in

it

30

F.

NEUMANN.

[1220
:

The final paragraph of this Section (S. 274-5) is entitled [1220.] This is Ueber die Aenderung der ojjtisc/ten Axen mil der Temperatnr. an attempt to explain the alteration of the optical axes with the as Neumann has developed temperature on the basis of Lame's theory It assumes not only that the formulae of Lame hold for the motion it. of the ether in crystals, but also that equations of the same form hold Further it for the elastic deformation of the crystalline material. to have the same effect as a uniform supposes a change of temperature surface pressure: see our Arts. 875* and 1196. Suppose p to be this Neumann pressure equivalent in effect to the temperature change. holds that the axes for which the a, ft, y of our Art. 1216 vanish are
the optical axes.
tin1

Then we must have

(iii)

stress relations corresponding to

;

>ody-shift equations of type

in our Art. 1216

these give us
,

- p = AO-csu -

AN

= A ,-0 +

-i

oy.

-p -p
To

= nO =

asz -

c.v, .,

- B,0 +
= Cfl +

i&ov,.,

CO- bsx - os

^ca-xu

satisfy these take

.jc
'

w-

h zx + hjj +

II 3 z.

We easily

tind

(a

- 2ab -

2bc

- 2c) p

-c)- 2abc
Afi

'

B4
,

Neumann remarks, since A,, A 2 A3 do not in general vanish, axes of the stretch ellipsoid corresponding to u, v, w do not in general coincide with the axes of coordinates, i.e. the optical axes. Now the axes of this stretch-ellipsoid are the only lines which do not alter their position with the dilatation, so that it follows
Hence,
tin:

|.tiM-ln'ii

daws durch einen allseitigen Druck auf die Oberflache einew Krystalls die Hmipt.-ixen deflM&en und also auch die optischen Farbenazen ihrc
(S. 275).

Lage a'ndern werden

Thus on the assumption of identity in effect between pressure and mpcrature, the proposition appears proved. observe, however, = 0, and that that the principle of energy seems to require, A l = B = (7, then the optical and crystalline elastic axes would coincide. As they do not, it seems probable that the assumption that the formulae of Lame* hold both for the elastic deformation of a crystalline material
tt

We

and

for its

bound ether

is

inoorrcct.

12211222]
[1221.] Section 16

K.

XKUMANN
.

:{l

In turns to the problem of '/ 276-89) he gives very clearly and concisely Cauchy's He remarks, however, that explanation of the dispersion of light. Cauchy's theory would lead us to expect dispersion as well in gases and
(S.

Neumann next

in space itself as in solid and fluid bodies, since the dispersion depends only on the action of the more distant particles of ether and not on Neumann himself in 1841 (Die Gesetze, that of the particles of matter. '* Lichtes..., Abhandlunyen der Berliner Akadeinie der Dopi&lbr</. Wissemchaft, 1841, Zweiter Theil (Footnote), S. 28-32) was among the fir^t to attribute dispersion to the influence of the ponderable (O'Brien, as Neumann's Editor particles on the particles of ether. marks, had reached almost simultaneously the same explanation see his On t/te Propagation of Luminous Waves in tJie interior of Transparent r><fies: Cambridge Philosophical Transactions, Vol. vn. p. 397, 1842.) rdingly Neumann in Section 17 (S. 290-9) develops his own theory of dispersion, as depending on the action of the ponderable particles, lie considers only the case of an uncrystalline medium. The general 136 (S. 296-7) are given just as they were delivered in remarks the lectures of 1857-8, and at that time they were full of suggestion tor further researches in dispersion based upon Neumann's theory. Such researches, inspired doubtless by Neumann's work, have been made by Ketteler, Sellmeier, Lommel, Voigt and others (S. 137), but these fall far beyond our limits and we must refer the reader for their discussion to the Report on Optical TJieories by Glazebrook published in the llritish Association Report for 1885. In concluding my brief analysis of Neumann's application of the theory of elasticity to light, I must again express my sense of its value and clearness. As an introduction to elastico-optic theories for the use of students the lectures of 18579 seem to me still unequalled.
: jj

[1222.]

Sections

18-21

(S.

800-74) are entitled:

GY

ttewegunyeti diinner Kiirper and deal with >irm_;, membra and ioLs. Section 18 (S. 300-17) deals with the vibrations of
strings.

\Ve

may

note several points in this section.

defined as a
I

Neumann obtains for a perfectly flexible string (a) of prismatic form, which is HO thin that we can takr
.

.>int

of one and
th

tin-

MOM OHM

section the

same value of the molecular

forces

following equations (S. 303):

d /
/V
.A
</

^
;

*
di

)
.

sv'
/

32

F.

NEUMANN.

[12231224

Here to is the cross-section, p the density, da an rlriurnt of length the components of body-force per unit of the string, and X, Y, muss upon it. Among the stresses Neumann finds the following rela-

tions to hold

.TT

"

M
(dy)*

"

"zz

7z

~
dzdx

."

,..v

(dxY

(c&)

dydz

dax/>,

For the special case of a string without body-forces, stretched (b) in the direction of the axis of x, we may neglect for small oscillations = Hence it follows that the squares of dyjdx and dz/dx.

approximately, and

^x-E du/dx
whence we reach
p

for a uniform cross-section the equations (S. 304)

^-F d?~"dx
d'
2

d*v_ ~ d?

d^/dudv\ dx\dx dx)

^
'

d?

=&

d fdu dw

dx(dx

is a good deal that seems original and valuable about Neumann's deduction of these equations.

There

S. 305-311 are occupied with a discussion of the wave-motion (c) 2 2 involved in an equation of the type d u/dtr = a d*u/da?. Neumann theii a the vibrations stretched to of string consisting of two diverse passes 'refraction' pieces, and deals with the problems of the wave reflection and which occur at the junction. The work is clear but does not present

anything of special note.

The nineteenth section (S. 318-31) treats of the [1223.] Neumann's deduction of vibrations of a stretched membrane.
the equations is very similar to Lame's: see our Arts. 1072*-6*. He deals with several simple problems and then discusses the nodal lines of square membranes. His treatment here again

corresponds

see closely to Lame"s Lord Rayleigh's Theory of Sound, Vol.

:

also
I.

our Art.

825

(e)

and

pp. 250-92.
:

The twentieth section is entitled Theorie des geraden [1224.] Stosses cylindrischer Stdbe (S. 332-50). Neumann remarks that the ordinary theory of impact between elastic bodies is given in
mechanical text-books as if it had a simple and correct basis. He reproduces it but without the Newtonian modification to account for the loss of energy: see our Arts. 35* and 217. Neumann remarks that such loss of energy generally does take place and

1225]

K.

NK! MANN.

33

that investigations ba>ed <n the theory of elasticity lead to results often in direct contradiction with those of the ordinary Newtonian
theory.

impact of

then proceeds to investigate the longitudinal two right-circular cylinders. He does not at first rediu tinproblem to the simple case of the impact of two thin rods, th- particular problem which was later dealt with by Saint Venant sec our Arts. 203-20.
<

Neumann

Let r\ IM the radial shift at a point distant r from tin- a.\i> ami from one end of the cylinder, u the corresijonding longitudinal shift, then we have the following equations to determine % and u for one
./

eylindrr

+*

+'>

with different dilatation coefficient and slide-modulu> seeond cylinder. Further at the curved surfaces of the cylinders we must have conditions of the type
\

-imiliir i>air
tin-

hold tor

\\liil.

at

(In

terminal cross-sections of both cylinders

:

we must have

the stresses of type

p = u( r
,

/'lit,

(/V\

\dr

+ r-^) dx)
two
cylindi-rai

ithrr

/.-in,

or

e.jiial

for (he

thrir

r..iiiiii.in

This is tin- ni">t ^nn-ral >tat< iiient of the proMem, u and time lluxions hrin^ supposed initially ,M\-M.

and thrir

[1-J25.] nefl first:

Neumann

does not solve the problem

in all it* generality.

......

,|

'

'

where we M,,
,

,...Xo, X.

X."- an>
(i),

"" rti "" s " nl N

.

nt J
tin-

'

;ill(1

''"'

'

'fh.

of (iv) in

shows

thai

all

OOeffideiUi oi

34
powers of r of the form

F.

NKIMANV

[1225

must vanish.
:

Neumann

then contents himself with values

(v),

to think will be approximately true if the cylinders he There seems to me to be exactly the same strong enough. objections to this method of treatment as Saint-Venant has raised see jigainst Cauchy's method of dealing with the problem of torsion our Arts. 661*, 29 and 395. Neumann says the terms in r~ will give a tir*t approximation if the should cylinder be thin, but he does not justify this statement. not u4 or u6 be large as compared with u a 1 This case is what actually occurs in Cauchy's attempt to investigate the torsion of a rectangular prism by an expansion of this kind (Saint- Venant, Lemons de Navier, have a priori nothing to show that the pp. 621-6, footnote). arbitrary functions uot u.2 ..., x x 2 ... do not vary inversely as the dimensions of the cross-section. Clearly the ratio u.2lll /u2m _ 2 as to its order is the inverse square of a line, but for aught Neumann says to the contrary this line may be the radius of the cylinder and not its
f/iin
:

which he seems

Why

We

length. If we substitute (v) in we find:

(i)

and

(ii)

and now

neglect terms in r

d-u
p

d*u - (\ + 2 M ) * 4M
.
ft

'2

(A +

dYf.

f.)

-g

Eliminating ^

u 2 we have from the

,

first

of (vi)

the ordinary equation for the longitudinal vibrations of a thin rod.

Further

Tr

= ^ fau, +

r,

by

(vi),

and

at the surface, if we again neglect the square of the external radius in the stresses, which Neumann appeal's to think we may do to the required degree of approximation. The relation between

Thus rr-0,

1226]
X 2 and
?<
2

NKl-MANN
tin
t.

35

cannot be so chosen as to make

says
(S.

mis

in

r3

vanish.

;;iO)

class

alu es bei

auch den Bedingungen fur die Cylindortliu-hc insweit geniigt wird, dem erstrcbtcn Grade der Annaherung crfordcrlich M.
degree of approximation
is

Tli us liis

not really to

r*.

Kurt her

we have:

cting the terms in

(vii) and (viii) tin- ordinary equation*. longitudinal vibrations of thin rods, but I do not Bee that Jiis gives these equations with any greater accuracy or any leas of assumption than the usual one. Proceeding from these equations he deals on S. 340-9 with the longitudinal impact of two tree rods and of one fixed and one free rod. This section is taken Voin the Lecture Notes of 1857-8, and thus Neumann's discussion of the problem precedes Saint- Venant's by ten years ; but although he
tint

Thus Neumann reaches in

reaches some of Saint- Venant's results, his processes, analytical and less complete, and his discussion more sjMvi.il. _'i-aphieal, are far ii vi.-w of the excellence of Saint- Venant's work and the space we have <1 to it, we |>ass by Neumann's pages with the mere reo>u "ition of his priority. reference to experimental work in this field added ly his Kditor, does not cover much more ground than our Arte. 203-4, ml 214.
I
i

The twenty-first and last section of Nt uinaiin > \vrk h beloagi i,. duals with the elasticity of thin rod& :J51-74) thf L< ,-tuiv Nnt-x of the years 1850-60. Tin- Kditor oomiden
[1226.]

think it original (S. vi), but methods ami to the Poisson jvdopted by corresponds very closely Neuiiiaiui and 4(5('* (ii^o*. see our Arts. su|po>-s id. f'auchy: thin ro.l of uniform cross-section :md with its axis initially in
tliis
I

portion of

Neumann's work

the udfl of

./.

//
v

"pfK.srs that (he shift*

can be expanded in

of

the

assumed small

cross-section.
th.'

\Vc have
to such
in

air. -inly

incur 'litnetirion* of the noted (see ..ur Arts i;i||* an.l

f

iihj.-eti.nis
t

an assumption and
see our Arts. 805, 1225

h a<ls

the case of torsion:

tli

and the

ivf.-rences

36

F.

NEUMANN.
ehvular
cro.Ns-scction
:

[12271228
of
radiu.s
//,

Neumann
a.-ted

obtains for a rod of

A',

upon by body-forces

7, Z, the relations
~

d"

'

(/.v/.'-.l

...

"-*
I

(')

-</rcfeJ

These equations are to hold only for

but they are true for all

y=z=

0,

or at the axis of the rod,

manner

of elastic distributions.

Neumann [1227.] neglects in the stresses

and further

He then treats especially the case of isotropy. all the terms multiplied by R* and so finds

i/77

dPv
dy?

we*

j,d~w
dot?

dy
whence he obtains
also for
d'-v

dz
:

y=z

The reader will find that Neumann's reasoning is almost identical with that of Poisson and Cauchy (see our Arts. 467 and 620*), but it The results (ii) only hold under certain very is by no means sufficient. narrow limitations, and equations (iv) require at least a discussion like that of Kirchhoff or of Clebsch to justify their adoption see our Art. Thus this portion of Neumann's work seems neither original 1251. nor valid. On S. 362-4 a similar process for a rod of rectangular crosssee our this again corresponds to Cauchy 's work section is given
:

Arts. 618*-624*.

According to Neumann's Editor (S. 355 ftn.), Neumann had also obtained by a similar method the equations for a crystalline rod, and his results have been published by Baumgarten and Voigt in the memoirs But I see no reason why his referred to in our Arts. 1210 and 1212. method should be more satisfactory in the complex than in the simple
case.

On S. 364-8 we have the simple case of a doubly bar with an isolated load, and on S. 368-73, the transsupported verse vibrations, tones and nodes of a thin rod discussed,
[1228.]

without, however, anything of novelty. The volume of Vorlesungen concludes with a brief note by Neumann's Editor of earlier

and of more recent work on the theory of

rods.

1229]

F.

NKI'M \N\

37

The general impression left on my mind after the perusal of Neumann's lectures is that they form the best elementary treatise on elasticity and its relation to light that I have met with in the

German

tongue. without the

They contain a good

difficulties of Clebsch's analysis, or

deal of original matter and the monotony

of Lame"s isotropic solids.

[1229.]
ticity

Of some other memoirs of Neumann's bearing on we have treated in our first volume, namely in An-.
Arts.

7ss*-801* and
essentially

1185*-1213*.
light,

Further memoirs belonging

but appealing
to

the theory of elasticity, are the following:

to
'e

that of

der

doppelten

,</,

Bd

25, 1832, S. 418-454.

Strahlenbrechung : Poggendor/s This deduces the laws of

elasticity.

double refraction from the equations of

(6)
/

Theoretische Untersuchung der Gesetze nock

welchm

</</>

ht

an

reflect irt
</t'mie,
Its

Grenze zweier vollkommen durclts'n'lt'> and gebrocheu wird: Abhandlvngen der Berliner Akatier

is:r>,

MtitlieiiKitische

Kktsse,

S.

1-160.

E\|.eriniei.t:il
in

bearing on this theory were published by Neumann fnrf* Annalen, Bd. 42, 1837, S. 1-29.

Reproduction der FresneVscJien Formeln iiber tntufc AVflexion. Poggendor/s Aiuutlen, Bd. 40, 1837, S. 497-514. Tins deduces the laws of reflection and refraction including the case
(c)
-t
!

ivil.Ttinn

oi n

the theory of elasticity.

Experimental n-suhs

are giv.-n.
('/)

The memoir

entitled:

Ueber die optiscl

ktmiprismafochen 6Vy.vM/r in /'.///'/r/^//;//\ ^.fuialMi, lid is:;:., S. si !K and S. 203-:>, should be taken nodifyil^ the It results ,,f the memoir of 1834 state<l in om Arte

aniH.iineev

the diaCOYOry of the dispersion ol the ..ptieal a\. inn and the dependence .f their po>ition mi the teniperatnie \~2\^ ..r Neumanniiber die Theari* der
>

ElcuticMt,

S. ^73.
I'

Neiiinann'>
t.

<(>r

thtOrttMu Optik
U)
.-n
il..-..i\

edit,

d ly

Dom,
to
\

L.'ip/i-.

|SS:,

r,,i,trihul,-

in .tl.ii.^

the cfustir ^
'

tli-

ofligbt; the brief application of thai

',

38

F.

NEUMANN.
elastic theories of light will

[1230

criticism of

Neumann's

be found

in Glazebrook's

Report on Optical Theories, especially in the parts

of that Report referring to MacCullagh, allied to Neumann's.

whose theories are

closely

[1230.]

Voigt in a paper entitled

Bestimmuny der Elastid-

ti'itscuiistduten
!:,-<!

des Steinsalzes published in Poggendoi^ffs Annalen, "mzungsband vii., 1876, S. 1-53, and S. 177-214, gives two

due to Neumann. The first (S. 5) is given in Neumann's Varlesungen, S. 185 (see our Art. 1206), and gives the stretchmodulus for a prism cut in any direction from a crystal of the The second result is for the regular system with equal axes.
results

angle of torsion r per unit length of a prism cut from a like crystal. If / be the length of the prism, a x It is given without proof.
its

rectangular cross-section,
_

M the applied couple, the formula

l

is:

?^ [*'+*
d
x [cos2

i /_L

\
2

~a*F\

*\2d
2

a-f)
(a,
2

(I,

x) (a cos
2

x)

+ /32 cos2 (ft,

x))

+ cos" (/, y)

cos (a, y) (a
2

+ & cos8 (ft, y))

2

+ cos2 (I, z) (a
where
a?,

cos (a, z)

+ ft

cos (ft *)

y, z are

the directions of the crystalline axes, and

x,

a,

f, d

the constants of our Art. 1203, (d). Take the axis of the prism in the direction of

and we have

+P
>

or for the square>

Saint- Venant's formula cited in our Art. 30 gives

T
so that this

6M

formula.

would give an error of about 18 p.c. in Neumann's suspect Neumann deduced his formula from, or by a

to, Cauchy's erroneous investigation of the torsion a of Anyhow rectangular prism, which leads to a result like (i). is I think incorrect, and so probably are all the formula the numerical determinations based upon it.

method similar

12311233]

Kinrmi.

SECTION

II.

[1231.]
nt

The

contributions of Kirchhoff to our snhjert

memoirs published in various journals from 184iS and nearly all reprinted on S. 237-339 of the Gesaimnelte Allmml Imi'H'H (hereinafter referred to as G. A.) edited by KuvhhotV liimst-lf. Lrip/i-, ^2, of three or four memoirs (1SS2-4) reprinted
five
r six
1

in Boltzmann's Nachtrag to the Abhandlunyen, Leipzig, l.S'.'l, and of five lectures in the Vorlesungen uber matheiimtMie Phyxik: .M-linnih\ of which a first edition appeared in Leipzig, Januan ii and a second in the November of the same year. Tincontain a good deal of the material of the earlier memoirs in an improved form, but it must be confessed that
,

the present frequently obscure and occasionally wanting in strictness. His contributions, however, to the theory of elastic wires and thin plates are of such importance as to give him n permanent place in the history of elasticity.
<t

KirehhotV's methods seem, at least to the Editor

\\urk,

>!

[1232.]
l>y

We
:

give the titles only of the two raili.M

la tJteorie
,-

-lastu-

our author Xntu relative a

.\'<>f>-

d>> I'-'quHHtrc. et
L'7,

ilu

iiwun -m'-iit a'nn>

Paris,
.

tftutique: <'O/////AX

u<fu., T.

pp.

:'.'.i|-7.

iMv
I

i".,

tfunf j>/ntjif f/Vc// ///// rent/n (',,ijttf Paris, 1849. pp. 7:.:i-G. In Mikstanco of these papers, which are not free from misprint... :nlodii'd iii the inciiioir of 1850, considej-ed in our lu-xt artii-le.
I'*

*nr

i-ilirnfitHi*

[1233.]
|s:.o.

Ueber

das

Gleichgewicht
Jt,,,rn,,l
t

und die Beweg\tng

Bd. 40,
S.
:,
1

einer
U.-rlin.

r,r//,-.s-

ss
,

(0. A.

L':}7-79.)

The author was

(i)

at this time

nt in the JJerlin University. The aim of the m.-nmir is twofold:

to obtain th
foond in a Nffrolofw by Jahrn. *'
.

no account of Kirdil. .. IT
,n

s lif,.

ami lahour*

will be

in

tin-

!"
S.

lit.

<:

December, 1887,
I.MI.I.
h.-.i

2771

ami

u noim-what tl..,.,i IU.IDM enl i.'l.lK.fTdiedOoiotier 17, 1887.

I.

li\rrod at

Grm

on
n. I

''*o/,

40

KIRCHHOFF.

[12341235

equations, especially those at the boundary, for the equilibrium and motion of an elastic plate: (ii) to determine if possible from a comparison of the theory with experiments on the nodes

and notes of vibrating plates whether Poisson's or Wertheim's

value of the
stretch-squeeze ratio
t]

is

the correct one.

The

memoir

consists of five sections preceded introduction.

by a short

historical

In the introduction Kirchhoff refers to the memoirs [1234.] of Sophie Germain and notes that Lagrange first gave the correct see our Arts. 283*-306*. body-shift equation for a thin plate
:

notes the errors into which Sophie Germain fell and demonstrates them by applying her equations to a particular case see
:

He

his S.

51-4 (G. A. S. 237-40). The theory of Poisson (see our Arts. 474*-93*) is then referred to and Kirchhoff remarks
:

diese Theorie bedarf einer Berichtigung, und dieselbe zu eben meine Absicht. Poisson gelangt, indem er seine allgemeinen Gleichungen des Gleichgewichts elastischer Korper auf den Fall einer Scheibe anwendet, zu derselben partiellen Differentialgleichung, zu welcher die Hypothese von Sophie Germain gefiihrt hat, aber zu andern Grenzbedingungen, und zwar zu drei Grenzbedingungen. Ich werde beweisen, dass im Allgemeinen diesen nicht gleichzeitig geniigt werden kann (sic!)-, woraus dann folgt, dass auch nach der Poisson 'schen Theorie eine Platte im Allgemeinen keine Gleichgewichtslage habou miisste (S. 54 ; G. A. S. 240-1).

Aber auch
ist

geben,

Kirchhoff certainly emphasizes Poisson's error a little too strongly considering he does not indicate any mistake in Poisson's The real difficulty lies of course in the exact amount process.
to be attributed to the plate, and we have already pointed out how Thomson and Tait have practically reconciled Poisson and Kirchhoff, while the researches of Saint- Venant and Boussinesq have put the whole matter into a clearer light see our

of

'

thinness

'

394 and Chapter XIII. The points raised, however, by Kirchhoff's investigation have been extremely valuable and important, and have led to much good work. Like problems with regard to the boundary conditions for thin shells have recently been discussed in instructive memoirs by Love, Lamb and Basset.
Art.
[1235.]
S.

The

first

section of the

memoir occupies

S.

54-60

241-7) and deals with the general equations of

elasticity.

(G. A. Kirchhoff

1236]

KIK<

HHOFF.
itself

41
the six

shows that a single variational equation contains in body- and surface-equations of elasticity.
Let

SU

denote the virtual

moment

of the applied forces during strain,

an element of volume of the

elastic body,

then this equation

"'

is

""'I
1

**\ /*

whenI'.y

,,

&,,

83

pie,

and the integration taken over

of

means

the body is suppwhole volume. the discriminating cubic Kirrhh off expresses
principal
,

are

the

stretches
its

-d

X + or(i +
.

*2 -H*3 )2

.,)

h= n

8ay

terms of the three stretches and three slides for any set of rectangular and thru shows that the development of the variations leadthr ordinary six equations of elasticity. He remarks that Green had
in
.

ahvady ^iven equation

tehee:
see

(i),

Kirehhoff's

without, however, usinir thr principal footnote S. 56 (G. A. S. 243) and our

Art. 918*.

Kirchhoff having deduced the elastic equations proceeds to a proof of equation (i):
Irh wrrde jetzt cine Ableitung der Glcichung (i) gelx>n, ans welcher lirrvfir^'lirn \vinl, da-^ >ir rinr allgcmeinere GUltigkeit hat, ;iK dir ( ilrirhunthe. >ix njuatinns <>t i) P>etrachtuni;rn, dir drnrn, wrli-he [i.e. cl;isticity]. liirr n/ iihnlirli sind, liat L.-i-iMim'r nirhnnals in >rinn- Mr. -lianik,
/.
I'..

i.*-i

drr

Ilri-lrituii'4

tier
(J.

igcstcllt (S.

589;

Gleichgewichtsbedingung A. S. 246).

rii

ln-n

Thr proof dor> not seem

that the virtual

to

me very conviiu-inu'.
of the stresses on

moment

Kii-rhhofT prai-ticallv must lo of f/.iv ///./:

thr

t'onii

- dxdytls
and
t'urilrrr that
,s'

(Sfa +

A'a&ra

+ SjkJ,

M X,, N.

must be

symiiu-trii-al funrtions of tlir t\p-

I,

In-ill-^
i

'l.istir

constants.

do not think thr proof ran

l.r

r..n

i.!<id.

[\

-i:\Ct.
|

In the secoihl seotioi^

whidi otvupics S. 60-63 (0. A.

tin-

'17
tliin

251),

Kirchhoff

<

Ira Is

with

plat- l)oiindr(l
t

by par.ill.-l ^ n.rators are perpendicular to thene plane

u
-,

pmhlriu of an infinr and any cylindrical -nrfa08 piano

i

A fur our
/

/i,

and
r

for our X/(2/i), while

he takes f = our

\ 4-

R^
,

Imt he UHCR n.

mime

al<>

<>n

tit

i-i.

42

KIltCHHOFF.

[1237

supposed strained by body-forces, and by surface-forces on the edge only, the plane faces having no load. The strains are supposed infinitely small but the shifts are not necessarily so.

The

plate

is

supposed

isotropic.

In order to apply equation

(i)

two assumptions which, he says, are to be regarded as results of experiment and which correspond exactly with those which James Bernoulli made in regard to an elastic rod (S. 00; G. A. S. 248 and our Art. 19*). These assumptions are the following:
(i)

Kirchhoff makes

Every straight

line

in

the plate which

was originally

perpendicular to the plate-surfaces, remains straight after the strain and perpendicular to the surfaces which were originally
planes parallel to the plate-surfaces.
(ii)

All elements of the mid-surface

(i.e.

that surface which in

the unstrained condition of the plate was plane, parallel to the

plate-surfaces

and half-way between them) remain

after strain

without stretch.
Kirchhoff makes no appeal to any definite experiment as confirming these assumptions, and the reference to James Bernoulli
is

It is true that the Bernoulli-Eulerian distinctly unfortunate. an leads to equation, which Saint-Venant has shown is hypothesis

really true for the flexure of long bars,

but the assumptions by reached are not true, and it seems unad visable to make assumptions, which, even if true for certain types of strain, need not be true for all types which lead to Lagrange's The assumptions which plate equation see our Arts. 70 and 79.

which that equation

is

really needful to make and the arguments in favour of them have been dealt with by Boussinesq and Saint-Venant see the
it is
:

memoirs on plates of the former discussed in our Chapter XIII., and our Arts. 385, 388 and 394. Kirchhoff 's treatment must therefore be looked upon as interesting and suggestive, but not as rigid or final.

On S. 61-2 (G. A. S. 248-9) the values of the principal [1237.] stretches are deduced, and equation (i) of our Art. 1235 is reduced to
the form
:

1230]

KIRCHHOFF.

Here </tu is an element of the mid-surface, and the axis of z is taken perpendicular to this, p lt p., are the principal radii of curvature of the mid-surface at </o>, and dq/dz is really the stretch in the direction z at tin Kirchhon" goes through a rather long point distant z from Ao. -at ion on S. 62-3 ((,'. A. S. 249-51), which I do not find very
clear, to

prove that

meaning of equation (iii) is, however, that the stress perpendicular to the plate faces, is to vanish at every point of the Since the plate is supposed infinitely thin and to have no plate. on its surfaces, this seems, at any rate as an approximation, a reasonTin- physical
1

able conclusion. P.y the aid of equation (iii) and Kirchhi.tr reduces (ii) to the form:

integration with

regard

Jt is the thickness of tlio plate.

Tliis
l.'-ndini4
is
I

l.dicve

the

\\\^i

occasion on which the work done in

poii

thin isotropic elastic plate to curvatures l/p lt l/p t at an\ .-d in terms of those curvature. ,ii<l this is one of th Kiivhhoil"s
;

memoir (S. 63-70; G. A. by variation of equation (iv) the equation for transverse shift at any p<^int of the niid-snrtace and the KirohlmtV deals only iMHiixlary or edge conditions of the plate. with tlie ease treated by Poisson, namely when the mid-surface shift is very small. He obtains the two edge conditions and the shift -equation in the manner which is now to be found in se\< ial t-books: see Lord Rayleigh's Theory of Sou ml. Vol. pp. 300, and compare Thomson and Tait's Autm-nl Pk&OIOpky, Part
Tli-

third section of the

'"I

9) deduces

i.

_'

II.

The equations agree with tlnse obtained at-Venant and Boussinesq much later ind.'ed. but b\ DM t.. me vi-v much more conclusive reasoning: see our A
pp.

181-DO.

l.\

8 and 394.
In the last pages of this section (S.

G7-70; 0. A.

&

that the two boundary conditions -i"d to determine c'-mph 1. 1\ tb- tn are sufficient [nation tin- \alue -! th. be plate as a wb-. pted) Hi's e.piatioi,, can ..nly In- sati I,,, tli.'in

tl"

4-2

44
in special cases, as

KIRCHHOFF.

[1240

exact

meaning 488* and 394.

they involve an additional equation. For the of Poisson's boundary conditions, see our Arts.

KirchhofTs proof of tho uniqueness of the solution of the [1240.] is of interest, as it is, I think, the first equations nppcai-.-mrr plate of a method afterwards extended hy himself and then by Olebsrh In general terms it may he indicated as follows see our Art. 1255. Consider the double integral
:
:

'=

n *f

over the mid-surface of the plate. If ds be any element of the edge, and the angle between the dn an element of its normal measured inwards, normal at ds and the positive direction of the axis of x, then this integral may by partial integration be expressed in the form (S. 70 ; G. A. 258)
< :

dx4
2 (A

i-o-o-- -r4
dx*dif
/
<J>

dy

/u)

r/(Pw

X+

2/x
.

T L\^
(

+ -,j~ 2 ) cos dxdy /

d?w\

\da?dy
2 - d w\

d?w d*w\ jin + -J-*

dyj
mn

sin

^>

d T cPw
ds [_dxdy

(C S

* - S1U

*+

/(Pw

C S

X
\

/d*w
^
(

)\\+2iJi\dx

> 2

tPw\ d*w + -3-3)+ TT cos" 2 dy? dy /

_
</>

+ 2 ^y- cos

<f>

sin

dxdy

d'w

dw
and

of tho plate equations possible a subtract the body shift-equations for w and 2 from each other, and each of the corresponding boundaryconditions likewise, the applied forces vanish and we obtain, with constant multipliers, exactly the three expressions in the curled brackets in the value of / equated to zero. Hence / must be xero, whence it follows that throughout the plate
l

Now
l

suppose two solutions

and

let

w w

w = w.
z

Then

if

we

dhn

='

d*w

tfw
'
'

x + C.$, and (72 being constants; that is to say the l or, l 2 1 shift difference corresponds to a translation of the plate as a whole.

w =C

The reader may convince himself that the expressions

in curled brackets are really identical with the body and boundary equations by reference to our Arts. 392-4.

1241]
[1241.]

Kiiicmiori.

4.'

(G. A. S. 259-71).
plate,

Tin- fourth section of tin- iiirinoir occupies S. 70-81 It deals with the vibrations of a free circular

The initial shift and shift- velocity at of the are any point plate supposed given in terras of the radiusud the vectorial angle. For a complete plate the solution itin-

ml than Poisson's, as same along all radii.

without surfac. --load or body-force. The solution is in it does not suppose the vibrations to be

rxpn-xsed in a doubly-infinite series of functions akin to Bessel's functions, there being a constant to be determined as one of tinroots of an algebraic equation of infinite order. The analysis is too lengthy to be reproduced here, but it possesses considerable
I may note especially the manner in which the equation mi S. 74 (G. A. S. 263) is transformed on S. 74-7 (G. A. (15) S. 2G4-0) to one proceeding by ascending powers of the variable. IMiy-h-ully the must valuable part of the memoir lies in the di>interest.
*

ry of the equations for the frequencies of the notes and ions of nodal lines.

tin-

Tin-

form of

tin-

transverse shift for a single tone

tnn at)
3

is

given by

w = {(A cos iuj/ + B sin n\f/) cos (\\+ (Ccosn^ +

:

J) sin nty) sin (4A Mw o*)}

UHm ...............

(i),

J,

/;,

conditions,

I is

are constants ultimately depending on tin- initial C, the time from the epoch, \j/ the radial angle, n a |o.siti\.-

A+
'.,

'_

'

-(=
p

op

// being

the

plate-modulus of our
plate),

p the density and 2c the thickness of the

and

-R

'

,* \yl?)XW-R dh

J(*-A

fc)

IN-MI;;

an\ ladin

>

Vector,
/.

and +

It

tin- radin.s

!'

UK- plat-

fui

w\
<">J

//"r.

?!

fc

1T(ST

1)

1.2.(n+l)(n +
/
'

2)

*n

KIIU-IIHOKF.

and

finally A

i>

tlu-

will root of
k=<*>

0-(4y-l)**(nwhere
A'

!)+(- 1)*^
-...(iv).

= X MJI1 6,

[1242.]
S.

The

fifth

section

of

the

memoir which occupies

271-9) deals with the numerical solution of the equations we have given in the previous article, and implies a very great amount of laborious calculation. The tones are compared with those obtained by Chladni and the nodal lines with those obtained by Strehlke with two circular glass plates. We
S.

81-88 (G. A.

will cite

some of the

results of Kirchhoff's investigations.

First with regard to the notes, their periods are obviously given (a) Kirchhoff calculates (S. 84-5 ; G. A. S. 275-7) the by 7r/(2X'-, ). values of Iog 10 (X^ft) 4 from equation (iv) and finds for these values

Kllli'HIK'FF.

^7

Tin- fivqtinieirs of tin- hiu'h ry B& \\ m or as (M+L and thus (Jhladni's experiments so far agree with KirchhofFs theory. Kiivhh"lV thru compares Chladui's results for the lower tones with those calculated first on Wertheim's hyi>othesis (X= 2ft) and then on Poisson's 11 (A = fj.) for the case of a plate whose lowest tone is taken as C'. MMimei that C'hladni's results were all obtained for the same constant The results of Poisson's hypothesis are closer than tlu^e attire. of \\Yrtheinj\s to Chladni's observations, but the divergences are so in both cases that no conclusions can be drawn with regard
,

to tin- relative value of the hypotheses. The frequency of the tone, values of in and n, varies so little with the value of .illy for large

//,

that experiments

on plates can hardly be crucial between the two

hypoth
Secondly with regard to the nodal lilies. These are given by ^ for which, independently of the time, 10 = 0. Cl.arly from equation (i) we have the radii of the nodal circles given by the values of r (<b) for which UHm = 0, and also the nodal diameters 11 by the values of ty for which
(!>)

tin-

values of r and

A
\

cos

n\]/

B sin

tt\f/

= 0,

(7 cos nty

D sin nty

0.

Thus there can be no nodal diameters unless the plate be so diMurl><-d T> that A C D. If this equation holds we have n nodal diameters, n and m may thus be a.-h adjacent pair separated by the angle ir/n. considered as giving the number of nodal diameters and nodal circles can occur in connection with the tone defined -ly which
::
'.

I'.v

A, im .

K irchhoff says

with regard to this

allgemcinen Resultatc der Theoric sind im We^ntlichen

'iruiix in ri'lNMviii.Ntimiimnx.

n.

Der Versuch

zcigt.

l\n<teiilinien

-on bestchcn, die

und
>.scn
ut,

mit der Peripherie der Schcita concentric h sind, in .i;lei-hc Theilo thcilen, wenn man vmi Vcrzemingen absieht, die diese Linien erlcidcn und die, wic mir ilin-n (Inuul halcn, dass die Schcibc nieht h.ui]it-;i'-lilirh darin
tr
16

vollkiuiinn-n
.in,
:..

ie

vm'

U-r

/.uweilm |)iuvlime.^er .d- Knotenlinien nln I'elilen M, >> v.irkMiiniu-n, di<> DurrlimesM-r /uwcilcn fehlen. dieheibe gestreute Sund /war auch in I)urehmes.sfni an ircndder BewegungderSc-hcilK-, smidern oM-illimi. (S. 88 ;
U-i
:

einem Tom,

dcm

To

b a comparison of the
"

this general rxpri-iiiH-ntal con ti niiat ion of the theory Kiivhholl dculatrd radii of the nodal

and
Oil

\\

kr from

Tih. -im'x hyjiotheses with UIOHO obtained exporimontally t\\.. IK -ular glass plates (Art 359*), and by Savmri

three su.'h platrS (Alt. 320*).

1

1 1 may be also questioned whether any such perfectly Uotropic plate as is 8uppnned in the theory can be really prepared

ami komogtneo**

4s

KIKCHHUKF.

[1243

I plaiv lclow liis comparison of rxpi'i-imriital ami throivlk-ul numbers for the ratios of the radii of the nodal circles to the radius of the plate
:

diameters, the period of a single conv>pondinu' vibration is taken a> tin- unit of time, ami KiivhhofT finds the numbers of vibrations corre-

sponding to the sub-tones which take place in this unit of time. The numbers thus obtained are the same for all plates what.-\n th.-ir substance and dimensions, provided we assume any fixed relation brtw.vn X and /x. The sub-tones are more fully calculated on Poisson's hypothesis (X = ft) than on Wertheim's (X 2/*), and they are given here
t>!

reference

Ratios of Frequency of Sid-tone

to tfuti

of fundamental Note.

=l

m= m=

1-6161

15-9031

50
lor the

KiKrmim

[1244i

1245

number ^V of vibrations in unit time corresponding to the fundamental note of a circular plate of radius b and small thickness 2e
:

*V=

1-04604^

for

A=

/x,

and = 1-02357

^->

for

^-'2 P
fs

our Arts. 511* and 518*). He remarks that, so far as he no experiments have as yet been made to test these results.

aware,

Uber die Gleich ungeu des Gleichgewichtes eines elasti[1244.] achen Kurpers bei nicht unendlich kleinen Verscliiebungen seiner
Theile.

Sitzungsbericlite

der mathem.-naturwiss.
ix. S.

Classe

der

k.

Akademie der Wisseuschaften, Bd.

and therefore was possibly

762-773.

Wicn, 1852.

Kirchhoff did not republish this in his Gesamnielte Abhandlunycn, dissatisfied with its method and results.

He commences his memoir by referring to the paper of SaintSaint- Venant Venant discussed in our Art. 1617* (I.) et seq. had briefly indicated a method of finding the equations of elasticity

when the

shifts are not infinitely small.

Kirchhoff remarks:

Diese Gleiehungen habe ich auf zwei verschiedenen Wcgen abgclcitct, von dcncn der erste ini Wesentlichen mit deui von St. Venant angedcutetcn ubereinzukoniinen schcint, der zweite auf der Entwickelung einer friiher von mir (Crelles Journ. XL. [sec our Art. 1235]) aufgestellten Formcl beruht
'(S. 762).

KirchhotF takes as his variables not the shifts u, v, w of the [1245.] point x, y, z but the coordinates of the point x, y, z, after sliift, or = x + u, rj = y + v, = z + w. He then states rather than proves that 1 body- and surface- stress equations of the usual types, namely
:

v + pX+-jdx
dxx

dxy -j^

dy

dxz -^dz

0,

+ Hxz
hold, where, however, the stress symbols have not their usual meaning. They denote stresses parallel to the coordinate axes across planes Thus originally but no longer parallel to the coordinate planes.

relations of the type

xy

= yx

will no longer be true. (Diese neun Drucke sind im Allgemeinen schiej' yegen die Ebenen gerichtet, gegen die sie wirken, und es sind nicht drei von ihnen dreien anderen gleich, S. 763.)
1

It

should be noted that we use tensions where he uses pressures.

Ii>4;-ii47]

KiucHii.

51

is t> i-s in terms of The j. [1246.] BZpreM these ni the three principal tractions. This occupies S. 764-7. In the course of tin- investigation the following process occurs. Let r be the direction of an dement of a line in the unstrained state which takes the direction r' in the strained state; let e be an element of defined by its length of terminal coordinates a:, ?/, z and x + 8x, y + 8y, s + &s, then if e becomes e with terminals -f 8, + 817, + 8, we have 17, rj given by
/ , ,
:

...

cos (/,

x-)

=
ej^r

cos

(r, a;)

cos

e. Kiivhhoif [nations for teos(r', cos(r', c). on either side, which is allowable he says "ivenn wir beriicks'u'lit it/en, doss e von e nur unendlich wenvj verschieden int" (S. 765). Now it is not shown that the terms Kiruhhoff is thus neglecting are nut of the order of the quantities he proposes to retain. In fact, if r \te taken to coincide with x, he finds the cosine of the angle between the strain* -d and unstrained directions of a: to be d/dx=l+ux, which is If we keep e/c in, we should have it as a factor <juite incorrect. of the right-hand sides of equations (6) of S. 765. Thus in KirchhoH"s expressions on S. 766 for the stresses, we must read for his principal

with similar

^y) and

(r, //)

^ cos

(/,

and

ure*

/*,,

/'.,,

the quantities

A
or, if *,,
n. 2
,

!/!>

r -'

<
-

'

83

be the stretches in the directions of the principal pressures:

otivelj.
'2

Kiivhhoff uses X n

X..,,

X3

for

our

* lf w,,

1
[

17.
|

Kirddioir next assumes that the principal pressure* will

bi-

linear functions of the principal stretches, or that

/',

=-2/|^
lie

+',
for X'(2/x'), using tinin the

He
and

writ.--

A"

for

p
"').

above, and
is

d
II

nils as he had used

Ait.
1

same let! memoir of

x "'
l

L' ."

of the strain.
still

assume the prim-ipal A and ft! H-S, then

'I'liM-

justified in doing this becaiis*- he neglects we tain the Mpiare i.f th- -tr.iin, lUld pressure- linear functions of the principal
If
i-

will

not

be
hi-

the

and

/i

of our
(

nrdinar\
Trail*.
j

notation.
1-

Sir

\\'.

'I'homs.in in

memoir

of IM'L

(/'////.

812,
:

or Treatise on Natural Philosophy, Part

II.

i-

marks

And
;t

it

may

U-

i-.tu! to ,,ber\'e

that f<r

.ill

valuer of
<>f

[the strain cne.rgy]

utw,

must then-fon- le e\pnv^il>le in tho aoi ooch of which is always iimtc, f.. r all valuot

tho

52

KiKcmioFF.
,

[12481-24!)

of strain,

Here 4 1, #-! G\^ 6, c are the generalised components and it has just been noted that if these arc infinitely small

tlustrain-energy may be expressed as a homogeneous quadratic function of them with ro/ixtattt coefficients. Hence Sir W. Thomson considers that the coefficients of elasticity vary as the strain increases in magnitude and thus for finite strain may no longer be represented by X and /n.

To be more general then than Kirchhoff, that is to deal [1248.] with any magnitude of strain, we ought to replace in the equations (7) and (8) of Kirchhoff's S. 767, the quantities Plt 1\, 1\ by expressions
of the type

1\

=-

2//

sj

-, (s l

s.,

,)

These will agree with Kirchhoff's values

if the strains are so small that the products of the principal stretches may be neglected. Neglecting the square of 8 lt etc. Kirchhoff finds values for s lt * 2 sa in terms of quantities which he denotes by the letters L, J/, J\r /, in, n. These quantities are related in the following manner to Thomson's A, By C, a, b c and to the e^, c cz rj uzj rj^., r;X!/ of our Art. 1619*:
,
,

tf ,

21 =

a = 17^,

2m = b =

r},,

2n = c = r)xu

these quantities are generalised components of strain, Kirchhoff's expressions for s i s 2 s3 in terms of and therefore his expressions for the stress in terms of these Ly M, strain-components are true only for infinitely small strains.
it

But

must be noted that while

all

Expressed in the notation of our work we have according [1249.] to Kirchhoff the following expressions for the stress-symbols as defined in our Art. 1245:
--

2/i

{(1

+ tO
+ ux )

+
(c,
r
>j>

A
l

(ex

+ +

c,

4-

+u

,(<

with others written

results,

down by proper
seen, are obtained

cyclical

as

we have

These interchanges. on the assumption that the

square of the strain may be neglected. equations on S. 769 shows that s lt s2

we can neglect s and retain products like u^ But if we do not reject ^ 2 Kirchhoff's investigation is invalid. Thus it does not seem that much importance can be attributed to the expressions given
rule

Kirchhoff's last set of are of the same order as c;.> an d therefore these latter quantities are also small ; but *x> //j 2 fx = ux +^ (u/ + VK + x ), and therefore if ux be positive, ux and c,. must be |)ractically of the same order, hence it is difficult to see how as
,

Now

s3

;i

above for the stress-symbols in terms of the generalised components

of strain

12.501251]

KIHCHIK.I
I

F.

53

More weight is think to be laid on Kirchhoflf's second method of investigation, which at any rate, till it assumes the strain to be a quadratic function of the principal stivuli-s, does not
the strains necessarily small. then in our notation KiivhhulV finds for lues of the stress-symbols as defined in our Art. 1!
.

."

dW
~j ,1,1
> 9

rn

= ~j

<nv dn
>

,/ir

fz

'in

__</!!' dvx

~_*W
dv v
J

dW
dvM
;,*
'
,

dW
uc
,/,/

_
,

r/ir
.

zy

dW
-j
.

\vh. i. of x , cz , thflM , rj^, 17^, 17^.,,, tin- values u i\cn in our Art. 1G1D*. liavr straiu-compoiK'iits
it

But IF^a function

follows that

dW dW d^
du
Or
'/c

<lWd^
drjzs

dWdt
</,,

dum
(1

dn

dW n
dt

+ Ux ) + -=--- U- +
.l

dW
n

d^

-y

dW M

S.nula.lv

r,=

u,+

,nv

dW
Sul)stitut
tlirsr
<

dW

dW,,

"

-\prosHions in the body-stress equations of Art.

<

_'!."

and we have precisely the generalifled njuations ui\-n l.\- ('. Nrumaiui /'A/ in L860(ee our Art. G70) and by Thomson in 1862 'luis in\, ;il. -\'"/. /'/,//. Part II. p. 463). Thr>- ,,,!:.' p. in Kin-lili.tl"s results on S. 77'J and 789, although IKpnMOTl them by to Bm tli.- vain.- i,f 1C in tin- doubtful form
.

IT =

M(
nipt ion tliat tin- sipian-s if tin- strains

on

tin*

a.-vsii

ma\

!,

n-<j;Ivt<-.l.

[12">1.]
xlfi'r/t

L'hcr
tliinncn
'

I'ichgewiclt
:

mnl
('relics
.1
\'

lin,

1S.>
in
tli.
t

Tliis iin-iiioii
r>f

siihst.'inti.'illy rrju-d.lin-r*!
.I/.

'btli

Kiiclibotrs
;iinl

with
l\ ir.-lili, -tV's

ni".|itiraii..i,.

iiiipriiM-niciit<

tb-..ry

in

both

54

K1KCHHOFF.

[12521253

places is owing to its brevity and generality rather hard reading. It is given in a somewhat simpler and clearer fashion by Clebsch

192 et seq. It belongs to a branch of our was among the first to treat with any Kirchhoff that subject \ ictiu'ss, the equilibrium and motion of elastic bodies namely
in his Elasticitdt, S.

having one or two dimensions infinitely small, i.e. thin rods, wires, plates and shells. The subject is a difficult one, and it is only the
confirmation, which the results reached receive when we approach them as limiting cases of bodies of finite dimensions (as, for

example, has been done for certain cases by Clebsch), that enables us to set aside the doubts raised by some of the processes adopted.
[1252.J object
:

The memoir opens with

the following historical account of

its

Poisson hat in scincm Traitt de mdoaniqiie cine Theoric der cndlichen Formiinderungen entwickelt, die ein unendlich diinncr, urspriinglich gorader cxler krummer, elastischer Stab durch Krafte, die theils auf sein Inneres, tlieils auf seine Enden wirken, erfahrt. De Saint- Venant hat jedoch nacheewieaen, dass die Voraussetzungen, von denen Poisson dort ausgegangen ist, theilweise unrichtig sind, uud hat zum ersten Male die Torsion und Bicgung oinrs unendlich dtinnen Stabes von beliebigcm Querschnitt, von den Grundgloichungen der Theorie der Elasticitiit ausgehend, mit Strenge untersucht. De Saint- Venant hat dabei aber nur den Fall bchaudelt, class der Stab urspriinglich cylindrisch ist, dass die Formanderungen unendlich klein sind, uud dass In der vorliegenden Abhanddie Axe des Stabes eine Axe der Elasticita't ist. lung untersuche ich, von den Gleichungen der Theorie der Elasticitiit ausgehend, die Formiiuderungen eines unendlich diinnen Stabes von libel-all gleichem Querschnitt ohne diese beschrankenden Anuahmen. S. 285 ((/'. J.
S. 285-6.)

[1253.]

The

first

section of the

memoir occupies

S.

286-93

(G.

relates to certain general principles which are afterwards applied to the special problem of the thin rod. Kirchhoff first proves a principle which Clebsch has termed Kirchhoff '8

A.

S.

286-95) and

Principle and which he has thus stated in his Theorie der Elasticitdt, S.

191

Die innern Verschiebungen eines sehr kleinen Korpers sind nur ab von den Kraften, welche auf seine Oberflache wirken, nicht aber von dmjcnigen, welche auf sein Inneres wirken, vorausgesetxt, dass die letzteren nicht gegen
die erstcrn ausserordentlich gross sind.

Kirchhoff's demonstration of this principle is given in analytical form on S. 286-90 of his memoir (0. A. S. 286-91) and is

repeated with slight variations on S. 407-9 of the VorlesuiKjcn.

1253]

KIRCHHOFF.

After studying both demonstrations I am obliged to confess that they carry no conviction to my mind. Clebsch after citing the principle as due to KirchhofT adds:
von dessen Richtigkeit

man

sich leicht

von vorn herein iiberzeugt

is

(S. 191).

Clebsch's statement of the proof

sieht dioscii
S.-itx
<

as follows

sofort ein, wenn man foment!. ng anstellt. lro>se der auf dan Aeussere wirkemlen K ln>s>e oVr auf da> Innere wirkenden Ki ;iuf <li<- Flarhenoinhoit, und die uf dio Volumeneinheit, entwetler verjeirhhar M>irn. ooVr nur der umgekehrtc Fall >! >ann r grass gegen letxtere; Loosen,

Xehmen

\\iran.ilas-

.lie

rosse der wirklu-h auf die Oberfliiche des klcinen K outers wirkenoYn M( )1 KM tliiche oder einem Theil desselben pr- >\* >rt i< .nal, erhiilt jedenfalls einen Faktor, wek-her von der Ordnung der Grosse dieser OU-rt:
jti-oportional
(

absolute Grosse der auf das Innere wirkeudcn Kraft hin^e;_;en \\ird mit seincm Volumen. Sind nun die Dimensionen des kloinm K.i-jKT> kloine Grossen erster Ordnung, so ist seine Fliiclie von der xweitcn VolunuMi von d-r dritten der Faktor also, mit welcliom die auf Mil; -ivwirki-ndtiii Kr;iftebehaftetsind,ist urn eine Ordnung ni, mit \vclrlu-ni die auf das Innere wirkenden Kritfto Miai'tH >ini. Sind a No nur die letzten nicht an sich gegen die erstem sehr gross, so \\inl ilmIrh NN'irkuni; >< -hr klein gegen let/tere und ist somit xu vernat-li
;
.

IM-II. -elbe Princip bereitsim Anfan;^ ui i-< !(! I'ntrr-u, lnin^ IxMiutxt wunlo, indem man dir inncni VerschitOumgen einos Klemont> mu (It-it ;uif -rin Oberfliiche wirkenden Spannungen, nicht abor von lnnnv> NvirkiMidcn Kriiften al>hiingig machte (S. 191-2).

dm

This statement of Clebsch's appears to contain all tli. nr-rui unite of But I do not see any reason why exactly tin- sam.argument should not be applied to the elementary right six-face from which \vc dt-diu-f our fundamental elastic equations; ind-cd the l:i>i
Kii-clihotrs analysiH.

Nvipl> of

('! -l.sch

>.

in

to indicate that in

some fashion

\\-

<!.

aj.j.h
l>o<l

it.

Tin- n-asi niiug does not seem to me to clearly explain why for a infinitesimal dimensions we may neglect the right-hand sidr
t

of

tin-

J.i.

al

r.jiiation

'/r
'///

(<l-n +_ mpi\<lt- -A dz )
.

'

...

..... (l),

but not th-

right-hand side of the typical equation for the surface-load

Hex

+ m*y + n**
if ott

=.

.V

...... (ii).

the dimensions of the body are made If we are deal infinitesimal the prineijilr has any real meaning. however, \\ ith a \\ ire or thiii plate, it is the shifts of points <i B irire or the mid j. lane >f the j.late that WC are anxious to dl8C'
loubtful

whether

i.

IM

ii.l

upon the rewltant body and refulton/ BUIIn the case of a winwire or plate.
are
f,

dim>
..lit
..f

.ss-BCction of win. h

an.

of

which S*

ill

an

len-ih.

th..

,,

.ult.mt bod

>"<! tin-

56

KiurimoFF.

[12541255

resultant surface force of order c&^Y,,; hence, if pX be not very great as the former term vanishes as compared with the latter , compared with when is extivmrly small. Tn the case of the plate, if r be its thickness and 8a> an element of its surface, these resultant forces are of the order T&I) (pX) and &aXn respectively, and, if be not very great as compared with the former vanishes as compared with the latter, if r be extremely small. Thus for wires and thin plates we may put the righthand side of equation (i) zero, if we are merely seeking the shifts of points on the central axis or mid-plane; but if we were to suppose these bodies to have a sensible, if very small cross-section, then it smns to me that for the relative shifts of points on the same cross-section there is no reason why the body- and surface-forces should not have like effect. On the whole the method by which Boussinesq and Saint-

pX

{t

Venant approach kindred problems seems to me slightly more convincing than tho somewhat vague reasoning of Kirchhoffand Clebsch soc our Arts. 384-94 and Chapter xm.
:

The next general principle considered by Kirchhoff is [1254.] similar to tbat of his memoir on plates. He states that the six
stresses expressed

as linear functions of the

six

strains

would

involve 36 constants, but that 15 of these are equal to 15 others because the expression
xxdsx

+ yydsy + *zzdsz
He

-f-

i/zdo'y z

-\-

zxd<r zx

-\-

^ijda'yy

differential of a homogeneous function F of remarks in a footnote that this follows easily from the mechanical theory of heat and explains why this is so, concluding with the words

must be the complete

the six strains.

Diese Betrachtung ist, wie ich glaube, schon von W. Thomson iin Quarterly Mathematical Journal (April, 1855 1 ) angestellt ich habe die citirte Stello nu -h't .ins.-hen konnen (S. 290 G. A. S. 291).
;
;

The

strain-energy leads Kirchhoff to the equation of variation

&U-SfffFda;dydz=iO ........................ (i),

where

SU

is

the virtual

moment

of the external forces.

similar

form of this equation occurs in the memoir on plates (see our Art. 1235) and had already been given by Green and others.

From a certain property of the function F, Kirchhoff [1255.] proceeds to show that the above equation, or the general equations of elasticity, determine uniquely the values of the shifts u, v, w, the
1

Mathematical mid

1'lnjxical

Paper*, Vol.

I.

pp. 300-5.

1255]

KIRCHHoil.

body as a whole being negleo' This general proof of the uniqueness of the solution of the equations of elasticity has been adopted by Clebsch and Boussinesq (see our Art. 1331 and Chapter xm.), and was probably >u^ >tr,l
by Saint- Venant's memoir on Torsion
:

translation or rotation of the

see our Arts. 6

and

10.

Suppose there are two solutions of the equilibrium equations of Substitute the shifts in the three body- and three siirfacee.jnations ami subtract the corresponding equations for either system of solutions, tli-n there must he values of u, v, w (lin"rriii< from (i.e. tli,. ditleivnee of the two systems of shifts) for whieh the righthand sides of the six equations vanish, or which satisfy equations of
elasticity.

the type

"T7
j

dZy
~r~

d
dz
i~~

- v.

clx
/f7

dy
4- iii7!j

+ n7z =

0.

Multiply the first of these equations by udxdydz, and the corresjxmdini,' ^nations by vd# <!}//-. and n',f., ,li/dz respectively ; add and int-i:i-:iti' Then by im-ans ..f th.l.y parts over the whole volume of the solid. second or surface set of equations we easily find
0,

or

fffFdxdydz =
for an isotropic Ixxiy

...........................

(ii).

Now

F=

*
p. (8X

4-

if

4-

8*)

Jft

(or^

4- <T

2 4- <Tr(/ ) 4-

(^,.

4-

4-

8,)*.

ll.-nee for

an isotropic body we must have

be stiains all zero.

Thus the two systems of

shifts can only

litl.

by a translation or rotation of the body as a whole.

K in -hlioil adds
.l.i
l,,-i
.!,
I''.!.

to this proof for isotropic bodies

i,

welche in verechiedenen
.

l!i<

-litun^en
tiit

eine

hi.-ili-n.-

i-'

die Untersrliiede

nur klein

,in

d.-n

K ... j,-m /''dieselbe Eigenschaft hat

aniM-liincn djiriVn, dsuss U-i ullcn in d<r N.itur v..rk.miuen(S. 291 ; (J. A. S. 293).

vimishini,'

The Eigenschaft in question is that of never being negative ami only when the six strains are each separately zero. That bodies
thrir elasticity

with aeolotropic elasticity '

,,,.,,, ai

hi fact only 'small dr (e.g. wood) have seems more than doubtful, but Kii.-ld

,i leak witb \\itl.out further proof HHHert* and union.solution, of the problem

i.

IT.

II.

58
that

KTRCHHOFF.

[12561257

must be a positive quantity and that its vanishing involves the vanishing of the six strains individually. Clebsch may only be thinking its form for aeolotropic for isotropic elastic solids of the form of At any rate Kirchhoff's solids requires some further discussion. argument from nearly equal elasticities does not seem conclusive. modified proof is given by Kirchhoff on S. 394-5 of his Vorlesungen, which does not exclude the case of aeolotropic bodies, although any reference to them is omitted. He states however that for a compressible, will take the form given by JJL = and A finite, in frictionless fluid, does not involve u = v = w for the case which case the vanishing of of no motion of the fluid as a whole, i.e. the slides may be finite.

KirchhofF concludes the first section of his memoir by [1256.] throwing equation (i) into a form suitable for a body in which the shifts are not very small, but the strains in each elementary portion arc small. for all these elementary portions, and have only to sum

We
:

we have

Q ........................ (iii).
If the body be in motion and T be its kinetic energy " becomes " durch ein bekanntes Prinzip der Mechanik
:

this equation

fdt{8T+SU-$2fffFdxdydz} =
The application of these equations made in the following sections.

................ (iv).

to the case of a thin rod or wire is

[1257.]
S.

295-304) and

Kirchboff's second section occupies S. 293-302 (G.A. is substantially reproduced on S. 410-19 of the

Clebsch on S. 190-202 of his Treatise deals with Vorlesungen. the same matter, but soon forsakes Kirchhoff's processes for deductions based on his own solution of Saint- Venant's problem.

We

shall return

to Clebsch's
it is

remark here tbat

in

work later (Art. 1359), but may some respects more, in others less, satis-

factory than Kirchhoff's original investigation of the problem.

Kirchhoff supposes the rod to be initially right-cylindrical, and in this initial state takes a rectangular system of axes at the centroid of any cross-section consisting of the axis of the rod (1) and the

Let x, y, % be the coordinates principal axes of the cross-section (2, 3). of any point of the rod relative to these axes before strain and x + u, be the coordinates after strain relative to rectangular axes y + v, z +

x, y, z, of which the axis of of % is perpendicular to the

x is the strained position of 1, and the axis Now if x, y, z be plane through x and 2. supposed to receive only values of the order of the linear dimensions

1257]

KIRCHHOFF.

of the cross-section, then .r, y, z, i/, r, ware quantities which fulfil the conditions required for the equation (iii) to hold. Let be the 17, after strain referred to any rectangular axes in space, coordinates of and let the former set (x, yt z) make the system of angle direction-cosines are given by

<*o,

ft, 7u

ft 72 , with the axes iy, Tin -n the coordinates of the point xt y, z after strain with regard to & 17, are given by three equations of the type
,
.

(+,(*+)+Oi()r+9)+i(*+w) .................. (v).

If s be the distance of the point P from an end of the rod in its unstrained condition, quantities like (v) must be functions of 8 + x, or Since , th<-ir j.-irtial differentials with regard to 8 and x must be equal. id the direction-cosines are not functions of a: we find
:

dajds
(s
-I-

(vi).

Multiply these c-quations respectively by o^, )3 y,,, then by a,, ft, y, and then by a.,, ftyj y., and add in each case, and wr find aft. r certain
,

IdllS

Clearly

retch in

</x,

and the

ml

hold

62

60
Further p,
q,

KIRCHHOFF.
r are given by the following expressions

[12581259
:

.)

[1258.]
as

Kirchhoff
v,

now remarks
w,
if

that -

are infinitely groat

of
;nv

compared with u,

we only

give to

x values of the order

if

the linear dimensions of the cross-section; further,

-=-, y-

ds

ds

ds

these differentials with not infinitely great as compared with u, v, t small as be will to those with regard to s infinitely compared regard
to x.

Thus by neglecting

infinitely

small

quantities

of the higher

order

we have

du
dv
(ix).

dw
dx
first

= qx-py

For the proof of these assertions Kirchhoff refers rather vaguely to his paragraph, and there is a similar reference in the Vorlesungen, S. 412 (Gestutzt auf die am Ende des vorigen gemachte Bemerkung). Clebsch in his Treatise, S. 202, puts the matter thus
:

Bemerken wir nun, dass bei der Differentiation nach x sich die Grossen w immer um eine Ordnung unendlich kleiner Grossen erniedrigen, was bei der Differentiation nach s im Allgemeinen nicht geschehen wird, und dass u, r, ir
t

v,

klein gegen x,

z,

so reduciren diese Gleichungen sich auf

(ix).

The argument does not seem to me by any means clear, and T think equations (ix) would be incorrect if there were an appreciable longitudinal or buckling load.
[1259.]

By

integrating (ix)

we

find
]

u = u + (ry - qz + e) x, v = v + pzx where u

vn
?#

are quantities independent of

x.

KIKCHHOFF.

61

By forming
they are
to:
all

inde|endent of

the expressions for the strains it will le found that x, so that the body-stress equations reduce

-J

+
,

-3

dy

dz

.(xi).

-=
dy
dz

and the surface-stress equations at the curved surface to

^dg
jcy

dy
yy -j-

-j-

zjc

dg -.- = 0. dz
-r dz

v*

dy
yz
zz

~ + ^ dz =
dy
j

is the equation to the contour of a cross-section, and therefunction of z and y only. Further (xii) supposes no forces to act on the surface of the rod except at the terminal cross-sections. The arbitrary constants in the values of u, v, w may be determined by the conditions that for y = z = 0,

win-re.

<j

-0
i

.110

= 0,

= 0,

^=

0,

............... (xiii).

We easily

find for the strains

dvn

.**.

dw
'I'he

dua

stresses are given as linear funetinns in terms of these strains, th.f tin- functions It depmdinir on th- ehi.stii- nature of th.- r...|. tin- axis of ill.' ni.| Injiai-allel to an axis of elasticity \\- ha\i- f.-rm of tin- following type, whi.-h Kir> hhoff cites frnni I im inoir
t'orin
t

by Kankin.

Art 418)
>JCXJK\

in the FortochriUe der rkysik, 1850-1, 8.

244-9

IfWl 8,

-f-

62

KIRCHHOFF.

[1261

-1262
:

see our Art. 78, p. 77, footnote,

easily give us
:

where the constants have the usual meaning .md inter-constant relations and Vol. I. p. 885. The first body-stress and first surface-stress equations, (xi) and (xii),
n
-

\SJC:JT\

dv

+ 2

\zjrjcif\

n -=' +

n
\xyjry\
.

dydz

......... (xVl),

dif

and

These equations with the first of (xiii) determine fully uu arid the other Thoy should equations of (xi), (xii) and (xiii) determine v and w be compared with those obtained for the case of a rod of finite crosssee our Arts. 17, 83 section by Saint- Venant and later by Clebsch and 1334. Even if the axis of the rod be not parallel to an elastic axis and (xv) do not hold, (xi), (xii) and (xiii) determine u v w uniquely and as linear homogeneous functions of p, q, r, see Kirchhoff 's S. 297-8 If the values of u v w thus found be substituted (G. A. S. 299). in (x) we have u, v, w as linear homogeneous functions of p, q, r, e. The coefficients of these quantities will be independent of s and thus if dp/ds, dq/ds, dr/ds, de/ds are not infinitely great as compared with p, q, r, respectively, equations (x) satisfy the hypothesis we have made in Art. 1258 with regard to du/ds, dv/ds, dw/ds.
,
.
rt

The strains will be given by (xiv) as linear homogeneous [1261.] functions of /;, q, r, also. If these functions be substituted in the value as a quadratic function of these of the strain-energy F, we obtain Integrate this over the crossquantities, which is independent of x. section and suppose jjFdydz =f, then we may write for equations (iii)

and

(iv) respectively

$U-8ffds = Q ........................... (xviii), fdt{ST+SU-SJfds} = ..................... (xix).

as a quadratic It may be noted that Thomson and Tait start from 592-5. function of p, q, r, e see their Natural Philosophy, Part II. Kirchhoff describes a general method of calculating the values of the coefficients of this function in terms of the usual elastic constants, but
:
J

it is

one which

it

would not be easy

to apply except to special cases.

Kirchhoff remarks on S. 299 (G. A. S. 301) that the equations (xi), (xii) and (xiii) can be satisfied by the hypothesis made by Saint- Venant in his memoirs on Torsion and Flexure, namely
[1262.]
:

W
See our Arts. 77
(ii),

= Isz = yz =

0.

316-8 and 1334.

1263

1-2G4]

Kim-im-

63

shews, imlr.-.l. that tliis hy^thesis gives a possible solution, l.ut not |.r<>v- that it is the only one. His discussion does not blUf v.-ry much confirmation to Saint- Venant's theory and hardly justifies note on p. 616 of Moigno's Statique; still it is of value as shewing the relation between the two investigations a relation which has been still more clearly brought out by the researches of detach: see our Arts. 1 334-7 \
IK- d<>< -s

He

Kirchhoff next investigates an expression for tin- kin. ti. [1263.] After some analysis which involves a rather difficult -ncrgy T. consideration of the relative magnitude of various quantities, IK- finds:

whnv
and
This

uK'

might I think have been deduced from general dynamical prim -ij'h's rather more briefly than by KirchhofTs analysis: see his J9-301 (G. A. S. 301-3).
[12G4.]
iision

section of the memoir concludes with the the previous results to rods whose unstrained form is curved, the cross-section, however, being the same throughout
of
:

The second

t'ntcr dieser Bedin&iuig wird der Stab durch passcndc, auf sein Inneres

cylindrigch gemacht Theile unendlich kleine Dilatationen erleiden Uv.icht man die Gritacn f den Zustand, in dem der Stab sich dann befindet, statt auf x,y, 11 natiirlichen Zustand, und bezeichnet durch it', uf tl die w, , w annehmen, wenn man den Stal> in scincn natiirlichen Zu>in cine belicbige Lage ubergehen l;i.s.st, .so werdcn die Oleichungon (iii) und (iv) man in u-u't vv'r w-irf. Dalicr statt M, v, w setzt
; :

wirkonde Kriifte

werdcn

komim

dal.ei

wcr-i-

',

die Glcichungen (xviii)-(xx) auch jetzt geltcn, wi />, </, ^csctxt hat r, t r', c' di/^-7->', q-tf, r-r', <-', wo t>', 'lic/;, y, r, t annenmen, w-nn man don Stab in soinon n ;d und in cine beliebige i Ijagc llbergehea dieeem Falle u-u' y v-tft w-vJ dicHolben linearcn Funkti/ '-i , wie in dem friihcrcn Uj vt w von />, y, r, ', (S. 302
l<:n
:

P~P'*
;

O. A.

w.is a very general extension of that ly which bending-tnoment at any point of a piano curved rod E<OK* (l/p- l/pn ) from the value JCD*CS/P in the case of a straight rod see our An j:>7* and compare Arts. 619-20.

process here

tin-

and

deal of Kirohhoff's later work depend* upon the rappodtion that is true for rods. Kirohhoff's method of reaching thin retail hat been atejj criticised by Saint- Venant see nil Cltbtch pp. 178-81, ospoouUly | 7, our Art. 316.
:

A Rood =

64-

KlIlfHHOFF.
1

[1265

265.]

The

third section of the

memoir further develops equation

302-8,
G.

(xviii)

on the assumption that the only external forces are those acting
(S.

on the terminal cross-sections

to

A.

S.

304-11).

We

by the processes of the Calculus of Variations four functions />, 7, r, e of s, but these quantities are defined by differential a between which coefficients of ft, y rj, a,, ft, y n a,, /?,, y,, Kirchhoff adopts the method of indeterminate certain relations hold. J/ n J/ 3 to denote respectively the multipliers and uses A, B, (7, multipliers of the three relations (vii) bis and the three relations (viii). He finds by the ordinary processes of the Calculus and by the eliminaseek
,

() ,

tion of the other multipliers the following sets of equations

-*

=*

-*

.................. < xxi) -

(=tf, say) .................. (xxii),

*=<*

S
,(xxiv).

ds

lT *

~
A,B,
A,
,

MlP - M q + (Aa, + Bfr

Q
:

Kirchhoff then deduces the following simple meanings of the quantities

C,
J3,

M M M
lt

of the components, parallel to the axes of respectively, of the elastic stresses which act upon the crosssection determined by s, from the side of that portion of the rod which are the moments of the corresponds to greater values of s; Jf J/ 1} 3

are the

sums

rj,

same

stresses

about the axes of

x, y, z

respectively

these

moments

are

positive when they correspond to a right-handed screw motion round the corresponding axis, such a motion round the aj-axis turning a point

on the z-axis into the y-axis. In the Vorlesunyen, S. 419-21, Kirchhoff starts with these meanl and deduces from statical considerations z ings of A B, C, J/ MI, The former set and then equations (xxi) and (xxii). equations (xxiv)
9
,

is

given more easily by the statical process, the latter by the Calculus of Variations ; both processes are instructive especially when compared. Still a third process, more symmetrical and, perhaps, simpler than either of Kirchhoff 's, is given by Clebsch in his Treatise S. 204-9.
1

J/

3/j, 3/2 are replaced

by

Mx M M
,

respectively in that work.

1267]
1

KIIH-HHOFF.

is a quadratic function >f /< Sine* //, 7 q\ r-r, and follows from equations (xxi) and (xxii) that .!/... J/,, and $ can be expressed as linear functions of those quantities. Kirchhoff uses the following system of coefficients

[1'266.]
it

-',

p-p
00

OH w
m

l...(xxv),

M, S
where
^

Kirchhoff remarks that these a's are not all of equal order since - is a mere number, but p-p, q-q', r- r are the reciprocals of a Hence the a's involving one 3 as subscript must be one linear length. dimension lower than those containing no subscript 3 and one linear dimension higher than that containing two subscripts 3. The linear factor can, moreover, only be a linear dimension of the cross-section of so an infinitely small quantity. Thus coefficients with one I, and suKseript 3 are infinitely small as compared with 033 and infinitely Thus we cannot great as compared with those with no subscript 3. - in the neglect the terms in c expressions (xxv), for, although c e' may be very small as compared with p-p', q q\ r r', still its coefficients are infinitely greater than the others.
'

From

the value of

S'

indicated in (xxv)

we

find

a(p -p')
iin<l
it'

- r') - 6' (q -q') + a^ (r

"
;

~"~

"-

0*3

this value of

be substituted in the

first

tlnvr

r\|,r, ->xins \\v

,

see that unless

may

infinitely great as compared with .'/ neglect the terms in *S', thus we find expressions of the
is
,,

.!/..

\\.

form

too

(p -

- q)

\\hi-i-

Ki.vhh..ir
a.>

and (lie //s are easilv c\]u-c.'.l a t'uiu-(i)ii-> .hows on S. 307 (G. A. S. 31<>) that X is
.s
i

r.iinpan-.] \\itli
tli-

.!/

.!/

.!/
A',

only
:'

wlim

th,-

.lirrdion of thn

of

fOTCei

.1.

C
i

liH'.-r>

r\rry\vin-rr infinitely little

i.-ally sulli.-init

from

thai of tin-

tangent to tli M. |iuitions [i.e. (xxi)-(\\\ have now been found.

i

th- n<l.
hi-or.-t

>|

to fully solv.- th-

In tin- last
a

\.TV

iii

paragraph if this suction tico-kinrtic analogy

iii

Kiivlili..iV |'int s

pooe

tin-

rod

its

unstrained

-oiidiii..n

|{

that p'

= q' = r' = 0.

Tlirii if

we substitute the values of

tin

66

KIKCHHOFF.

[1268

from (xxvi) in (xxiv) we obtain the same differential equation The those lor the rotation of a heavy body about a fixed point. must be our clastic used in interpreted in investigations symbols
for the rotating body are axes fixed in space, the axes #, y, z are f, ij, f a\ s fixed in the body at time s, the origin of the latter system is the fixed point of the body and the axis of x passes through its

the following The axes

manner

C are the components of the weight A, B, ; of the body parallel to the axes of f, 77, f, multiplied by the of the ^-coordinate of the centroid finally if ra be an element
centroid
;

mass of the body which has must have

:

x, y, z for

its

coordinates, then

we

Sra

To determine the form

of the elastic rod,

when the correspond-

ing problem of the rotating body is solved, requires us only to perform the three integrations which give the coordinates of a
point on the axis of the rod, namely
:

f = fads,

TJ

= f@ ds,
is

f = fy ds.

Here the longitudinal

Kirchhoff's
several later writers
:

stretch e

neglected.

analogy has been discussed by Tait, Natural Philosophy Vol. II. Mathematische Annalen, Bd. 23, S. 609-13; Hess, 181-212 and Bd. 25, S. 1-38, 1884-5 Greenhill, Proceedings of tJie London Mathematical Society, Vol. xvin. p. 278, 1888.
elastico-kinetic

see

Thomson and

The fourth and last section of Kirchhoff's memoir is devoted [1268.] to the following special case the rod in its original unstrained state is a wire of circular cross-section and its axis has the form of a helix.
:

The rod is supposed to be of homogeneous and isotropic elasticity. See S. 308-13 (6?. A. S. 311-316). Kirchhoff easily deduces the following
of our Art. 1261 where the notation of the elastic expression for the constants is that of the present work 1
:

/=
where
1

M>
z*) d<*
2
,

(f

-f

ra ) +

e'

............

(xx vii),

<*>K*

= //(/ +
/x,

2/jy-Wco.
1
.

op

Our

w,

E, wK' stand for the

X,

K,(j.of Kirchhoff 's memoir. K, 2-^ 1 + A"

1269]

KIKCHHOFF.
:

f>7

Equations (xxvi) take the form

(xxviii).

69.
|

Km-hhotr now takes

tin-

0'

for the angle a tangent to the helix

makes with

axis, in

the unstrained condition,

it

sin

0'

for the radius

of the cylinder on which

]>ut>
:

lies,

and

for the

unstrained coordinates he

'

* cos

0',

n =

sin

& sin

'

ra's,

-n

sin

& cos n's,

win

-i i<

we obtain

for a/,

ft,',

y / the values:
t

aj = cos &i
the cross-section
a./,
/?.,',

= sin 0' cos ns, ft,'

is

'

= sin 0' sin raV

a,', ft', y,',

y.,'

may be assumed

circular, one of the six quantities to be an arbitrary function of 8.

f

Kirchhoff

takes:
o,
/

= sin

0'

cos

I's,

is

an arbitrary constant.
'

Hence, after some analysis, he deduces:

o'
'

= I' - n

cos &,

= -?t'sin
ami's

O'cosl'g,}>
)

.
'

IXX1XL

These equations might have been deduced by other consideration-. Now assume y, a,,, J3 y a,, ft, y,, a.,, ft,, y3 equal to the expressions for the same quantities with dashes, only replacing the constants
,
,

0*, n', I'

by new constants

6,

n,

I.

the equations of the proMem are satisti.,1 Further using (xxviii) except (xxiv) whatever be the values of 0, /*, /. it will bo found that if we take can be satisfied (xxiv)
all
:

It will be found that

Tin- tuiidition
/telical
i.f

tin

l/te force acting (U tJte end of tike '// This is cn< direction of /// Jtclvx. shall be those assumed, or oonditioni that the values of ^,17, bfl liolix shall be strained into a second h. li\.

/?"C =
have

denotes that

wire

mut

'

t/ie

lunations (xxviii) give US

M = - N (n
%

ne-nnn^coHl'g.l
sin

-n

(xxxi);

sin

&)

si

n ta

68
whence
if

KIRCHHOFF.
J/^, J/,,,
ix-sjHict
.!/;
!><

[1270

the couples which act upon the end of the

hrlix with

to the three axes,

we

easily find

- (L(n cos -n J/f = 1Y = A> J/, 4,

where

cos

6') cosO+N (n sin 6- ri sin &} sin 0\.\ Kf J-...(XXX11), v M{ = -Ari J

refer to the end of the wire. given by (xxx) and rj, two equations of (xxxii) evidently give a second condition for the preservation of the helical form, namely t/tat the couples M,, and Mf must be exactly equal to tJiose couples which the force A would p)'oduce round axes, parallel to rj and through tlw end of tJie wire, if A's point of action were a point of tJie axis of tlw Mix rigidly united to tJie end of
is

The

last

t/te

wire.

Thus the

helical wire

remains helical in form only when the

system of force applied at one terminal consists of a force the axis of the helix and a couple M% about this axis. If

in

and

are given, equations (xxx) and (xxxii) give the values of the constants n and 6 which occur in the values of f, 77, f. Finally we note that the elongation of the axis of the helix is given by 6(cos 6- cos &), and the rotation of the terminal round the axis

MS

by

s (n

ri),

where

s equals

the total length of the helix.

:

of this investigation deserves careful comparison with the methods of Giulio, J. Thomson and Saint- Venant see

The whole

our Arts. 1219*-1223*, 1382*-1384* 1593*-1595* and 1608* KirchhofF remarks that J. Thomson has considered the case in

which

M$ =

strenge, und das Resultat, zu G. A. S. 316.)

aber die Betrachtungen, die er iiber denselben anstellt, sind nicht dem er gelangt, ist nicht genau. (S. 313 ;

Special examples of KirchhofFs method have been in the Vorlesungen: see our Art. 1283, by himself given by (Jlebsch: see his Treatise 51-3, and by numerous other writers.
[1270.]

Thomson and Tait, after referring to the elastico-kinetic analogy " to whom also as a beautiful theorem due to Kirchhoff, continue the first thoroughly general investigation of the equations of
:

equilibrium and motion of an elastic wire 609. Philosophy, Part II.

is

due."

See Natural

The present memoir of Kirchhoff's has been made the basis of much of Clebsch's work and has suggested the methods of several
later writers.

As the most important

it fuller

of Kirchhoff's elastic papers,

we have given

treatment than, perhaps, the space at our

disposal warranted.

12711272]

KIRCHHOFF.

69

Ueber das Verhdltniss der Qiiercontraction zur Lanff en[1271.] dilatation bei Stdben von federhartem N<i}>/ Poggendorffs Annul CH,
:

Bd. 108, S. 369-392 (G. A. S. 316-39). Leipzig, 1859. This memoir is an attempt to settle by direct experiment the Kirchhoff states the object of his problem of uni-constancy.

experiments as follows

hiiltniss

narh in r nu'hrfach ausgesprochenen Ansicht liat es weder don cinm noch dm andern Werth und ist verschieden bei verschiedenen Substanzen. Bei den meisten Korpern, bei denen man eine gleiche Elasticitat in hii-denen Richtungen annehmen kann, stellt sich der experimentdlcn I'estiimmmg dieses Verhaltnisses der Umstand hindernd in dm \\ -. dan i-ri ihnen, auch bei sehr kleinen Fonnanderungen, bleibende Dclinung und elastische Naclrwirkung in erheblichem Grade sich x<-i^cn. !- ist dieses der Fall bei ausgegluhten Metalldrahten und Glassstaben. Bei hart gezogenen Metalldrahten ist eine bleibende Dehnung und eine elastische Nachwirkung viel weniger bemerklich ; aber bei ihnen ist siclnT die Elasticitat in verschiedenen Richtungen verschieden. geharteten Stahlstaben dagegen kann man wohl mit Wahrscheinlichkeit eine Gleichheit der Elasticitat in verschiedenen Richtungen voranssetzen und da diese iiberdiess mehr noch als hart gezogene Drill it c
.

theoretischen Betrachtungen von Poisson sollto dus der Quercontraction zur Langendilatatitm iimner 1/4 NNYrtheim schloss aus seinen Versuchen, dass d:is>ellu- 1 3 ist ;

Nach

sf-in

idealen elastischen Kbrper ahnlich sind, so erscheinon sir vorzugsweise geeignet zu Versuchen iiber den Werth jenes Verliiilt S. 369 (G. A. S. 316-7.) niaaes.
incra

These words of Kirchhoff appreciate so fully the real difficulties of settling the constant-controversy by experiment, that \\v lia\v reproduced them. It is a pity that they have not been always
sufficiently regarded by the who have sought to solve
<

many
this

elasticians at

home and abroad moot-point by experiments <m

KirchhofTs own rods of 'federhart' steel were, h>\\t -\ <i, of drawn wire, and there may indeed be a suspicion as to whether they can be considered to represent accurately eunuch
v.

i'-ns

the ideal isotropic elastic body

even Kirchhoff himself

see our Art. IL

wem

bave h

id

doubts on this point

I

[1272.]

description
in^eniniis

of
;UH!

cannot in this History enter at len-th ii KirehlmlVV experimentjil inethods. Thej

.-v.-ry

are
t.

precaution seems
sources
..(
,-

to

have boon
Kiivl,|,,,tt

tak.-n
im<> 9

eliminate

experimental

.r.

70

KIRCHHOFF.
of

[1273

method

combined torsion and

flexure.

He

supposes that his

rods are not truly circular but elliptic, and that the square of the eccentricity may be neglected. He does not, however, take into account the distortion of the cross-section, and it seems to

me
is

thnfr this might possibly introduce errors whose magnitude as great as those Kirchhoff so ingeniously seeks to eliminate. For three steel rods he finds for the stretch-squeeze ratio rj
r)

-293,
rj

-295

and

-294,

respectively

or the mean,

'294.

mean between Wertheim's and Poisson's and (i.e. 1/3 1/4). For a hard drawn brass rod Kirchhoff found 77 = '387, but he remarks that no great stress can be laid on this result, as the
This
is

almost a

values of

77

elasticity of such a rod is certainly different in the direction of the axis and in the plane of the cross-section.

[1273.]

Of the

results for the steel rods Kirchhoff writes

Es ware von Interesse zu priifen, ob bei Btahlstaben von anderem Querschnitte, als die hier untersuchten ihn haben, das genamite Verhaltniss sich eben so gross findet. Ware das der Fall, so wiirde dadurch die hier gemachte Annahme bestatigt werden, dass ein geharteter Stahlstab als homogen und von gleicher Elasticitat in verschiedenen Richtungen betrachtet werden darf. Gegen diese Annahme lassen sich Bedenken erheben ; in der That kann man sicli vorstellen, dass bei der Hartimg, bei der die Warme von der Axe nach der Peripherie hin abfliesst, die Elasticitat in der Bichtung der Axe eine andere wird, als in den auf dieser senkrechten Richtungen, und dass die Molecule in den ausseren Schichten eine andere Anordnung annehmen, als in den der Axe naheren. Findet dieses statt, so findet es aber aller Wahrscheinlichkeit nach in verschiedenem Grade statt je nach der Dicke des Stabes, und es wird jenes Verhiiltniss anders bei dicken als bei dunnen Staben sich ergeben miissen. S. 391. (G. A.
S. 338.)

It

will

thus be seen that

Kirchhoff himself doubted

the

absolute isotropy of his steel bars, and as no further experiments on rods of other cross-sections seem to have been made, those of

the present memoir do not allow us to form any really definite conclusion as to the truth or falsehood of the uni-constant
hypothesis.

1274]
[1274.]

KIRCHHOFF.

71

note here a paper of Kirchhoff's which is more than with that of elasticity. I/n-ldea an der *fnt/it, ).</! r M'tffcj and was first published in the Abhandlungen der Bei-l (1876, S. 57-84, G. A. S. 352-376). We may very briefly indicate its general object (compare Glazebrook's Report on Optical Theories, p. 180). F. Neumann was the first to attempt to apply the theory of elasticity to the reflection and refraction of wav -s
closely associated with the theory of light r T i>1n>r 'tie Reflexion und / It is entitled
:

We may

at the common surface of two crystalline media: see PoggenAnnalen, Bd. 25, 1832, S. 418-54, and Abhandlungen der Berliner Neumann supposes no body-forces to act 1-160. //lie, 1835, S. upon the elements of the ether, but he does suppose surface-forces to act all surfaces which are the boundaries of different media. In his theory the direction of vibration makes a small angle with the wave-face, but a slight modification of the theory as noted by Neumann himself allows of exact parallelism. MacCullagh proceeds from a totally different hypothesis; he assumes a form for the potential of the forces acting on an element of the ether which does not arise from an exact elastic theory ; the vibrations in this case are exactly parallel with the wave-front. But an examination of MacCullagh's potential shows that considered with regard to a small portion of the ether in a homogeneous medium, it may be supposed due to surface-forces acting on the surface of this portion. Thus the theory of MacCullagh in reality rests upon the assumption that, besides the ordinary elastic stresses, no other forces act upon the ether except at the boundaries of different media. This is exactly Neumann's hypothesis and tinobject in both cases is the same, i.e. to get rid of the longitudinal waves. Kin hhoff holds that: Die beiden genannten Theorien diirfen daher at* voUkoinmen iibereinstimmend angeseften werden, S.58-9 (G. A. S. 352-3). Kirchhoff's own memoir is to be looked upon as a general isa lion anl Amplification of Neumann's and MacCullagh's work. He obtains This :^ht waves, four in either crystalline medium. is dealt with for certain special cases, but not with much detail. see S. 69 ivs special stress on his method of defining a ray i'/. J. S In the course of his work he refers to the labours :i62-3). 'Carnb. P/iif. Tnnis., Vol. vii. 1839, pp. l:M-ln. '1-311, and our Art. 917*) and Lam6 (Lemons i Uieori' >*ticite, pp. 231-4, and our Art. 1097*) ; he cites Green .is deducing a t-.n.i of elastic potential which leads to results agr. -inwith Knsn.-r.s, and Lam for a particular form of the elastic c.|uations. Mi- do-s not dfexUH the .juestion of the plane of polarisation nor tinin whi.-h MacCullagh's and Neumann's theories are not wholly /.ebrook (op. cil. pp. 1-7 :'. in agreement with \p-rin ro and To olit tin his own results he put- the dil introduces extraneous surface-forces at the Ix.imdarv "t the two on s .;t (ft A. S. 358) he write* :

of

li.^ht

-.

larf

man

u,

dam

bei

jedem Kryntall

72

KIRCHHOFF.

[12751276

der Elasticitat des Aethers nur wenig von den Wcrthen abweichen, die sie in einem isotropeu Korper haben konnen, und dass daher von den drei Wellon, die in ihm in einer Richtung sich fortpttan/cn, <lio iino naho/u longitudinal ist, die beiden andern nabo/u transversal sind, und dass die let/teron <lir Lichtwellen ausmachen.

isotropy

near equality of the crystalline constants with those of really needful, and how far the hypotheses of zero dilatation and extraneous surface- forces are legitimate, it is for those to judge who
far this
is

How

are better acquainted than the present writer with optical principles. Certain points of KirchhofTs paper, not very fully noticed by Glazebrook, have been here indicated as possibly of value to those physicists who still seek aid from the theory of elasticity in expounding the theory of light.

1275. Vorlesungen iiber mathemaiische Physik von Dr Gustav Kirchhojf (Professor der Physik an der Universitdt der Berlin), Bd. I. Mechanik. This work is in large octavo, and consists of x + 4G6 pages. The volume waa published in three parts, two of which appeared in 1874 and the third in 1876. In a prospectus dated February 1874 the title is given thus Vorlesungen iiber analytische Mechanik mit Einschluss Thus der Hydrodynamik und der Theorie der Elastizitat fester Korper. Elasticity is expressly included in the volume, and we may expect to find it treated with some detail: S. 96-124 and 389-466 relate to our second edition of the book appeared in November, 1876, subject. a third in 1883.
:

1276.
metrical,

The tenth Lecture occupies

and

S.

96-109.

This

is

purely geo-

without any the coordinates of a particle of a body ; suppose that after a?, y, z be a certain time these coordinates become respectively
Aj

relates to changes in position of the particles of a body, Let reference to the forces which produce these changes.

+ a^x + agj + a3z,

h 2 + b^x + b$ +

b 3z,

h3 +

CL X

+ c$ + c&

where h^h^h^^... are functions of the time but independent of x,y,z: The terms is, suppose we give the body a homogeneous strain. It is ^i ^2 ^a correspond to a displacement of the body as a whole. shown that the aggregate of the other terms amounts to stretching the body in three directions at right angles to each other, and to rotating In fact we have thus nine the body as a whole round an axis. quantities at our disposal which we can express in terms of the nine For there are three dilatations, there are three quantities a^ a z .... angles which fix the directions of the axes of dilatation, and there are This indicates the three constants involved in rotation round an axis. nature of the main subject of the lecture, but does not reproduce quite the method in which Kirchhoff treats it. [The treatment can hardly be considered as so luminous or suggestive as Thomson and Tait's method
that

12771278]
of discussing a
J
tli.-

KIRCHHOFF.
:

73

homogeneous strain see their Natural Philosophy, Part Kirchhoff concludes thia Lecture by demonstrating that in case of continuous motion the surface of any body always contains
180-5.

the same material points, S. 108-9.]

The eleventh Lecture occupies S. 110-124. It establishes [1277.] the equations for the equilibrium or the motion of any body whose Thus Kirchhoff is able to parts are capable of relative motion. deduce the equations both for a fluid and for an elastic solid from the same investigation. He deduces the principal properties of the composition aud resolution of stress, but he uses pressures instead of If Tlt T^ tractions. the principal tractions and J,, Wj, n,, 9 be J2 NSI 4> w*3 * the cosines of the angles they make with the ? coordinate axes, Kirchhoff deduces on S. 116 equations which in our notation are of the type

>

He

also deals with the properties of the stress-ellipsoid.

S. 116-9 it is shown that the Hamiltonian principle applied to bodies whose parts are capable of relative but continuous motion leads to an equation of the form
:

On

")
'

(),
t

where the integration

is

for the interval of time

kinetic energy of the body, IT

- the

virtual

moment

to /,, while the of the applied forces,

finding the value of F' in terms of the strains, Kirohhoff assumes that the principal pressures (i.e. negative principal tractions) are for an isotropic body in the same directions as the principal stretches, and are As in the memoirs he linear, homogeneous functions of these stretches. KirchhofTs treatment of the uses for our /* and for our A./2/x. fundamental equations does not possess special advantages, but it leads him fairly directly to the Hamiltonian equation (ii), which is the starting-point for most of the physical investigations dealt with in

Yorlesungen.

KirchhofTs twenty-seventh Lecture occupies 8. 389-406. to n mark upon in his general treatment of the elastic or of the strain-energy. The reader must, however, be careful equations to note that KirchhofFs/in this Lecture is the expression
[1-7*.]
re is littl*-

He

Henco uses pressures where we use tractions. of our Arts. 1254 and 1256. He in sign to the

it

is

To

equal but the proof of

K.

IT.

II.

74

KIRCHHOFF.

[1279

1 -2s

the uniqueness of the solution of the equations of elasticity which occurs on S. 392-5 we have already referred: see our Art. 1255. What is substantially added to the former proof is this the elastic solid is supposed to be in stable equilibrium when there is no body- or From this it follows that surface-load.
:

Mfdxdydz
must be a maximum when the
This the strains vanish. the strains when sxt sy sz ent of u, v, w.
,
,

shifts u, v,

maximum must
<r

are all zero, that is, when also occur for zero values of

yz ,

or^, o-^ are treated as variables

independ-

Da nun /
mente
ist ist,

und

eine homogene Function zweiten Grades der genanntcn Argudieser Ausspruch gleichbedeutend mit deni, dass / nie poxifir nur verschmndet, wennjedes seiner Argumente verscJiwindei (S. 395). so
ist

This proof that the strain-energy (i.e. f in KirchhofFs notation) is always positive failed in the memoir of 1858 so far as applies to The proof here appears perfectly general see, howaeolotropic bodies. ever, our Art. 6.
:

On S. 396-9 Kirchhoff investigates the dilatation-modulus [1279.] and the stretch-modulus see our Art. 1065*. There is no novelty to
:

397-9, he deduces the six conditions of compatibility. These had already been given by Saint-Tenant and proved by Boussee our Art. 112. sinesq
note.
S.
:

On

Kirchhoff, having obtained the six equations just noticed, 399-403) some way in the solution of Saint-Venant's proceeds Problem (see our Arts. 2 and 1333) by a method which while investigating flexure and torsion at the same time, is still somewhat
[1280.]
(S.

briefer than that of Clebsch.

He only finds, however, expressions for The equathe three finite stresses, and does not determine the shifts. tions (22) which he arrives at on S. 401 for xz and agree with must Clebsch's on S. 79 of his Treatise (see our Art. 1336). note that Kirchhoff's O differs from Clebsch's by a term of the form 2 2 their agreement will then be seen on subcx (a? 3?/aj ) 3#2/ ) + c2 (jf stituting Kirchhoff's (22) in his (23) and comparing the result with Kirchhoff's that given by Clebsch as (67) in his Treatise, S. 80.

We

investigation to our Arts.

was evidently suggested by

133445

Clebsch's, and we must refer for a fuller consideration of the subject.

He

applies his results (S. 403-4) to calculate the stress in a right-circular cylinder under combined flexure and torsion.

On his S. 405-6 Kirchhoff takes the simple example of [1281.] a hollow sphere subjected to uniform internal and external pressures. This had already been dealt with in slightly different methods by various writers: see our Arts. 1016*, 1094*, 123 and 1201 (c).

2821 283]

KIRf 'HHOFF.

1282. The twenty-eighth Lecture occupies S. 407-428. This relates to rods having an indefinitely small transverse section. Clebsch says on S. 190 of his Treatise that Kirchhoff was the first who gave a rigorous

theory of the subject Clebsch's S. 190-222 correspond with this part of K in -hhofTs work, which is founded on the memoir in Crelle's Journal, It Bd. 56 (see our Arts. 1251-70), but is in some respects improved. is however still difficult; it will be necessary to compare it with the discussion given by Clebsch, to notice what is obscure, and to point out its merit as contrasted with what had been given by Poisson and Observe that Kirchhoff passes in the next Lecture to the case see his S. 429. Clebsch adopts a in which the shifts are very small similar course for the problem; see his S. 233: and also for the problem Kirchhoff refers on his S. 456 for of ;m elastic plate see his S. 264. the case of the finite shifts of an elastic plate to Clebsch, who was the see our Art. 1350. first to treat of them
:
:

The differences between the memoir and the lecture may [1283.] be noted. The first two sections of the latter agree almost entirely with the memoir except for some changes of notation.
The third section (S. 415-7) opens with an example which (a) does not appear in the memoir, but is practically suggested by SaintVenant's work, namely, the determination of the w v M7 of our Art. when the cross-section is the ellipse
, ,

\vln-re I

preserve the notation of that article.

Tin- system of stresses

where

c is

an arbitrary constant, and the stretch

will

l>e
:

found to satisfy the equations of

n 2/>

Art 1259 and

lead to the

result

dy
f>r the

j dz

determination of
l.hoil

c.

Kii

indicates in general terms

how

the values off*,, vt , v>9

may then be
S.

found.

a sli-l.t

417-21 are practically reproductions of the memoir, In: ..l.icod. ...I Equations (xxi) of our Art are differentials of a fum-tion / of
i,

Equations (xxvi) give

ua,

however, values of

M M
9,

lt

A/,

62

76
from which the

KIRCHHOFF.

[1283

c which appears in (xxv) has disappeared. Kirchhoff supposes G to be the function of p, q, r which / becomes when we Then eliminate e by means of the fourth expression of (xxv).

now

=
dp dp

d dp

But

since

of the JTs, we it follows that

we may as a rule (see our Art. 1266) neglect S in the values may put df/dc = S = in the above equation, whence

Similarly,
or,

the M'a are given by the differentials with regard to p, q, r of the function G. The equations (xxiv) of our Art. 1265 may then be written
:

d_/dG\_ q dG_ T dG Js\dp)~ dr ~dq d dG dG dG

ds

d
Kirchhoff

now deduces

by taking
1267.
(c)

the elastico-kinetic analogy from these equations as the kinetic energy of the rotating body see our Art.
:

On

rotating
solvable,

S. 423 Kirchhoff notes that the problem of the heavy body about a fixed point is not always solvable; but that it is

when the weight is negligible, or again when the body is a solid of revolution and the fixed point about which it rotates is a point on its axis of revolution. Kirchhoff then demonstrates that the elastic problem analogous to the solid of revolution is that of an isotropic rod of circular
cross-section.

In the

latter case

he really

falls
:

ment

of the helix in the

memoir

back on the early part of the treatsee our Arts. 1268-9. He obtains the

value of

we have given

corresponding value

is

in equation (xxvii) of Art. 1268, and the then given by 1

A
1

worked out in the

special case of the rotation problem is now taken, which had been Kirchhoff assumes the axis of the fifth Lecture.

solid of revolution to describe a right

cone about a vertical

line.

In

Note that the/ and F of the Vorlesungen are interchanged with the F and/ of the memoir. Further their signs are reversed. In our discussion of Kirchhoff F is used for the strain-energy per unit volume ( = -/ of the Vorlesungen and F of the memoir) and/ is used for the total strain-energy per unit length of the rod (= - F of the Vorlesungen and/ of the memoir).

1^4

1285]

KIRCHHOFF.

77

case (f + i* and j? are both constants, and the olastico-kinetic is that of a straight rod of circular cross-section bent into a helical shape. He gives as T in equation (43), S. 425, and as J/y, S. 426, the values of the force and couple which will suffice to bend a straight rod or wire of circular cross-section into a helix of any required pitch and radius (equations (45) and (46), S. 426). If 6 be the angle between the thread of the helix and its axis, a the radius of the cylinder
this

analogy

upon which

it

lit >,

KirchhofTs results

may be

The
lies

force parallel to the axis of the cylinder

.

expressed as follows: on which the helix

cos

sin2 0-

and the couple about

this axis

--

"-- sin 8

where p remains an undetermined constant. Since (Kjaf is generally extremely small we have at once J. Thomson's theorem that helical springs act chiefly through torsion: see our Art. 1382*, and compare the results of our Arts. 1220* and 1608*. Kirchhoff takes a special case in which p is chosen equal to see his S. 426-7. The remainder of the chapter treats (cos sin 6)/a a problem similar to that of our Arts. 1268-9 but with a different notation and method.
:

[1284.]
for the

The twenty-ninth Lecture when the

shifts

equilibrium and motion of an

are

deals with the equations infinitely thin rod originally

It

cylindrical,
S.

extremely small.

occupies

429-449 and contains a number of interesting points. The equations obtained for various special cases had all been previously
considered,
elasticity, \V
i.e.

but not so directly from the general equations of as a rule only from the Bernoulli-Eulerian hypothesis.
its

proceed to note

contents.

In 1 Kirchhoff deals with the problem of the equilibrium [1285.] of an initially straight rod <f uniform srrtim, when the load is not infinitely nearly in the direction of its axis; no forces are supposed to act except on the terminals of the rod. In thi. will be very small quantities, and the equations p ,/. of our Art. 1283, (b) become

MM

sU)
where A lt A t may be looked upon as

d (dO\

d (dG\

H-

......... (l) '

MS

an

..nu'l'-

Im-ction of constant**, sincv (h* with the axis of the rod, which varies only

78

KiuumoFF.
,

[12861287
of
s,

intmitesimally. Equation (i) gives JJ/ J/,, A/ 2 as linear functions and the arbitrary constants may be determined by the values of

M
,

(=dG/dp),

M (=dG/dq),
1

M,(=dG/dr)

at a terminal of the rod. in space be taken so that the axes x, y, z at each If axes r/, point of the rod differ infinitely little from them, we have

nearly.

Hence we

find

by Art. 1257
ds

(vii) bis of our Art. 1257 we have, neglecting small quantities of the second order, and writing (3a = ij/:

Hence by equations

P=
Taking y and

ds

z for the principal axes of the cross-section

and writing

ffifdydz

= wKi 2

JS^dydz =
Tz
yz

o>/v,

ffdydz

w,
:

we have by assuming

and supposing isotropy

^_

(iv).

That this assumption is made is not very clear from [1286.] Kirchhoff's text. He merely refers in vague terms to 6 of the 6 previous lecture (Eine Betrachtung, die dknlich der im Anfange des 6 appeals der vorigen Vorlesung durcJigefuhrten ist, lehrt u. s. w.). 3. again without any further qualification to an equation (20 a ) of Now at (20 a), S. 416 we are merely told that = = = satisfies This passage corresponds to S. 299 of the memoir (see the equations. our Art. 1262) where there is a reference to Saint- Venant and there is a more hypothetical statement of these conditions as a possible That they give the only possible solution is not shown by solution. Kirchhoff and the difficulty is nowhere dealt with by him. This seems The matter will be to me to form a very weak point in his theory. found further discussed in our Arts. 316-8 and Chapter xin.

^ ^ ^

Assuming (iv) to hold, equations (xvi) and (xvii) of our [1287.] Art, 1260 give us for isotropy
:

~
dz*~

>

dy*

\dz

_ Py \ dg + /duQ + pZ \dg. = ) dz \dy )dy

The

last result follows

from differentiating the identity

a^ + ft^ + y^ = 0.

1287]

KIK<HH"1T.

79

These are Saint-Venant's torsion equations, and from them we learn that u must contain p as a factor see our Art. 17. Thus from (iv) of Art. 1285 and (xiv) of Art 1260 we find
:

-,<r

n = erf),

v^

*x + //"
c^p

-o) **~ 'I

(v),

Cj

and

ca being functions of y and z. Hence forming the expression for

the strain-energy,

we have

F=%E(ry-qz+?
Integrating over the cross-section

we

find

X= Thus x
is

the factor found for

many

sections

by Saint- Venant.

hoff merely indicates in the briefest language how He uses a different notation see our footnotes, pp. G is to be found as in our Art. 1 283, (6)
:

/ may

Kirchbe obtained.

Now

826 and 836. by putting df/dt =

and eliminating

c,

whence we have

Equations

(i)

now

give us

\\'lience, if
/

the

moments

;il)out

of the applied system of force at = /are the axes of x, y, z respectively, and if we writ.(iii)

A - Z\ A 3 =
l

7',

we have by

after integration

.(ix).

tirst
i.

two are the usual equations of flexure and the third that of The process by wlii. h \\.-\- are obtained is more aatisfactorj
\

than the Bernoulli-Eulerian method, but the assumption referred to v 1JH6 requires more consideration than is given to it
1

Kirohhoff,

80

KIRCHHOFF.

[12881289

2 of this Lecture (S. 432-4) removes the restriction of [1288.] the previous paragraph about the force not being nearly coincident with If it be nearly coincident, the exthe direction of the axis of the rod.
if

pression we have found for /in (vi) $ = s + x, for the stretch

is still

true, only

we must substitute,

rl

Kirchhoff then applies the principle of virtual moments to

fds and

Jo

deduces

Eut=X' ............................. (xi),

where X'
at x.
is

The equation

the load-component in the direction of the axis of the rod of torsion remains the same as in (ix), but the type

of flexure equation becomes

with the conditions f or s =

that

=
^ds*

M *>
~ds

(xii).

~ X>
These equations agree with
(ix),
if

we may put

X=

0.

In 3 Kirchhoff deals theoretically with a method for [1289.] In this method the stretch-modulus suggested by s'Gravesande. finding a thin rod is stretched between two clamps and loaded in the middle, the stretch-modulus is then to be found from the observed central
deflection.

At a clamped end of the rod there will act a couple, a shearing force and a tractive force. The shearing force, neglecting the weight of the Kirchhoff rod, will be one-half the weight suspended from the centre. the to the whole take it to weight. Suppose plane of equal appears the bent rod to be that of r), then the problem is the same as if we took a cantilever of length I = to half that of the rod and supposed the end s = Q built-in, but to the free end s = l applied a couple Jfa a traction X' and a shear Y' = P/2, where P is the applied central load. The first equation of (xii) applies and we have
',
:

3?=*'S
where hz = C/K^ from (xi). At s = 0, rj = 0, and drj/ds = 0, hence the required form is given by = (e " - hs - 1) + C 2 (e-* + hs - 1). 17
:

<

xiii >'

of solution

KIKCHHol
Put hi =
2p, apply the latter

F.

M
(xii)
'

two equations of

and we get:

)^
)
it'

J/f

.................. (xiv), .................. (xv),

:

-iP
=

we remember that

drj/ds

when

I,

which further involves

-hl)

......... (xvi).
deflection

For the central deflection 17, of the rod (corresponding to the at s = I of the cantilever) we have

Whence

after

some reductions

This gives rjt in terms of E, when p is known. Kirchhoff has instead of 8 in the denominator of the right-hand of (xviii).

To

find

p we must
if 11'

return to (x) and note that

-=-

ds

is

a known

quantity, or

be the natural length of the rod

t
the uniform stretch of the rod between the two clamps before the mid load is put on. Hence we have
is

where y

re hhoff

deduces:
f

2 cosh 2p
(

+ 4 - - sinh 2p
1

cosh p

flinh

p}

and then shows that

K,* is

is

to a close approximation in the special case*, when 1 very small as compared with eithor or both of yP and i/j , or when and are the p very large, 77, given by equations
:

placed these results here as they seem to suggest a method of the stretch-modulus, which is not without iU advantagon. The in (xiii) differs from that obtained by Poisson in his ifAamiyw, Vol. i. ]>. 007, who replaces the right-hand side by a term of the form
B
_c

82

KlKCllllnl

I.

[1-JOO

1291

out the 4, S. 437-8 of this Lecture, Kirchhoff works [1290.] In The method is case of a heavy rod stretched between two clamps. that now the precisely similar to that of our previous article, except
equations become:
2
1

A_
efc
4

and,

^l_9P_ ~ d# E = 0, dc/ds
f

'

is the density and g gravitational acceleration. 2 Kirchhoff solves only the special cases in which K a is infinitely great It seems to me that in many practical or little as compared with cf cases they would probably be of about the same magnitude.

where p

[1291.] deals with

In the remaining sections of this Lecture Kirchhoff

the
vibrations
of

method by which he has obtained novelty. I do not think any of his

is

Only the infinitely thin rods. his equations seems to present

results are new.

The

following

a brief resume of the contents.

Discussion of the equations for the longi5 (S. 438-441). (a) tudinal and torsional vibrations of a cylindrical rod of infinitely small cross-section deduced from the Hamiltonian principle see our Art. 1277,
:

equation

(ii).

6 (S. 441-444). Discussion of the equation for the transverse (b) Reference is made to Strehlke for the calvibrations of a similar rod. culation of the frequencies of the notes see our Art. 356*.
:

Deduction of the equation for the transverse 7 (S. 445-6). (c) vibrations of a stretched string, when the longitudinal traction due to the stretching is not immensely greater than that due to the transverse shift. Let y be the permanent stretch of a string of length I, and 77 its shift at distance s from one terminal, then Kirchhoff- gives an equation
of the

form

As

a particular solution assume

ir)

= u sin si -y TT,
cos

ns

then

u=b

am h (t

1 ()

),

mod.

K,

and u be an

integer.

\-2'.*>-2

1293]

KiKum.Mi.
is

83
a function of the amplitude

Thus we

see that the period in this case

b of the vibration.

8 (S. 446-9). Consideration of the equation for the trans(d) verse vibrations of a very tightly stretched string and the modes of solving it by Fourier's series or by arbitrary functions.
last Lecture of Kirchhoff occupies a 450-66. discussion of plates and membranes. The methods adopted by Kirchhoff are decidedly superior to those of his memoir on plates (see our Arts. 1233 and 1237-8), but the book was published after the Treatise of Clebsch and the memoir of Gehring: see our Arts. 1325 and 1411-15. The first section

[1292.]

The

thirtieth

and

S.

It is devoted to

work but Kirchhoff does not quote him. Gehring may of course have been much influenced by Kirchhoff 's oral lectures, and the method naturally flows from that used in the memoir on thin rods: see our Art. 1251. Kirchhoff himself
closely resembles Gehring's

remarks

Aehnliche Betrachtungen, wie wir sie in Bezug auf einen unemllieh elastischen Stab in den letzten Vorlesungen durchgefiihrt haben, lassen sich auch in Bezug auf eine unendlich diinne elastische
<

hi nnen,

Platte anstellen. Mit dem Gleichgewicht uud der Bewegung einer solchen Platte wollen wir uns jetzt beschaftigen, dabei aber alleiii den Fall ins Auge fassen, dass dieselbe in ihrem natiirlichen Zustande eben
ist (S.

450).

shifts

In 1 Kirchhoff obtains the equations for the finite [1293.] of an infinitely thin plate, each element of which is,
only to

however, subjected
note
its

very small strain.

similar to that of Clebsch's Treatise, S.

264

et seq.,

The method is where in a footis

application to the small shifts of thin plates

attributed

to Gehring, who, Clebsch remarks, followed up a hint given by KiivhlmfT in a footnote to his memoir on rods (see Crelles Journal,

IM

08, or G.

A.

S. 311).

It

is

just possible that Kirchhoff

practically gave the substance of the method in oral lectures appearance of Gehring's dissertation; he certainly

corrects Gehring's errors, and it seems therefore in place to indicate >t th- investigation.

Knvhlmtt,

aft.

deducing an expression
ir

for the strain

energy

in

case of an infinitely thin plate with finite shifts, remarks:

Auf

diesen Fall guhfii

ni-ht

nali.-i

tin,

^ml.

n. verwciaou in

KIRCHHOFF.

[1294

Bezug auf ihn auf die Theorie der Elasticitdt fester Korper von Clebsch, der zuerst die endlichen Formanderungen unendlich diinner Flatten untersucht hat (S. 456).

When applied to finite shifts we may perhaps speak of it for convenience as the Kirchhoff-Glebsch method, and, when the equations for the small shifts of infinitely thin plates are deduced
from it, as the German method, in order to distinguish it from the French method, or that due to Boussinesq and Saint- Venant see our Arts. 384-8 and Chapter xm.
:

[1294.]

Let

s lt s z

be the coordinates of a point

P in the

mid-plane

of the plate referred to rectangular axes in that plane, when the plate is At consider in the unstrained state a system of rectunstrained. angular axes 1, 2, 3 in the material of the plate, of which the first two

are parallel to the axes sl9 s a and the third perpendicular to them and After strain take a rectangular system #, y, z at so to the mid-plane. P, so that x is a tangent to the strained position of the line 1 at P, and z is perpendicular y lies in the tangent plane to the mid-plane at Let to this plane ; y and z will thus make small angles with 2 and 3. be the coordinates after strain of an element of the x + u, y + v, z + referred to these axes, and plate in the immediate neighbourhood of so that x, y, z are the coordinates of this element when there is no are Further u, v, strain, or the x, y, z axes coincide with 1, 2, 3. such functions of x, y, z that for

x=y=z=Q
dv

dw

dw

A =0

.........

Let

77,

fixed in space. after strain and

be the coordinates of P after strain referred to any axes Let the cosines of the angles between the axes x, y, z be given by the scheme 17,
, :

1294]
*,
t

KIRCHHOFF.

85
to each.

and x and with regard to s and y, must be equal each Thus we have six equations of the types dir du dw dv dv 1 +
:

(du\
du
/

da,

dv\ dy) d + -j- +

ds3
da,

dw _
dy
.

du
dst
.

dv
dsa
.
'

dw
</>.,

dy

*\

ds9

-j-^

(x
v

+ u) +

da*
-J-?
'/x,

(y
c

v)

+ ~P (z + w) v cfe
t

da.

Here

a,

subscripts.

be changed into ft Kirchhoff writes

may

i;

or y,

without alteration of the

1+0"!

and remarking that the axis of x coincides with the direction of the 1 after strain we have
:

line

,)

...... (v).

Further
strain

-=- cfe a 1

equals the cosine of the angle between the line 2 after

<r,

and

or cos

(2, ft.

For the value of cos

(2, ft

Kirchhoff refers to

some

results of his tenth Lecture, but

we

easily find from projection that

cos (2, ft

= a, +

Oi

a,

+ a lT

say,
.1

where r

the vanishingly small angle by which (1, 2) differs frni Thus we have equations of the form : right angle after strain.
is

(vi).

Kirchhoff writes

86

KIRCHHOFF.

[1

295

where the subscripts 1, 2 are to be attached to p, q, r according as they are attached to s. By multiplying both types of equations (iii) first by ttl ft, y1? secondly by a &> 7a and finally by 03, $,, 3 and y adding in each case, we obtain the system
,

du/dx = dujdsi + q1 (z + w)- rv (y + v ) + dv/dx = dv/ds1 + rl (x + u) - p^ (z + w), dw/dx = dw/ds 1 + Pi(y+v)- q (x + u),
l

(r l

du/dy = du/dsz + q a (z + w) i\ (y + v) + T (1 + o-2 ), - p.2 + dv/dy = dv/ds., + r2 (x + u) (z w) + o- 2 + + 2 2 dw/dy =dw/ds +p (y v) q z (x u). Neglecting terms of the second order of infinitely small quantities as in the case of the rod (see our Art. 1258), and remembering that we must have d?u/dxdy, etc. the same whichever system we derive them from, we find ultimately that rl = ra =0, p L + qz = Q and
,
1 :

du/dx = q1 z + <r dv/dx = -pft dw/dx =p 1 y-q1 x,

l

du/dy = Pl z + r, dv/dy = -p# + o-2 dw/dy=p#+ pl x

q^zx

......... (viii).

Whence by

integration

u = U - p$z +

+ cr^ +
/,

ry,
j

.................. (ix),

where u v w are the values of u, v, w for x = y = 0. The strains are easily seen to be given by the following expressions, which are independent of x and y
, ,
:

= q z + o= dv /dz, <r yz
sx
l

= -p& + ara = dujdz, o-gx

8v

sx
or

= dw /dz,
= - 2p^ + T
|
)
'

xv

The body

stress equations

now reduce
T*,

to

d(Tz,

)/dz

Q ........................ (xi).

From equations (xi), which should be compared with the [1295.] equations of our Art. 388 obtained by the French method, Kirchhoff argues as follows
:

Nun wollen wir annehmen, dass auf die beiden Oberfliichen der Platte Druckkrafte von solcher Grossenordnung wirken, dass sie bei einem Korper, dessen Dimensionen alle von gleicher Ordnung sind, nur Dilatationen erzeugen wiirden, die unendlich klein sind gegen die Dilatationen, die in der Platte stattfinden. Man darf dann, zunachst fur die Oberflachen der Platte, und dann in Folge der abgeleiteten Gleichungen allgemein

^ = ^ = ^=0
1

................................. (xii)

1 As in the case of the rod so here I do not follow Kirchhoff 's reasoning. A. E. H. Love in a Note on Kirchhoff s theory of the deformation of elastic plates (Cambridge

Philosophical Society, Proceedings, Vol. vi. pp. 144-55, 1889), has endeavoured to strengthen Kirchhoff's process, but I think he leaves it still open to question,

1290]
;

K1RCHHOFF.

87

man vernachlassigt dabei in den Dilatationen und in dem Ausdrucke setzen des Potentials dcr durch dieso er/cugten Krafte, den wir zu bilden liabeu werden, nur Glieder, welche unendlich klein sind gegen die beibehalteiu n
(S. 454).
is more complete than that by which equations were dealt with in the case of a rod see our Art. 1 _ is not, however, quite clear what the nature of the surface-forces are 1 which will fulfil the condition imposed by Kirchhoff 1 and both this matter ami that of the approximation in the preceding article require further consideration than is given to them in the Vorlesungen see our Arts. 1262 and Chapter xin.

This reasoning

similar to (xii)
1

Equations (xii) and (i) suffice to determine MO, [1296.1 the material of the plate be isotropic we have

t?

If

whence

dujdz = 0,

dvjdz =

0,

dw /dz =

(.

x-^- |(ft -ft)*-

rt -

(xiii).

Substituting from (xiii) in (x), and then the values of (x) in the exgiven in our Art. 1255 for the strain-energy of an isotropic pression

solid,

we

find

p+*i)P+(jV\
Integrating this for the thickness
of the plate from z

(2/t)

= - /*

to A,

we

have

finally

tor/:
.

v)

Tin- integral fjfdgl d8 taken over the t strain energy of the plate*.

whole mid-plane gives the entire

,

The
can
l><-

six quantities tr,, <r,, r, ;>,, p t q l are all functions of *, a t and expressed in U-rms of the ilillerentials with n-^anl to x, an.l > .f
,

1 No doubt Z, T and 17 are small as compared with the maximum value* of 2, and 5, but not necesHarily as compared with all values of the latter. This at have drawn from considering the exact magnitude of the least is the conclusion

7,

tiOMQi neglected in the similar case of rodt

pp.

Quarterly Journal of Mathsm.

68110. London,

1890.

xhould be observed that we have interchanged Kirchhoff to / and preserve the notation of the memoir; further Kirchhoff in bin \\trlttungtn uses for oar and /. potential-energy and not strain -energy, so that he has -/and Compare our footnote

88
.

KTRCHHOFF.
Since r
is

[1296
1

bis

77,

the angle by which 2 has approached

(v), etc.
:

owing

to the

strain,

we

clearly

have by

(1 +o-.)(l

d d d-n +<ri)T=--j + -^
!L

drj

dt Jt
-=

-^-+

--^

......... (xv).

result of the same form as (xiv) has been [1296 bis.] obtained by A. E. H. Love for the strain-energy of a thin shell

(The Small Free Vibrations and Deformation of a Thin Elastic Shell. Phil. Tram., Vol. 179, A. pp. 491-546, 1888. See p. 505). His result has been called in question by A. B. Basset (On the
Extension and Flexure of Cylindrical and Spherical Thin Elastic Shells. Phil. Trans., Vol. 181, A. pp. 433-480, 1890. See p. 433), and the validity of the criticism has been admitted by Love
(Proceedings of the Royal Society, Vol. 49, pp. 100-2. London, Basset gives on p. 443 of his memoir an expression for 1891). the strain-energy of a distorted cylindrical shell. In this exs pression there occur terms multiplied by h involving not only the quantities by which the bending is specified but also products of the extensions and of quantities depending principally on the

bending. We might therefore be inclined to question whether such terms may not arise in the case of the plate, that is whether
(xiv)
plate.

represents

Without

sufficiently closely the strain-energy discussing at this point Basset's

of a thin

method of

investigation (which is open to the same sort of criticism as the method of Cauchy and Neumann considered in our Arts.

805 and 1225), we may

still

ask whether the terms

it

adds to

the strain-energy are of importance in the case of the plate. To do this, we have only to make the radius of Basset's cylindrical shell infinite. It will then be found that Basset's expression
for

the strain-energy gives the following additional terms to the in (xiv) of our Art. 1296 expression for

These terms do not therefore in the case of the plate involve the products of extensions and quantities specifying the bending. They form only an addition to the membrane terms in the
'
'

297

1 298]

K IK 'H HOFF.
i

89
h*

second line of
as

and one of the order

and therefore negligible

Hence Basset's correction of compared with those terms. Love's extension to shells of Kirchhoff's formula does not appear
the correctness of Kirchhoff's results
I'm-

to have any bearing on

jilat

[1297.]

If the plate has finite bending,

we may

neglect

<r,, <rs

and

T as infinitely small,

or put:

(xvi),

instead of (iv) and (xv). These equations express the condition that the mid-plane remains In this case the unstrained, or that it should be a developable surface. iu-energy contains only the first line of the right-hand side of (xiv). For Clebsch's discussion of this case of finite bending, see our Arts.
5-8.

In 2 of this Lecture (3. 456-9) Kirchhoff proceeds to [1298.] an expression for the strain-energy/, when the plate is very slightly Kent. In this case we cannot in general neglect <r n o-2 and T. Now and 8 , and the system & 17, however, x and y may be written for and rj differ infinitely little from x and y, may be chosen so that = x + u and ij = y + r. while is infinitely small ; thus we may put Kirchhoff now supposes that u, v and are infinitely small as e mi pared with h
tind
,

'I'-nen /'[sco (xiv)] sirli /iisaninien^rt/t,

Aimalime, die deshalb cine wesentliche ist, well da> cine den
l-'ai

vn

lu-iden

(i!;.

l-'acti-i-

nur

dm

-tut-

/,

hat.

.-r

Annahme
I

i>t
it

e> au^reichend,
t

(Jliedeni

die cl-sten I'.iten/ell der KTiick->i<-hti-en (S. 457).

lilir

Mtlerei

ial(jlU

irnten

Kcjuations (iv)
(T l

and (xv) then

1

i^ive

us:
T
iln
ilif
*

= du/dx
(

0-3 -->/<'</,/,

,lr

,l.r

(\\

and

e.|ii:itions

and
I,

(vi)

A = y,\\

a,

A
hen.

= -, = -<&/(&, = -y, = -c^

o,

= - yi = -^

p^cPy,/
If

p = ^CW,
assuiiiptinn
that

q^-tfitldaf ...... (xviii).

u, V,

we
</,.
I.

no\\

make
//,

the

are infinit.

1\

sin:ill

an

e.,ni|,ared

\\ith
<K-.

we can
only in

use
tlu-

P,

^hieh
I..

ui

tvrniH

of/ multiplied

1>\

/>

Imt

we must
7

I'l.

II.

90

KIRCHHOFF.
T.

[1299

proceed to terms of a higher order in the values of o- 1} a-., and find, if wt' krop tin' products and squares of differentials of
:

Wo

+'
rfv
I

*-*-'
(xix).
,

_ du __
dy

|_

dt dt _ _~ _

dx

dx dy

<r and T In* If the values given in (xviii) and (xix) for p lt p 7,, <r,, substituted in fin (xiv), we shall he neglecting only those portions of which are infinitely small as compared with those retained (S. 157).

[1299.]

The terms

of /depending on h* are then

*:

an expression which agrees with that contained in the memoir of 1850, and of which Kirchhoff (S. 458-9) proceeds to take the variation in the same manner: see our Art. 1237, (iv). The variation of the second line of f in (xiv) is given on S. 459 without, however, the intermediate For comparison with the results of Clebsch, of Boussinesq and stages. Saint-Venant, I cite it here, dl is an element of the perimeter of the plate, <f> is the angle between the axis of x and the normal, drawn inwards, to the perimeter; for brevity X/(X + 2/x,) rj/(l -17) is written
v.

The required part

[fj
I

of /is the following expression multiplied by

j

4/x/>

\dxdy y

/^"i --

JJ

\dx

+J 2

^T
-j-

^
+
v

(^i v

dy
v
(<r l

+ , dx

'>)\ -

J
<f>\

jdl
ff,
I

fa- 1

cos

^>

+J
.

T sin

$+
v

o- )

cos

/d<T
(

\dxdy 9
/o"

-=-=

dr
;

JJ

\dy
sin
<

dx

^(o"i

o-

-'} Bv

)\o
)
)

dy
<

jdl

+ JT

cos

(o-j

<r 2

sin

13001301]
[1300.]

KIRCHHOFF.

91

In the following paragraphs Kirchhoff makes special

the several parts of the

applications of these expressions for variation of the strain-energy.

(a)
<lu
r-

3 (S. 459-60).
tixed,
0,
i.e.

plate has

no load on

its faces

but

its

i>

lead

to

u and v are given there. The variational equations and to the 'membrane* equations for M, v, which follow
."ml
:

from the 1st and

Cauehy
(f>)

aii.l

Lame

lines of (xx). These agree with those given see our Arts. 640*, 1072* and 389.

by

4 (S. 460-65).

plat

our Arts.
(c)
i

_ives briefly certain I-J33 et seq.

This deals with the transverse vibrations of portions of the memoir of 1850: see

Kirchhoff concludes his Lectures by in$ ^ (S. 465-6). Bating the differential equation for the transverse vibrations of a membrane stretched in any manner. In this case u, v are any shifts which satisfy the differential equations for equilibrium of a stretched membrane given in our Arts. 389-391. If these shifts are considerable as compared with the thickness of the plate, we need only retain the indicated in (xx), putting therein 8v = 8u = Q everywhere portion of and 84' If u and v are also so great compared along the perimeter. with that we can neglect the second approximation in (xix) and u^,

(x\ii),

we have:
d rdu d
.

du

dxj dx

\dx

dy)

e/y

This for example is the proper equation for the small vibrations of A very tightly but irregularly stretched drum head of any form

u and

v are independent

of

the

time

and may be any of the

numerous functions that

satisfy the equations for the equilibrium <>t ;> mi mbrane. Kirchhoff cites the special case of an uniformly stretched v - y, a being a constant, and deduces membrane for which /' /,
tin-

usual equation.

KirehhofT's

method should be
1 1
1 .

carefully

compared with that of

Boussinesq

see our Chapter x

A second and posthumous volume of KirchhofFa VorOber in<ttt,cnw,t\8che Physik entitled Mathemati8c1n o//i'Angen In .UK] c'dited by K. Hcnsel was published at Leipzig in vl. tbis volume K rchhotf bases his theory of li^ht np-n the e<|uati Hi tdastic inediiun. This naturally leads him to Neumann'*.
[1301.]
I i

72

92
hypothesis,
polarisation:
i.e.

KIRCHHOFF.

[1302

that the vibrations take place in the plane of see our Arts. 1214 and 1217.

Die FresnePsche Annahme ist aber nicht vertraglich mit der Hypothese, welche wir an die Spitze imserer optischen Betrachtungen stellten und die sich durch ihre nicht zu iibertreffende Einfachheit empfiehlt, mit der Hypothese mimlich, dass der Aether in den durchsichtigen Mitteln in Bezug anf die Lichtbewegung sich verb alt wie ein elastischer fester Korper, auf dessen Theile keine anderen Kriifte wirken, als die durch die relativen Verschiebungen erzeugten (S. 141).
Kirchhoff does not discuss

how

far

Neumann's hypothesis

leads

to results in accordance with experiment, nor does he consider the see objections which have been raised to it on several sides
:

Glazebrook's Report on Optics, pp. 169, 180 and our Art. 1274. Valuable as many parts of these Lectures on Optics are, they do not, so far as the theory of elasticity is concerned, add much to the researches of F. Neumann see our Arts. 1213-22.
:

Ueber die Transversalschwingungen eines Stales von [1302.] verdnderlichem Querschnitt: Berliner Monatsberichte, Jahrgang
1879, S. 815-28 (G. A. S. 339-351). The type of rod which Kirchhoff proposes to deal with defined in the following words
:

is

Es werde zunachst ein Stab ins Auge gefasst, dessen Querschnitt in der Richtung der Lange beliebig, nur so variirt, dass alle Querschnitte unendlich klein sind, ihre Schwerpunkte in einer Geraden liegen und ihre Hauptaxen die gleichen Richtungen haben. Ein solcher Stab kann unendlich kleine Schwingungen ausfiihren, bei denen die Verschiebungen immer in einer dieser l>eiden Richtungen geschehen um solche Schwingungen soil es sich handeln die Differentialgleichung derselben ist bekannt und leicht mit Hiilfe dos Hamilton'schen Principes abzuleiten (S. 815; G. A. S. 340).
; ;

Kirchhoff cites Lord Rayleigh's Theory of Sound, Vol. I. p. 240, as giving the equation for the vibrations. If be the shift at time t of the centroid of the cross-section distant z from one end of the rod, the equation for the vibrations parallel to one system, x, of principal
axes of the cross-sections
is,

in the usual notation of our

work

see our Art. 343, equation

(i),

Taking a simple tone, or putting have

for u, pug for p, and g = 0. putting in it = uainpt, p being a constant, we

13031304]
The
conditions to
:

KIRCHHOFF.
\>e

93

satisfied at

a terminal of the rod, whether fixed or

_

free, are

d?u\

.,

cPu

du

\vhrru 8 is the usual

symbol of variation.

Kirchhoff renuirks that equation (ii) can be solved in (runs \\hrii the coordinates x and y of the boundary of the cross-section are of the form
[1303.]
X' n.

ml

any variable quantity and

case

we

easily find,

In this 3 given functions of it. /",, y* being parallel to x, and * the swing-radius about //,

ud

-'

OJ,,K (I

are the values of

:

<o

and

<OK

for

z=l.

Kq nation

(ii)

now becomes

(iv),
i** /

and may be solved by a

series of the

form

]<>\ided h satisfies the equation

h (h /.

1) (h

2 +

3/>t

ii)

(h

3 +

3m +

M)

= 0.

A. S. 341).
t

Kin hhotf discusses the relations bet ween the consta n s J, .1,, Jo, etc., and the special cases which can arise according as in, is > - or < 2 '/..is.!-'). He does not, however, enter into special 517-8, details except for two interesting cases, namely
:

(a)
(4)

when

1,

".

>-l,

-l.

In loth these cases the integrals admit of being expressed by Bessel's functions with real or imaginary arguments. devote the following four articles to a consideration of Kirchhoff's results.

We

= 0, and x be a constant, then tl..1, n >un<l d and the rod is rectangular, by two parallel If thu latter meet planes and a pair of planes per|-ii<li -ul u to thaMt ..ill at a angle, the rod may be looked upon as a very thin

[1304.]

Caw
is

(a).

If

cross-section

l>

94
Equation
alternuth.
1

KIRCH HOFF.
(iv) will

[1304
by cither
<>f

now be found
d (
,t

to be satisfied

tin

or, if

(d~u
_

The
are

first

forms of solutions, answering to the + and - signs respectively,

where

J}
if

)2+

-^

f
,

,
}

The second forms of solution involve log Therefore of the rod be free. the end z =

and are thus unsuitable is of the form

:

This must satisfy

(iii)

at the free end

0,

which requires

to be fulfilled.

At

the base of the wedge,

if

u = Q,
This leads to
:

we suppose du
and
dz
,

it built-in,

we must have

whence, by writing down the differential equations

satisfied

by

</>

and

if/,

we

find that for the base value of z

This
1

is

the equation from which the frequencies of the notes must be

z'

By

taking

= ljz
is

the equation reduces to the form -,,

/3V~

2
,

/3

being a

constant. functions

a case of Biccati's equation and may be solved by Bessel's 111. see Forsyth's Treatise on Differential Equation*,

This

1305]
dedueed.

KlRrimoFF.

95

in a series exactly as he found KirchhotHinds the value of product in his memoir on plates (see our Art. 1:211), namely by ascertaining tin- differential equation which the product must satisfy. Tim* he obtains
initial-

"
and
In

no- for

tin-

frequencies
f*

we

require the roots of:

......

~JT(fiy*!rT^~7Tfy*
If
I l.e

........ (viii)

tin

length of the

wedge he deduces

for the

fundamental note,

and

if -la

be the depth, parallel to the direction of vibration, of the base

of the wedge,

we have
a

"= 5
K..r

t>\/i

(>

a prismatic rod of
:

uniform rectangular cross-section of depth

_".

we should have had

= 3-516S ./I!-

...(x).

Hence the fundamental supplying the material and the fixing the same. ni! of the wedge is higher than that of a rod of uniform rectangular
i

cross-section equal to its base.

free

Kirchhoff next proceeds to tind how great the shift at tin[1305.] end of the wedge may be without danger to its elasticity, when tinwedge is vibrating solely with its note of lowest pitch. Let * be tinlimiting safe stretch, then we must have the maximum stretch at every But this maximum stretch occurs point of the wedge less than this. at the contour of the cross-section, and for a cross-section distant z from
ih.

five

end

is

(tz

cP*

a>z c/*u

-r
i

^
.

sin;^, or giving sin pi

,

its

maximum

value and substituting tor

in terms of

we must have

the
or, substituting for

maximum
j>

of

o^

1>

*J

/~p~cPu < ^ -,

~^

from

(ix),

the

maximum

value of

5*315 = {

^<

*-

96

KIRCHHOI
Kirchhoff calculates the

F.

[1306

maximum
S. 347)

value of

-=-

for the
it

funda-

mental note (S. 823-4

G. A.

and shows that

equals

4-992 C,

where

U=
O./*QQ
'

19-563
stretch
/
fll

C
f

maximum
or

is the maximum shift at the free end. The occurs at the cross-section for which = 3-688,

z=

y~^-.9

or substituting from (ix), at the point

-694Z.

Thus with the wedge the greatest strain is not at the built-in terminal, and further the position of the section of greatest strain varies according to the note the wedge is sounding. The safe shift of the free end is found for the fundamental note to
be given by

< 3-919

-\/~. p V 3P

For a rod of uniform rectangular cross-section we have the corresponding expressions

:

Hence if we take a prismatic rod of the same material, of the same length and on the same base as a wedge, the free end of the latter can make, in the case when both swing with their fundamental notes, If both be of the oscillations of 2*6 times the amplitude of the former. same material and have the same fundamental note (i.e. p the same for both) but be on bases of different size or shape, then the wedge can safely receive oscillations at its free end of nearly four times the amplitude of those of the prism. These results seem of considerable interest and possibly possess some
practical application.

= Kirchhoff next passes to the case: Case (b). [1306.] This corresponds to the rod having the form of a very sharp cone. The differential equation (iv) now takes the form
:

n=l.

or

if

= zp

-j

we have

to find solutions of
_

d?u

du

1307]

KIRC'HHOFF.
is

07
of the form

Kirchhotl shows that the complete solution in this case

<*v
*

~d?

d?'

where
Ill

<f>

and

\f/

have the values given in

(vi).

-ill^

|iiatimi for
in tin-

the frequencies of the notes, the terminal conditions previous case, is:

-0.
,!

1! 3! 5!
is
,

-2!

4! 7!

3! 5! 9!
find for the fun. dam* ntal

Tin least root of this note

= 8-718, and we

If K be the swing radius of the base, or for z

= /, we have

KO

1,

and
For a
cylindrical rod of the

;>

8-718^ ,./

...(xii).

same material and base we should have had

Tli

us the frequencies of the fundamental notes of a sharp conical and of a cylindrical rod of the same length and on the same base are in the 3-516. ratio of 8-718
:

Finally Kirchhoff proceeds, as in the corresponding case of [1307.] our Art. 1305, to measure the safe amplitude for the fundamental vibraHe finds with the same notation as tion at the free end of the cone.
in that article, a now denoting the maximum distance of any point on the fixed base from the neutral axis
:

U<

-790*

-,

< 6-889
For the cylindrical rod we have
:

pa V

/I
p

'

98

KIRCHHOFF.

[13081309

we conclude that for a cylinder and a very sharp cone of the same material and length and on the same base, the cone can have at its free end amplitudes of 2'8 times the magnitude of those of tinIf the bases cylinder, when both vibrate with their fundamental note. be of the same shape but different size, and the fundamental notes be the same, then the cone can have at its free end amplitudes nearly 7 times those of the cylinder. The fail-point of the cone for its fundamental note is on the crosssection given by
=4-464,
*

P
Thus, the fail-point of the cone
[1308.]
"
is

about

its

mid-section.

Benierkunyen zn
des

dem Aufsatze

des

Her r

it

Voigt:

Journal fur die Matliematik, Bd. 90, S. 34. Berlin, 1881. (G. A. Nachtrag, S. with extended an deals isotropic elastic infinitely 17-22.) Voigt medium surrounding a rigid sphere at the surface of which there is no slipping. Supposing the sphere to have an insmall oscillatory motion it is required to ascertain the finitely
Theorie
leuchtenden

Punktes."

Crelles

He applies the conclusions to be vibrations of the medium. drawn from such a mechanism to the theory of an incandescent Obviously the most complex oscillatory motion can be point. constructed from (a) an oscillatory rotation round a diameter, and (6) an oscillatory translation of the sphere as a whole.
:

Kirchhoff shows that the solutions for these special cases can be obtained by an easier method than that of Voigt's memoir.
[1309.]

The expressions

medium may
tt

for the shifts be put into the form

v,

at

any point of the

dP
due

dV -- dW
-

dz

,-

dP
-7-

dy

dy

dP dU dV dW dU --W -7-+-1---r~ r dx dz dx dz
j
>

dy

where

P is

a solution of

and U,

V,

W are solutions of

a and b being the velocities with which longitudinal and transverse waves are propagated. These equations are attributed by Kinchhoff to

i:no]
Cl-l.s-li. lait
'*'>>
".

KIK<-HHOFF.

99

they had U-MI previously given by Lame in his Le$on* >>// 11 l-G. In the notation of our work 3 = (A+ 2p)/p and 6* = ft/p: M-O nir Arts. 1078* and 1394. Kirchhoffnow obtains a solution for Case (a) by taking
Vekixt
]]'.

P=Cr=r=Oand W=-F(r-bt),
before strain from 1>< If tin- radius of the sphere a,ndf(t) the angle of rotation from x to y at time t, we easily find that for r = /i', we must have

win -re
>.

is

the distance of any point of the

medium

tin

ntre of the sphere,

and

F is

an undetermined function.
:

Tin- solution of this equation is

given by

If

f(t) =
iii

Q,

dW/dt-Q
st

for
its

the above solution supposes and is the medium is supposed to luunstrained position before the vibration of the sphere

when <<0, then

-0
=

and ?>.#, that

begins at time

0.

Let the motion in Case (6) be parallel to the axis of [1310.] then a suitable solution will be obtained by taking
I

c,

dQ
^ dz
,

dS
C'

^^ dy*

'"""

,IH
"'

"

dx'

win n

/',

iiiul

/',.

l>eing

undetermined functions:

It

\vr

put

/.',

u=v=

and v*-f(t\ we obtain after some analysis

/; (A

- at) = 2*F,(Jt- bt) +

WR

I*

dt

f f(t)

<U,

\\

IH-I.

x
and A M

W =/ W *
of the qiiadmti.
:

A, an- tin- roots

100

KIRCHHOFF.
writing
t

[13111312

By
t

+ (Jt-r)/a and

(R

bt) respectively,

t + (R-r)lb for t in l<\(R-at) und we obtain the values of Q and IS from these

results.

for t < 0, it will be found that these results (t) at in its unstrained position before the sphere the medium rest suppose begins to oscillate. Voigt's solution for this case may be obtained from Kirchhoff's by

As

before, if

supposing a infinitely great.

[1311.]
k.

Akademie
641-69.

S.

Siteungsberichte der Zweiter Halbbaiul, 1882, Wissenschaften, Jahrgang Annalen der Physik, Bd. 18, S. 663Berlin, 1882.
Lichtstrahlen.
d.

Zur Theorie der

(G. A. Nachtrag, S. 22-54.) Leipzig, 1883. This memoir belongs properly to the theory of light. It starts, however, from the basis of an isotropic elastic medium, in which
95.

the dilatation 6

is

put

zero.

Kirchhoff remarks

Die Schlusse, durch welche man, hauptsachlich gestiitzt auf Betrachtungen von Huyghens und Fresnel, die Bildung der Lichtstrahlen, ihre Reflexion und Brechung, sowie die Beugungserscheinungen zu erklaren Eine vollkompflegt, entbehren in mehrfacher Beziehung der Strenge. men befriedigende Theorie dieser Gegenstande aus den Hypothesen der TJiidulationstheorie zu entwickeln, scheint auch heute noch nicht moglich zu sein ; doch lasst sich jenen Schliissen eine grossere Scharfo Ich erlaube mir der Akademie Auseinandersetzungen vorzugeben. legen, welche hierauf abzielen, und deren wesentlichen Inhalt ich in meiiien Universitatsvorlesungen seit eiiier Reihe von Jahren vorgetragen habe.
ist

Das gleiche Ziel in Bezug auf die Beugungserscheinungen inzwischen. in einigen verbfFentlichteii Abhandlungen von den Herren Frohlich und Voigt verfolgt (Berichte S. 641; G. A. Nachtrag, S. 22).

In the course of his work Kirchhoff gives a proof of [1312.] a generalisation of Huyghens' Principle which was first stated by Helmholtz (Journal fur Matliematik, Bd. 57, S. 1. Berlin, 1860.)
Let
<

be a solution of the equation

on which the transverse vibrations of the medium can be made to depend, and let a- be a closed surface containing none of the points of disturbance ; let dn be an element of the normal at der measured inwards, inside <r. and let r be the distance of do- from a chosen point Lastly
let

d$ldn = f(t). Then Kirchhoff deduces from Green's Theorem (Mathematical Papers,

p.

23) that

13131314]

KIRCHHOFF.

101

wh-iv

fi

and

at <f> (S. 646; G. A. Nachtrag, S. 28). always possible to replace the system of disturbing points l>y a new distribution of disturbing points over the surface a- (supposed to contain none of the old points), provided we know the values of <f> and r/< Jn due to the old system over this surface, and that tin<

is

the value of
is

Thus

it

lies inside it. point Kirchhoff discusses further what modifications are introduced when a disturbing point lies inside the surface <r.

The major portion of the memoir is too closely associated with tbe theory of light to be discussed here.
[1313.]
l\

rper erfdhrt,
<1.

Ueber die Formdnderung, die ein fester elastischer wenn er magnetisch oder dielectriscl/ fiultintdrt
der
k.

Sitzungsberichte

Akademie
S.

d.

Wissenscli often,

Jahrgnng 1884, Enter Halbband,

der Physik, Bd. N"rhtrag, S. 91-113.)
Sir William
"

137-56.

Berlin, 1884.

AnA.

24,

S.

52-74.

Leipzig,

1885.

(G.

Thomson and Clerk-Maxwell have both

discussed

the mechanical forces called into play in a body when placed in an electro-magnetic field, and Helmboltz bas extended their results

by introducing, besides the constant of induction, a second constant which is to be determined by the changes which result from a Kirchhoff proposes to still li.mge of density in the medium.
<

further generalise their conclusions by introducing a third constant t" express the changes experienced by tbe induction owing to
tli.

tie,

existence of tbe most general form of strain, when tbe body is Lorberg in an article entitled: Ueber Electrostricti<>i/
0ft

der Physik, Bd.

_>!.

S.

:;<><)

:>!>,

issM

siiiiult,-ui-..usl\

e(l

by

different considerations like results.

in

Kirchhoff1 concei '.-uu-ntary sph-iv of iron, \\hii-h n< tches ,, f,, 3 th.- unit'onn to ha\undnx'MMr upposes isotropic, tin-.',- irccinu'iil.-ir din-.-ti..n-. Then, if A,,, //, Cn !>< tin- OOmpOO
1

have partially changed KirchhofTa notation to agree better with tbe customary no of Maxwell. He n*e* X, '*. c % ^, Ma, *. *
.

'

/V

'*!

""!

102

KIRCHHOFF.

[1315

of the magnetic intensity, due to constant magnetic forces s + s.2 + *. acting in tlirsr diivctions, Kirchhoff takes, if
l
:

J^

./!,,

Next taking this sphere as an infinitely small part of a finite mass of iron, which has been magnetised by given external forces, he puts
:

where v lt v2 an d ** are tne directions of the principal stretches a lt x,, and is equal to the sum of V the potential due to external magnetism, and Q, the potential of the whole magnetised mass of iron, at the element. Substituting (ii) in (i) and neglecting the terms involving the squares of the strain we have three relations of the type
x._,,
<

4-(-M-tfh)

.................. (Hi).

Here *, k' and k" are constants, functions of p, p' and p", and taken as depending solely on the nature of the iron. In a second paper (see our Art. 1319) Kirchhoff states that although the theory supposes K a constant, it really varies immensely with the value of

/MV V (dvj +
Calling this expression

,<w
by
(iii)

R we have

terms zero or small as compared with

K,

and (ii), supposing the strain and taking ./= V'A 2 + /22 + ^3 2
i

In some experiments of Stoletow (Annalen der Physik Bd. 146, S. 4G1, 1872) cited by Kirchhoff in his second paper, K for soft iron rises from 21 '5 to 174 as R varies from '43 to 3'2, and sinks to 42'1 as R
increases further

shown that the

to 30-7. Ewing (Phil Trans. 1885, p. 548) has fluctuations in the values of K (Maxwell's 'coefficient of induced magnetisation') for soft iron largely exceed even those Kirchhoff cites from Stoletow. The bearing of this variation of K on the

fundamental differential equation is not considered by Kirchhoff in his memoir. Further it is more than doubtful whether experiments in the case of soft iron, nickel or cobalt justify Kirchhoff's neglect of the terms in-

His equations and conclusions are volving the square of the strain. therefore given here with every reservation.
[1315.] Reducing the above results for the principal stretch-axes of each element to general axes #, y, z in space, parallel to which the

1316]

KIROHHOFF.
x,

103
y, z are

components of magnetic intensity at the point

tin. I:

A,

/?,

C,

=-(*-k'6-k',-)'<

'+

U
'

'it

c
H
for
<t>.

now
Since

proceeds to determine the general differential equation = V+ Q, and Q is given by: tft

- .!(')*'!('))"where '/re- is an clement of the mass of iron, and 7* the distance clement from the point at which Q is the potential, we have
:

<>f

this

<>r,

by integrating the expression for

Q by

parts

A /?, ^' must be given the values in (iv) above. Following an of Ilclinholt/'s, Kirchhoff supposes the iron to change not abruptly but j^radusilly to air, so that K, &', k" take values varying from those
II- r<?
t

ili-:i

they have in iron to those for air, or zero, through a thin shell over the surface of the iron-mass, this shell bring ultimatelv reduced to an infinite thinness (Berichte S. 140-1 ; G'. A. Nachtrag, S. 95).
that

how (v) may be replaced by an equation expressing the variation of a certain integral vanishes, but to disruss this '/. .1. J\*^ /,//,/ integral would carry us beyond our limits (S.
Kirchhoff shows

96-101).
If /'
]

[131G.

/'

/'

represent the terms that must be added

.f
t

t.>

the

/>.V.

/.

)',

pZ

in the body-stress cMpiations

yj.e

+ Tdx

dy

ty -

zx

~j

<l;

+pX = 0,
/',.,

,,

to reprenent the effect of the mognetisat iun, and

/*

ff

P, the terms tint

to

M mall

tin*

iron mftBS itHolf

\\itli

V ? I'

o,

:uid

if

/.'

and A" were

equation

be n

compared

we nhould have the

URiial

104

KIRCHHOFF.
to the surface-stresses JT
,

[1317
r }
,

LSI S

must be added

in the surface-stress

equations of type
.T7-

cos (iix)

^ cos (ny) +

cos (nz)

- -3T

where n is the normal to the surface measured inwards, then Kirchhoff shows (S. 146-8 ; G. A. Nachtrag, S. 102-4) that
:

and

with similar values for

Hero

Py Pz and Pv
,

represents as before

These results agree with those of Helmholtz

[1317.]

if k'

and k" be put

S.

zero.

Kirchhoff remarks

(S.

149; G. A. Nachtrag,

105):

Die in Bezug auf einen Eisenkorper angestellten Betrachtungen lassen sich auf ein Dielectricum iibertragen, wenn dieses an Stelle des Eisens und Der Nichtein electrisirter Nichtleiter an Stelle des Magnets gesetzt wird. leiter kann aber auch durch Leiter ersetzt werden, da es fur die Kraffce, die auf ein Element des Dielectricums wirken, gleichgiiltig 1st, ob die electrischen Fliissigkeiten, von denen diese Kriifte herriihren, soweit sie in endlicher Entfernung von dem Elemente liegen, in ihren Triigern beweglich sind, oder
nicht.

On S. 150-2 (G. A. Nachtrag, S. 106-9) Kirchhoff points out how another method, which has been, indeed, adopted by Boltzmann, does not lead to the correct equations.
Finally Kirchhoff works out the case of a spherical [1318.] condenser of glass bounded by two concentric surfaces of radii rx and These surfaces are provided with conducting coatings, the r2 (r2 > 7*j). inner of which is maintained at potential < and the outer at potential zero, and pressures on these coatings are supposed to be at once transferred to the glass surfaces. Kirchhoff agreeing with Korteweg (Annalen der Physik, Bd. 9, S. 48-61, 1880) finds that the extension of the
internal radius
is

given by

r/l_

1319]

KIRCHHOFF.

105
ft

where
cients.

is

the stretch-modulus and

A and

the usual elastic

coeffi-

The K, k' and k" of this article are of course not those of Art. 1314, but constants of the dielectric, 1 + ITTK being the of Maxwell, or the It is an analytical not a physical relation, specific inductive capacity. which enables us to apply the results for magnetisation to the case of a dielectric see our Art. 1317.

[1319.]

Ueber einige Anwendungen der Theorie der Formdn-

derung, welche ein Korper erfdhrt, wenn er magnetisch oder dielectrisch polarisirt wird. Sitzungsberichte d. k. Akademie der Wisseniften,

1884.

Jahrgang 1884, Zweiter Halbband, S. 1155-70. Berlin, Annalen der Physik, Bd. 25, S. 601-17. Leipzig, 1885 (G.
S. 114-31).

A. Nachtrag,
is

of this memoir which concerns elastic solids which deals with the change in form undergone by an isotropic iron sphere of radius r when magnetised by a constant

The only portion

5,

magnetic force of intensity

In
origin,
this case at

J in

the direction

x.

a great distance from the sphere the centre being the and the notation that of our Art. 1314
:

<t>=-Jx,

and inside the sphere

*=-TTlS*
equations (vi) of our Art. 1316 we have to find the strains = 0, in an elastic medium subjected to no body-forces, for x= y = 9 but to the surface- stresses Px P 9 by: given yj

Whence from

ft

=
:

The
(a)
(b)

surface-stresses consist therefore of

A uniform surface traction = J/? (* A variable surface traction = 27r/?K* cos

k').
1

the outwardly directed normal at magnetisation.

(c)

^, where ty any point makes with the

is

the angle

direction of

sation
T.

= i#fc"cos^.
i:

A variable surface pressure parallel

ri.
ii.

to the direction of magneti-

106

KIRCHHOFF.
easily ascertain the corresponding shifts

[1320

We can

and

strains

This corresponds to a uniform dilatation of the sphere and to (a) a radial shift U at central distance r given by
:

and consequent dilatation

u,

(b)
y

If p be the distance of a point from the axis of x, the shifts at x, p parallel and perpendicular to the axis of magnetisation are
:

given by

u = Oof +
5

where Kirchhoff
are expressed

finds for the constants the values

:

which in our notation

by

7-617

3>7

- 272

This gives us shifts parallel and perpendicular to the axis of magnetisation measured by
(c)

The combination
magnetisation.

of these

cases

gives

the total strain due to the

If we suppose, that * is immensely greater than k' and only to consider the shifts given by (b). Assuming the uni-constant isotropy of the sphere, or rj = J, we have then by neglecting K as compared with /c2

[1320.]

k",

we have

The extension of the radius

153

parallel to the magnetic force

J\

13211322]

CLEBSCH.

107

while the radii perpendicular to this undergo the compression

27
1767T

J\
~W

'

[1321.]

In the course of his discussion Kirchhoff refers to the

:

great variations in the value of K see our Art. 1314. out that the uniform magnetic force might be obtained

He

points

by placing

the iron sphere in the axis of a coil, but that the extension of the radius in the direction of this axis would probably be far too small to be capable of measurement. Finally he refers to
Joule's

measurement
:

in

1846 of the extension of an iron bar

see our Art. 688. placed in such a coil Shelford Bidwell has, however, shown that an iron bar will shorten when the magnetising force is sufficiently increased, so

that

it

is

difficult

to see the application

of Joule's

result

to

Kirchhoff's

theory.

Further

J.

J.

Thomson (Applications of

Dynamics

to Physics and Chemistry, p. 54) has shown from experiments on the relation of strain and magnetisation that Kirchhoff's results in the previous article sometimes give a

E wing's

very small part of the total strain in soft iron, the chief part being
really due to the terms which connect the intensity of magnetisation with the strain (compare the k' and k" of equation (iii) of our

It is not possible to discuss these matters here at 1314). length, but the reader is warned that Kirchhoff's results are not a complete representation of the relations between magnetism and
strain

Art

brought to light by recent experimental researches.

SECTION

III.

Ckbsch

1
.

die [1322.1 The first memoir due to Clebsch is entitled: Ceber CrelUs Journal fiir die Oleichgewichtsfigur eines bicysanuni Fadeni. Bd. 57, 1860, 8. 93-1 10. angeioandto Mathematik.

For an account of Clebsch's life and work see the Alathrmatitcht Annalen Clebtoh died Nov. 7, .m, Bd. vi. 8. 197-203 and Bd. vn. 8. 1-66. i.y 1872, aged 89.
1

f..un i,

82

108

CLEBSCH.

[13231324

1-7 of this memoir are occupied with the equilibrium of an 1 gives the general but flexible string; equations (S. 2 deals with a uniform heavy chain (S. 95) ; 3 considers the 9^-5) ) equilibrium of a string under the action of centrifugal force produced by rotation; a solution is obtained in terms of elliptic functions (S. 4 supposes the string constrained to remain on a given 95-101); surface (S. 101-2), while 5-7 take the special cases of any surface ot revolution, a sphere, and a string on a sphere under the action of centriThe equations are fugal force due to rotation respectively (S. 102-7). integrated by a process due to Jacobi.
inextensible
'
'

The remaining sections of the memoir deal more closely [1323.] with our subject. 8 is entitled Gleichgewicht dunner elastischer Faden (S. 107-9). Clebsch supposes a force-function to exist and the cross-section to be so small that the string is perfectly flexible as well as elastic. He obtains his equations by making the integral
:

- U]

da-

taken throughout the length a of the string a minimum, being the stretch -modulus, 8 the stretch in the element c&r, and U the correspondClebsch reduces the general ing force-function per unit length of da: solution to the' discovery of a solution V of the partial differential
equation
:

The
diinnen

last

section

of

the

memoir
unter

is

entitled
it is

elastischen

Fadens

dem

Einfluss

The statement is so brief that 109-110). reasoning of this last section.

[1324.]

Gleichgewicht eines der Schwere (S. difficult to follow the

:

Theorie der circularpolarisirenden Medien.

CreUes Journal

fur reine u. angewandte Mathematik. Bd. 57, 1860, S. 319-358. This memoir does not properly proceed from an elastic hypothesis, and the
necessary optical terms are introduced into the equations by assuming a type of inter molecular force which has not received any physical Thus Clebsch's hypothesis is the following (S. 322-3) explanation.
:

Nehmen wir an dass zwar in jedem Augenblick die Molecule sich nach einer Function f (r) der Entfernung anziehen, dass aber ausserdem durch die Bewegung selbst auf irgend eine Weise in denselben in jedem Augenblick
eine (nicht wieder verschwindende) Kraft erregt wird, welche senkrecht gerichtet sein soil gegen eine der Verbindungslime und der relativen Geschwindigkeit gleichzeitig parallele Ebene.

Further

Dass die gedachte, in jedem Augenblick entstehende Kraft proportional ist einer Function der relativen Entfernung F(r} und derjenigen Componenten

132.')]

CLEBSCH.

109

...lor relativen
1st.

Geschwindigkeit, welche gegen die Verbindungslinie senkrecht

The resulting equations are not elastic equations, but similar to the optical equations of Cauchy, MacCullagh and Neumann, and the methods adopted arc akin to those of the tractate on optics referred to in our Art. 1391. There is thus no need to consider the memoir at length under the history of elasticity.
1325.

We

have next to consider the work entitled: Theorie

der Elusticitdt der fester Korper von Dr A. Clebsch, Professor This was published <ler Polytechnischen Schule za Carlsruhe. in large octavo at Leipzig in 1862, and contains xi. + 424 pages.

The
said

this may be preface states briefly the object of the work to be to furnish a sound basis for practical studies and
;

Accordingly the mathematical processes are kept applications. the general investigations as simple and elementary as possible and also Lame' any applications to the theory of light given by
;

are omitted.

On

the other hand the researches of Saint- Venant

on the Flexure and Torsion of Prisms, and those of Kirchhoff with

The work is respect to very slender rods, are fully considered. divided into three parts; S. 1-189 treat of bodies having all their dimensions finite; S. 190-355 treat of bodies which have
are

one dimension or two dimensions indefinitely small S. 256-424 devoted to applications. The work is subdivided into 92
;

sections.

[Notwithstanding Clebsch's preface and his position at Carlsruhe his book is certainly not suited for the technicist; the
htest comparison of his pages with those, for example, of his
It is successor Grasshof will sufficiently demonstrate this fact. to the mathematical elastician that Clebsch in reality appeals, and

the chief value of his book

lies in

the novelty of his analytical

processes and his solutions of new elastic problems. Throughout tin- work Clebsch practically uses only the equations for isotropic materials, and this deprives the work of much physical and techIn the French translation due to Saint- Venant and interest.
1

:ii.int,

he original work.
correction of

suitable distributions of elasticity replace this isotropy The copious notes of Saint- Venant and the

many

of the innumerable errata of the original so

the value of the translation, that it is safe to predict that the future Clebsch will be chiefly read in the French edition

110
(see

CLEBSCH.

[13261327

our Arts. 298-400). For our present historical purposes, " however, we follow the original, giving under the letters F. E." the corresponding pages of Saint-Venant's version.]
;

[1326.] The first seventeen sections of Clebsch (S. 1-50 F. E. pp. 1-113) contain a general theory of elasticity, which does not possess much novelty. The statements on S. 7 and 10 with regard

are only true for the isotropic materials of theory and not for the usual materials of construction see our Arts. 169 (d) and 308 (b). The definition
:

to the numerical limits of the elastic constants

of the elastic limit, S. 4, requires modification, but the remark on S. 3 as to the fitness of excluding caoutchouc from the substances

which the theory of elasticity in its present form can be applied deserves notice. As a novelty we may refer to S. 23-7, where
to

the reader will find Lamp's ellipsoid of elasticity and the stressdirector-quadric (see our Arts. 1008* and 1059*) expressed in
tangential coordinates-, the analysis has probably than the result practical value.

more

interest

The linearity of the stress-strain relations is practically assumed by Clebsch, as he appeals to a mathematical process and not to experimental facts see our Arts. 928*, 1051*, 1064*, and
:

299.

Clebsch terms the stresses Spannungen and the strains Verschiebungen*, he uses Zugkraft also in the sense of Spannung, but it would I think be better to confine it to what in this volume

we term
**>> <si

tractions.

He

represents the stress system by tu t^,

,

s&)

*i2

and the

strains

by

a, /3,

<, %,

^.

Clebsch next passes in 18 to the special case of the a hollow spherical shell subjected to uniform This has been fully considered by other writers surface-tractions.
[1327.]

equilibrium of

(see our Arts. 1016*, 1093*, 123,

and 1201

(c)),

and

their results

should be compared with those of Clebsch, as there are misprints in his work. He uses also, here, as throughout his book, the maximum stress not the maximum stretch to suggest the fail-limit
or condition of rupture see our Arts. 4 (7), 5, 169 (c) and 320-1. The following section 19 (S. 55-61) deals with the radial
:

1 Clebsch uses modulus.

/*

for our

77

and

F for our

/*

he uses E, as we do, for the stretch-

He

also uses Verschiebungen occasionally for the shifts, e.g. S. 25.

13281329]

CLEBSCH.

Ill

ment

vibrations of a sphere, and does not add much to Poisson's treatof the like problem in his memoir of 1829 see our Arts.
:

449*-463*. These sections occupy

[1328.]

S.

114-126 of F. E.

subject to which Clebsch turns is of more Ueber F. E. pp. 126-132) is entitled (S. die Wurzeln der transscendenten Gleichungen, welche die Unterinterest.

The next

20

62-67

suchung von Schwingungen elastischer Korper mit sich fuhrt, and

its

object

is

to

show the

the small
Clebsch's
is

vibrational motions.

reality of the roots, or the stability of I reproduce the substance of

investigation

here, as it appears to be original,

and

of considerable importance.
1329.

shifts U) v,

w can

Let us suppose that for small vibrations the values of the Thus be expressed in series of simple harmonic form.

w- may put

+ MS sin kj + u^ sin kj + Wj'cos kj + MJ'COS tyt, + with similar expressions for v and w. But as the treatment of the terms which involve cosines is the same as that of the terms which involve sines, we will omit the cosines entirely. Hence we take
sin kjt

M = H!

+ w/cos k^t +

u = w sin k^t + u* sin kj + 1^ sin k3t + v = v sin k^t + v2 sin k^t + vg sin k^t + w = t0! sin k^t + w9 sin kj+ws sin tyl+
t l

Now

such a series

similarly each of the six elastic stresses will take the form of we will thus suppose that corresponding to ;

u n sin kn t,
we have
and
for the three tractions

vn sin
:

k^ wn sin knt

for the three shears

T! sin k H t,

TS sin k n t,

rs sin k n t.

Then

sir

_'

in

the

body stress-equations,
</r,
l.i-

and supposing no

external forces to act,

we have
</r,
(It/

</Z

...(l).

.;

112

CLEBSCH.

[1330

of v x , va ,...are connected with u n , v n , n by the same Also we have relations as the stresses are connected with the strains. the following equations holding at the bounding surfaces, supposing

The values

there to be no load and

l

a,

/?,

y the direction-angles

of the

normal

= 0, v cos a + rt cos j3 + ra cos y -0,1 T S cos a + va cos ft + T! cos y = 0, V -0,1

ra cos a

(2).

+ TJ COS /? + vt COS y -of

It will be observed that (1) and (2) are derived from the general body and surface stress-equations; each of these equations breaks up into sets obtained by considering separately the terms which involve

Now let u mi vm wm correspond to sin kmt in the values of u, v, w, Let the corresponding forms of (1) and where km is different from kn (2) be what we get by putting v instead of v, and T' instead of T. Consider the triple integral extended over the whole body
,
.

J = If! umUn + vmvn + wm wn

(

dxdydz.
:

By means

of (1) this gives at once, if p be constant

drs
jdx
2

+ ~r + ~T + dzj dy
)

dv2

c?rA

wm

dv,\} -r + ~r + -r* t dxdydz. dz )} \dx dy

C?TJ
. )

/c?T2

by integration by parts, the triple integral can be transformed into a certain double integral extending over the boundaries, and a certain triple integral extending throughout the body; the double
integral vanishes

Now

by

(2)

and we are thus

left

with the result

dvm

*d?

Ta

U
,

/dwm

dum \

ar)

"s

dwn
-ar

r>

dvm fdu m + (ny

Now in precisely the same way as this result has been obtained, by applying (1) with respect to u m , vm wm instead of with respect to un> vm w n we obtain
,

du +v ,dvn +T (dwn + n\ + (<fo-&)

>

"

,dw n
-&

+r>

1330.

But the right-hand members

of the last

two equations are

1330]

CLEBSCH.

113
homogeneous function

For we know that there is a certain the same. of the second degree involving the six quantities

dul dx
such
that
its

dv*
'

dz

dw
(I >i
11

differential

coefficient

with respect to
-

.-

ax

is

v,,

its

differential coefficient

with respect to -

5 -j- is

T,

and so on

and

in like manner similar considerations hold function of the six quantities

when we form

the same

du m dx
.ce
it

dv m
'

dwm
<ly

dz

be found, as asserted, that the right-hand members of Thus we have these equations are the same.
will

and since kn and km are

that
is

different

it

follows that

must be

zero,

JfJ(umun + vmvn + wnwn )dxdydz = Q

...............

(3).

This result enables us to show that the quantities k*, A^2 ...... are For suppose one of them were of the form p + q ,J 1 then all real. another would be of the form p q*Jl', let then u m vm1 wm corThen u m and U H respond to the former, and un vn wn to the latter. will be conjugate imaginary expressions of the forms Pi+qij-l and /?! q l J 1 ; and so their product would be the sum of two The like would hold for v mvn and for t0mt0n ; and thus the squares. integral in (3) would be nece*sarily a positive quantity, and so could not vanish as it must by (3). Glebsch then proceeds to show that A;, 2 kj, ...... must all be positive
,
,

quantities.

For put
extending throughout the whole body; thus J* denotes for umi vmt wm respectively.
,

the integral

what J would become if we put u n v nt WH Then transforming this as we did J we get

(4),

where

F is that

homogeneous function of the dun dvn dwn +

six quantities

d>

dz~

to

which we have already

referred.

114

CLEBSCU.

[1331

Clebsch says, in substance, that the right-hand member of (4) positive quantity. It is really the strain-energy corresponding to certain small shifts ; hence since J' is necessarily positive it follows from (4) that & n2 must be positive also. Clebsch should have referred to some standard treatise on Mechanics for the proposition which he here asserts [see our Art. 1278]; his own words after arriving at

Now

must be a

equation (4) are

Das negative Differential des dreifachen Integrals rechts bedeutete aber die Arbeit, welche die innern Krafte bei einer kleinen Verschiebung leisten, daher stellt das Integral selbst, rnit entgegengesetzten Zeichen genommen, die Arbeit dar, welche die innern Krafte leisten, wenn der Korper aus seiner naturlichen Lage verschoben wird, bis er die Verschiebungen uny vn w n erhalt. Diese Arbeit ist ihrer Natur nach negativ, genau entgegengesetzt der ihr gleichen positiven Arbeit der aussern Krafte, welche zu einer solchen Verschiebung nothwendig ist. Das dreifache Integral ist also nothwendig positiv ; aber auch J", welches eine Summe positiver Glieder ist, daher muss denn auch & n2
,

nothwendig positiv

sein,

was zu beweisen war

(S. 65-6).

Clebsch applies the results obtained to the problem of the vibrating sphere in order to justify an equation there assumed to be true.

The twenty-first section consists of a demonstration that 1331. the problem of the equilibrium of an elastic body is a determinate This is a modification of problem. (S. 67-70; F. E. S. 132-6.) Kirchhoff's proof: see our Arts. 1255 and 1278. Suppose if possible that such a problem admitted two solutions, one in which the shifts are u', v', w, and another in which the shifts are u", v", w". Write down the body and surface shift- equations, first with respect to u', v', w' and next with respect to u", v", w". Make subtractions of corresponding equations ; for the result we obtain equations of elastic equilibrium, with no applied forces whatever, and where the displacements are denoted by u w" respecu", v v", w' it is our object to show that the displacements in this case must tively all be zero, that is
t
:

u'-u" = 0,

v'-v" =

0,

w'-w" = 0.

If this be shown it amounts to establishing that there is only one solution of the problem of equilibrium. Let us then suppose that no applied forces whatever act, and let us If we proceed as in our last denote the shifts as usual, by u, v, w.

we have results like those obtained there, provided we put km2 and kn2 zero for now as we are supposing no motion, these quantities do not occur. Thus corresponding to (4) of that article we have
article
;

now
........................... (1).

But

this integral

owing

to its physical

meaning has a positive value

1332]
and cannot,
case

CLEBSCH.

115

when

all

be zero. This can only be the therefore, be zero unless the variables in vanish, that is when :

.(2).

dv
-jdz

dw
dy

= -j-

f.

dw

du du dv = 0, -j- + j- = j- + -jdx dz dy dx

It seems to me that these equations are not obtained in a very convincing manner compare our Art. 1278. The values of u, v, w which satisfy these equations are of the following forms
:

y are constants. These are easily shown to follow For from the first three of these we see that u cannot involve x, that v cannot involve y, and that w cannot involve z; then from the last ot them dujdy cannot involve y, and from the fifth of them du/dz cannot involve z in this way the assigned formulae are
\vliL-re a, b, c, a, ft,

from

(2).

obtained.

Now the equations (3) exhibit only such motions as the body can take as a whole, and which consequently do not give rise to any relative For a, b, c correspond shifts, and so do not call out any stresses. to shifts parallel to the axes of x, y, z respectively ; a, ft, y correspond to a small rotation of the body round a straight line inclined to the axes
at angles
elastic

The conclusion
as the

whose direction cosines are proportional to a, ft, y respectively. is that any problem relating to the equilibrium of an body becomes perfectly definite if we exclude all such shifts

body could take as a whole.

S.

70-148 of Clebsch's treatise are occupied with termed Saint - Venant's Problem, that is to say with what he has This forms Chapter II. of the flexure of prisms. and the torsion Clebsch's treatment is very inFrench edition (pp. 137-294). structive, as he combines in one investigation the general results of Saint- Venant's two classical memoirs see our Arts. 1 and 69. At the same time the slight value of his book for technical students is well brought out by the fact that he passes over all
[1332.]
:

the important practical examples (the elliptic cross-section alone excepted) which Saint- Venant has given of his theory (see our At ls-49 and 87-97), and devotes himself especially to th. Th.case of a prism bounded by two confocal elliptic cylinders. \\V iis small. interesting, but the practical application
IM ve here

a good example of how the love of original investigation

116

CLEBSCH.

[13331334

may

render it impossible even for a mathematician of genius to write a textbook especially suitable for a particular class of students. In this respect his very originality may handicap him, and Clebsch's

treatise has never

won

for itself the

:

same type

of readers as those

of Navier, Lame' or Grashof [1333.]

see our Arts. 279*, 1043*.

Clebsch states Saint- Venant's Problem in the following

manner

(S.

72-3)

Welches sind die Gleichgewichtszustande eines cylindrischen Korpers, auf dessen cylindrische Oberflache keine Krafte wirken, und dessen Inneres keinen aussern Kraften unterworfen ist, bei welchen die den Korper zusammensetzenden Fasern keinerlei seitlichen Druck erleiden. Welches sind die Krafte, welche auf die freie Endflache wirken miissen, um dergleichen Zustande hervorzurufen.
1334.
this

We

will

now

indicate Clebsch's

method

of investigating

problem. To free the shifts from pure translational and rotational terms we may fix a point in the body and a linear and a planar element at that point. This Clebsch does in the following

manner.
Suppose the body of any cylindrical form. Take the axis of z a section at right parallel to that of the cylinder, so that originally shall suppose that angles to the axis is parallel to the plane of xy. = at this is a fixed point, so that we have u = 0, v = 0, the

We

origin

point, that is

where

a;,

y, z vanish.

For a point in the plane of xy

x, y, z

very near the origin the displacements parallel to the axes of respectively may be denoted by

/du\ fdu\ -.- ) dx + ( y- ) \dx/9 \dyjo

(

/dv\
dy, '
(

-=-

\dxjo

-=dx + /dv\ } \dyJ

(

dy, *

, fdw\ dx -=+ fdw\ -7(

I

\dxjo
this

dy.

\dyjo
to

Suppose then that

( -r)

\dxJ Q

=0, and
is

(-=-

amounts

vfy/o

assuming

that an in that plane, or that there

infinitesimal

element originally in the plane of xy remains

no rotation round an axis in that plane.

= ; then there is no motion parallel (^- j to the axis of y of any point of the infinitesimal element which is on the axis of x, and so there can be no rotation round an axis perpendicular to the plane of xy. take then these six conditions to hold when x = Q, y = 0, z = Q:
Let us further assume that

We

-*. -o.-*-o, f=o, *-o

These conditions in fact make the six constants of
(3) in

(i).

our Art. 1331,

1334]

CLEBSCH.
a, b, c, a,
;

117
might be assumed
-=-

namely

ft,

y,

all

vanish.

The

six conditions
-=-

differently

thus for instance, instead of

:

we might take

= 0,

but we shall adhere to the form adopted in (1). all the others assume that no body-force whatever acts ; and that there is no load on the curved boundary of the cylinder, but only on the terminal The direct problem now would be to let given forces cross-sections. act at the terminals and then seek to determine u, v, w ; but instead of He proposes this Clebsch follows Saint- Venant in an indirect course. to seek the conditions that must hold, and the forces that must act on the body, in order that throughout the body we may have
keeping

We

shall all vanish amount r, ^p, cylinder to consist of slender 6bres, rectangular if we please, and that these fibres exercise on each other no stress As no transversal stress exists on such perpendicular to their length.

The assumptions made that

to supposing the

fibre

we must have

and

du
-j-

dv

dx

dy

-j-

dw
rj

-y-

dz

(3).

These relations flow at once from the conditions

~ = 0, ^=0,
as

we

see

from Art. 78.

The condition that

T y =

leads to

= ^+^ dy dx
The
body-stress equations

0...

(4)

now

take the form

"'
elasticity to

=0

'

dx
,

^+

=
d*z

(5) '

Substitute the values of P7, <*, and these become, supposing the have a planar distribution perpendicular to the axis of the

prism

T7II 9

dz

dxdz

^= S
da?

+ T-:r =
dydz

6)

d*w
where E,
constants
1
1 :

/x

and

17

see our Arts.

must be now regarded as independent 310-3 and 321 (d).

elastic

We

elastic distribution.

have here followed Saint- Vonant in extending Clebach'g retulU to a planar Clebach aapponefl the body iaotropio and therefore has 9 for oar

118

CLEBSCH.
conditions relative to the cylindrical surface reduce to

[1335

The

'zx

cos

p+

yz sin p,

where p

is

the angle that the outwardly directed normal

x.

makes with

the axis of

1335. The twenty-third section proceeds to the solution of the equations just obtained. The equations to be discussed are the following
:

dudv
-

dw

=
dx

0...

dy

...(2),

(4)

dydz

E
Differentiate (5) with respect to z and subtract (3) differentiated with respect to x, and (4) differentiated with respect to y ; thus
;
'

"V
Hence by
(1)

da?

dxdz*

dydz*

we

find

Differentiate (3) with respect to y,

and

(4)

with respect to

x,

and add

thus

d au
the

d sv
dxdz*

d 3w
dxdydz
(2)
;

sum

of the

first

and second terms vanishes by

and thus

dxdydz
Differentiate (5) with respect to
z,

and use

(6)

thus
'
''

+
dzdx*

dzchf^

1335]

CLEBSCH.

119
y
;

first

Differentiate (3) with respect to x, and (4) with respect to terms are equal by (6), and we have

the

d?w

Comparing

this with (7)

we

see that

<Pu> _ A dx*dz~

<P

dtf
differential coefficients of

Thus we have shown that the following

duo
-j-

must vanish

d^ fdw\
dz*

d*
'

\dz)

~dx*
first

fdw\ \dz)

'

fdw\ dtf\dz)'
',

d*

<P

dscdy

fdw\ \dz)

'

On
* to a

account of the
:

power higher than the cannot contain xy hence

l

three of these dw/dz cannot contain x, y or and on account of the last dw/dz first

............... (8).

From

this

we have by
dv

(1)

du

Integrating the last two equations

we

get
<

u = - rj (ax +
v

^-

+ a&y\ -

t]Z

(bx + -^- +b^cy\ +

v

(y, z),

= - r)

(ay

aw + ^j -rjz(by + l xy + -^Q +
:

<f,

(x, z),

<f> (y, z) denotes some function of y and s, and function of x and z these must now be determined.

where

ty

(x, z)

some

From

(3)

and

(4)

we have
tt-v

cPu

thus < and i/r do not involve any power of z higher than the third ; also the coefficients of z* and 2* are constants in each. It follows from (2), combined with the expressions obtained for tt and v, that y in <f> (y, z) and x in ^ (a?, *) cannot occur to a power higher than the second. Thus for the forms of <t> and \f/ we obtain

* + a,'y
^ (x,
z)

= o" + a,

'

120

CLEBSGH.

[1336

The equations (3) and (4) are now fully satisfied by the values of u and v which we have obtained. Substitute these values in (2), and we find that the following relations must hold among the constants:

Put of =

cti"

=
X

V=

V=
)

and we obtain
z

finally

^~ + a&y\-r

(bx +

...(9).

1336. These formulae satisfy equations (1), (2), (3), (4), and they constitute the most general solution of them ; it will be seen that they fully determine u and v, except that they each involve some arbitrary constants. proceed to find w, which has to satisfy (5) and (8).

We

By

integrating (8)

we

get
1

w = z(a + a x+ ay)
where
then

-^

(b

-f

bjX

+ b&) + F(x,
y.

?/),

F (x,
get

y) denotes

some function of x and

Substitute in

(5),

we

E
Assume

where

fi

denotes a function of x and y

then the equation becomes

(10).

This equation will not fully determine 12 ; as we shall see, the Introduce condition holding at the cylindrical surface will aid in this. now the expressions found for u, v, w in the stresses, and we have the following set of formulae
:

1337]

CLEBSCII.
v as given by (9),
*

121

u and
(

+ (1& + a$) +

(b

-b'x-b"y;
=
0,

^ = 0,

0,

To determine Q we have equation 1334 now becomes: "

(10); while equation (8) of our

(12).

The twenty-fourth section relates to the functions which 1337. have to be determined in the solution of Saint- Venant's problem. T)i<> first thing to be shown is that fi is fully determined by (10) and (12). If there were two different forms of fl which satisfied would conditions, then their difference which we will denote by
satisfy the

two conditions

-TJ + -3-^= 0, at every point of the cross-section

fxjv
Ij

......... (13),

cos;/
Consider
cross-section
:

-f

sin/>

0,

;it

every point of
int.-.'i-al

its

contour

...(1

h.

now

the following

i-\tend.

-lit-

*
I!!
i

or

i-i.

122

CLEBSCH.

[13381339

By

a process frequently exemplified, this can be transformed into

T= @
i'

/d

a C08 * + d

8m "

where ds denotes an element of length of the contour of the crosswhole contour, and (13) and (14) the light-hand side is zero, and therefore T is zero ; but this cannot be unless d/dx and d/dy vanish at every point so that must be a constant. Hence it follows that the two values of O which will solve our problem can differ only by a constant so that if we add the condition that fi shall vanish at some point, as for instance at the origin, then fl is We can impose this condition on O without any loss fully determined. of generality, because in passing from F to fi in Art. 1336 we have introduced an arbitrary constant c.
section, the first integral being taken round the the second over the whole cross-section. But by
;

1338. Thus since fi is fully determinate any form which we can give to it so as to satisfy the conditions (10) and (12) of the preceding section may be taken as the necessary form. Assume then

where B,
satisfied
:

j5 Blt B2 all separately satisfy (10); and let us add the following special conditions round the contour, so that (12) .may be
,

dB dB
-j

dB

-*m p = / E\
.

x cos P + y sm p)>
y

dB, cosp + j-^sinp = x

.

smp

cos;;,

E rj

\
1

xy sin p,

dB.

B Bly z are fully determinate ; for each has to satisfy the general differential equation (13), and each has to satisfy round the contour the appropriate equation from (15).
Thus B,
,

1339.

Clebsch

now shows

that b must

be zero.

Consider the

expression
C

ll

.-j

-=-a

dxdy, taken over the cross-section

(10), if b be not zero.

this

must be zero by virtue of

Integrate the

first

<

I.KRSCH.

once with respect to x, and the second term once with respect to then according to a very common process we have
:

By

the

first

of (15) this leads to

= f(x cos p -f y sin jo) c&. But by such a process as we have just indicated,
from

this

can be

that

is

Q = 2ffdxdy,

but this is impossible, for the integral is obviously equal to double the area of the cross-section. Thus as the only escape from this contradiction we must have 6 = 0. We learn then that the solution which is furnished by equations (9) cr 2 and (11) involves only the constants a a "> aot ^i> ^2* &' ^"> ^o c ,, which all enter in a linear form; and besides these there is nothing For the function fi is expressed in the form of a linear arbitrary.
'
,
>

function of three of these constants, namely 6 and involves &,, 6 2 But nothing else which is indeterminate for a given cross-section. th.-s- fcorfn constants will reduce to six, if we make use of the six conditions contained in (1) of our Art. 1334. These conditions
, ,

to

=
where

0,

&'

(^r-

in the last two equations the subscript indicates that we are to put x and y each zero after differentiation. The values of u, v, to as furnished by equations (9) and (11) take th<-n tin- following simpler forms:

(16)

(a

&
0,04-

a^/

--

^y) -

/ /* '

(2

^J

8 (6,y +

/'

124

CLEBSCH.

[13401342

The twenty-fifth section (S. 85-7) proceeds to the discussion 1340. of the solution. There are six constants in the solution ; we may then suppose them all to vanish except one, and so obtain an idea of the meaning of this
constant. This Clebsch proposes to do. There would then be apparently six cases to discuss, but by a slight modification of the process it is found that a smaller number of cases is sufficient.

When any system of shifts occurs in a rod there are two points which deserve especial attention. We may determine the form assumed by a 'fibre' which was originally a straight line parallel to the axis of % ; and we may determine the form assumed by a section which was originally a plane at right angles to this axis. Suppose now that x', y' z, denote the coordinates of a point of which the original coordinates were #, y, z then
t ;

x'

= x + u,

y'

= y + v,

z'

z
'

w
'

(1).

In order to determine the form assumed by a fibre we treat x and y and eliminate z between these three equations. Neglecting quantities which are small in comparison with those which we retain, this amounts to putting z' for z in u and v; denote the results thus obtained by u' and v' respectively then we obtain
as constant,
:

x'

= x + u',

y'

=y+

v'

(2).

z as constant, and eliminate x and y ; this to putting x' and y' for x and y respectively in

In order to determine the form assumed by a cross-section we treat amounts approximately w and the result may
:
:

be expressed thus

z'

=z+

w'

(3).

As the first case to be considered we will suppose that all 1341. the constants vanish except a; then equations (16) of Art. 1339 reduce
to

u=
The

rjax,

yay,
*,

az.

stresses all vanish except

and

this is equal to

Ea.

The

result corresponds to a simple longitudinal traction. Every straight line parallel to the axis of z becomes (1 + a) times its original length, while

a transverse line

is

reduced to

(1 ~rfa)

times

its original length.

The twenty-sixth section (S. 8791) continues the discussion 1342. of the results, which was commenced in the twenty-fifth section. Suppose that all the constants in equations (16) of our Art. 1339 vanish except a^ and b lt Then

1.'J4o]

CLERSCH.

125

zb,

-r

...(1).

Further from (11) of our Art. 1336

E
1

dB.

he equations (2) of

Art 1336

then become

The second of these equations represents a plane, so that a fibre which was originally parallel to the axis of the prism remains in one the first of these equations is that to the projection on the plane plane of xz of the curve which the fibre becomes ; the curve is one of tin- third degree, which reduces to the common parabola when b is The plane denoted by the second equation is parallel to the zero. axis of x ; in a particular case this plane will also be parallel to the
'

'

'

axis of

z,

namely when

th, -n

the equation reduces to

Thus the
il-l
1

'fibres'

which remain

ath-r

<l^pla.-,-inriit

in

plain-

to the axis originally constituted

a hyixsrboliu cylinder doter-

by

(4).

lit'..

The amount
fibre

of

of

th'

cud of the

tin- brndin^ may be estimated by tin- shift determined by x = 0, y = 0. 3up|io0o / the

In

the value of

w Clebsch hai
and w

inted

of our

T " U*

ibis

his dimensions in twenty-sixth section.

different

the mistake prevails throu

126
length and v
of
;

CLEBSCH.
the
1

[1344

cylinder

and u h

vlt

the corresponding values of

then

..(5).

Clebsch also deals (S. 88-91) with the distorted form of the crosssection.

If instead of .,, 6j we cause all the constants except a.,, b z to vanish obtain precisely similar results except that the bending now takes place in the plane yz.

we

1344.
sion

The twenty-seventh section commenced in the twenty-fifth.

all
.

(S.

91-4) continues the discus-

Suppose that vanish except 6

the constants in equations (16) of our Art. 1339

Then

&A/'

Further from (11) of our

Art 1330

If

we

shift the origin of coordinates,

and put y 1

for

y+

UX /J o

and

for

x - (-7-) 7-

>

the values of

u and

v become

and then we
expresses the as z.

see that they correspond to a torsion. amount of twisting is denoted by b^,

The angle which and so it varies

Clebsch shows that the 'fibres' which originally were on the curved surface of any right circular cylinder of radius r

will after strain lie

He

on a hyperbole id of one sheet. says with respect to this section and the two which precede

it

So sind denn bei der Discussion dieser Resultate die drei Hauptfornien, unter welchen ein elastischer Stab sich darstellt, sofort zu Anschauung
1 Clebsch uses I without stating what it means 88 that the bending takes place in the plane of xz
;
:

and he seems
that
is

to say on his 8. he treats v t as if it were

zero.

CLEBSCH.
Zuglcich i>t 1'iir tlic alinahsichercr Auqgaugspunkt geWMMIICU, und damit die Basis gegel>en, uuf wclchc cine minder strenge Fortentwieklung sich stiitzen kann (S. 94).
inliirii
:

J//.W-

uinl

Tnrm'u/t.

cmdc

Behandluni;

windicher

IVoblcinc

cin

[i:>4.">.]

The whole

of the above investigation

is

concise, clear,

It instructive, especially from the mathematical standpoint. of the solution differential us the most general equations of gives

and

ticity subject to certain conditions, in particular the vanishing and xy. It thus embraces Saint-Venant's of the stresses ,

results both for flexure

and torsion and throws light on their

It does not bring out to the student, however, quite so clearly as Saint-Venant's treatment the reason for these assumptions as to the stresses, and requires therefore to be supplemented by such considerations as
:

mutual relationship

see our Arts. 17 and 82.

w<>

have referred to in our Arts. 77, 80 and 316-8.

See also

Saint-Venant's Clebsch, pp. 174-190. Certain misprints of Clebsch's been tacitly corrected in our reproduction.
Clebsch's twenty-eighth section
(S.
is

[184(5.]

entitled

crte
1

94-8, F. E. pp. 169The discussion in this section does not seem to me to bring 74). >ut fully the relationship between the theoretical surface stresses

Anwendunfj auf wirkliche Probleme

and such loads as can be applied in practice. Namely it is almost impossible to apply in practice any distribution of force which can be exactly represented by theory, we can only hope to obtain see our Arts. 8, 9, 21 and ally equivalent systems of loading
i'

100.

Clebsch supposes a statical system given by the force-coinpoiifnts C j-aralM to the axes of x, y, z (origin the terminal, ^ H) ;md a couple system A #', C' about those axes, applied to the terminal He takes the axes of x and y to coincide with the cross-section z-l. of inertia of a cross-section, and we may write l>rin< i|al axes
A,
/!.
.

ffdxdy = u, jjx*dxdy=K*<a,
\\\

fjifdxdy

**

*?<*.

express the undetermined constants a, 6,, A, 7f, C, A', K, C' as is done by Clotach on 111' equations he gives contain int. -^rals ni\<>lvin^ differentials Put it is shown in tin- f<>ll<>\s \\\^ or u<nt\ ninth section (8. if 12. I'-'l that although O may not have been dct< -min. ]>i> L09, / thesr intr^r.il- -Mil I"- -In. i-min.-.l \\\\\\ one exaction in terms of the
the aid of these
in terras of
t

we can

I-'-.

-i

128
cross-section

CLEBSCH.

[13471348

and independently of O. Thus ('lebsch deduces the following values for his constants (S. 102, F. E. p. 194)
:

a=

dto

Thus a, &i, Oi, 6 3 Og are given each in terms of a single element of the load system, but b is given in terms of three, namely C", A and B. Clebsch says " nur die letzte Gleichung enthalt claim noch sammtliche Grossen, so dass 6 sich durch alle mit Ausnahme von C ausdriickt." This seems to me incorrect, as b does not involve A' or B'.
,
:

[1347.]

The
S.

and occupies
gates

thirtieth section is entitled Symmetrische Querschnitte, 102-6 (F. E. pp. 198-202). Here Clebsch investi:

how the equations of our previous article may be simplified if the cross-section be symmetrical about two rectangular axes. Here after some reductions and for the case of a single force acting parallel to the axis of x at the centroid of the terminal cross-section, z=l, we have:

-x-(
tf_ /E
...(9).

(E

These values should be compared with those given in our Arts. 17, 83 and 84. Clebsch has an erroneous value of w in his equations (88) and (89) on S. 105. The error arises from the wrong value of w, already referred to (Art. 1342, ftn.), given on S. 87 in equation (75 a), and its influence extends to S. 110 of the Treatise.
[1348.]
briefly.

The following seven sections may be dealt with more They occupy S. 107-138; F. E. pp. 202-252.

I.'US]

CLEBSCH.
:

129

31 treats the case of the prism of elliptic cross-section see (a) There are errors on Saint- Venant's results in our Arts. 18 and 90.
S. 110.
(b)

32.

think,
(c)

wrong equations
33.

General remarks on case of a hollow prism with, 1 see our Art. 49. for c, &', and b"
:

This contains I believe the

first

introduction of

1336 and 1338), into curvilinear coordinates in the plane of the cross-section. The investigation has since been more elegantly carried out by Thomson and Tait see their Treatise on Natural Philosophy 2nd Edn., Part II. pp. 250-3, but the idea is due to Olebsch see our Art. 285.
: :

really conjugate functions into Saint-Venant's problem. forms the equations for Q, i.e. for the J?'s (see our Arts.

wbat are Clebsch trans

(d)

34.

This develops the transformation of the preceding section

for the case of elliptic coordinates.

35 applies the whole investigation to the case of the )>nrc (e) torsion of a hollow cylinder the section of which is bounded by two
confocal ellipses. If the confocal ellipses be given

by

+ 04
**
GO

n + OQ

Clebsch

finds for the value of

TT
;

(w*-n*)

a 3 3 (Vw + Q! + Vn* + cii) - (Vm + OQ + Vn*

2 aj +

(\

Thus all the constants of the problem (see our Art. 1341) an- dfti-nniiuMl, and 6 the angle of torsion per unit length of cylinder is given by
:

b
,'

+ *,)<>-/}'
,,t

values of
tin-

K,

and

K,*

are easily expressible in terms

tho axes of

two

rlli|M-,. I'h is i-esult

may

PIIMII

l.-nuidod

be compared with Saint- Venant's for a hollow by similar and similarly situated elliptic cylin
-i-.

Clrbsch's analysis is int< to make the cro8s-secti"u .-.ting, but confocal instead of uiinilar elliptic I><>undarie8 possesses no
1

with

denominator of
the iiuincrutur.

Clcbsch (and Saint-Vuuant editing him, p. 239) h*ve 8 instead of in il>. Clobsoh further drops tha w u /, but thU appears to be an error.
I

130
practical

CLEBSCH.
advantages,

[1348
far

See also Saiut-Venant's plicated. his edition of Clebseh.

and the theoretical results are note on the subject

pp.

more com240-2 of

instructive conclusion can, however, be drawn from Clebsch's (y* ) result as to the possibly delusive character of torsional experiments uj>on liars which are not absolutely free from Oaws. Suppose the inner elliptic

An

surface to reduce to a thin cavity almost coinciding with the plane area thus have theoiHitweeii the focal lines of the outer elliptic surface. bar retically a fair approximation to the case of the torsion of an elliptic with a Haw along its axis, or with a rotten core, a not infrequent case in If M' (- G') be the couple required to produce an angle of

We

castings. torsion T (= 6 ) per unit length of a bar with cross-section and semi-axes b and c (= \/m~ + Oj and /n'- + c^), we easily find from the above results

by putting *Jn~ + a =

and *Jms + OQ=

\/6

- cs

that

be the couple producing the same torsional angle in a sound bar of the same dimensions and material we have by Art. 1 8
1 1'
:

__.
Thus:
.

We

n'nd that this ratio varies

from

to '75,

i.e.

b/c=2,

It would thus appear that the determination of the slide-modulus from torsional experiments on cast bars may be liable to considerable error, if there be flaws, as so frequently happens, in the core of the bar. The maximum slide cr might be calculated for this case from the formula
:

b;2

2 r a - = max. ( . + {x
1

dB, - x -= y + 2 iy dx V -jdyj
.,

dB9 \

fdB + (dBtf [ 3-*] + [

-.

\dxj

\dy

and

its value compared with that given for the case of a sound bar in The analysis would be somewhat lengthy, but it would be Art. 18. Larmor's conclusions interesting to compare the result with Mr Philosophical Magazine, Vol. 33, p. 70, 1892.
:

(y)

In

36

we have a

discussion of the SUuticitateettipsoid for a

1349]
like
tin-

CLEBSCH.
prrsrnt

131

The

principal tnictions are

when the now

three stresses *x,

and

Ty are zero.

r-=o,

r=

Obviously
trartinn

ami T" are always of opi>osite sign, or one principal Dative aud the other positive. (Mrl.scli gives an elegant geometrical construction for determining i IKposition of the ellipse to which the ellipsoid reduces and so the His consideration, however, of directions of the principal tractions. tin spot at which the danger of rupture is greatest (S. 132) seems to
7"
i-

n<

nit

invalid as
(/<)
f

it

is

based on a

maximum

stress limit.

37 entitled: G'retizcii ./"/' objection applies to his der ausneni Krafte. The concluding paragraph of that section in /'. A', p. 252) contains several statements which do not seem accord with experience, and a very loose conception of the limit of elasticity as well as of the different practical effects of pressure and
rrotue

The same

\hibited:

see our Arts.

164, 321

and 7U9

10.

[1349.]
1

The next
:

or thirty-eighth section of Clebsch's Treatise

///

der gewohnlichen Th curie. Grundlagen Anwendungen (S. 139-48; F. E. pp. 283-94). This the theory just developed for flexure with the Bernoullicompares Kulerian, and for torsion with the extension of Coulomb's theory
1

it

<

Veryleich //////

it

tr

weitere

to prisms of other than circular cross-section. with cMiisiderable severity the earlier theories.

Clebsch

criticises

He

remarks that

even Saint-Venant's theory only covers the special case of flexure in which constant forces act upon a free end and continues
:

A inl rim; weitere Aufgabe der strengen Theorie sein, almluhr Da dies in/wisrhrn hun^-ii fur all^-mrincrr Fallo aufzustellen. hishrr iiicht gelungen ist 1 , so wild man rin.st wrilrn jrnrr (Ileichungcn aii<-h f"i -tfahrrn /u l.r<lirm-n, wrnn das Innere des Korpers durch ifle ergriflrn wird, odn- wrnn an \riM-liiedenen StelK-n drs Koqjera
i

Man wird sich alrr dabei den Man^rl an vcrlirhlm dnrtrii. In einem spatern Abschnitt wird sich \ rfahreii alien! reigen, dass fur stJir kleine l^u* TM -hnittr
Kinzelkrafte
angreifen.

Strrngr

nii'ht

is.

IL'.

/:

/;.

p.

287),
in
-.1,

Ti in tin- M,,. ,,;,-,///

1

tin jtrr^i'iit .J..n,,,.i-

work

j>;irt

of whirli

hat dealt with the case of a

uniform body -force and continuous surface- load.

132

CLEBSCH.

[1350

Clebsch's remark on S. 142 as to a failure of the ordinary theory does not seem fully justified. The theory had in respect
to the non-coincidence of loading and bending planes been corrected by Persy in 1834 (Art. 811*), and he had been followed by both Saint-Venant and Bresse with full consideration of this very
point. theirs 14,

Clebsch while reproducing results exactly equivalent to

:

makes no reference to their writings see our Arts. 1581*, 171, 177, and 515. The section concludes with a very severe criticism of that
'
'

modification of the torsion theory of Coulomb, which supposes the stretch in the longitudinal fibres of a prism under torsion

can affect sensibly its torsional moment. I can only suppose the gewisse Kreise Clebsch spends his satire on are composed of the
authors, whose papers on torsion are referred to in our Arts. 481, 581 and 803. The criticism is severe, but perhaps not unjustified.
S. 148-99 (F. E. pp. 295-374) of Clebsch's work [1350.] deal with the subject of thick plates, the edges (not the faces) of which are subjected to load. I believe the method here, as well as several of the results, are original. In the French

edition these pages appear as a separate chapter entitled Plaques d'epaisseur quelconque. Clebsch in this portion of his work applies the semi-inverse method of Saint-Venant (Arts. 3, 6, 9, 71, etc.) to the problem of thick plates. Suppose the normal to the plane
:

faces of the plate to be taken as the direction of the axis of z, and the plane of x, y to be the mid-plane of the plate. Then

Clebsch assumes:

^ = "#!?=
i.e.

s!s

=
:

(1),

he causes the other three stresses to vanish, not those assumed by Saint-Venant for his rod problem see our Art. 1334. Besides no load on the faces of the plate Clebsch supposes no body-forces, and he then inquires what solutions of the equations of elasticity are possible under these conditions and what system of load they connote on the cylindrical boundary of the plate.

With regard

to (1) Clebsch

merely writes

Diese Gleichungen gelten zunachst nur fur die Werthe vou 3, welche den Grenzflachen der Platte entspreclien. Ich werde aber nur diejenigen Zustande uutersuchen, fur welche diese Gleichungen fur jeden

Punkt der Platte

erfullt

sind.

Man

sieht, dass

dann

jedenfalls die

1351]

CLEBSCH.

133

anf die cylindrischen Seitenfliichen wirkenden Krafte keino der 7- Axe parallele, also zn der Platte normale Coinpononto liefern diirfen, weil
sonst

wenigstens

am Rande

jene

Spannnngen

nicht

verscliwindi-n

wiii-d.-ii

(S. 149, F. E. p. 296).

[1351.]

The body

stress-equations are

now

obviously

Following Saint- Venant's modification of Clebach and supposing ns< jlatc to possess a planar distribution of iRotropy, we liav.
t

tintli-

strain relations:

du

.,

dv

,,

dw

^
,

fdv + dw\

^)'|
l

......... (3),

dx

dy
dv\

dz

du

dw

du

where a = 2/+/' see our Art. 114 and 117, H. nee we have by (1):
:

(b).

dv
dz
,

dw A dw du A du dv + J-=0>J~ + J-=+-5-=^>-Jdx dx dz
du
'
'

dw

dy

and by

(2)

,(d*u + f( j^ j1

d*u\

.ddu

dv

(4)

and

(5)

by eliminating u v we
t

find

d /d*w\
ThiiH

d*w\

must be of the form

where

F and

taken out of

f for

are arbitrary functions of x and y, and the last term the convenience of analysis.
i

is

Differentiating equations (5) with regard to x and y respect adding, and r-p lacing du/rtx + dvjdy in it by its valin from tin- third of (-1). w.- find l.y aid of lie first two of
t

'dto\

d* /dw\

134
or from (7)
:

CLEBSCH.

[1351

But two

differentiating the third of (4) with regard to of (4), we have

:

z,

and using the

first

d*w
~<h?

d zw _
7ty>~

d'

'

whence from

(7)

Now

determine

it

and v from the

first

two

of (4)
c

and we have

di

where
;

<

and ^ are arbitrary functions

two equations of of (4), however, introduces a relation between the third equation (4) < and \f/. Substitute (10) in that equation, and substitute u, v and w in (5) after using the third of (4), then remembering (8) and (9) we
Equations (7) and (10)
find:
d<fr

of x, y. satisfy identically the first

dx

d^j/

ri

fy

d''
c

/ff

d^ + d^c_(H_ +
dx?

dif

d'(f

\d_F_ ) d dy
:

the plate-modulus = 2/ + /' - d'*/c see our Art. 323. two of these equations evidently contain (8). Eliminating by the first of (11) we find from the last two equations 77 ^72j. fJI^L /JT \ x72./,

where //

is

The

last

_l

__

II
/

% v
2

= ^ and
f

<fady

Equations (12) and (9) suffice to determine <, body-shift equations.

and

so solve the

CLENCH.
and values therefore of f, following expressions for the shifts

135

Any

<

\j/

satisfying (9) and (12) give the

d'z*/d*<l>

75U?
~
c 2

+ d*t\ + *~

^/
d
+

/cK
s

Cx\

dxd

__
d
c

v&~rf' r;
d'

v
.(13),

---~~

provided the stresses on the cylindrical face of the plate be given by

"'
_
:

>S*<"\

WarVy

dxdif )

../^ *J
\dy

dx dx)

^_9/* J~
~~

dxdy*

where
Saint- Venant (p. 302) puts if '/(I -if) for d'/c, and C/if' he replaces by -(distant C" (C' in his notation); 2/* he puts = ff/(l +/')

another
wlu-iuv

IM-

finds, since 2/"

+ /' - d'-/c = ^/(l -

//

/>/

/i

/\

and

n -nits then agree with Clebsch's if the accents bo removed from and we note that Clebsch's /*= Saint- Venant's and our y. See Clebsch, S. 148-52 and F. E. pp. 295-302.
i/,

[1352.1
forces
tli<

X,

boundary conditions. Suppose boundary and (uifuardly measured normal make an angle p with tin- r |
th<-

Clebech next turns to

a?,

to act at the point

y, z of the cylindrical

-n

\v-

must
.V
^!r

COS />

irp Sill

y%|
/^ J

Y = i7
ll

cos /j

^ sin
:

the stresses contain only powers of z

in
.-

ii|>

to the

>.-, ,,i,,|.

.V.

}'

inu-i

IM- ..f tin*

form A

x
Y

.v

\M

Tf

136

CLEBSCH.
obtain
as

[1353
by substituting

Whence we
(14) in (15):

the

boundary-conditions

fd'

(/d*<f>

cos P
d'ty \ r + -=. dxdf)
-

+
/ d*d>

= fd'
c

(/

<h

\\dtfdy

cos p +

-=

-.

dxdy d s \l/\ + -r-^

r^r

sin

\dxdy*

dif )

J I
)

six equations with only three functions <, i^, f, hence the six be independent. 0t 2, 2 cannot in general lt lt quantities JT ,

Here are

X 7

[1353.]
results.

Clebsch

now

He

considers

first

proceeds to an analysis of these separate the terms:

These do not change when z is changed to so that the boundary forces are symmetrical about the mid plane of the plate. The condition of the plate is thus stretch without flexure. The shifts will then take the forms
,
:

w=-w
>*\

(19).

Consider first the terms UQ and v only, or let us from (13) by aid of (11) almost at once to
:

u z = v2 -

these lead

dd>

d\l/
'

dd>

d\lf

dx
where
K

dy
KX +

dy

dx

and K are constants.

Hence

(20),

where U, V are solutions of

dU dV = -- -"7
1

dU
~T~

dx

T~

~~

dV
~j~ ax

dy

dy

.(21).

13-") 4]

CLEBSCH.

137

and V for a time we note that in w , v , the Neglecting K correspond only to a slight rotation, and those in K to a uniform stretch = *c/2 in all directions parallel to the mid-plane, and since ** = 0, to a uniform squeeze perpendicular to it equal to icd'/c. The load necessary to produce this is (H - f) K along the normal at each point of the cylindrical boundary.
(a)

terms

in

on

U and V we find

(b)

Neglecting this uniform strain and turning to that depending

from (21) that

U+

Fi =

x-

(22)

Hence \i an(^ X with the assistance of the mined as to solve the following problem
:

K terms can be so deter-

plate is to be so stretched by forces acting on its cylindrical boundary that the squeeze normal to its faces shall be everywhere uniform,
i.e.

dw/dz = - (d$!dx+d^ldy)d'\c= -td'lc,

but all the generators of the cylindrical surface receive arbitrary shifts perpendicular to their length.

Clebsch discusses this problem on

required
values of
JST
,

S.

for

arbitrary shifts

158-60, and investigates the when the cylindrical

boundary is right circular in 42, S. 160-4 (F. E. pp. 312-16). The problem is of more analytic than practical interest, as it would be extremely difficult to pull out the edges of an actual plate to any chosen
change of form.
1

354.]
:

The

following section

is

of

more

practical value.

It is

entitled

Anwendung auf angendherte Losung allgemeiner Auf:

gaben

Clebsch notes that the (S. 164-6; F. E. pp. 316-19). Given the load on the cylindrical boundary general problem is not solvable under to find the shifts and stresses in the plate the conditions (1) of Art. 1350, for the reason we have given
in mediately after equation (17) in our Art. 1352. Let us, however, suppose the plate to be of small thickness h, and let us apply the >/n'f Client loads ]>i-inciple of the elastic equivalence of stain-nil (see our Arts. 8, 9, 21, 100).
i

>i

Let A
plane.

ini'l

H be

cylindrical l>oundary,

the components of the load on a strip hds of the where da ia an element <>t tin- ,,nt.,ur <>f the mid.

Then by the above

principle

we have from

(16)

AT. E. IT.
II.

10

138

CLEBSCH.

[13551356

Hence we see that JT, and Y do not occur, and further that the six equations (17) reduce really to two, i.e. we are thrown back on (15). have indeed
l

We

dx

'

dy

y...(34).

K__ dy

* ddt + H ~
(

,. d<f>\

. * fd'

e?

3
<

+V (d^ $) 12
<

d 3 if/\ h s

and These with equation (12) fully determine u, v, w will then be found by retaining only the terms in (13) involving and
\j/.
<

\f/.

[1355.] In the following section (S. 167-81 F. E. pp. 319-33) Clebsch solves the equations of the previous article for the case That is to say he supposes the circular plate of a circular plate. stretched by any system of load parallel to the mid-plane imposed
;

The solution is only approximate, its cylindrical boundary. as it proceeds on the assumption of the elastic equivalence of statically equipollent load systems, but it would be more and more
on
nearly true as the thickness of the plate became small as compared with its radius. The investigation is a very fine piece of analysis, but the complexity of its results renders it of little
physical value, except perhaps in

when the
processes.

results

some one or two special cases, be reached by other and simpler might probably Clebsch concludes with the remark
:

Es ist ohne Zweifel moglich, das entsprechende Problem auch fiir andre Formen der Platte zu losen, als fur die hier angenommene. Indess wird es geniigen, in einem Fall Weg und Auflosung vollstandig dargestellt zu haben, zumal schon dieser einfachste Fall nicht ohne
Verwickelung erscheint
(S. 181).

45 of the treatise (S. 181-4 F. E. pp. 334-7) is [1356.] and Yv in equaconcerned with the terms corresponding to t
;

tions (16).

1357]

CLEBSCH.
have
1
,

139
:

We

retaining only these terms, for the shifts

c

Cx\

fdi

.(25),

where

and for the

stresses

**?
(

(26).

Here the stresses all change sign with z, hence the forces which act on the edge of the plate are equal and opposite on either side the midThus the character of the above solution is one of flexure by plane. In the mid-plane itself there are no stresses. couples. Clebsch treats (S. 1 83) a special case of this, namely when f = 0. This corresponds to the case we have dealt with in our Art. 323 where the Saint- Venant's Note plane faces become paraboloids of revolution. /'. E. pp. 337-68) which we have analysed in our Arts. 323-37 treats the whole subject much more fully and satisfactorily.
and F, given by the second pair of The values of 1 [1357.] equations (17) are not perfectly arbitrary, as there is only one function f at our choice. Hence it follows that Clebsch's investigation leads to no solution of the problem of flexure for an arbitrary system of load Clebsch in 46 (S. 184-9; F. E. pp. i.les round the boundary. 368-74) mentions the following however as one of the problems which can be solved by the aid of (25) and (26)
:

Durch passende, in der angegebenen Weise wirkende Kraftepaare soil <lio Platte so gebogen werden, dass die Peripherie der Mittelfla'che nach der Biegung auf eiuer beliebig vorgeschriebenen, der urspriinglichen Peripherie
sehr nahe

kommenden Obernache

liegt (S. 185).

Let x (*, y, ) = be the given surface, then we must have in the mid plane at the contour w x dyjdz = constant C is S 8Oon * ~X; Clebsch works out the chosen, the value of f becomes determinate.

particular case of a circular plate (S. 186-8, F. E. pp. 371-3).

i These results differ from Clebsch's. by Saint- Venant (F. K. p. 884, footnote).

The

errors of the latter are corrected

102

140

CLEBSCH.

[13581359

He
(25) for

notes in conclusion that the value of the dilatation deduced from any form of plate is

and thus

Thus there is only one way of solving is independent of f. the above problem, when we attach to it the condition that there shall be no dilatation (i.e. C = 0). The problem suggested by Clebsch does not seem one capable of but a few special cases, which are more practical realisation in any easily dealt with by other processes. With this section Clebsch's treatment of thick plates closes.
[1358.]
tischer

190-355 of the Treatise are entitled Theorie elasKorper, deren Dimensionen zum Theil sehr klein (unendS.
:

lich klein) sind (F.

E. pp. 407-806).
thin rods,
S.

The

first

separate portion

of this

deals with

pp. 409-631).

such rods.

separate portion, S. 264-355, deals with the theory of thin plates, S. 331-55 being especially occupied with a discussion of their vibrations.

Of this The second

and occupies S. 192-263 (F. E. 242-261 deal with the vibrations of

Clebsch attributes the first exact theory of bodies having one two dimensions very small to Kirchhoff (see our Art. 1253), and proposes to follow his methods with certain modifications. In he deals only with homogeneous isotropic material. particular This restriction is removed in the Annotated Clebsch of SaintVenant, where isotropy is assumed in the plane of the cross-section
or
only.

of Kirchhoff 's principle

Clebscb begins his general investigations with the statement which we have cited in our Art. 1253,

and which does not seem to

Kirchhoff appear to consider

me
it.

so obvious as

both Clebsch and

48 (S. 192-7) of the Treatise commences the [1359.] discussion of the problem of the thin rod of uniform cross-section,
initially straight

and acted upon

solely

by terminal

loads.

Clebsch

supposes such a rod built up of small elementary cylinders placed end to end, and only acted upon at their terminals by the elastic
stresses of the adjacent elements. To each sucb cylinder he applies the formulae obtained in his solution of Saint- Venant's problem

and

in justification of this

he remarks

Zwar waren jene Formeln nur

bei einer gewissen Vertheilung der

1359]
Krafte strung
richtig,

CLEBSCH.
aus welchen jene

141

Componenten

und DrehCJn-

ungsmomente

sich zusamraensetzen.

Aber

die dabei eintretende

genauigkeit wird oflenbar

so grosser, je grosser der Querschnitt und wird verschwindend klein, wenn der Querschnitt selbst 1st, Wie also verschwindend klein ist, wie in dem vorliegenden Fall.

um

auch dann in Wirklichkeit die eintretenden Spannungen iiber den Querschnitt vertheilt seien, immer wird man sie sich bis auf Grossen hoherer Ordnung so vertheilt denken konnen, wie die oben in dem de Man Saint- Venant'schen Problem erhaltenen Formeln sei ergeben. karin also jene Formeln sofort auf die kleinen Verschiebungen anwenden, welche im Innern eines der gedachten Elemente auftreten (S.
193).

the principle of the elastic equivalence of statically equiload systems here appealed to depends for its accuracy on pollent the smallness of the loaded surface as compared with the other

Now

dimensions of the body; i.e., if I be the length and e a linear dimension of the cross-section of a cylinder, e/l must be small in Hence when all practical applications of Saint- Venant's results.
Clebsch applies these results to an elementary cylinder of length &s, we must have e/Bs small in order that the application may be
legitimate. Now Clebsch takes x, y, z to represent the coordinates of any point in an elementary cylinder referred to axes attached to this element, thus it is obvious that the x and y can be of the
z, being taken in the direction of the axis of the can be of the order 8s. Thus z must be capable of cylinder, which are great as compared with e, but on S. 195 values taking

order

e,

and

Clebsch writes:
Es ist vor allem wichtig, sich ilber die Ordnung der in diesen Formeln auftretenden Grossen zu orientiren. Bezeichnen wir durch c eine Zahl, welche von der Ordnung der Querdimensionen des Stabes ist, so sind x y, z von der Ordnung
t
.

This seems to me a grave fault in Clebsch's method of He assumes x, y, z all of approaching Kirchhofa Problem. til- same order and this order to be that of c, but if he is to apply the results of Saint- Venant's problem, **, yz and xz can be far higher order than x* xy and y*. The terms retained on Clebsch's S. 197 do not thus seem necessarily of the same order.
t

It will be

remembered that Kirchhoff himself adopts a different

mode

of procedure.

He

obtains equations (see our Art.

'1^1

>

I'm

142

CLEBSCH.
v,

[1360
w, which are true indepen-

the internal shifts of an element w, dently of the hypothesis

avr

= w = xy = 0*

(such equations are in part given by Clebsch on S. 202). He then states that his equations agree with Saint-Venant's if this hypothesis holds, and in his special examples assumes it to hold: see
sungen, S. 415, 416 and 423. we come at the values of u,

301 and 311, and the Vorlein Kirchhoff s investigations v, w last, and on a clearly stated hypothesis, but in Clebsch's we have apparently perfectly general values given for u, v, w, deduced by making a cylinder of finite cross-section dwindle to one of infinitely small cross-section these
his

Gesammelte Abhandlungen,

S.

Thus

values, however, are in reality only particular cases of the equations afterwards given on S. 202, and they are obtained by diminishing
indefinitely the length of the cylinder, so that their application without further investigation seems to me illegitimate.

manner
in

In order the better to exhibit Clebsch's procedure and the in which he deduces and expands Kirchhoff s results, I
for

cite in the following article Clebsch's expressions

the shifts

an element deduced from the values he has obtained in his

treatment of Saint-Venant's Problem. I give them, however, in my own notation and with the modifications introduced in the French Edition for a planar distribution of isotropy.
Let axes x, y, z be chosen in an element, so that if the [1360.] rod returns to its unstrained condition the z axis coincides with the axis of the rod, and those of x and y with the principal axes of the crosssection. Suppose for simplicity that the cross-section is symmetrical about these axes. Then let u, v, w be the shifts referred to these axes of coordinates of a point x, y, z, in the immediate neighbourhood of their origin. Let P, Q, R, be the components of the total statical load applied parallel to these axes on a terminal cross-section, and /", Q' R' the moments of this load about the same axes ; let w be the cross-section and K I} K 2 its swing-radii about the axes of x and y respectively ; let E be the longitudinal stretch-modulus of the rod, 17 the stretch-squeeze ratio for a longitudinal stretch, and /w, the slide-modulus parallel to the cross-section, then Clebsch finds (S. 197)
y
:

x and

z in our notation are interchanged in that of Kirchhoff 's

Abhand-

lungen.

1361]

CLEBSCH.

143

where

and

^ B
,

and

-ffa

are to be determined by the equations of

our Art. 1338.

Now Clebsch notes that K I} K2 and x are &M of * ne order e, and he says that x, y, z are of the same order, hence in the first place he the expressions in the curled and in the square neglects in u, v He remarks that if brackets, i.e. he retains only the first line of each. is much greater in magnitude than the other forces, then the terms in curled brackets must be retained ; if and Q on the other hand are extremely great then the terms in square brackets must be retained
t

It seems to me that equations like (i) are (S. 197; F. E. p. 415). better deduced as special solutions of the equations for M, v, to obtained in the following section on the express assumption that

*x

= w = *J =

0.

In the following section Clebsch deduces Kirchhoff's [1361.] Changing the x on the left-hand equations (ix) of our Art. 1258. of these equations to z, and on the right-hand side the c to <r, after sporting it to the third equation; further changing q to r, and /* to r,, we have Clebsch's equations of 8. 202 (F. E. p. 421) in his own notation:
tfc

dv
.(ii).

./

144

CLEBSCH.
substitute the values of u,
-

Now

v,

from

(i)

in

(ii),

we

find

Ry

Q'z

r f

tf-tf

Qxy

...(iii).

If

we

neglect the terms in square brackets,

we have with Clebsch

<r is by previous assumptions small as compared with r^c r$j. Further we suppose P and Q not to be so great that the terms in the square brackets need be retained. But suppose P, Q are so great that these terms must be retained ; then since r, r r2 are not functions of x and y, it is obvious that the But to obtain (ii), Kirchhoff (see equations (ii) can no longer hold. our Art. 1258) and Clebsch (S. 202) not only neglect u, v, w on the right as compared with x, y, z but also du/ds, dv/ds, dw/ds. The reason
l ,

Here

given for this neglect is not very clearly stated. Saint- Venant however, in a footnote (F. E. pp. 420-2), endeavours to put the reason for the He says that neglect of the s fluxions of the shifts in a clearer light. since the changes in u are continuous and never very rapid, the order of du/ds for example is (ut uQ )/l where I is the length of the rod and uh u the terminal shifts measured from axes near these terminals similarly du/dz is of the order (u' v u' )/i', where I' is the length of the little Now the elementary cylinder (i.e. ds), and u^, U Q the terminal shifts. numerators, he says, are of the same order of magnitude, but I' is infinitely small as compared with I, whence we may neglect the s fluxions as compared with the z fluxions of the shifts. But neither Olebsch nor Saint- Venant fully explains why, when the terms in P and Q are great, the above reasoning no longer holds and why we must then retain du/ds, dv/ds, dw/ds in the equations (ii). Clebsch merely says that they must be retained if P and Q are great, and that then the terms drjds, drz /ds in them will be very great as compared with rlt r2 whence he says it follows that:
;
,

=
ds

EUK*>

-_

ds~

I imagine that these equations are supposed to be deduced in somewhat the following fashion Substitute the values of P', Q', R' as a first approximation from (iv) in the last equation but one of (i) and we have
: :

w=

r-

+r

<rz

CLKUSCH.
Substitute this, remembering that r2
dto
rj

14-5

and r are functions of

tt,

in

dw

and we have

V*.*T~
:

* + *'
a +
/;

/Px
-5 1

Aw
and therefore
:

XKa"

/c?r2 dr, \ + Qy\ y -?)= (-r *--r da y) \cfe Kf/ )

ds

*
ds~
me

'

These equations do not seem to

based on very satisfactory

reasoning, supposing the above to be really the method of finding tliem have not yet shown them to be which Clebsch had in view. consistent with the first two equations of (iii) when we introduce the terms du/ds and dvjds into those equations, but on substitution they will be found to be so. Kirchhoff in his investigations does not appear to touch upon this point, although the equations (v) are of real

We

importance
[1362.]

Clebsch gives the following interpretation of the

first

two

results in (v)' (he does not refer to the third one, which obviously denotes the constancy of the torsion along the length of the rod) :

Diese Erscheinung hat eine einfache Bedeutung. Man sieht daraus, dass Stah im Allgemeinen bestrebt sein wird, eine Qestalt anzunehmen, in welcher fiir keinen seiner Querschnitte die seitlichen Gesammtcomponenten 1st es ihm nicht moglich eine derartige nnverhiiltnissmassig gross werdeii. Gestalt in alien seinen Theilen anzunehmen, so werden gewisse ausgezeichnete I'unkte auftreten, in denen die gegen die Axe des Elements senkrechten /', V v.ru legend werden, und in denen claim /ugleirh eine d die geometrische drjd*, dr^/ds oder beide sehr grosse Werthe erhalten. Bedeutung hiervon einzusehen, bemerke man nun, dass fur 2=0, also in der Axe des Stabes [rather for all values of .r, y, z] uach (i) x 2 d*v/dz*= - / /(AW 1 )=r1 ...... (vi). d*u/d2* = (?/(EK*)= -ra ,
dor
:

Um

Nun ist bereits friiher darauf hingewiasen, dass die Grossen links bis auf sehr klrino Grosnen die reciproken KrUrumungshalbmesser dcrjenigoii Curv.n bedeuten, welche man aus der Projection der Schwcrpunktslinie auf die dtirch die Axe des Elements und je erne Hauptaxe des Querschnitts gelegten n -rhiilt. Kben diese Bedeutung haben also, abgesehen voni Zeichen, r. Und in der Niihe jener aiwgezeichneten I'unkte muss also r, und f w< iiigstens einer dieser KrUmmungshalbmesser sich sehr schnell andera, da r wenigstens von den Differentialquotientao drjds^ dr^/dt verhaltnissmaasig gross wird
1

(S. 203).
*

Differentiating the first two of (iv) with regard to

and using

(v),

we have

r = Q, and
shear

-S-

- P.

These express that

for the thin rod in this case, the total

is the fluxion of the bonding-moment, a well-known theorem for small shifts which forms the basis of a good deal of the graphical treatment of such rods : see our Arts. 319 and the third equation of Art. 684.

146
It seems to

CLEBSCH.

[1363

when P, Q
[1363.]

me that perhaps as simple a meaning of the equations are large is that given in the footnote to our last article.
In the
fiftieth section of his

book Clebsch obtains equations

our

for the equilibrium of the rod, similar to those of Kirchhoff cited in Let the total stress across Art. 1265 but rather more general

any

cross-section at distance 8 from a terminal be given in relation to the axes x, y, z chosen as in our Art. 1360 by the components P, Q, R at f the centroid of the cross-section and the couples let Q', R'; unit Z' of be the volume on the element X*, 7', body-forces acting per dxdyds, parallel to axes x', y', z fixed in space further let

Y' dxdy,

(X'\

Y' xdxdy,

Vz =

(f
\\

X'\
Y'\y<lxdy z'
x',
...

}}

and

let

the direction-cosine system of x, y, z with regard to

y,

z'

be

13U4]

CLEBSCH.

147
by equations
(iv)

must be determined Here P, Q, 7?, P, Q', of our Art. 1361 and rlt r,, r, are given by
da

and

(v)

dp

dy

ds

'

(ix).

Compare our Arts. 1257 and 1265.

see that the last three of equations (viii) agree with KirchhofFs V, W, lt F,, JF,, equations (xxiv) of our Art. 1265, if we put Utt Fa JP2 zero, or suppose no body-forces; further, Kirchhoff's equations (xxiii) are easily deducible from Clebsch's first three, when we put note that Kirchhoff's zero. U, V,

We
,

We

A-P^ + Qat + Ro, C = Py^Qy^Ry

= Pfr +

Q& + Rp,\
}'

Kirchhoff's equations are indeed Clebsch's (13) on S. 205. (This section in the F. E. occupies pp. 424-30.)

The values of the shifts u, vt w, and those of r, rlt ra [1364.] obtained in our Arts. 1360 and 1361 cannot be applied to the equations of the previous article, since they were obtained on the assumption of no body-forces. Clebsch accordingly in the following section deals with the case of no body-forces ; here obviously A, S, C of (x) are constants, hence by aid of (iv) Clebsch puts the last three equations into the form
:

(Aai

These agree in form with Euler's equations for the motion of a heavy body about a fixed point, and thus demonstrate Kirchhoff's eltuticosee our Arte. 1267, 1270 and 1283, (6). kinetic analogy Clebsch then solves in general terms equations (xi) on the assumption
:

that A,

B C
t

are zero, or that the terminals of the rod are only acted

upon by couples. The gcm-ml type of the solution Is well-known to students of dynamics: see Routh's Treatise on Rigid Dynamics, 1877,
104 or Schell's Thcorie der JBewegvng, Bd. n., 1880, 3. 437-42. The 1> additional matter in the case of the elastic problem is the determination of the direction cosines a, /?, y, tkc. in terms of the r's and hence the total shifts in terms of 8. See Kirchhoff's discussion of the lik<> problem in our Art. 1267. This section occupies 8. 209-15 (F. E. pp. 430-7).

148

CLEBSCH.

[13651368

52 (S. 215-218 ; F. E. pp. 437-40) deals with the case [1365.1 in which the cross-section possesses inertial isotropy (i.e. K X = *2 ) and the terminals of the rod are acted upon solely by couples. Clebsch obtains by a simpler process than that in the original memoir of Kirchhoff (see our Art. 1268) the equation to the helix due to a given system of couples.

Compare the

results of Wantzel, Binet and Saint- Venant referred to in our Arts. 1240*, 175*, 1583*, 1593*-5* and 1606*-8*.

53 (S. 218-222; F. E. pp. 440-6) deals with the [1366.] practically interesting case of flexure in a plane which contains a Clebsch easily deduces the equation principal axis of each cross-section. of the ordinary Bernoulli-Eulerian theory for the special case of a strut with one end built-in and the ot/ter, or loaded end, free :
(xii),

where is the angle between the strained and unstrained positions of the tangent at s and C is the longitudinal load. He takes a tirst integral of this, and determines by an ingenious bit of analysis on S. 221 (F. E. p. 444) that if I be the length of the strut, we must have
<

always

if

there

is

to be flexure.

section concludes with a determination of the shift at any point of the axis of the rod, by formulae drawn from elliptic functions.

The

[1367.]

54

(S.

223-9

F.

E. pp.

446-54)

is

entitled

Zusammenkang mit der gewohnlichen Theorie. Kleine VerschiebunClebsch shows very clearly how Kirchhoff 's theory leads to gen. results agreeing with the Bernoulli-Eulerian theory when the total shifts are small. In particular we may draw attention to the method in which a term involving strut-action, due to a consider(C) on the rod, is introduced into the do not cite Clebsch's results here but flexure-equations. refer to our Art. 1373 for the more complete equations, involving accelerational terms.
able longitudinal load

We

Clebsch devotes S. 229-42 (F. E. pp. 454-468) to the [1368.] He discussion of rods, which in their unstrained condition are curved. deduces the requisite equations exactly like Kirchhoff (see our Art. 1264), attributing this extension of the theory to him. His first three equations (S. 231 ; F. E. p. 457) are the same as

13691370]
force terms U, V,

CLEBSCH.

149

Kirchhoff's (xxiii) of our Art. 1265 with the introduction of the body-

W from

(vii), i.e.

"+"-*
where for A,
hold for
all

f + r ='

+ir =

......... (xiii) -

he substitutes their values from (x). These equations , C rods whether initially curved or not. The next three equations on the same page are obtained from the last three of (viii) by substituting

for

P, <?', (see equations (iv) of our Art. 1361), where fn r2 and r are the values of rlt ra and r as defined by (ix) before strain. The last three 1 equations of (viii) with these substitutions we will term for purposes of reference
:

equations

............................................. ( x i y )-

In 56 (S. 232-3; F. E. pp. 457-9) Clebsch deals with [1369.] the case of a rod, which when unstrained has a curved axis lying in the plane x'z; this plane passes through a principal axis of each cross-section. The rod is supposed to be without body-forces and bent solely by terminal couples whose axes are perpendicular to its plane. being the angle between the tangent to the axis of the rod and the axis of z after strain, <f the value before strain, and the terminal s being fixed, Clebsch easily deduces for the strained form of the axis of the rod
<
:

Q' being the resultant terminal coupla

In 57 and 58 Olebsch discusses the small shifts of [1370.] originally bent rods and shows how the equations are to be integrated This portion of Clebsch's work seems (8. 233-242 ; F. E. pp. 459-68). He himself remarks : wholly original and very valuable.
grttesten Wichtigkeit fur die Anwendung aber ist die Ausstellung Formeln, welche sehr kleine Gestaltaveranderungen uraprUnglich kruinnin Stabe darsteUen (p. 233).
v.
.11

Von der

Clebsch's theory depends

upon the recognition that

a'-o-a,
1

P^P-V,

=y-y,

etc.,
r'a

In

making the
(viii)

appear in

rabstitations, it mast be borne in mind that the are not themselves to be replaced by (?- r)'s.

which

150

CLEBSCH.

[1370

are all very small quantities, bars over the symbols denoting quantities before strain. Hence he easily shows that the nine quantities a, ft', y ...can be expressed, owing to the six relations which hold between the He obtains the a, ft, y..., in terms of three variables plt p3 and p.
following formulae
:

(xv).

Replacing r by l/p and substituting a' + a, (3 + /?, y + y, etc. for in equations (ix), we find by neglecting products of the jo's
:

a, /?, y,

Pi

Pi

cfe

.(xvi).

1_
Here p n p 2 are the

p~p
is its
>

Pi

radii of curvature of the rod's central line and p radius of torsion after strain, p lf p 2 p the corresponding quantities before strain. Their differences are very small and we may neglect their squares

when

substituting in (xiv).

Let AI, BI, Ci be the components parallel to the axes x, y', z' = (Art. 1363) of the forces acting on the terminal 8 1 of the rod, then remembering that the shifts are very small, we can easily see that P, Q, R may be calculated from the values of the forces in the unstrained
position of the rod, or they are given by three equations of the type
:

f
where U,
F,

Fife*?! {

......

(xvii),

W have the values given in

(vii).

Substituting (xvi) in (xiv) Clebsch obtains the following linear differential equations for the p's, the coefficients being of course functions

of*:
dvl
i

da

pl

p
V<L

dv
da

Vi

^~^

1371]
where V^K (xvi), and

CLERSCH.

151
on the left-hand side of

vj)f are the three differences

To obtain the

shifts u', v\

w
I

parallel to the axes

a/,

y\

z'

of a point

on the central axis of the

rod,

we have
I

1=1

(1

+ <r) ds -

ads =

(a

+ era) ds
(**),

with similar expressions for v and

w'.
a', (3',

In (xx) we cannot neglect <r, as value is at once known from <r =

y are themselves small, but

its

To integrate the above system of equations, [1371.] evidently to deal with two similar groups of the types

we have

da

p.,

*!*'

Clebsch solves these by a remarkably graceful analytical process. If the end 8 = of the rod be built-in, and Aflt J/2 be the moments of the external load at the other end 8 = 1 round the axis system x, ?/, z attached to that end, then he finds formulae of the following type
,

and g or h
/>,

is

to be

found from

f by
p by

changing a to

or
J3,

p%
y.

is

to be found from
v

ft or y respectively ; attaching the subscripts 1 or 2 to

a,

Further

= do. +

bft

-f

cj,

a IK
KI

6 or c is to be found
v,

or

is

to

from a by changing a to ft or y respectively ; be found from v by attaching the subscripts 1 or 2 to

152

CLEBSCH.

[13721373

S. 242-261 of Clebsch's Treatise are devoted to the equa[1372.] tions of motion of thin rods, especially to the cases of vibration of

straight rods (F. E. pp. 468-628).

59 Clebsch demonstrates that by D'Alembert's principle the In general equations of motion are obtained from (viii) by replacing
U, V, IF.ZTi,
respectively,

Flf

TFi, i72

>

W,

by

-,
',

-,,
(xxi),

where A is the density of the rod, and the coordinates 17, on its axis referred to the axes x, y' a' fixed in space.
,

of a point

On S. 246 (F. E. p. 473) Clebsch gives the complete equamotion and equilibrium of an originally straight rod. The see in particular equations notation is that of our previous articles and (x). (vii), (viii)
[1373.]
tions for the
:

(a)

For transverse vibrations

*u

n d*u

TT

dW
dz

z*

dz*

with the terminal conditions for z =

l:

and

(b)

For longitudinal vibrations

d zw

^Iw'
with the terminal condition for
z=
I
:

d^w
~<ic~

EJ ^\

,0.

1M74]
(c)

CLEBSCH.
For torsional vibrations (l/p = dajds =
>

159

cl<f> i

with the terminal condition for z =

The

last terras in the four

equations of

(a),

inertia of the elements, are really of the same order, namely (e/l) , as the terms which Clebsch has neglected in deducing his equations for thin rods ; hence the method by which he brings them into these vibrational

depending on the rotatory a

equations is not wholly satisfactory. Of the terms in the longitudinal force C in the same equations Saint- Venant remarks (F. E. footnote p. 475):

Ces termes sont la seule partie reellement influente que Clebsch aux equations connues de vibration transversale.

ait ajoutee

It is, so far as I know, true that equations so complete in form as (a) were first given by Clebsch, but Seebeck in his memoir of 1849 introduced the term due to longitudinal traction and used it to deduce N. Savart's theorem see our Art. 471.
:

60 (S. 247-52; F. E. pp. 475-80) dealing with longi[1374.1 tudinal vibrations contains nothing of novelty. 61 (S. 252-60, F. E. pp. 480^-490) treats of the transverse Clebsch takes the general equations (a) vibrations of straight rods. and starts by supposing the rod pivoted at either end. He discusses the equation which gives the form of the z functions in the solution, particularly the case when it has equal roots (S. 256; F. E. p. 485). H living retained the term in Aft he is able to deal with the cases of a rod, a stiff string and a flexible tight string under the same general analysis : see our remarks on Seebeck in Arts. 471-2.
F. E. p. 628) briefly refers to torsional vibrations. pp. 629-31) gives the values of the stresses for the case of a very thin rod initially straight. They are to a first

62 63

(S.

260-1

(S.

261-3; F. E.
:

approximation

P ~_?YB+ V_^ V
ft>

~K

U?y

'

K
/{>

7=

''

The first stress agrees for a special case with the value given by the old theory: see our Arts. 815* and 71 ; the second two stresses are due only to the torsion, and coincide with the values first givm 1>\ Saint- Venant see our Arts. 17 and 1344.
:

T. E. IT. n.

11

154

CLEBSCH.

[1375
;

The next portion of Clebsch's Treatise (S. 264-355 [1375.] On S. 264 is the F. E. pp. 632-806) deals with thin plates. footnote referring to the services of Kirchhoff and Gehring, which

we have mentioned

in Art. 1293.

On

S.

271 (F. E.

p.

640) Clebsch

with those gives equations (64) for the shifts which are identical given by Kirchhoff numbered (ix) in our Art. 1294.
take the expressions (x) found by Kirchhoff for the strains and them in the values of the stresses given in our Art. 1203 (6) thus allowing the plate to have three axes of elastic symmetry, we find
;
:

Now

substitute

^ = a (qfi +

o-j)

+/' (- p& + o-2 ) + e'dwjdz, + 6 (- p& + <ra) + d'dwo/dz, + d' (-p^z + o-2 ) + cdw /dz,
b

^ = ddv /dz,
Q

us

= edujdz,
%Pi*

0)>

w =f(
= 2e +
e'.

r)

where

a = 2/+/',

= 2d + d',

Now

substitute these in the body-stress equations, the body-forces being

principle negligible (see our Art. 1253),

by KirchhofTs

and we

find

Now w
x and y
;

it

are independent of v , follows therefore that

:

x and

?/,

hence

is

independent of
are constants.

and dujdz, dvjdz

are constants, or that

yz, *zx

and

But these

stresses are supposed to vanish at the surface,

hence

^= ^=^=
The method by which
:

.............................. (ii).

this conclusion is reached should be compared with Kirchhoff's reasoning see our Arts. 1294-5. Further since dujdz = dvjdz = 0, u and v are constants, but they Next inteare to vanish for z = 0, therefore we have them both zero.

grating

0, to find

wot we

have,
z

(e'q l

d'pj)
z.

no constant being added

as

is

to vanish with

We

can

now
l

write

down

the shifts and stresses completely,

i.e.

-p zx + a-jy,

.-(iii)

yy

=
= yz =

tf*

zx

zz

1376]

CLEBSCH.

155

(p.

These equations agree with the values given in the French Clebsch 643), if we put therein
da

= <r\,

d6

=-/>! r\ = -p\ an(l supjwse uniconstant isotropy, so that our /= his ^/{2(l+/x)}, our a - e"/c = b - d'*/c = his E/(l-^) our /'-rfy/c = his /*#/(! -/**). (Note Clebsch's ft = the stretch-squeeze modulus, our rj.) Clebsch makes the interesting remark that the values of u, v, 10, in are only special cases of those we have found in (iii) for a thin plate equations (13) of our Art. 1351 for the thick plate, if we take in the latter
*i
t

They are = -?ia

identical

= o-2 g = T, r^-ft, s =-p^ r =-p with Clebsch's own values (S. 273), if we put
,

his

<f>

ove

+ ry,

$ = <r&>

and put for the case of isotropy in the plane of the plate

With regard to the range within which equations Clebsch remarks :

Das Element
ist

(iii)

are applicable

seiner Mittelflache parallel sind,

nur durch Spanmmgskrafte ergriffen, welche der Ebene tmd durch Kraftepaare, deren Axen in jener Man darf deswegen nicht sagen, dass die Spannungen oder die ^en. auf den Rand wirkenden Kra'fte, welche eine andere Richtung hatten, absolut verschwinden miissen aber sie nehmen Werthe an, vermoge deren sie nur 'hiebungen hervorbringen, welche gegen liber den andern Verschiebungen von cin.T honeren Ordnung sind. Es ist wichtig dies zu bemerken in Bezug auf die Tragweite der hier zu entwickelnden Formeln. Denn betrachten wir <1 ii Rand der Platte, so kb'nnen die auf denselben wirkenden Krafte entweder ini Stande sein, denselben so zu biegen, dass die aussern Kriifto wirklit-li und in diesem Fall ist kein Widerspruch tangent iiil zur Platte wirken nnl'M. Ist aber dies nicht der Fall, so miissen entweder die Krafbe, welche auf den Rand wirken und gegen denselben senkrecht sind, selbst ausserst klein (GrOesen hOherer Orduung) werden, oder es miissen sidi Auftn.ihui-j'Mnkte der Art ereeben, wie sie hier nicht behandelt werden solU-n, iin.i in welchen eigenthiimliche groese Kriimmungen eintretcn (S. 273-4).
; ;

[1376.]
\vs
til-

67 of the treatise

(S.

274-282

that,

when the

shifts are finite, the

F. E. pp. 645-650) approximate form of

;

id-plane is a developable surface: see our Art. 1297. Clebsch discusses this developable surface at considerable length and shows that its introduction leads us to three arbitrary
in

fuiK ti..ns

ij ot

in

terms of which
,

all

the other elements of the

17,

ag ., 7,, f, ,, 7,, problem (a,, ft, 7,, o t notation: see our Art. 1294) can be expressed.
,

in

Kii.-lihoiTs

The problem then

11-2

156

CLEBSCH.

[13771378
;

reduces itself to the discovery of these three arbitrary functions we require, however, in order to ascertain them the equations of equilibrium of an element of the plate.
These Clebsch investigates by some rather lengthy analysis [1377.] and 69 (S. 282-94; F. E. pp. 656-71). In the first of in his these sections he applies the principle of virtual work to determine the relations between the stresses and the load system at every point of the In mid-plane and at every point of its contour (equations (88) S. 289). the latter section he substitutes the values obtained in (iii) for the For every point of the mid-plane we have stresses in these equations. three equations to be satisfied. These in Clebsch's investigations contain

^68

two functions Q 1 , Q z defined by two additional equations see his equaThese equations are given in the French edition tion (92), S. 292. for three axes of elastic symmetry as (267) on p. 668, and for isotropy in the plane of the plate as (267 a) on the same page. They involve first fluxions of <r lt <r2 , r and 6rst and second fluxions of p lt pz q li with regard
:

conditions, five in number, involve an arbitrary function A (in Clebsch's notation) as well as the above Q t and $ 2 so that they are really only equivalent to four. They are given by Clebsch as (93) on S. 294, or with a more general disto
S-L
,

and

sa in the notation of

our Art. 1294.

The contour

tribution of elasticity in the French edition as (268) on pp. 670-1. These equations for the finite shifts of thin plates are too complex for reproduction here, and we must content ourselves with merely referring to them. So far as we are aware there has been hitherto no practical
application of them.

In 70 (S. 295-9, F. E. pp. 671-6) Clebsch indicates the [1378.] general stages by which the problem of the finite shifts of thin plates might be solved. He writes of it
:

Dieselbe sondert sich in drei verschiedene Theile. Der erste Theil hat zum die Bestimmung der abwickelbaren Flache, von welcher die Mittelfla'che der Platte im gebogenen Zustande nur sehr wenig abweicht. Der zweite Theil beschaftigt sich sodann mit der Aufsuchung der Dilatationen welche durch die aussern Krafte hervorgerufen werden der dritte o-j, cr 2 T!, endlich mit den Bestimmungen der kleinen Abweichungen der wirklichen Gestalt der Mittelflache von der gefundenen abwickelbaren Flache (S. 295).

Zweck

The first part of this problem, the determination of the developable surface as the approximate form of the strained mid-plane, is considered In in 71 the method of dealing with this part of the problem, 70. when there are no body-forces and the load on any element of the
1

There are some misprints.

In (267), read in third equation y for y l

'

and

in

fourth and fifth equations read (f inverted

f\

for (t -

f\

In (267 a) a factor has got

and then transposed

the term in curved brackets should be

1379]

CLEBSCH.

157

contour depends only on the magnitude and direction of the element, is especially developed. In this section Clebsch makes a slight reference to how the problem of the finite shifts of a plate, whose mid-surface in the unstrained condition has the form of a developable surface, might be approached (S. 302). In 72 Clebsch indicates in the briefest manner how the second and third parts of the problem might be dealt with. He concludes with the

remark

Ich babe hier eine kurze Skizze von der Reihenfolge der Probleme auf welche man bei der Behandlung des Problems endlicher Biegungen sehr diinner Flatten gefiihrt wird. Nur in einem einzigen Falle kann man ohne Weiteres vorschreiten, um die vorgefiihrten Probleme selbst xu untersuchen ; daiin niimlich, wenn die endlichen Biegungen aufhoren, inul nur die an die urspriingliche Gestalt der Mittelflache anzubringenden Correctionen aufzufinden sind. Dieser Fall, in welchem alle Theile der Platte v. >n ihrer urspriinglichen Lage nur sehr wenig abweichen, soil jetzt eingehender behandelt werden (S. 305).
entwickelt,

In concluding our remarks on this problem of Clebsch's, it is sufficient to note that the elastic principles involved are simple and the earlier
analysis
-i

part of the investigation involves no great difficulties, but that the required to solve even simple cases promises to be far too implex for us to hope by aid of it for any results of physical or technical value.

72 is entitled Kleine Verschiebungen and occupies J05-8 (F. E. pp. 684-9, where a more general distribution of elasticity is dealt with). Clebsch deduces from his general
[1379.]
:

equations the two equations for tbe shifts of the mid-plane in its own plane and the corresponding contour-conditions as we have given them in our Arts. 389 and 391, except that be neglects the surface load on the plane faces, i.e. the terms

Further he gives the equation for the transverse shift of a point on the mid-plane and the two contour-conditions such as we have
given them in our Arts. 384-5, 390, 392-4 except that he again His equations are thus more general regards the surface load.
t

li;in

those of

K irrhhoff, but
it is

not so general as those of Saint- Venant

;
i

His method

is

certainly better than Kirchhoff 's

i

not so concise but

first method it is more general than K vhhoffs second method.

As depending upon the theory of the finite shifts of thin plates, more cumbersome than the method by which Saint- Venant
ifl

Boussinesq have deduced

still

more general

results.

158

CLEBSCH.

[1380

Clebsch compares these equations for the small shifts of thin plates with those he has obtained for the case of thick plates (see our Arts. 1351-2), and remarks with regard to the first system of
equations, or those for the shifts in the mid-plane
:

...dassesgenaumitdenSystemen(ll), (14), (15) [of our Art. 1351-2] ubereinstimmt, nur dass hier noch Glieder auftreten, welche von den auf das Imiere wirkenden Kraften abhangen, dass hingegen diejenigen Glieder fehlen, welche dort mit hoheren Potenzen von h multiplicirt erschienen (S. 307).
In 74 (S. 309-19; F. E. pp. 753-763) we have the case [1380.] of the small shifts of a thin circular plate in its own plane completely The contour of the plate is supposed either to be subjected to a solved. Clebsch includes bodygiven system of forces or to be simply fixed. forces acting parallel to the plane of the plate. Several serious errors in Clebsch' s equations (19) are corrected in the French edition. In 75 (S. 319-27, F. E. pp. 763-72) the small transverse shifts of a circular plate subjected to any system of body-force are dealt with. Clebsch's work here amounts to the following process. Suppose the
plate to possess elastic isotropy in its plane, and let it be stretched to a uniform in all directions ; let traction be the plate modulus and

the transverse shift of the point in the mid-plane of the plate defined by r, <J>, the polar coordinates with respect to the centre. The body shiftequation for w is the following
:

_\d*w + ~^~d^

1 dw _ 12T /d*w + 1 dw\ r*~dr~7Itf \d^ r'dr)

Hh? r

dx
Here,
if

dy

be the components of body-force acting on the element P, Q, of the dxdydz plate of which the thickness is h, and if x and y are r cos </>, r sin </> respectively, then
:

R' =
(See S. 320
e

r+hfi

Rdz,
J -h/2,

P" =

r+h/2,

Pzdz, Q"
J -7t/2

r+h/2

Qzdz.
J -h/2

= A/2, and
Clebsch

F. E. p. 765, and compare our Arts. 384-5, 390, where ; Art. 1300 (c)).

now 'supposes R' +

to be
-j~

known

in sines and

in like form. cosines of multiple angles of <, and then expresses This gives him a differential equation for a coefficient of one of the

1381]

CLEBSCH.

159
simplify this he assumes

and

terms in w as a function of r alone. it then takes the form

:

To

T = 0,

tV
i<f>

12

where Wi

is

the coefficient of cos

.

or sin
.

i<f>

in w,

and

y^

the coefficient

of the like terms in R?

dP" dQ" + + dx dy

Clebsch then uses his unrivalled powers of analysis to find the most F. E. general solution of (ii) for a complete circular plate (S. 326 He determines the constants of this solution for the particular p. 771). case in which the edge of the plate is built-in.
;

76 is entitled: Biegung einer am Rande eingespannten [1381.] kreisfonnigen Platte durch ein einzelnes Gewicht (S. 327-31 ; F. E. The word eingespannt is here to be taken in the sense of pp. 772-8). " = Q in using equation (i). built-in," as Clebsch puts T eingeklemmt, horizontal circular plate with built-in edge is supposed to be loaded at any single point. Clebsch remarks

man mit grosser Annaherung so behandeln, als wiire Gewichts cine auf das Innere des betreffenden Elementes wirkeude Kraft gegeben, deren Wirkungskreis nur auf einen sehr kleinen Raum be;iikt ist. Uebrigens ist der Fall, wo mehrere Gewichte an verschiedenen 1'unkten angebracht sind, ganz ebenso zu behandeln die dann entstehenden Verachiebungen sind nichts anderes, als die Summe derjeuigen, welche von den einzelnen Gewichten herriihrcn wiirden (S. 327).
Diese Aufgabe kann

an

Stelle des

w
r

The solution is obtained as a special case of the results referred to in the previous article. It is somewhat lengthy, but as being the Let theoretical answer to a definite practical problem it is given here. be the deflection at the point r, of the plate of radius 6, loaded at
<

<f>

with the weight P, then

oo

w=w

+2
i
:

tvt cos t

(<j>

<

),

where for points for which r < r

3P

and

for those for

which r > r
+
r<?)

log r

-^- fob log 6 +

?V
)

(&

+r

2
)

log

b~]

26i

Clebsch remarks of these results 1

Auf so verwickelte Formen fiihrt ein Problem, dessen analoges, bei Staben, mit Recht unter die elementarsten gezahlt wird. Und selbst dann nur gelang Inzwies, wenn die Peripherie der Scheibe kreisformig vorausgesetzt wurde. schen muss auf die Wichtigkeit des Problems auch fiir Anwendungen hingewiesen werden, so wie auf die Methode, mit deren Hiilfe es vielleicht auch fur andere Formen gelingt, die Losung des Problems herzustellen (S. 330).
[1382.]
is

We may

note that the central deflection

ro

for a load at r

given by

which becomes for a central load

These results may be compared with those of our Art. 334. They agree with the values that Clebsch gives on S. 331 for the deflection at r = r due to a central load P. This follows from the
general principle that deflection at r = r for loading at r = r to deflection at r = r for the same loading at r = r '.
'

is

equal

Clebsch in [1383.] to the motion of plates,

77

(S.

and

finds

331-3; F. E. pp. 778-81) next passes by D'Alembert's principle the terms

which must in
1

this case be introduced into the general equations for

There are several misprints in the reproduction of these formulae in the French
:

edition

see p. 776.

1385]
finite shifts.

CLEBSCH.

101
7, Z,

For certain quantities P, <X, R, P', Q", R' (the X, X", T', Z" of our Art 384) we must substitute
:

AA

dPfi

AA

Cbl)
-

/[

&h

'*C

AA^cPa
12 dt
'

~ ,,_^>_<W

12

dP

'

" R_ML<PI

12 d?

'

the cowhere A is the density of the plate, h its thickness, , 17, ordinates of a point on the mid-surface referred to fixed axes in space, and a, (3, y the direction-cosines of the angles the normal to the mid-surface makes with the axes of 77, Clebsch confines himself, however, to the case of thin plates with small shifts, and deals only with the transverse vibrations of these in two special sub-cases, which form the topic of the following two sections
,
.

of his treatise. If be the transverse finite shift, we may in this case clearly replace it by the w of our usual notation for small shifts.

78 is entitled: Klangfiguren einer kreisformigen freien [1384.] Platte (S. 334-43; F. E. pp. 781-93). Clebsch shows that, when no forces act on the plate, we must (owing to the conclusions of the previous
section) replace
:

but he at once neglects the term multiplied by h? as very small. The remainder of his investigation adds, I think, nothing to that of On S. 333 he had acknowledged Kiichhoff: see our Arts. 1241-3.
the latter' s services in this matter.

79 is entitled: Schwinyunyen einer kreisformigen ge[1385.] spannten Membrane (S. 344-7; F. E. pp. 793-7), but Clebsch's treatment differs from the ordinary one, in th.it he does not suppose the membrane perfectly flexible. His work thus corresponds for membranes \\Y must start from to that of Seebeck on strings: see our Art. 17'J. nation (i) of our Art. 1380 and retain now the terms in T7 while the t. in l.i-a. -kete on the right-hand side must be replaced as in our Art 1384 by
|
i

Writing 127y(///t*)=l/6 and 12A/(//A') equation of S. 344 (F. E. p. 794 ).

l

I/a

we have

Clebech's

Equation (310)

p.

7U3 should give l/6> and Dot 6.

162

CLEBSCH.

[1366

The boundary conditions become

2f\ /I dw

when
The

=b

the radius.

first condition signifies that the couple round the tangent to the See our Art. 391. contour vanishes at each point + (3mn ), where ymn , mnymn cos (m<j> + aj cos (*, Substituting w = Ojn, /3mn are constants, we have a differential equation to determine Rmn as a function solely of r. This can be solved by expanding R in a series The solution is really of ascending powers of r in the usual mode. found to be in terms of the same functions, i.e. BessePs functions, as in the previous case, but the coefficients of the arguments of these functions are different. The transcendental equation for the frequencies of the notes follows in the usual manner from the contour conditions. Clebsch makes no attempt either to solve this equation numerically, or even to calculate the effect on the pitch of the notes of a slight stiffness in the membrane.

HR

He concludes this portion of his work by showing that the transcendental equations which occur in the problems of both plate and membrane have real roots, or that the motion is really periodic (S. 347-55; F. E. The method adopted resembles that of the general pp. 797806). 20 of the Treatise (see our Arts. 1328-30), and leads problem of to expressions for the arbitrary constants of the solutions in terras of the initial shifts and velocities.
[1386.]

The remainder of Clebsch's

treatise is entitled

AnwenThis

dungen, and occupies S. 356-424 (F. E. 1 portion of the work is less exact and

pp.

807-880).

more elementary. I content myself with noticing anything that seems of special interest or originality in the problems dealt with, not giving an
abstract of the whole.

In 82 Clebsch investigates in an approximate manner what (a) the cross-section of a rod under longitudinal body-force and load must be the Let be, in order that the stress may be everywhere uniform. load per unit volume, and CD the cross-section at a distance z from one be the total load at z = I and T the uniform tractive end, and let

stress

then approximately

L
Clebsch rightly insists on the importance of recognising the approximate character of most of the ordinary practical formulae Es wird in den betreffenden Fallen immer auf den Mangel an Strenge hingewiesen werden; eine Gewissenhaftigkeit, welche ebenso natiirlich als nothwendig erscheint, und welche dennoch leider in Schriften iiber Anwendungen dieser Art nur zu haufig vermisst wird (S. 356).
:

1:380]

CLEBSCH.

163

or,

by differentiation since

T is

a constant,

whence

w=

'

^e

is due to a Suppose, for example, we require the cross-section when Let A be the density centrifugal force measured by a?z per unit mass. of the rod, then we have :

p n
o>=T<*

*-+

(S.

360-3

F. E. pp. 812-5.)

85 Clebsch investigates the fail-point in beams variously In (b) He adopts a stress-limit, which in the simple cases dealt supported. with does not lead him to results differing from those which would have arisen in considering relative strength from the standpoint of a strainsee our Arts. 4 (y), 5, 169 (c), 320-1, and 1327.
:

case of a uniformly loaded conequally distant points of support. This problem had already been dealt with by Lamarle and others see our Arts. 576, 947, 949, etc. The analysis is here clear and the
(c)

tinuous

On S. 392-6 we have the beam freely supported on (n +

1)

results concisely given.

In 88 Clebsch deals with the problem of solids of (rf) resistance by what is really only the approximate Bernoulli-Eulerian see our Arts. 4*, 5*, 16*, 915*, etc., and compare them with tli.-ory our Art. 56 Case (4). Clebsch supposes all the cross-sections of the rod to be similar figures and that the maximum stress in all the
'
:

Further he supposes the plane of flexure Suppose h to be tindistance of the most strained fibre from the neutral axis and K the swing radius about its neutral axis of the cross-section distant z from one end of the rod let A, and K^ be the corresponding values when z /, and let T be the given maximum stress. Then Clebsch finds the following differential equation to determine the linear dimensions of successive
cross-sections is the same.
to contain a principal axis of each cross-section.
*
'

'

'

cross- sections

m
i the body-force JXT unit volume of the rod at z. Clebsch solves this in two oases (i) when only gravity, i.a a constant p, acts on the rod ; (ii) when no body-force but a terminal load

where p

P at z -

produces flexure.
first

In the

case

we have

f ......

104

CLEBSCH.
:

[1387

In the second case we have, correcting a misprint

h*
Pllrf = -j a
(I

- z) ...... a

cubical parabola.
(S.

**i*i

396-402

F. E. pp. 852-8.)

89 is entitled Biegung bei sehr grossem Zug oder Druck in (e) der Richtung der Ldngsaxe. Saulenfestigkeit (S. 402-8 ; F. E. pp. 859-65). The equation for flexure now takes the form

=
where

R (u - u),
t

the bending moment of all the forces perpendicular to the the component of the longitudinal force and ut the 1. Clebsch integrates this for R positive or negative. In the latter case, which corresponds to the case of a strut, Clebsch notes the inconsistency of the ordinary theory, in which the strut only l>ends for certain definite values of the load and for no intervening ones. He attributes this failure of the theory to the fact that for long rods the shifts become finite and we must fall back on the results of our Art. 1366. This correction had of course already been made by Lagrange But the full theory of finite shifts, we have seen, see our Art. 110*. also leads to the Bernoulli-Eulerian value of the buckling-load and with this Clebsch seems to be content, although that theory has been by no means verified experimentally. He indicates in brief terms the point as to the relative magnitudes of the buckling and compressive loads, which had been previously worked out by Lamarle see our Arts. 1258*-9*.
is

axis of the rod, deflection for z

In 90 (S. 409-13; F. E. pp. 866-71), Clebsch [1387.] discusses an important practical problem, namely the discovery
:

stresses in a system of bars pinned together In this section the body at their terminals, or in a framework. forces are supposed negligible and the terminal loads in no case

of the strains

and

Thus the system will be sufficiently great to produce buckling. without flexure. If there be no supernumerary bars, we know that in this case the stresses in the various members can be easily
ascertained by the method of reciprocal figures if supernumerary bars exist, however, we are compelled to use ab initio the elastic
;

properties of the bars.

Suppose x y^ %i to be the coordinates of the iih node of such a frame before strain and u^ vit wt its shifts after strain, these latter
t
,

ik be the stretch-modulus of quantities being very small ; further let the bar joining the nodes i and k, rik its unstrained, rih + pik its strained be the components of the its cross-section; let i} Yit length, w
tVk

1388]
load at the tth node.

CLEBSCH.

165
for the

Then we must have

equilibrium of that

node

v< /

where the summation

nod> If there be

is

to extend for all nodes k united

by bars to the

n nodes we have thus 3n equations

u, v,

there are also 3?i

is

unknowns, namely the

w for the n nodes.

(y{

Obviously p^
t

given by

xi ~ xk)

(Uj

- uk ) +

- yk )

(Vj

- vk ) + (z - z k ) (w - w
t

r^

But of the 3n equations 6 must be the equations of statical equilibrium Hence there are 6 of the shifts between the external loads X, F, Z. undetermined by the above equations. This is what we should expect,
as

we might give the system any displacement of translation or rotation as a whole without affecting the elastic equations, and such displacement in volves six arbitrary constants. As a rule certain nodes and directions ot rods will be fixed, and these will give the additional conditions sufficient to solve the problem, even when there are also unknown Clebsch works out reactions at some of the nodes to be determined. this solution by solving for u, v, w, in the special case when a loaded node is supported by any number of bars attached to fixed points.

The problem of the preceding article becomes more when there are joints or nodes attached to points in the complex
[1388.]

bars themselves as well as at their terminals, so that flexure takes Clebsch's 91 (S. 413-20 F. E. pp. 872-79), entitled place.
;

Stabsysteme mit Biegung, deals with this problem. He supposes the bars to be pin-jointed, the cross-section of each to be uniform

and their weight

D.-is

to be negligible.

His method

is

indicated in

th- following sentence:

all^ciiK-inr

Princijt \vird

auch

hic-r

darin hrstrlicn.

<lass

man

die Yerschiebungen der Knotenpunkte zuniichst .unto Grossen behandelt, aus ihnen die eintretenden elastischen Krafbe h.^timnit, mit welchen die Stabe in ihren Knotenpunkten reagiren, unl ndlich die

ichgewichtebedingungen lui -li. in ,1, n Knotenpunktrn \\irkmden aussern und elastiHchrn Kr.ii't- itutstellen; Gleichungen die sclili* sli< li genau hinr-i< -hni um aim ihnen die eingefUhrten Verschiebungi bestiramen (S. 413).
i

166

CLEBSCH.

[13891390

Clebsch describes clearly the various stages in the problem, He writing down the general types of the equations involved. afterwards applies his principle to an isosceles truss with a
vertical strut, the truss being supported at the terminals of the base and loaded at the vertex. Both the general investigation

and the special example are of

interest,

but we must refer our

reader to the Treatise itself for the details.

Clebsch's Treatise concludes with a section on Torsion.

[1389.]

He
is
it.

introduces Coulomb's theory for a prism of circular crossThe method adopted section and discusses the maximum stress.
unsatisfactory and Clebsch himself expressed his discontent with In a letter to Sain t-Ven ant he authorised its withdrawal, and
is

there

thus no need to criticise

it

here.

The work we have been considering was published [1390.] when the author was twenty-nine years of age and was based However upon his lectures at Karlsruhe delivered in 1861. unsuitable it may seem as an introduction to the study of elasticity for technical students, we cannot but be surprised by
the wealth and ingenuity of analysis which the young mathematician was able to bring to the service of the more theoretical
It is this fertility of analytical method which parts of elasticity. makes his work so suggestive and has given it a place among the classics of our subject, notwithstanding its incomplete and some-

what one-sided character.

Die physikalische, iiberhaupt die naturwissenschaftliche Auffassung lag ihm, bei alien Kenntnissen, die er im Einzelnen besass, verhaltnissNur in seiner ersten m'assig fern und interessirte ihn nicht besonders. Ueber die Bewegung eines Arbeit, seiner Inauguraldissertation
:

Ellipsoids in

einer
iiber

Fliissigkeit,

so wie

Untersuchung

Circularpolarisation,

spater noch einmal in einer findet sich bei ihm eine

Vergleichung der abgeleiteten Resnltate mit dem Experimente. Ihn interessirte vielmehr die mathematische Fragestellung, insofern sie geschickte analytische Behandlung verlangte er gehdrte, auch hierin Jacobi ahnlich, der rein mathematischen Richtnng an, welche den
:

abstracten

Gedanken

um

seiner selbst willen verfolgt.

S.

This excellent characterisation of Clebsch I take from

5-6

of a pamphlet the joint labour of several of his friends: Alfred Clebsch. Versuch einer Darlegung und Wurdigung seiner wis-

1391]

CLEBSCH.

167

senschaftlichen Leistungen (Leipzig, 1873), to which I the reader for details of Clebsch's life and work.

must

refer

In the preface to his Treatise on elasticity Clebsch from the scope of his work all applications excludes especially of elasticity to the theory of light but suggests that he may later
[1391.]

deal with this wide field (S. v). All that has been preserved to us of Clebsch's labours in this field are the memoirs in Bd. 57

(I860) and Bd. 61 (1863) of Crelles Journal (see our Arts. 1324 and 1392) and a posthumous publication entitled: Prinzipien der mathematischen Optik edited by A. Kurz and separately published

1887 (Augsburg) as an offprint from the Blatter fur das This journal being probably more bayerische Realschulwesen. inaccessible to our readers than the offprint, we shall refer only
in

to the pages of the latter.

This short treatise on optics containing 53 pages supposition that the ethereal molecules of masses m, other with a force of the form

is

lf

based upon the act upon each

where r is their central distance (S. 1). Thus Clebsch really starts with a hypothesis that must lead him to rari-constant elastic equations the moment he neglects the terms in differential coefficients higher than the second, which he at first retains in order to explain dispersion in When however he does neglect these Cauchy's manner (S. 15). (liH'erential coefficients (S. 17-19), we find he has equations which apparently involve nine independent constants for a crystal with three rectangular axes of elastic symmetry and two independent constants in
the case of isotropy.

But

this

example the equations of isotropy in

independence is only apparent take for S. 19 which are of the type

;

It will

in tin- funilitiuental

Art
and

be found by substituting the values on p. 18 for u,-u etc. equations (3) of S. 3 that with the notation of our 143, we have

a + b - J2mx (r ) x 4 -

Consequently

a = i {2m x (r.) */ - 32m x (r.) * V( = 0,

r

by equation

( I

the same article.

168
%

CLEBSCH.

[13921393

Thus we

fact that there are relations

see that Clebsch's equations are really rari- constant, and the among his elastic constants would, I think,

considerably modify the rest of his investigations. For double-refraction Clebsch obtains conditions identical with those of Cauchy and Saint- Venant. Thus in other notation his relations (44)

d = d'j
to

and (46)
e

(S.

21-2) agree with (xxxix) of our Art. 148,

= e' and

ff

if

we put

therein.

Much of the pamphlet contains extremely interesting analysis which we may draw the attention of tbose interested in optical theories. We have referred above to all that directly concerns us
are dealing with elasticity.

when we

Ueber die Reflexion an einer Kugelfl&che. Journal [1392.] und angewandte Mathematik, Bd. 61, S. 195-262. die reine fur
Berlin, 1863.

This memoir

is

dated October 30, 1861.

its

It

opens

with the following paragraph explaining

object

Obgleich das Problem der Reflexion von Lichtstralen an einer gegebenen Flache langst die Aufmerksamkeit der Geometer in vielfacher Hinsicht auf sich gezogen hat, so ist doch niemals der Versuch gemacht worden, aus den Bewegungsgleichungen selbst die Gesetze dieser Erschei-

nungen zu deduciren, und so theoretisch eine sichere Basis fiir Untersuchungen dieser Art zu gewinnen. Der einzige Fall, den man betrachtete, war der einer unendlich ausgedehnten brechenden Ebene, auf welche ebene Wellen fallen und so kam es, dass die geometrischen Satze der Dioptrik und Katoptrik mit dem was man heute eigentlich Optik zu nennen gewohnt ist, nur durch einige Betrachtungen der Enveloppentheorie lose und gewaltsam verknupft sind.
;

Clebsch attempts in this memoir to investigate the [1393.] motion of an isotropic elastic medium, when the disturbances are He totally reflected from the surface of a sphere contained in it. deals in fact with a special case of an extension of Lams Problem In order (see our Art. 1111*) to media in vibratory motion. to simplify the surface conditions, which he remarks are still both theoretically and physically somewhat obscure, he takes
the simplest hypothesis possible
:

dass namlich die Kugel vollstandig reflectire, und dass, bei Abwesenheit gebrochener Wellen, die einfallenden und die reflectirenden Bewegungen an der Oberflache der Kugel sich in ihrer Summe genau aufheben (S. 195).

The
does
is

last

words are somewhat obscure, but what Clebsch really

to put tbe total shift (due to incident

and

reflected dis-

139-i]

CLEBSCH.

169

turbances) at the surface of his spherical reflector zero. In other 1 words, he fixes his ether at the surface of a totally reflecting body With this simplification Clebsch remarks that the problem becomes
.

a purely mathematical one, namely: to develop the differential coefficient of a function of x, y, z with regard to one of these
y

variables in a series of spherical harmonics, if the development of The solution the function itself in spherical harmonics be given.
is

obtained simply and symmetrically by replacing the spherical harmonic by the corresponding homogeneous function of the nth
degree.

The
the

results of the investigation are exceedingly

complex

for

optically

important

case

of a

wave-length

very small as
if

compared with the radius of the

reflecting surface, but they are

capable of being easily dealt with approximately, length be large as compared with this radius.

the wave-

1 of the memoir is entitled: Zuruckfuhrung der Gleich[1394.] utigen der Elasticitat auf getrennte partielk Differentialgleichungen and occupies S. 196-9. Clebsch adopts as his equations for an isotropic medium the type
:

= fi/p, and his aa (X + 2/x)/p of this History. a that the most general solution for the demonstration gives the form
so that his b*
=-:

He

then

shifts is of

= u~
= ~

dP
dx

dW_dV
dy
dz

dz'

dP
dy

dU__d\Y
dj-

= dJP
dz

dV
dx

dU
(///

where

/' is

a solution of

Thin fixing of the boundary aa a condition for total reflection is interesting in the light .,f Sir William Thomson's hypothesis that the ether may be treated aa an elastic solid fixed at infinity (and I suppose at totally reflecting surfaces placed in See the Philosophical Magazine, November, 1888. Is it possible in this case to absolutely neglect the waves reflected from the infinite boundary aa Helmholtz asserts? Must not the steady motion be considered to hare existed from an
1 '

If

we cannot
IT.
II.

infinite'

they affect the

T. E.

neglect the reflected waves problem of cosmic temperature?

what becomes of them and how do

12

170
and U,
F,

CLEBSCH.

[13951396

W are solutions of

(iv).

Compare these

results with those of Lame*

and Kirchhoff

re-

ferred to in our Arts.

1078* and 1309.

2 entitled: Entwickelung von P, U, F, nach Kugel[1395.] In this section Clebsch introduces functionen, occupies S. 200-2. a function n which may be considered as consisting of two parts. n is a solid spherical harmonic of the nth degree, i.e. a homogeneous = 0, but its function of the nth degree in x, y, z which satisfies n r of and coefficients are functions r is where to be t, arbitrary put equal to

VW

r,

2 2 after all differentiations have taken place. Thus *Jx* 4- y + z be taken in its most general sense to operate on n =f(r, x, y, z) we have to take into consideration the differentiation of n with regard to the r which occurs in the coefficients of n treated as a solid harmonic in x, y, z. Thus we find, if A 2 be used instead of V 2 to denote the special sense of an operator on x, y, z only

i.e.

if

V2

M M
v

r2

dMn dM ld f^ dMn\ rfjfn n =r + %d( + y -=-^ + z -1^\ (x

2

dr\

) dr )

rdr\

dx

dy

dz )

dMn
Hence we
shall obtain a solution of

an equation of the type

if

we take

<

=
o

M
n

n,

and determine the

equation
:

coefficients of

n as functions of r

and

from the

~~

a '

2
"

~ dMn
dr

[1396.]

method based upon

this property of the function

and (ii) is developed by n Clebsch in the following sections ( 3 and 4, S. 202-8). Many of the fundamental properties of solid spherical harmonics were here published, I believe, for the first time.
for solving the body-shift equations (i)

On
shift
:

S.

208 Clebsch gives the following expression for the type of

u = 2un ................................. (v),

13971398]
where:
and

CLEBSCH.

171

u =
Vm-i

dx
1

J**

+I** +I -T- "dr1! + g

dxr*

~j^~V~ 7* dz
ay

+
it

and where n 3fn ', 2^ are arbitrary solid spherical harmonics of the nth degree. Their coefficients are, however, functions of r, t. Those of Jfn satisfy the equation
,
:

and

tliose

of Af n and

'

Tn

satisfy the equation

with the condition that

'

is to

be zero.

In the particular case when the motion is not vibratory = 0, we then obtain a solution in solid cP</>/cfo* of harmonics the equations of elasticity for a medium spherical to surface forces. Results for this special case of an subjected only elastic solid in equilibrium were given by Sir William Thomson in a paper published in the same year as Clebsch's, but read on
[1397.]

we must put

27, 1862, a year later than Clebsch's was written. William Thomson's conclusions will be dealt with in our Chapter XIV. They differ considerably in form from Clebsch's

ember

as cited above.

When

(f>

is

independent of

t,

we have

where

and

'

are

solid

spherical

harmonics of order

n.

Substituting we ultimately obtain the shifts in a form which is explicitly free from the somewhat complex coefficients involving
tli.-

l.istic

constants a and

6* [i.e.

in Sir \V.

Thomson's form of the

(m n)/p solution.

and n/p] which occur

[1398.]
:

In

th

fifth

section (8.
(viii),

equations of types form

(\ii)

and

209-11) Clebsch integrates the and shows that ^ in (vii) is of the

122

172
at)

CLEBSCH.

[13991400
n-l
I (r-at) + F*~

n(n + l)f
~~2~~

(T

+
a

at)

r +a
(r

(n

1)

n (n + 1) (n + 2)/"- 2 2.4

- of) +

^-

(r

+ at)

2...2nf(T-at)+F(r ' 1 + at

where a must be changed to b in the case of (viii), and the indices attached to ./"and ^denote derivatives of those functions.

To complete the solution it is necessary to determine from [1399.] the surface conditions the arbitrary functions /and F, which it must be remembered are to be solid spherical harmonics in x, y, z of the ord-r He demonstrates on S. This Clebsch achieves very ingeniously. n. 206 that dvn dwn (du n n (2n + 1) Q n -, = - 1-j - + -r 5 + -T dz \dx dy.
:

dy)

..... (x).

on the right there are no differentiations with regard to r. the shifts over two given concentric surfaces, say of radii i^ and r2 be given as functions of two position-angles, we can express them by surface spherical harmonics and by dividing or multiplying at the same time by the proper power of rx and r 2 replace Now unt vn wn are these surface harmonics by solid harmonics. known as the nth solid harmonics in u, v, w respectively, and these results may therefore be directly substituted in (x), as there is no Thus by aid of (vi) and (x) we can differentiation with regard to r. determine the six arbitrary functions which occur in n M' n and Tn It might seem from this that the motion was as exhibited in (ix). fully determined when the arbitrary shifts over two concentric spherical

Now

Hence

if u, v, w,
,

surfaces are given at each instant of time, but Clebsch guards himself against this assumption by the remark that though the surfaces of a spherical shell were fixed, its material could still move.

6 is entitled Vollstdndige Behandlung des Falles, wo einer bestimmten Kugelfldche gegebene Bewegung sick ins Unendliche ausbreiten kann, and occupies S. 211-15. Suppose a number of centres of disturbance of given character to be at finite distances which they apart in an infinite medium ; then the shifts U, V, would produce at any points of the medium are known. Now intro[1400.]
:

eine y

auf

1400]

CLEBSCH.
no disturbance and
-,

173
let the then the conditions to

duce into the medium a spherical surface of additional shifts be represented by u, v, be satisfied over the surface are
:

u+Z7=0,
These will
suffice to

v+V=0, determine u, v, w in
u+
V,

w+W =
W.
is

0.

previous article.

The

the manner suggested in the shifts at any point of space will then be

v+

V,

w+

an additional fact to be taken into consideration. One of the rigid spherical boundaries has really been taken at an infinite distance, hence, Olebsch asserts, there can be no inward bound wave or the terms in equation (ix) involving This conthe function (r + at) and its derivatives cannot exist. clusion Clebsch attributes on S. 211 to Helmholtz. Now U, V, may be expressed over the surface of the given sphere in terms of spherical harmonics and hence quantities like
It

must be noted, however, that there

Qn-lt

-*

n+l>

^n>
(x).

corresponding to them found lead us to the values of Q n

,

Pm TM

from equations similar to

for

But
:

these

we must

clearly

have

at the spherical surface.

In this manner Clebsch finds linear differential equations with constant coefficients for the arbitrary functions which occur in the values of Clebsch notes the following facts n Q M Tn with regard to these equations

If the incident disturbance be periodic, the reflected motion (i.e. (i) one corresponding to the particular integral) will also be periodic, i.e. the shifts will not contain the time outside the arguments of sine or cosine.

A free motion of the system (Le. one corresponding to the (ii) complementary function) is possible, even when there are no external centres of disturbance, and a spherical surface is rigidly fixed in the medium. But this motion cannot contain any periodic terms except special values of a/6, and these values of a/6 appear, to judge from th'equations in the case of the smallest values of n, to be negative and
tli'-n-fon- imiK>ssible. general proof of this Clebsch has, however, been unable to find (8. 215). These two results are of considerable interest; in particular the free motion of a mass of elastic material fixed to two rigid enclosing surfaces is deserving of closer investigation. It may possibly be found that some such masses are incapable of isochronous vibrations. The

impossibility of free vibrations in Clebscli's case, however, is solely the result of his n. -l.< ting the inward bound wave. Since the tree vibration in the case (ii) of a fixed spherical surface
is,

according to Clebsch, non-periodic, so every periodic disturbance will Inly reflected, for the only possible case of failure, that of equality
i,

I- t\\.

tli,

|>eriods of forced

and of

free vibrations,

cannot occur.

174
[1401.]

CLEBSCH.
In
f,
<

[1401

7,

Functionen

(S.

entitled: Einfachste Bewegungen. EinfuJiruiig der 216-21), Clebsch deals with the special case in

which the incident disturbance is given by a single term of the period 1 or where Pm Qn fn are of the form 27r/jfc,
,
:

But

these lead at once to

d?
and thus to determine
equations
:

and M' n we have from

.

(vii)

and

(viii)

the

"*

Clebsch then shows that

etc. are solid harmonics of the wth order, and are solutions of the equation

where

Hn Hn
,

'

Fn (), $n (s)

+
:

2n +

2 dV,

-- + O = 0.

These solutions are as follows

where

2.4.
2.sn+2
or

w+8

(n-8) ...... (n+4) _

2.4.6.8.sw+6

(n-4) ...... (n+5)

2.4.6.sn+4
-s<>
*
2

2. 4...10.sn+6

To

have

slightly

avoid the confusion of the symbol t being used with two different meanings, changed Clebsch's notation throughout.

1403]

CLEBSCII.

175

are the consecutive numerators and denominators respectively of the convergents to the continued fraction

*"=-! M - +
[1402.1

01111 +8888
5+
+

etc.

From

the values of

MM M
P

'

and

He thus /*+!, and ultimately u nt vn and n (S. 220). TI reduces the problem to the determination of which will n ...... n follow at once from (xi), since Q M n and n are known in terms of
$_! and

T w

nt

Clebsch finds those of

'

C., ?., T* by Art. 1400. In the case of a single spherical surface, over which there is no shift, no function of r + at can occur (Art. 1400), so that the terms in " and vl n H as functions n disappear, and Clebsch easily finds //n ",

of the given quantities

PM Q n and Tn

8-18 (S. 222-62) deal with the case of a single centre of [1403.] disturbance, and like previous portions of the memoir are very characteristic of Clebsch's remarkable power of analysis. In this case the solution of the equation

for

a disturbance symmetrical about the source x

:

consists of

terms of the form

rin

(-*)
and
2

cos-

(It

-at)

E
a

where

R = V(*-*

+ (y - y

+ (* -

o)

These may be replaced by the exponential term

and the
type:

shifts

due to a disturbance of the kind considered

will be of the

ff-ct^-r R
dR\

R
......

(xiv),

by our Art. 1394, the 6"

l>eing constants.

176
If #! be the
first,

CLEBSCH.

[1404

U
:

the second term of U,

:

we have
:

Ut

Fj

TFj

::

x- x

-y

z-z

a function only of R and t. Thus the total shift is in the direction of motion of the wave, and is a function only of the are distance from the centre of disturbance and of the time. therefore dealing with a spherical wave of longitudinal vibrations. For the second terms we have

and

#!*

+ V? +

W?

is

We

while

2 Uf + F2 +

is

not independent of

X-XQ

y-y<>
1

z-z
'

IT
We

'

or the direction-cosines of the line from the centre of disturbance to F2 see that the shifts the point disturbed. 9t z are perpendicular to this line, and are also parallel to the plane

They correspond therefore

[1404.]

to a

wave

of transverse vibrations.
to find the value of

The next
1

stage in the problem

,

is
.

-mfiv-i

or of

cos

mR

and

sinmR

-j^e

in solid spherical harmonics, This is accomplished being a constant. 9 (S. 224-7). by Clebsch in Although it is impossible to reproduce the whole of the analysis of this special case, these expansions may be given here as they seem likely to be serviceable in a number of problems quite independent of the present one. I may cite them as follows
:

fcos mR} = 3 {sin mR] m *

(cos(mr
Isin
x

)l

..

l/

<"">

(:)}

(sin (wr * <""> {cos

.

Y| "I

(rj}J
(rar) cos

[f

(7>ir)

sin (mr)

(mr)]

cos

m
x [j^ (mr) cos (mr)
<

(mr) sin (mr)]

[,

(mr " )

fcos (mr)} _ M- ^ + f \ lsm(mr )J

.

<#> 2

(mr v )

(sin
\

(mr

)l ~|

lcos(mr )JJ

[/a (mr)

sin (mr)

<

(wir) cos

(mr)]

x [y*8 (mr) cos (mr)

^> 3

(mr) sin (mr)]

(xv).

etc .............................................................

14051406]

CLEBSCH.
are given by our

177 and

/ and harmonic
Here
:

<f>

(xiii),

YH

is

the solid spherical

7n = (rr
and

c)

Pn (cos
JR

<f>),

where cos <f>

cos <.

= Ji* + r * - 2rr

identity we may of course put on the right-handside of (xv) r = r and r = r , but the form in which we have left it shows us at once how to apply the operators A 1 and V* of our Art 1395 to it. This

As an

application is required in the further course of Glebsch's analysis.

In 10 (S. 228-9) Clebsch expands U V, in solid harmonics the aid of He thus obtains the spherical by (xv). disturbance, due to the source at # y z at any point x, y z on a spherical surface of radius r with centre at the origin. In 11
[1405.]
t ,

229-33) he deals with the case of an incident wave of purely longitudinal vibrations (U^ Vlt TF,) and he shows that such a wave always produces reflected waves of both longitudinal and transverse vibrations. In 12 (S. 233-6) we have the case of an incident wave of purely transverse vibrations (U9 Fs TTa );
(S.
,

it

shown that with one exception, the reflected wave consists 13 (S. partly of longitudinal and partly of transverse vibrations. deals with the case of no reflected 236-40) exceptional longiis

tudinal vibrations.
shifts

This case occurs when the resultant of the

parallel to a plane which is perpendicular to t the line joining the centre of disturbance to the centre of the reflecting spherical surface, i.e. in the notation of our Art. 1403,
is

U%t Vtt

we have
(T
i

(riff" :;*:*:%.

So far Clebsch has confined himself to a single centre [1406.] 15 (S. 247-50) he deals of disturbance. In 14 (S. 240-6) and with the special problem of determining the system of centres of
disturbance which
if

distributed over a spherical surface inside

the reflecting sphere would our Art. 1400 and compare

Art

produce the reflected motion (see A different system is 1312).

is is

necessary for the two types of vibration, and what

distribution of systems of disturbance

quite different for

more the waves

nt different The whole investigation, although the results periods. are very complex, is of interest, especially when we compare it with
si
it 11

la

res

instigations dealing with by the method of images.

i

fluid

motion in and about

178

CLEBSCH.
:

[1407

16 (S. 250-4) is entitled Untersuchung des Falks, wo bei [1407.] massig grosser Wdlenldnge der Radius der reflectirenden Kugelsehr klein ist. Clebsch commences by remarking that the case in which, e being a case the radius of the reflecting sphere, ktja and ktjb are very large, of great importance in the application of elastical theory to optics, On the does not admit of any great simplification in the formulae. other hand the case in which these quantities are small, or the radius of the reflecting sphere is small as compared with the wave-length, admits of great simplification. We can in this case for the incident motion replace for points in the neighbourhood of the reflecting
sphere
:

e-l*"-

-K

and

-S-i M
g

.-;*-'
by
r

and

-|^-i
r
respectively.

Starting from these Clebsch determines the principal terms in the He shows various functions on which the values of u, v, w depend. that it is only in the immediate neighbourhood of the reflecting sphere that its influence is of large magnitude, but that at greater distances, it is of the order of the radius of the sphere see his S. 254. He divides (e) his investigation into two parts. The first occupies 17 (S. 254-9) and deals with the reflected disturbance at points remote from the The reflecting sphere but not necessarily from the disturbing centre. approximate results are given on S. 256, but they are too long to be cited here. On the other hand they take simpler forms, when the disturbed point is at a great distance alike from the centre of disturbance and from the reflecting sphere. In this case the type of
:

shift,

due

to the reflected

motion only,

is

given by
ro\

A mklt
7

---a

aj

+ aC (1Q - 1 cos
t

-where
:

............ (xvi),

2ir/k is the period of the disturbance,

(7,

C",

C", C'" determine its amplitude as in our Art. 1403,

r = distance of disturbed point from centre of reflecting sphere, r = distance of centre of disturbance from the centre of sphere, n of r of r, and 1 I, m, n are the direction cosines is the angle between r and r = X is the angle between the planes rr and C'x + C"y + G"'z 0, is the angle between the perpendicular p to the latter plane and \j/
,

G = V c^Tc^Tcr*,

<

HOD]
r

CLEBSCH.

179
to

while and r
,
.

'

ra

',

nj are the direction cosines of the perpendicular

only
r,
I,

Obviously

it is

m,

n,

<j>

and x which change with the

posi-

tion of the disturbed point. Clebsch's results on S. 257 do not all agree with the above.
for his constants

n and a

the values

arr

He

gives

and

L
,

where
.

I find in his

brr,-

notation the same values multiplied by the factor

3a2

^-*

On S. 257-8 Clebsch draws a number of conclusions as to the These follow at once from the general character of the vibrations. trigonometrical form in which we have displayed his results in (xvi). Indeed in that form, they are obvious on inspection.
[1408.] The second part of Clebsch's investigations deals with the disturbance at points very close to the reflecting sphere, when the centre of disturbance is supposed to be at a considerable distance. This 18 (S. 25962). In the notation of the occupies the final section preceding article Clebsch finds shifts due to the reflected motion only, of the type :

(xvii).

Thus
tions.

deal with

in the neighbourhood of the reflecting sphere we have only to two waves, one of longitudinal and one of transverse vibra-

Clebsch instead of discussing the motion as given by (xvii) adds to it the shift due to the direct action of the disturbance, i.e. the real part of

.........

(\MH),
for -

so far as terms of the order l/r are concerned.

The only
in the first

difference this

makes

is

that

we must

read

(xvii), so that

term within each pair of curled brackets in equations of the u t v, w now vanish for r ^ c, as of course they ought

to do.

[1409.]

Frnni

above manner Clebsch forms expressions

the values of the shifts as expressed in the for the amplitude of tin-

180

CLEBSCH.

[14.101411

longitudinal and transverse vibrations in the immediate neighbourhood of the reflecting sphere. He concludes
:

That the amplitude of the longitudinal vibrations greatest for points whose directions from the centre of the
(i)

will

be

reflect-

ing sphere are nearly perpendicular to the line joining that centre to the centre of disturbance.
(ii)

That the amplitude of the transverse vibrations

will

be

greatest for points whose directions from the centre of the reflecting sphere lie near the plane which passes through the line

joining the centre of the sphere to the centre of disturbance (r ) and the line p perpendicular to the plane G'x + G"y + C'"z = (termed by Clebsch the Axe der Bewegung, Axe der einfallenden

Schwingungen and
(iii)

also

Axe der Schwingungen).

u, v,

That as the values of

x, y,
z,

w, do not alter

when

x, y,

are changed to

respectively, the formulae to this

for other

approximation give no trace of a shadow. It would be interesting to know, if this result be true

than
field

elastic media.

We might

easily place in the electro-magnetic

a non-conducting sphere the radius of which would be small as compared with the wave-length of a possible disturbance. Would such a sphere have a shadow ?
[1410.] Although Clebsch, as usual, seems more interested in his analytical processes than in their physical applications, and makes no attempt to deduce numerical results, there is still so

much of physical suggestion in his memoir, that quite apart from the analytical merits, it will repay close study. Special applications to several simple physical problems appear to be placed by it within reach of ordinary calculation, while the contributions it otfers to
the theory of solid spherical harmonics are of wider physical value than is suggested by the title of the memoir.

seems well to consider in this chapter the memoir which we have had occasion to refer in our Arts. by Gehring 1292-3 and 1375 and which is closely related to the researches of Kirchhoff and Clebsch. It was published at Berlin in 1860 as a dissertation for the doctorate and is entitled De aequationibus
[1411.]
It

to

1412

1413]

CLEBSCH.

181

differentialibus quibus a equilibrium et motus It contains 30 quarto pages, definiuntur.

laminae crystallinae and is dedicated to

Kirchhoff.

The object of [1412.] introductory paragraph

:

the memoir

is

stated

in

the following

In et motus laminae elasticae tractando cl. Sophie problemate aequilibrii Germain, Lagrange, Poisson conjecturas fecerunt, quas falsas esse cl. Kirchhoff in diarii Crelliani tomo XL demonstravit. Qui novam theoriam deduxit ex principiis, quae quidem non minus sunt hvnothetica, quae tamen similia sunt iis, quibus cl. Jac. Bernoulli usus est ad baculi elastici aequilibrium et oscillationes definienda et quae theoriam praebuerunt satis experiments congruentem. In recentiore commentatione (Diar. Crell. LVI) cl. Kirchhoff theorema proposuit generale, cujus ope fere omnia elastic it at is problemata accuratissime solvi possunt. Undo mini liceat, nulla facta conjectura physica, solum mathematicis deliberationibus utens, aequationes deducere, quarum integratione aequilibrium et motus laminae elasticae crystallinae vel non crystallinae definiuntur sub ea conditione, ut tantum infinite paullum (sicj) ex Quae theoria a me constituetur, in aequilibrii statu lamina progrediatur. casu laminae non crystallinae easdem praebet aequationes ac inventas a cL Kirchhoff et confirmat igitur conjecturas, quibus usus est. Sed non minus facile casus laminae crystallinae ea continetur (p. 5).

is

One or two remarks may be made on this. The historical reference evidently based on the statement in Kirchhoff 's memoir on plates see our Art. 1234. But it is very inexact. Lagrange so far as he went made no false conjecture, and Poisson's work ought not to be placed on the same footing with that of Sophie Germain. The criticism of KirchhofFs first hypothesis as hypothetical is just (see our Art. 1236), but the author can hardly mean that he has really deduced the plate equations nulla facta conjectura physica, solum mathematicis deliberationibus utens / That would indeed be a feat equally brilliant with the discovery of the whole theory of elasticity in Taylor's Theorem The general theorem of KirchhoflTs see our Arts. 928*, 299-300. which is referred to is that of our Art. 1253. Finally by a "crystalline body" the author means one having 21 independent elastic constants; the two things are, however, by no means necessarily identical.
: :

in a general manner the value of Pages 5-1 [1413.] the shifts for a plate of isotropic material and correspond to our Arts. >-4. Qehring does not define what he means by a lamina, but his
"2

determine

method shows that

definitely small thickness.

BO far his results are only true for a plate of in The reason for neglecting certain terms and

retaining others is rather vaguely based (p. 10 of the memoir) on a reference to a similar neglect in Kin -hhofFs memoir on thin rods: see So far Geh ring's results would appear to be true for Art. 1258. jinit'- .shifty and they agree with those given by Clebech on 8. 270-1 of his Treatise or by Kirchhoff in his Vorfaungcn; aee our Art 1294.

182

CLEBSCH.

[14141415

Gehring next proceeds to find an expression for the elastic [1414.] This is still I think true, admitting Kirchhoff's potential of the plate. to 14 for finite shifts, and the result on that page assumptions, up p.
agrees with Kirchhoff's Vorlesungen S. 455 (see our Art. 1294). have then (pp. 15-18) the equations for the longitudinal and transverse shifts of the plate supposing it to be only infinitely little displaced from the position of equilibrium. The final results ought to agree with equations (13) and (14) of Kirchhoff's S. 459 (see our Art. 1296), but they do not. To begin with, the value of 2 given in equation 24 (6) is quite wrong, and the value for k given on p. 17 is likewise wrong. To bring Gehring's results into unison with Kirchhoff's, it is necessary to replace in equations (28) and (29) by \ (1 + ), but far the coefficients 1 + more considerable modifications would have to be made in the steps by which these equations are reached. It is to be noted that Gehring works out fully only the equations of the shifts in the plane of the see our plate ; for the transverse shift he cites Kirchhoff's results Arts. 1298-9. Gehring's d/da is the l+du/dx of Kirchhoff, and his dy/db the l + dv/dy of Kirchhoff.

We

The second part of Gehring's paper occupies pp. 18-30 and [1415.] deals with the equations for the longitudinal and transverse shifts of a
thin plate whose elastic material has twenty-one constants. The results ought to be of importance, for few plates possess elastic isotropy, and for testing various physical theories it is often desirable to deal mathematically with material possessing considerable elastic complexity. have here to determine the value of the elastic potential subject to the relations (see our Art. 1294)

We

"zx

yz

= "zz = 0,

z being the direction of the normal to the plate. These relations enable us to express o-^, o-^ and sz as functions of the three remaining strains cr^, sx and sy and thus to express the elastic potential per unit volume as a function of tr,^, sxy sy and the 21 This is done by Gehring on pp. 18-21. His results thus constants. far appear to be correct, but I think might be somewhat simplified. The next stage is to substitute the values of these strains (e.g. those of our Art. 1294) in the elastic potential and integrate it through the

thickness of the plate. three of the expressions r+c

I

But Gehring makes

:

errors in the value of all

r+c
I

r+c

Jc
,
,

xxz dz,

Jc

xyz dz,

J-c

yy

dz,

which he gives towards the bottom of p. 21 (2c is here the thickness of the plate, and xx yy xy correspond in our notation to sx sy and o^). The denominator 3 in the last terms of the values of these expresThe terms thus wrong involve only the sions ought not to be there. first power of tJie thickness, and therefore their error ought only to
,

affect the equations for the shifts in the plane of the plate.

1416]

CLEBSCH.

183

Gehring gives the equations for the transverse vibrations (one equation for the shift at any point of the mid- plane and the boundaryconditions) as (43) and (44) on p. 28, and the equations for the co-planar vibrations of the plate (two for the shifts at any point of the mid-plane iu the plane of the plate and the two boundary-conditions) as (46), He then remarks that these equations agree (47) and (48) on p. 29. with those for an isotropic plate if we make the proper assumptions But as to the relations of the 21 elastic constants which he gives. '^ ?>t found that this is not the fact for the last set of equations (46-48), or Gehriug's results for the longitudinal vibrations are The first set of equations (43-44) do give the correct erroneous. results for the case of isotropy, or pro tanto we have confirmation of the correctness of Gehring's equations for the transverse vibrations of a 21 -constant plate. In conclusion Gehring remarks of these equations
:

hodierno scientiae analyticae statu

Integratio aequationum (43) et sequentium tain difficilis videtur ease, ut in fieri non possit (p. 30).

Nor is the difficulty confined only to the 21 -constants, even the equations for a thin plate of isotropic material had up to that time only been solved for the special case of a circular boundary.

Summary. The three German elasticians with whose [1416.] researches we have dealt in this chapter mark a very great advance
in the

mathematical treatment of
stands,

mann
in

elastic problems. Franz Neuhowever, on a somewhat different footing from

His style is clearer and he keeps more mind the physical bearings of his analysis. He possesses much originality and in his investigations on photo-elasticity and the
Kirchhoff and Clebsch.

be breaks almost untrodden ground, which both physicists and mathematicians have hardly yet exhausted. Clebsch, while by far tbe greatest analyst of tbe three, puts physics (and tbe technologists for whom be is professedly writing) in the
elasticity of crystals

background. Stimulated by Saint-Venant's work, he bas not Saint- Tenant's practical experience, and in simplifying the latter's
for prisms and in extending his processes to plates, he is rather love of tbe involved than by guided by analytical processes th. MI- practical No can read mathematician, however, applications.
i

Its

Clebsch 's Treatise without recognising the suggestive character of its analysis, and appreciating the mental power of its author.
MiofTs researches in the
to
field

of elasticity, like Lame"s, suffer

some extent from being out of touch with physical experience.

184
This

CLEBSCH.

[1416

is markedly the case in those contributions to our subject, which border on electro-magnetism and optics. But Kirchhoff's treatment of both the rod and plate problems, if it cannot be said to have been final, still advanced those problems a long stage.

Future discussions will probably serve to define better the limits within which Kirchhoff's assumptions are legitimate, and will possibly add further terms, of minor importance except in special
cases, to his expressions for the strain-energy they will hardly, however, displace Kirchhoff's investigations as the latter have done Poisson's and Cauchy's. In our chapter on Boussinesq we shall endeavour to give some general comparison of the French
;

and German methods of dealing with rod and plate problems.

CHAPTER

XIII.

BOUSSINESQ.

SECTION

I.

M' amirs dealing directly with Elasticity and Molecular Action.

[1417.]

Venant

is

of the most distinguished of the pupils of SaintM. J. Boussinesq, member of the Institut, and at present

ONE

Professor

of the

Faculty of Science, Paris.

Notice sur les

>nix scientifiques de M. J. Boussinesq (Notice I.) was published at Lilje in 1880, when Boussinesq was a candidate for membership

and an Extrait de la Notice sur les litres et trcwaux scientifiques de M. J. Boussinesq... et supplement a cette Notice pour <i< ana publics depuis cette tpoque (Notice II.) was publish^! in l.ss.">, also at Lille, when Boussinesq was again a candidate. In is so Saint-Venant made an Analyse succincte des travaux de M. Boussinesq, professeur a la FaciM des sciences de Lille, which appeared in ;i lithographed form. The Notices I. and II. as well
ot th.

Institut,

as the Analyse succincte form a very useful bibliographical guide to Boussinesq 's researches prior to 1885, but my r&ume and criticism
ot

his

th<

work in the present chapter are based on the perusal ot in,-iii..irs themselves. Boussinesq 's in\. MIL: tions extend far
elasticity,

beyond

dealing in particular with light, heat, hydro-

lynainics

and the philosophical basis of the fundamental

i-T.
ii.

ofdyiiainir.il science.
T.

K.

i:;

186

BOUSSINESQ.

[1418

[1418.] fitude nouvelle sur Fdquilibre et le mouvement des corps solides dlastiques dont certaines dimensions sont tres-petites par e rapport a d'autres. Journal de mathtmatiques, 2 SeVie, T. XVI.,
pp. 125-274.
Paris, 1871.

This, the
:

above

title

and with the

sub-title

Des

Premier Memoire with the tiges, was presented to the

3, 1871, and analysed in the Comptes rendus, T. LXXII., pp. 407-10. Let x be the direction of the tangent at any point to the central line of a bar, beam or rod, and let y, z, two lines at rightThen Saintangles, be taken in the plane of the cross- section.

Academie April

Venant in 1853-6 (see our Arts. 1 and 69) had obtained two solutions of the general equations of elasticity on the assumptions = yz = 0, and that the central line is initially straight. that yy =
on the principle of the elastic of equipollence statically equivalent load systems (see our Arts. 8, 21, 100) to correspond to the torsion of a prism about its axis

These solutions were shewn

and

to the flexure of

a prism either under an isolated central load

or as a terminally loaded cantilever. In obtaining these solutions Saint- Venant had not supposed elastic isotropy, but merely that

the elasticity was the same in

central axis.
sections,

all

planes perpendicular to the

He

and

applied his results to a great variety of crossshewed that they did not justify the earlier
:

see our Arts. 29 and 75. hypotheses of Cauchy and Poisson With regard to Saint- Venant's solutions there is an important
distinction

between that

for the case of torsion

case of flexure.

In the former case the shears

and that w and

for the
xz

are

fundamental, and their values must be ascertained in order to calculate the torsional resistance of a rod, however small the dimensions of its cross-section as compared with its length. In
xz are shewn to be practically of the cross-section are small, whenever the dimensions negligible a and the discovery of their i.e. in the case of what is rod, really values is only needed as a step towards shewing that they are negligible, and so justifying the Bernoulli-Eulerian theory. Clebsch in his Treatise (see our Art. 1332) had sought the most general solution of the equations of elasticity subject to the conditions yy = ** = yZ = 0, and had thus reached a solution of those equations embracing both the flexure and torsion problems of But as in all Clebsch's work this result was only Saint- Venant.

the latter case the shears *P and

141 H]

BOUSSINESQ.

187

obtained for the case of bi-constant isotropy. He dealt also with tin- case of rods of double curvature. Kirchhoff in a memoir of

1858 (see our Art. 1251) had endeavoured to give a complete theory of strain in thin rods with an initially curved central line. But a defect of Kirchhoff s theory has been pointed out by SaintVenant (see our Art. 316), and the objections against it are again raised by Boussinesq in the present memoir (pp. 127-9 and VII.
In the equations (vii) of our Art. 1257, Kirchhoff the terms Now Boussinesq neglects du/ds, dv/ds and dw/ds. out that this has no d points (p. 179) assumption priori justification, but that the terms neglected appear to be of the same order
pp. 176-81).

hose retained.

He

cites cases in
it

which the assumption would

satisfied
0,
is

not be true, but remarks that Saint- Venant's hypothesis,

-atisfied
in. t

^==9 =

is

in

general

fulfilled.

when Thus it

in

Saint- Venant's cases of flexure and torsion but

is

when

there

an appreciable longitudinal or buckling load

(see our Arts. 911* and 1361):

En re"8ume", la theorie de M. Kirchhoff conduit, dans le cas de dont la contexture est symetrique par rapport a leurs sections normal rs, au\ vraies formulas approchees d la flexion et de la torsion; mais elle in. ji.-miit n-poser sur uue hypothese douteuse ct priori, consistent a
H.imettre que les sections normales, primitivement e"gales entre elles, sont Elle a re, sur une longueur h'nie, e*gales apres les de'placements.
i

M'.J.

<|u

il

les quantites qu'elle neglige comnitactions tangentielles exercees, dans le cas de la flexion travers les divers elements plans (Time de ces sections, forces est cependant inteVesxant d'etudier, puisque leur resultante est egale 'lit ran a celle des actions exteYieures qui produisent la flexion
1

inconvenient de laisser partui

rites, les
i

128-9).
[14-19.]
.iiiiji

Boussinesq in

ity

tin-

the present memoir endeavours to labours of previous investigators by a discussion of

tin-

following topics:

to demonstrate that Saint- Venant's assumption This us legitimate and necessary for thin rods. ti to saying that the mutual action of the fibres finite distance from their extremities is invariably directed along tin ii The demonstration (ami tin- resulting .|i; <: i.ms for a t'nii tangents.

(w

--** = 0)

(a)

He

seeks
is

..

rod) Boussinesq OOnaidorx the funrlam-!ital part of

liis

"H expose pour

la

tige,

cas general oil de* pit oM.jur.s SIM -ai. -nt pre dew extrdmit^a, mais encore MIT la n inane et oh celle-ci serai t h<Jtx5rogt-ne, mais do contexture s\
le
!

Mt

188

BOUSSTNESQ.

[1420

trique par rapport k ses sections normales, et formde de fibres qui, Isoldes, subiraient les m&nes ddformations latdrales si on les soumettait a de simples tensions, produisant sur toutes la indme dilatation longitudinale (p. 127).
(b)

The general equations

for the strain of a thin rod are given.

These correspond closely to Olebsch's results for Saint- Ven ant's problem dealt with, however, on the supposition that the elasticity is not isotropic but the same for each cross-section: see our Arts. 1332 and 1360.
Boussinesq points out a certain analogy between hydrodynamics (c) and the torsion of prisms. Another hydrodynamic analogy had been previously noticed by Thomson and Tait in their Treatise on Natural
Philosophy, Art. 705.
(d)

Oxford, 1867.

discusses (from the general elastic equations however) a problem already dealt with more fully by Seebeck, namely, the influence of rigidity on the transverse vibrations of a string see our Arts. 471-2.
:

He

We

will

now

consider these points in some detail.

After the introduction, which deals with the historical [1420.] I. and u. aspect of the problem, Boussinesq passes in (pp. 130-44) to a general discussion of the equations of elasticity and the expressions of the stresses in terms of the strains for various types of elastic media. In the first section (pp. 132-5) Boussinesq gives a proof of the relations of compatibility of the types:

d
2

/da-^x

dar,^

d(ryz

fa

\dy
dy*

_
dydz
first

dtf

stated by Saint- Yenant see our Arts. 112 and 190. In the second section two special cases of distribution of
:

elastic

homogeneity are considered, (a) when the medium is symmetrical about the plane yz see our Art. 78 (b) when the medium is isotropic round the axis of x. In the latter case we may write
:

= \'6 + 2p = + vsx = \0 + VSX +

2fU?2,

w = p"<rxy

Boussinesq by aid of these equations expresses the strains in terms be the strain energy of the he stresses (p. 140). He further shews that if unit volume per

dW dW

dW

dW

(iii).

1-lM

1422]
in.

BOUSSINESQ.
(pp.

189
:

dune tige de tresBoussinesq takes for his tic body one which is sensibly cylindrical for a length comparable with its transverse dimensions, the total length being much greater than He supposes the total shifts to be as considerthese latter dimensions. ate as one pleases, but the strains at each point to be small, u, v w represent the small shifts relative to some chosen point of any point of tin- small element of the rod bounded by two adjacent cross-sections. The plant- //: is taken parallel to the unstrained position relative to the All this is in practical element of some cross-section of the element. agreement with Kirchhoff's treatment: see our Art. 1257. Boussinesq considers the cross-section (o>) to have any number of cavities and that the contour of the cross -section (s) may thus consist of several closed Further the constitution of the material of the rod is supposed curves. t< vary from one point to another, very gradually along the axis of x, mt rapidly and even abruptly if desired along certain lines in the plane of the cross-section. No load is applied to the curved surface of the rod, but only to the terminal cross-sections. Boussinesq then proves the following identity, U, V, being any functions of x, y, z, which are continuous over o>, and the same statement holding for their first derivatives, except along lines at which the material
[1421.]

144-50)

is

entitled

titude

'f.

section.

Considerations preliminaires.

abruptly changes

its

constitution

xt 9 -j-

^/dV + dW\] ^dU + tx ^dU ^dV + ^dW -r- + w *z + yz

dy
flz

^dy

-j-

dz

,-

\dz

dy )}

,-

dut

the integrations extending all over the cross-section to, and -V, )'. /. This result easily flows from multiplying the U'ing the body-forces. and integrating by parts over the body stress-equations by U, V, area of the cross-section the sum of the results so obtained.

[1422.]

We

now come
I

to the fundamental part of Boussinesq's

argiuiK nt (pp. 148-53). onviction to my mind.

must confess that it by n< means carries Boussinesq aims at demonstrating that
:

nt-Venant's assumption

'""*

,,,

"""*

=,-

""*

A =o

........................ (a)

/\

is

practically true, or that these stresses are negligible

ascmnpaivd
to

\\itli

the

remaining

three

\vlnn
its

no

load

is

applied

the

t;ice

of the rod except near

extremities.

The assumption

(a)

may

possibly be incorrect for the parts of the rod very near

the extremities.
Boussinesq's argument seems to be of the
tnll-.^in^

kind

190

BOUSSINESQ.

[1422

Considering only portions of the cross-section where the elastic constitution of the material of the rod is continuous, it is natural
axis of
to suppose the stresses here are also continuous. = *z j 0, hence y meets the surface

But where the

Theorem (Boussinesq does not appeal

there
is

to this theorem,

an implicit assumption of
:

it)

by Maclaurin's but I think we must have results of

the type
yy

= (y

y)

~-\ + z
dy
/o

-J-dz /o
)

+ terms

involving the square of the

linear dimensions of the cross-section.

the distance of the origin of coordinates from the at which the axis of y cuts the contour of the cross- section. point Similar results will hold for all the other stresses yz, xy, r,
is
,

Here y

which vanish at certain points of the contour. Boussinesq's words

:

But

to

quote

00 ayant toutes ses dimensions tres-petites, les forces ne peuvent qu'etre fort petites dans toute son etendue par rapport aux valeurs absolues moyermes de leurs derive'es premieres en y et z (p. 148).

Done,
,

la section
r,

w,

2/2,

xy

seems to me that this argument fails because it does not what are the quantities relative to which the y and z of the cross-section are small; y and z cannot be absolutely small. In other words exactly the same objections apply to Boussinesq's theory as to Cauchy's, Poisson's and Neumann's expansions of the stresses
It

state

in

section: see our Arts. 466*, 618*, 29, 75

terms of the coordinates of a point in the plane of the crossand 1225-6. Boussinesq
:

continues

jcx,

une longueur tinie de la tige, des en ?/, exige que les derivees en x de toutes ces quantites ne soient pas d'un ordre de grandeur plus e'leve' que 1'ordre de ces quantite's elles-memes, si ce n'est toutefois aux points voisins des extremites de la tige, on plus ge'ne'ralement, de ceux ou la constitution de la matiere et les conditions dans lesquelles elle se trouve varieraient brusquernent dans le sens des x. Si Ton fait abstraction de ces points tout particuliers, les deux dernieres Equations (c) 1 pourront etre re'duites a
D'ailleurs
y?,
...

la

continuite,

sur

...

et de leurs derive'es

=Q
dy

dy
1

dz

+=0
dz

.................. (v)

This symbol refers to the body-stress equations:

see for

example our Art.

1517*.

BOUSSINESQ.
<Tet, si

191

nous r<nM<l
t

-runs,

;rmes

d^fdy d^/dz

par exemple, la seconde des equations (c), pourront etre, soit de 1'ordre de dZj/dx, soit

incornparablement plus petita, soit incomparablement plus grands. et ? seront, d'apres ce qui pr<$cde, Dans les deux pivmiers cas, n.'-u'li^vibles par rapport a xy, et Ton pourra poser en comparaison yy = 0, dans le troisidme cas, la seconde Equation (e) se reduii a ; siMi.-siblcinent aux deux terraes dyy/dy, d^z/dz, car le dernier pY n'est Done on pourra poser toujours jamais que de 1'ordre de dxy/dx.

= dy?/dy + d^/dz

(pp. 148-9).
is

Tbe argument here

that

yy

and dyy/dy are of very different

orders of small quantities, while *y and dxy/dx are of the same I do not see what step in the reasoning hinders yy from order. being a function of the form c sin y say, which vanishes for y = TT,
y

the units of the linear dimension of the cross-section being taken In this case yy and dyy/dy do not seem to as small as we please.

be of a totally different order, and it would therefore appear that Boussinesq's argument is not sufficient.
to the order of follows that when the elastic distribution is symmetrical with i-L(ard to the plane of yz, the second fluxions with regard to x of tli. <TX and the stretches syj sz will be negligible as slides o-p, comjMired with their second fluxions with regard to y and z. This lufollows at once from the expressions for the strains in terms <>t \vc ivmcinbcr the above relations between the order of th ll Hence from the relations of type (i) we have fluxions of the stresses.

[1423.]

Assuming Boussinesq's conclusions as

quantities,

it

&,

~
dy*
if

~ Q
dz*
:

{)

Xi> Xa

^ arbitrary functions of x
*

= Xi + X* + X3y ........................

(vii).

Putting
(p

U = Q, V = v,
aid of (v)
:

W-w

in equation (iv), Boussinesq obtain-

U9) by

..................

(viii).

Knrtln-r by

nit
)

ting

u--o,

w
r((7^+0 t j^(7if?)v^-0
r

..............
(i

where
r.v

(',, MI

Ca

(7,

n,

are any constantH whatever. _ for the strains in (riii),

xire*i*ing the integral as

192

BOUSSINESQ.

[14-24

the sum with positive coefficients of the integrals of the squares of four expressions linear in the stresses yy, ** and yz, a result obtained by aid of (ix), Boussinesq deduces that for a thin rod loaded only at the

terminals

Jy
or, Saint- Venant's assumption
:

= yz=-0

........................... (x),

see our Art. 1422.

[1424.]
stresses: see

this point as to the relative

Boussinesq in a later memoir has again returned to magnitude of the fluxions of the

our Art. 1433. The supposition he makes in that memoir, namely that the variation of the stresses parallel to the axis of a rod or to the mid-plane of a plate is very small as
:

compared with their variation

in the plane of the cross-section of the rod or perpendicular to the mid-plane of the plate, does not seem to rne established by the arguments used
:

Si done
1

011 fait

abstraction de ces regions restreintes, 1'equilibre d'un

trongon quelconque a fort peu pres prismatique presentera cette circonstance, que les composantes...des pressions et les deformations...y seront sensiblement les niemes, soit tout le long d'une meme fibre longiludinale perpendiculaire aux bases du prisme, s'il s'agit d'une tige, soit sur toute 1'etendue d'une couche quelconque parallele aux bases du prisme, s'il Au contraire, les memes pressious et deformations s'agit d'une plaque. varieront en general d'une maniere tres-notable dans les sens des dimensions transversales d'une tige on dans celui de Tepaisseur d'une II est d'ailleurs evident que les actions exterieures directement plaque. applique"es a la masse du trongon (y compris 1'inertie dans le cas d'un equilibre dynamique), et celles qui le sont a la portion de la superficie du corps qui fait partie de la surface du trongon, n'ont qu'une influence minime sur les forces xx, ... 'yz, ... toutes ces actions n'etant presque rien en comparaison de celles qui agissent sur le reste du corps et dont 1'enseuible donne lieu aux reactions interieures **, ... yz, .... (p. 164 of the memoir cited in our Art. 1433).

For the case of a rod

this supposition leads to

yy,
*, v*
t
,

^(**>

y)

.................. (A).

But Boussinesq shews that the narrower assumptions

are sufficient to lead to the

same

solution as that which

we

are

1 A small prismatic element of the rod bounded by two adjacent cross-sections, or of the plate bounded by the faces and two pairs of planes at right angles perpendicular to the plane face of the plate.

142.")]

r.orssiNESQ.

memoir. In fact they lead us to the and these last results 1 give us with some easy analysis (pp. 166-172 of the second memoir) the results
discussing from
the
first

results (6) of our Art. 317,

(vii)

and

(x) of the last article.

Saint- Venant has reproduced Boussinesq's argument, and in our Art 318 we have already cited his version of it, expressing at

the same time our doubts as to

its

sufficiency.

Changing the notation of Art. 317 to that of our present [1425.] discussion the last two conditions of (b) become
:

'fo-

dx
ils-

=n u,
d*w

rfcr^

dx
ds~

= u,
</-'

or,

dz

r = - (Lr jdi
** = -'3*>
d zw

ay

?*-

dx*

33
(XI)>

Hence by

(vii)

* = -<&>

d*v

or since

;(*

regard to y = z = 0.

and \3 are independent of y and z, the second fluxions with x of w and v may be supposed to be taken at the point In the case where the curvature is small, we see that x a

and
j.laues

x$ represent the changes in curvature of the central line in the

zx and xy respectively.

Thus

x,-g--y,,

-*-j--i,
R R R
,

(Y

z are the radii of curva(see p. 185 of the memoir of 1879), where y ture in the planes zx, xy, after strain, und Rf, 2 those before strain. Further Xi is evidently the stretch of th central line of the rod, or 8X , Hence we have obtained a physical interpretation of the as yet say. undetermined functions in (vii). Considering the portion of the rod on one side of any cross-section o>, let the moments of the applied load \>c and the body-forc-s .n tins portion round the axes 8 of x, y ami then since (x) holds we have t x , M^, respectively

In

2,

which

pnsdit investigation it is x, in the investigation of Art. 817 it is thu prixmatic axis. axes are supposed to be taken so that a right-handed sorew-mution in the direction towards *, and m> with cyclic interchange for each n\i
th
in
/

194

BOUSSINESQ.
(x) lead us as in our Art.

[1426
78 at once to

The conditions

7r

= Esx
find

8y

r) l

8xy

8z

= -V) a8XJ

whence from

(vii)

we

and

if be the component parallel to the axis of of load and body- forces acting on one side of <o
:

x of the whole system

F=
Hence:
Xi

xxdta

F/*<>

X,

sx and give in fact the elements of the solution of the problem of the thin rod so far as they are due to Here Boussinesq has followed Bresse (see our extension and flexure. Art. 515) and treated the cross-section as having a density equal to the Thus the centroid is found from the convariable stretch- modulus.

These determine the value of

ditions

=
I

while

^o> =

Ed^
KZ
.

3a>K/

define IE, K y

and

If we seek v and w from equations (8) of our Art. 78, we [1426.] determine them to be of the following form
:

Jxs2/

).]
2

,.

^X 2where
are ^4> Xs> Xe

))

the equations which body-stress equation, or

L

Now

undetermined functions of a; only. still remain to be satisfied are the

first

~f

~^

+ pX+

dx^

^ Xl

+ X*Z + X*^ =

'

and the equation

..(xv).

wdz-zxdy=Q,

over the contour of the section

If the values of o^, o-^ be calculated in terms of the fluxions of u and of the values of v and w given iu (xiv), and then ^?, ? be determined from their values in (7) of our Art. 78, we find a partial differential u and ^4 ^5, Xe simple functions of x, as equation for u involving only unknowns, together with a surface condition involving the same quanNow these equations will not suffice to determine the four tities. unknowns, but Boussinesq on pp. 1GO-1 shews that they completely and *zx. determine the values of
,

1427]

BOUSSINESQ.

195

In tlit- >|Kcial case where the elasticity and density are [1427.] is constant over the crosseverywhere uniform and the body-force section, Boussinesq works out completely the equations to determine ** and

of being applied only at definite points of the rod, is only a function of x in so far as it involves the body-force X, and thus
Tin- load
tin 11 (xiii)

or

dXl /dx=- P X/E.

Further
if

Sy and

Sa

be the total shearing loads on

&

parallel

to the axes of y

and

S,

= -dMz /dx and Sz =

:

dM /dx
)f

(see

our Art. 1361,.

(

Hence

dx jdx = SJEvutf,

dX3 /dx = Sy/Eu>Kz *

xy i)-

Thus equation (xv) becomes

-?- +
'*

*
ci>K

dy

dz

9 3
tf

win-nee

we can

take, if
d<f>

<f>

be an arbitrary function of y and z

S,y* n** 2u>K/

dz

=-^r~n dy 2<0K*

d<f>

(xvil).

Turning to equation

(7) of

our Art. 78, we find

'

^ = ef-h"V"
"**ef-h"l,

But
I

d
aid of (xvi)

dw

ll< IK

<

iy

and
e
,

(xvii)

we
f

find

^+
-r-,
///-

II" + n l"'\ in )

-.

=-

'?'$

>('/dz

<l-

O + 2

(ef

n h
f

-p
(l.i-

i"i>"\ hh

' t

St

-vTin
,
!

j=o.

-M!I

is

in

agreement with Boussinesq's

ulnlr wi.in-

tlili)isiimini.-

(44), p. 162, except that using tasinomic constants: see Art. 445.

196

BOUSSINESQ.
of (xv) gives us for the contour condition

[1427
:

The second equation

Finally from (xii)

we have

On pp. 162-5 Boussinesq considers the case of a section containing one or more holes. The problem here involves the usual modifications due to cyclosis in dealing with the function It will be noted that (xviii) and (xix) above are more general than Saint-Venant's results given in our Art. 82 as equation (19). It will be remembered that Saint- Venant finds for his fiexural see our Art. 80. This follows at once from the moment M, d^M/dx* = second and third body-stress equations which give, since Saint- Venant = supposes no body-forces: dxj//dx 0, d^/dz = Q: see our Art. 79, Boussinesq neglects the terms equation (11).
<f>.
:

dxy/dx + pY and d'zxjdx + pZ.

in his second
negligible as

and third body-stress equations, for he says p Y, pZ are of the same order at most as dTyjdx and dTx/dx, and these he holds to be
compared with terms like d^y/dy + d'yz/dz: see his p. 149 and our Art. 1422. Now his analysis leads to yp = "Tz = 'yz = 0. Hence I find it difficult to understand how d^/dx + /sFcan be small as compared with d"yyjdy + dyzjdz unless we have absolutely
:

If

we take the exact assumptions

of the second

memoir

(Art. 1424)

= 0,
then

= 0, and Boussinesq's apparently more general solution leads us again to Saint-Venant's, involving d^M/dx2 = 0. be not zero then it is impossible to put But if F and

Y=Z

yy for these quantities

:

^^ zz=^yz
,

= U,

/\

can (for example at certain points of a heavy beam other than those of external loading) be infinitely greater than p see a paper by the Editor or zx On the Flexure of Heavy Beams, Thus so far as Quarterly Journal of Mathematics, Vol. xxiv., p. 106. Boussinesq's theory is more general than Saint- Venant's, in that it Let us make the appears to allow of body-forces, I doubt its accuracy. additional assumption of the second memoir that such body-forces have only a vanishingly small influence on the stresses (p. 164 of the second
:

1428

1429]

BOUSSINESQ.
first

107
body-stress equation

memoir). We easily find by differentiating the with regard to x and using (xxi)
:

p r

dZ dX\ <PT* (dY -s- + j - -j- = -TT dz dx? doe/

I I

...

\dy

(xxil).

the body-forces are to be wholly neglected we have which leads to Saint- Venant's results, or Xi Xa> Xa mus * ^ all linear functions of x, whence by (xi) and (xiii) the axial shifts can only be algebraic functions of the third degree in x, and either the loadm, or the original form of the rod must be extremely limited. If on the other hand the body-forces are not zero, it appears that a certain For the relation must be satisfied between them and the surface load. surface load and the body-forces fully determine Xi, Xa Xs> an(^ hence (xxii) and (vii) give a relation between them, which as a rule will
if

Now

d*jcx/dx*

0,

not be
If

satisfied.

take d*jcx/da? = 0, but extremely small, then it seems necessary that x,, Xa an d Xs should be extremely small, or the total longitudinal load and the changes of curvature very small ; but it must still be remembered that in this case, even at points distant from the points of application of the external load, yp, 7z and yr, although absolutely and small, are not at every point necessarily small relatively to To sum up this part of Boussinesq's investigation It does not seem to sufficiently justify the ordinary assumption of the Bernoulli-Eulerian = TV = y* = 0) for the cases either of a sensible continuous hypothesis ( loading or of body-forces, while in the cases in which continuous loading and body-forces produce insensible effects, it does not bring out clearly that the stresses neglected can at certain points be of the same order as some of those retained ; further it does not fully solve the difficulties involved in the result cftrx/cfo2 = 0, or what really amounts to the same

we do not

"

thing
*

d*F/dx*

0.

Pp. 165-76 of the memoir are occupied with a discussion of This is obtained by the distorted rod after the strain. el ml should he eoii)j>ared er.nibiniiig the shifts of short prismatic with the similar investigation due to Kirchhoff: BVU our Arts. 1257
[1-128.]
tin-

.shape

<>f

ft X'fJ.
l'l>.

whirh

\ve

176-81 contain the criticism of KirchhotPs treatment of rods, to have already referred: see our Art. 1418.
|

(HJ'.t
con>

^VIH, which occupies

pp.

181-94,

is

entitled:

Di-

tronfon de la tige en six actions e'lementaires, qui produisent respectivement une extension ou <>n, deux flexions 6gales deux flexions \negales une is an analysis into its component parts of the torsion. This et

<m totale excrete sur

un
t

solution

we have

.skct'-ln-.l

in

the above pages, and

it

resembles

198

BOUSSINESQ.

[1430

Clebsch's treatment of Saint- Venant's problem in S. 85-94 of his Theorie der Elasticitdt (see our Arts. 1333-9) except that Clebsch
dealt only with the equations for bi-constant isotropy and with the simple case of an initial straight central line. Boussinesq points out that in the case of the flexure problem

d^dx of our equation (xviii), Art. 1427, is zero, when either the cross-section has a centre of figure, or (2) the axis of z (1) an axis of symmetry and the elastic structure is symis (or y)
the
metrical about the plane of zx (or xy) (p. 188). Further since dwfdx and dzxfdx are either zero or negligible, it follows from (xvii), that d^/dz and d<f)/dy are sensibly indepen-

dent of x if Sy and Sz the total shears are constant from (xviii) that the like holds for d^dx, which
t

and hence
therefore

is

Thus for flexure in the cases of symmetry essentially a constant. mentioned above d^jdx is zero, and for torsion since Sy and Sz
are then zero

d^/dx may be

treated as practically a constant.

Boussinesq remarks that the case of torsion is the only one which requires us to integrate (xviii), for in the case of flexure the slides o-ycy and o-^ are negligible (pp. 174, 186 and 194).

especially

The next section of the memoir (pp. 194-204) deals more with the general laws of torsion. In this case o^ and cr^ have always to be found by the integration of a differential equation. Putting the total shears Sy and Sz zero, and dy^dx = a constant = T, we
[1430.]

have from

(xvii)

and

(xviii)

f*+ dy*
while from (xx)

+ (h +

h'") '

** +e
dydz
I

d + dz
2

...(xxiii),

2 (of- h"h'") r

=-

(-^y+-^
(xxiv),

as is easily seen by integrating by parts and using (xix), which now constant for the contour; but this constant may be supposed gives included in the value of <f> so that <f> = over the contour. Boussinesq shews that in the special case where h"+h"' = Q equations (xxiii) and (xxiv) are related to those for the steady motion of a viscous fluid in a tube, the cross-section of the tube being an orthogonal projection of that of the rod, at least for the case when the cross-section consists of an area

<-a

1431]

BOUSSINESQ.

199

without cyclosis (pp. 195-9). The steady velocity of the viscous fluid s ponds to the <f> of the torsional problem. Boussiuesq proves the following proj>osition (p. 199)
:

Les forces exercces aux divers points d'une section sont partout dirigdes suiv.int les courbes 0=co7irt., qui seraient celles d'egale vitosse dans des tuK-s, rt elles sont e*gales en chaque point, par unite" de surface, <i la de*rivde
dd.

la normalc incnee en ce point h, la courbe <J> = const. t qui y ont la mOme expression que le glissement relatif, dans un tube, deux couches liquides adjacentes.
(\>

siiivant
clles

If then the curves

<f>

= const,

ments of the constant,

this family will in

are constructed for equal increa manner reproduce the

peculiarities of the contour, but members of the family must in general be closer together along a short than a long diameter. 11- nee the stress which varies as the constant increment of <

divided by the perpendicular distance (dn) between two adjacent members of the family will in general be a maximum upon Further </> is in the shorter diameters of the cross-section.

general a

maximum

= 0, d<t>/dy
minimum,

at the central parts of the section (hence there), and thus at these parts the stress is a so that we should expect d<f>/dn to reach its maximum

= d<f)/dz

value at points on the contour, but by what precedes these will be the points on it nearest to the centre. Boussinesq goes further and demonstrates on pp. 200-2, that the components d<f>/dy and d<f>ldz of d(f)/dn cannot be maxima or minima in the interior of the
cross-section.
issinesq terminates this portion of his memoir by a disrussion of the modifications introduced into the torsion moment when

there

is

hollow.

cyclosisofthe cross-section, i.e. when th- rod contains a This case is of special interest from its application to the
:

iHeory of flaws in bars see our Art 1348, (e). )n pp. 204-9 he records the cases in which solutions of the
<

of Saint- Venant

torsion or flexure equations have been obtained, citing the results see our Arts. 18-42 and 83-97, and referring to
:

that of Clebsch for a section bound, d by confocal ellipses in a :; ote on pp. 209-10: see our Art Is, (e).
I

$ xi. of th- MMifl (pp. 210-26) is entitled: Exemple* [1431.] divers <fequilibr et de mouvement d'une tiye rectiligne dont les defor'ions totales sont tres-petites. In this section Boussinesq deduces ti'nn the general equations of the earlier part of his memoir the special

equations for the longitudinal, transverse and torsional vibration* of rods.

200

BOUSSINESQ.

[14321434

deals also with cases in which a mass or masses are attached to a He does not integrate these equations, but refers on vibrating rod. this point to the special investigations of Navier, Poisson, Poncelet, Saint- Venant and Phillips: see our Arts. 272*-3* 466*-71*, 577*-81* 988*-92*, 104, 203-23, and 680.

He

of the memoir (pp. 226-40) is entitled fitude (Tune soumise a une traction anterieure aux deplacements. Vibrations des cordes en tenant compte de la rigidite. Boussinesq cites from his memoir on liquid waves (see our Art. 1442) the results he has obtained for the body-stress equations when there exists a considerable He works out the particular case of a single initial initial stress. traction o\r and develops at considerable length the form taken by the equations of the earlier part of the memoir, when this initial stress xx He applies his general exists in the direction of the axis of a rod. results to obtain the equation due to Seebeck for the vibrations of a slightly stiff string (see our Art. 471), and he deduces the result (ii) of our Art. 472 for the case i=-l with a slightly different form of statement, viz. the effect of the stiffness of a string upon its fundamental note is the same as if its total tension P were increased from P to
[1432.1
xir.
:

tige

rectiligne

P+

TT
I"

EM",

or the stiffness produces a constant increase in the apparent

E is not sensibly changed by large tensions approaching even the rupture strength, we see that this law of increase holds for all variations of P which do not produce great changes in to.
tension.

Since

[1433.]

The above memoir by Boussinesq

it

is

by no means easy

reading and

to possess the clearness and conclusiveness of parts of his later work. It seems well to take in conjunction with it a supplement written in 1876, but first

does not appear to

me

published in 1879. It is entitled 1871 sur la thdorie de I'tquilibre

tlastiques dtautres.

Complement a une dtude de du mouvement des solides dont certaines dimensions sont tres-petites par rapport d The first section of this paper containing some general
:

et

remarks on the negligible terms in the equilibrium-equations for plates and rods, and the second and third sections dealing with rods only were published in the Journal de mathematiques, T. v.
pp. 163-94.
Paris, 1879.

The first two sections (pp. 163-81) we have practically [1434.] dealt witb in our consideration of the earlier memoir see our Art
:

1424.

We may
To a
first

note, however,

two or three additional points

which occur on
(a)

pp. 179-81.

approximation, or on the supposition (A) of our Art.

U.V>]
t

BOUSSINESQ.

201

M24, d*2/dx = Q and thus the slides a-^, a-^ depend entirely on the on the existence of the couple J/^. For in this case the functions ^,, ^2 %3 become absolute constants and therefore by (xvi), Sg and Sv are zero. This should be compared with the rather vaguer statements referred to in our Arts. 1427 and 1429.
torsion, or
,

The strains *, *, and & are entirely independent of x , or the (6) torsion while altering the form of the cross-section does not alter the form of thf projection of the cross-section on a plane perpendicular to
the central line.

From a slight extension of (6) Boussinesq proves geometrically (c) the theorem demonstrated in our Art. 181 (c?), namely that the same amount of torsion is produced when the same couple twists the rod or prism round any axis whatever parallel to its central
:

[1435.]

Section in. of the

a,

memoir

la theorie des tiges. Application in which the relations yy theory

181-94) is entitled Boussinesq remarks that the

(pp.

T: hold, applies in absolute rigour only to prismatic rods of length infinitely greater than the linear dimensions of their cross-sections. It may, in

^=

practice however, be applied with considerable exactness even to rods the central line of which is a curve of double curvature, and this application Boussinesq proceeds to make in the following

manner.
Let y and z be the principal axes of any cross-section, and x the
tangent to the central line at this cross-section ; let s measure an arc of the central lin<> from some fixed point up to this cross-section, and 8 + 8s to an adjacent cross-section let a//-* be the angle between the principal axis // in the cross-section at 8 and the projection upon this crosssection of the principal axis // in he cross-section at a + 8* ; let Rf and Jtt be as before (see our Art. 1425) the radii of curvature in the planes
;
t

Let the corresponding quantities after ij be the stretch of the central line at *. I'll, n a and it -00 is very nearly equal to r the angle of torsion at be the total thrust on the cross-section at *, x be the torsional rouplr. tiniv, 1\ Afr anl .)/ bending moments in the planes zx and xy resj> we haw (see our Art.
all

before strain.
/?,,

strain b

a,

Rv

and

and

let

< >
t

I.,

<

re v is a constant to

(xxiii)
T.

an.l
K.

<

To describe the whole system

ii.

be determined from the solution of equations >f f.im- upon

.-

IT.

14

202

BOUSSINESQ.

[1435

particular cross-section we require besides these quantities to know the total shears Sy and Sx parallel respectively to the axes of y and ,

Boussinesq further subjects the elementary prism of length (p. 185). da to certain external forces
:

J'appellerai p la densite* moyenne primitive du tronon, dont la masse vaudra par suite puds, et je designerai par pXuds, p Yo>ds, pZwds les composantes totales des actions extdrieures dont il s'agit. Quant h, leurs moments par rapport & Ov, Oz les deux forces pYads, pZo>ds, dont les bras de levier seront coinparables k ds, n'en donneront que de ne"gligeables, et ceux de pXu>ds seront en ge'ne'ral insensibles, surtout si les composantes longitudinales de 1'action exte'rieure ne sont pas distributes trop inegalement de part et d'autre du centre de gravite' des sections. L'autre axe Ox e"tant parallele k la force pJTcocfo, il y aura seulement k compter le moment des actions exte*rieuivs transversales par rapport k 1'axe Ox ou k 1'dle'ment ds de fibre moyenne J'appellerai $po$ds ce moment, dont ftju sera en quelque sorte la valeur par unitd de masse, valeur comparable k la force qui le produit multiplide par un bras de levier de 1'ordre des dimensions transversales de la tige ou de 1'ordre de /*> (P- 187).
y
:

The general equations of Statics will then give us relations between the values of x z Q, Sy and Sz corresponding to the crossy section at s and those corresponding to that at s + Bs. Boussinesq confines his attention to the following cases Slightly strained rod, originally without tortuosity and straight, (a)

M M M
,
,

i.e.

oo

0,

R* = R = 0.

Boussinesq

finds, pp.

189-90

dQ_
dx

1437]

BOUSSINESQ.
00

20.*1

A'

Let the plane be that of xy, then 0, St = 0, Z= 0, and we find

:

0,

R* = 0,

a=

0,

0,

dQ
,

S,

,IM,
i

(xxviii),

Ht=TT.-"
These
ifivi-

y 1

\
).

(xxix

dQ
r7x
'I'li-

j_^_
/,'

Jr

//>

for cases (a) or (6) the

elastic line.

results (xxv) substituted in either (xxvii) or (xxix) determine form of the strained central line, i.e. the so-called

Boussinesq remarks (p. 192) that the thrust Q and the bending s enter into both the equations (xxix), and in such fashion that one cannot be made zero without the other being in general comIt is usually impossible pelled to satisfy two incompatible equations. t up longitudinal without transverse vibrations or vice versd in a curved rod. This point had already been noticed by Resal for t Incase of a rod with a circular central line in his Traite de Afecaniqtte

moment

generate, T.

11.

p.

153.

SM

investigations only determine the total shears and r!r, then, for a rod only moderately bent, the formulae and equations of our Arts. 1425-7 may be safely applied to a second approximation. the first approximation being considered as that in which these stresses are neglected altogether. As a case in which the flexureslides 0^, GZZ could be worked out Boussinesq suggests the problem of a small torsion applied to a rod under considerable flexure (p. 194). Boussinesq's results for rods of doul>l<> curvature should be compared with those of Saint- Venant and of Bresse discussed in our Arts.

[1436.]

The above

and

Sz

If it be required to determine the stresses

1584

1502*
and

!.VJ7*-1608* and 5S4,

memoir Boussinesq refers to T;ut^ ZVwalMi "" Natural PhUosojyhy, Arts. 702-3 where they deal with tin- OIH of a const rained torsion, \\luYh they term simple torsion.
lu a footnote at the conclusion of his
Tlioins..!.

|U:;7.)

(i)

/:-

I't'ijuiiUnr

ft

/>

tnouvermiit

corps solides tlartiques dont ceriaines dimension* par rapport <i d*autres. Second M&inoire. Des plaque* ,m//// ; //m// v >/-. T. \\i. pp. 241-274(aee also Comptes
I
i

AMI.

pp. 449-52).

Paris, 1871.

14

204-

BOUSSINESQ.

[1438

1439

Complement d une etude de 1871 sur la thforie de I'dquidu mouvement des solides dlastiques dont certaines dimenSuite iv. Equations sions sont tres-petites par rapport d dautres. Journal de dune plaque. d'^quilibre mathdmatiques, T. v. pp.
(ii)

libre et

329-44.

Paris, 1879.

These, the second parts of the memoirs of 1871 and 1879 the results of the first are respectively, deal with thin plates apparently supposed to hold only for plane plates, but those of
;

the second are considered to be true also for curved plates or The two papers are best dealt with together. shells.
If the axes of x, y be in the tangent plane to the mid[1438.] plane of the plate at any point, then Boussinesq takes in his first memoir (p. 246)
:

^=^ =^=
and so obtains the remaining

...........................

(i),

stresses as linear functions of

s,c

He

-,.

takes

are independent of z but can (3, (3', /3", ft, ft', ft", y, y', y" is a function, continuous or vary with x and y, while otherwise, of z and may vary very slightly with x and y. The general investigation is similar to that adopted by Saint- Venant In the case, however, of elastic isotropy (see our Arts. 384-9). of the plate the of equation (vi) of our Art. parallel to the mid-plane "

where

385

is

equal to

3/2 f

+e
-e

I
'

A? J

Kz*dz in Boussinesq's notation, where

e',

e"

are

the values of z at the surfaces of the plate, and are supposed to be slightly variable with x and y. The contour-conditions at the edge of the plate are reduced to two (pp. 250-1, 257-8) in the same manner as had been previously adopted by Thomson and Tait, although Boussinesq independently discovered the method: see our Arts. 488*, 394, 1440-1 and 1522-4.

Boussinesq on pp. 268-74 of the first memoir considers [1439.] the effect of great initial stresses parallel to the mid-plane of a plane He deals especially with the case of a tightly and uniformly plate. stretched membrane, the notes of which are influenced by its stiffness. His results may be easily deduced from our Arts. 384-5 and 390. In = 0, then (vi) of Art. 385, having = yy =Q/(%f) and Art. 390 put

144-01

Borssiv

20:>

regard to (iii) of plate of density p

Art
:

384,

may

be written for the case of a vibrating

Assuming the
in.

ml. nine to be small as

still

solution

term on the right in the case of a slightly stiff compared with the first, we may suppose the to be of the membrane type
last
t0
r 2 H (A
,

cos m,-a<

+ BI sin w,a),

where a =
2

Q/('2fp)

and
ffiWt

tfWi
r
' i

~dJ
terms in

~df

-tituting in small terms are concerned t

we

find

(ii)

may

be written so far as

he effect of a slight stiffness in the membrane is to increase the apparent tension in the case of a note of period 27r/m,a by the amount see our Art. 1300, (c). -.If cm?
:

[1440.]

The most
lies in

undoubtedly

unsatisfactory part of the investigation the assumption (i) of our Art. 14-!^
:

..<

= yz =0,

an<l this point

The

discussed more at length in the second memoir. investigation of the second memoir has been reproduced by
is

our Arts. 385-8.

ni.r

it-Venant in a somewhat modified and simplified form: see Neither the arguments of the original memoir
of Saint-Venant's modification
for

ally
<>u r

the case of curved

Art.

1296

bis.
h. s

to me convincing, especior shells: see in particular plates his in course of memoirs refers the Boussinesq

seem

,,f Navier, Poisson, Kin-lilmflf and Gehring: see In a footnote at tin474*, 1233, 1292 and 1411. end (p. 344) of his second im-moir Boussinesq acknowledges that Thomson and Tait had preceded him in giving a true explanation

to the resean

s,

of the difficulty as to the contour-conditions in the case of a plate 1. fun In T refers to his controversy (see our Arts. 488* and 3: h with LeVy (see <>m hirh would hardly have arisen
1

li;i'l

Thomson

an<l

see our Arts.

1441

l.V2:>4

<vtise been better known and Chapter M\

in

France:

200

BOUSSINESQ.

[1441

On the last pages (pp. 342-4) of the second memoir are some interesting remarks upon Saint- Venant's principle of the elastic equivalence of statically equipollent systems of loading: see our Arts. 8, 9, 21 and 100.
In the Journal de mathe'matiques (T. in. pp. 219-306, 1877) will be found a long memoir by Maurice Levy entitled Memoir'e sur la theorie des plaques elastiques planes, in which the author questions what I have termed the Thomson[1441.]
Paris,
:

Tait reconciliation

of

Poisson's

and Kirchhoff's contour-condi-

tions for a thin plate, attributing that reconciliation, however, to Boussinesq: see our Arts. 488* and 397. The author works

out with considerable fulness of analysis a solution for plates of finite thickness, and endeavours to shew by means of his solution
that three contour-conditions are in general necessary for every elementary strip, and that the terms neglected by Poisson involving cubes and higher powers of the thickness (see our Arts. 477*-9*)

cannot in general be neglected. What LeVy does is practically to introduce terms into the stresses which in certain cases may be

made
one
is

to allow for the local perturbations

statical

produced by the replacing system of contour-load by an equipollent one. This

is

replacement

essential to the

Thomson-Tait

reconciliation

and

legitimate for thin plates owing to Saint- Venant's general principle of the elastic equivalence of statically equipollent load systems. But it is certainly of importance to measure the amount
of the local perturbation
practically done by (see our Art. 488*),

due

Thomson and Tait

to the replacement. This had in their Treatise in

been 1867

and therefore a rediscussion of the Kirchhofflate.

Poisson boundaries conditions in 1877 was somewhat

Levy's memoir, however, led to a controversy with Boussiiirs<|, which will be found in a series of articles in the Comptes rendus,
as follows
:

J. Boussinesq Sur letf conditions aux Unities dans le problems (I.) des plaques elastiques, T. 85, pp. 1157-9. Paris, 1877. (Points out that Levy's terms give only certain local perturbations, i.e. are not sensible far from the contour.)
:

Boussinesq.

Quelques observations au sujet d'une Note de M. 1277-80. (Asserts that the contour-load might produce rupture in one case, though it might not when it was replaced
(II.)
:

M. Levy

Ibid. pp.

14421443]
by an equipollent

BOUSSINESQ.
statical system,

207

and that therefore the replacement

cannot be elastically legitimate.)

J. Boussinesq Sur la question des conditions speciales au (III.) >ur des plaques elastiques, T. 86, pp. 108-10. Paris, 1878. (Points
:

out very forcibly that both Levy and Poisson have already reduced their contour-conditions to three for each generator of the edge instead of three for each point of the generator, and so have already applied
that very principle of the elastic equivalence of equipollent loads the truth of which L6vy is disputing.)

Quelques observations sur une nouvelle Note de (Accuses Boussinesq of "obscuring pp. 304-7. iy empirical considerations an extremely clear question" and asserts that "his 'incontestable principles' cannot prevail against the fundamental principles of mechanics." The statement is repeated that the so-called perturbations are not local to the edge, but occur throughout the plate.)
(IV.)
:

M. Levy

M. Bcuumotq...

Ii>'{.

conditions speciales au contour des reply to IV. pointing out wn that the terms introduced by Le"vy are of the order e * where 2 is the small thickness of the plate, and n an element of normal to the Hence they vanish at a small distance from the contour. contour. Further these terms would vary with every distribution of the load Thus there along a generator of the bounding cylinder of the plate. would be an infinite number of solutions satisfying Poisson's three conditions and yet differing from each other as much as they differed from Kirt-hhofTs solution. Thus Poisson's conditions do not really
(V.)
J.

Boussinesq

Sur

les

Ibid. pp.

4613.

(A temperate

suffice to

determine LeVy's terms.)

early investigation of the order of Levy's terms, such an investigation had been given ten years previously by Thomson and Tait see
:

The whole controversy might have been avoided by an

our Arts. 1522-4, and Chapter XI v.

Themie des ondes liquides penodiques. M'n[1442.] ^nies... a V Academic des Sciences. Sciences maMmatiques et
/siques, T.
nt.,1
t*>

xx. pp. 509-615.

Paris, 1872.
in,
ls<i!>,

This mrmoir was

with
additions of

the Acaddmie, April

November

cm

Portions only con29, 1869 and September 5, 1870. our present inquiry and we will refer to them briefly here.

1 (pp. 513-7) is entitled: Equations des inouvcment* [1443.1 cotUinus (fun milieu qutleonquc. Here Boussinesq considers the type of body-stress equation whi.-h Mi-isc* when the squares ami products of the shit fluxions neglected, see our Art*. 1617* ami
i
.

208

BOUSSINESQ.

[1444

He

shews that

if

be given by

Wg
the n 11 being

+vy
)

any element of volume

0,

or

11

i.e.

is

The

the dilatation. body-stress equations are then

shewn
i
.

to be of the type
_^_^

dxx dO
_^___
i

dxx dO
^___

dxx dO

dx dux
+ -r^-

dy duv

dz duz
I-

ax dvx

T- +
i

dy dvy
dTz dO
j_
.

-?- -f dz dv z

dTz dO
i

dTz dO
dz

dx dwx

dy dwy

dwz

p being the primitive density. If the squares and products of the shift-fluxions can be neglected,
this

becomes
< 7

\ dx

+
dy

dz

dxx

dx

dTu

(d?u

dx (dxz

^
.

d'xz
l_

d xz
J.

dy

dz

where 6 = ux + vy + wz

If the fluxions of the stresses are themselves so small that their products with the shift-fluxions may be neglected, we obtain the usual body-stress equations of elasticity.

Note 3 (pp. 584-604), ou sont etablies des relations [1444.] generates et nouveUes entre Venergie interne dun corps, Jiuide ou solide, This Note gives the general relaet see pressions ou forces elastiques. In tions between the strain-energy and the stresses of a medium. a footnote (pp. 585-6) Boussinesq refers to Rankine's introduction of the term potential energy and discusses the internal potential energy of a medium. The object of the Note is recited in the following words
:

La me"thode employee au paragraphe 1 ne donne pas seulement les Equations exactes des mouvements continus des corps elastiques, isotropes ou

1445]
h'.'terotropes, solides
<>rps est
;

BOU.SMV

209

ou fluides elle perinet encore, lorsque la tetui>erature de supposde assez voisine du zero absolu pour qu'on puisse, dans le calcul des actions rnutuelles de leurs molecules, faire abstraction des mouvements vibratoires d'amplitiule insensible, ou calorifiques, et aussi, dans un autre cas tres-ge"neral dont nous allons parler, d'exprimer completeiuent leurs > ela-stiijues en fonction des d^rivees partielles des deplacemeuts w, l>ar rapport aux ccordonn&s primitives x, y, z, et de celles de leur energie interne par rapport & six variables dont cette energie depend. En supposant tres-petites les ddrivees partielles de ?t, r, w en ./. //, ;, les resultats ainsi obtenus sont d'accord avec ceux que fournit une mdtnude basee sur le calcul des variations, et que M. de Saint- Vcnant a employee (p. 584).
.

See our Arts. 127 and I'M The other very general case referred to above is that in which the dements of volume into which the medium may be divided, have primitively any temperatures whatever, are rendered afterwards iinperin able to heat, and have their temperature a function at each instant only of the actual form and dimensions of the element at that instant.
i

Boussinesq represents the internal potential energy, i.e. [1445.] strain-energy, by 4> and obtains nine relations typified by the following three
:

de

dux
de
-=

-=

_ xy

de + -j dvx

^ xz
^ xz

de
-j

dwx
de
-=

= =

d&
-=

dux

^ xx

-f

^ de xy -s

(hi,,

dvv
,

d*
-=

dw
de
-

duv
= i du z

xx

^de .<hi

^de
JTV

dvg
r,

^
xz

d*

dwz

ving these equations for

1

17, *^,

we have
v

ux
i

T~
'In,,

z -j

du

t
I

1 -f

~ v Z \ * j e \ du x

(/*

+ vv/ v)

.d*
~Jdu v

+ v

~jf <ln
I

d<P]

>

that <t> does not in reality tlcju-nd upon tlic but on the three stretches and three slide-cosines. See our Art. 1621*. These are given by the types

Boussinesq
sliift

now remarks

-fluxions

(!

BOUSSIN !><,'.

[1446

Boussinesq now introduces a new set of variables connected with the stretches and slides by relations of the type (see our Art. 1622*)
:

+V1 + 2t-

C IIZ

He

then finds stresses of the types

{VX

}/

d^

(I

8y ) (I

+ 82 ) dCyi

On the substitiition of these latter results in the former expressions for the stresses in terms of the differentials of regard to the six strains.
may

we have

with

Suppose the shift-fluxions are so small that their products [1446.] be neglected, then the slide-cosines c become the slides <r and the equations reduce to

ds

dsz

Boussinesq next assumes

<

to be of the following

form
B-J<TXU

- const. +
components, and A lt A a A z B^ of 4> with respect to &c,..., o"^,...,
, ,

+
J}3 are

4>

where <,

is

a homogeneous function of the second degree in the strainJj. 2

,

i.e. its

differentials

the primitive differentials when there is zero

strain.

We

find
l

M=A

(l-v v -wz ) + B 2

(u z

-wx )- B

(vx

-u

y}

-1
,

A.,wv

1447]

BOUSSINESQ.
it'

211
be

^ults agree with those obtained by ISaiut-Veiiant, noted that he takes

it

* = const

A^ + i*

x')+

A 3 (s, + i*ya) + AI (sa + i

+

a )

-I-

/^OY, (1

++**)
*,)

Bp^ (1

-f

8Z

+ 8X ) +

ZfjO-sj,

(l+8x +

+ */,

which gives
*,

-i(4CH*'+^V^f^ + ^+^fc^

and leads to his formulae: soe our Arts. 237-9. In 6 (pp. -VJ4-7) Inmssinesq gives a geometrical interpretation of tin- derivatives of 4>, which he considers renders his mode of dealing with the problem more satisfactory than those of Saint-Venant and
different mode of investigating the same problem is on pp. 599-604. Boussinesq assumes that the stresses are linear functions of the nine strain-fluxions, and then investigates what form they can possibly take so that the motion of the body as a whole shall not produce stress across any plane within it.

A
11

hy

(p.

599).

somewhat

[1447.]

constitution
>'

Recherches sur les printipes de la Mecanique, sur fa inoUculaire des corps et sur une nouvelle thdorie des irfaits. Journal de mathe'matiques, T. XVIIL, pp. 305-60.
1873.

Paris,
i

This memoir was presented to the Academie des

in

des Leltres de Montpellier on July 8, 1872, and published the Mtmoires for the same year, T. VIII., pp. 109-56. See
tees et
I.

Notice
to the

pp.
is

62-3

1
.

There
n ktions
<

memoir which is suggestive with regard molecular and atomic constitutions of bodies and thin this

much

of

these

to

thermal

and cohesive properties.

:

The

molecular hypothesis adopted by Boussinesq embodies the assumption of modified action (p. 307 see our Arts. 276, 305), but it supposes that the accelerations of the various material points
ulai

of an isolated system are solely functions of their actual mutual distancea Boussinesq 's arguments in favour of this d> not s< -\\\
-.

t"
int.

me

at all conclusive (p. 313). It does not appt-ar how far ii-U to take ihtin into account in his isolated system
i

In<-t

points, but I have indicated elsewhere that at least molecular hypothesis leads to intermolecular action being a function of the velocity of the molecules relative to the ether, and
iriil

mat

he Analyse tuccincte, Saint-Venant writes of this memoir: one fiynth&e qae M. Boassinesq a entreprise ooramc ont fait d'autres ts ^Iev6s. Il*i u-atioiiH, du jndicieuaea ditinctiou8, et one no des gaz parf la neoeaait^ oft il ent de faire qurlipics hypotheses nous determine k nous abstenir d'ajouter oe vaite essai a MS uumt>i. u\ iltrestp. 18).
C'eat

212

BOUSSINESQ.

[1448

thus the accelerations of the material points being functions of the velocities or indirectly of past relative distances (see Lond. Math. Further Boussinesq Soc. Proceedings, Vol. XX., p. 297, 1888). that the action two atoms of the same between 327) supposes (p.

molecule does not depend in an appreciable degree on the distances between atoms belonging to other molecules, but this again seems to me doubtful in the case of 'kin' atoms in different molecules, the equality of the free periods of which renders it very probable
that they largely influence each other's action (see American Journal of Mathematics, Vol. XIIL, p. 361, 1890). With suppositions such as the above, Boussinesq, starting from the principle of energy, deduces various principles of thermodynamics, elasticity, fluidity and melting. Thus laws attributed to Gay-Lussac, Mariotte, Joule, Regnault, Delaroche and BeVard are deduced without appeal to the kinetic theory of gases as propounded by D. Bernoulli and developed by Clausius:
J'espere que la theorie nouvelle paraitra etayee sur des suppositions en moindre nombre et plus vraisemblables (p. 310).

appear that Boussinesq's theory would admit of atoms between the molecules of a solid which has been supposed by Maxwell and other physicists to be
It does not

that interchange of

continually taking place.

Je supposerai

1'etat

positions relatives rnoyennes des molecule restent a peu pres les

etudi6s...(p. 327).

chimique du corps assez stable pour que les atomes qui composent une meme memes durant tous les phenomenes

Thus in this theory the energy of atomic movement is independent of intermolecular distances, while the energy of molecular movement depends solely upon intermolecular distances (pp. 328-9).
[1448.] subject is
:

The part of the memoir most closely connected with our vm. (pp. 350-5) entitled Action moleculaire dans un corps
:

Comptes reciproque de deux molecules. rendus, T. LXV., pp. 44-6. Paris, 1867. Boussinesq starts with the axioms that intermolecular force must on the initial distance between two molecules and its depend (i) direction, (ii) on the manner in which relative molecular displacements vary throughout a small region enclosing the two molecules. The latter condition is that which we have called the hypothesis of modi/led action
:

isotrope; solidite et fiuidite. entitled Note sur faction

This matter

is

also discussed in a paper

144-9]

BOUSSINESQ.

213

(see our Arts. 276 and 305) and leads to Inconstant formulae in the case of elastic isotropy. Boussinesq obtains a type of intennolecular force from his axioms which would lead to biconstant formulae and to constant initial tractions "qui represents chez les fluides la pression " - I'etat He does not discuss their meaning (C. R. p. 46). primitif in the case of an ordinary elastic body. The type of intermolecular action found for two molecules whose distance r has been increased by a small distance &r is of the form
:

<b

=A

^P + G n
P

~8r
.

r'
;
,

- 8p/p is the dilatation A and where, p being the density, functions of r. This he considers can be thrown into the form

are

where

F and F

are certain functions.

Of

this result

he writes

Ainvl, tlaiis un milieu isotrope peu dearth de son e"tat primitif d'equilibre, mole'culaire se compose de deux forces 1'une, que j'appellerai de 1'ivmiere espece, ne varie qu'avec la distance actuelle des deux molecules -iderdes et la densite actuelle du milieu ; la seconde, que j'appellerai de deuxieme espece, depend de la distance primitive des deux molecules et du petit ecartement qu'elles ont subi k 1'dpoque actuelle (p. 352).
1'action
:

The
solidity.

'actions of the first kind'

Boussinesq considers build up the

'

elasticity of fluids.

The

'actions of the second kind

are

what

constitute

Boussinesq appeals to experience (p. 353) to shew that the us of the second kind vanish for ratios of 87- to r exceeding certain very small j>ositive values. The disappearance of the second term contea the transition from the solid to the fluid state. Boussinesq
i

the fact that Navier, Lame and Clapeyron arrived in their early investigations at uniconstant isotropy to their neglect of He seems to indicate that the the first term in the above value for <f>. addition of the fluid term will lead to biconstant formulae
attributes
:

On tn>uv-i lit en eflfet celles-ci en ajoutant aux expressions am-ienm- <>t la pression constante, fonction de la incomplete^ des actions normales densite' actuelle, que don m nt les actions de premiere espece, et qui introduirait, inteVieure aux ddplacements obMnr^B, un t.nn. outre iiuitite dilatation 6 (p. 353).

This appears to be the same idea as had occurred to Ran kin.-. but the truth of which we have seen reason to call in question see our Arts. 424, 429 and 431.
:

1
[

449.]
d<

Note compMmentaire au Memoirs prMdent.

rie

Sur

les

cipea

des

</////
f/<

VI.

foumal

fnmineuse* qui r&ulte des idles ,nes, T. xvni., pp. 361-90.

214
Paris, 1873.

BOUSSINESQ.

[14-50

pp. 539-65. certain criticisms of the principles involved in Boussinesq's elastic theory of waves of light. The author puts extremely clearly the arguments in favour of his hypotheses and shews that his

This also appears in the Annales de chimie, T. xxx.. Paris, 1873. It is a general explanation and a reply to

theory

is

really based

on physical conceptions,

i.e.

does more

than substitute
& Panalyse mdcanique des phdnomenes une sorte de symbole analvtique d'une generalite telle, qu'ils y soient tons compris (p. 361).

have made use of this Note in explaining the hypotheses of the of 1868: see our Art. 1478. It would carry us too far into the It concludes subject of light to even briefly analyse its contents here. with two supplements to the memoir of 1868 dealing with more approximate formulae than those there given for the aberration of light
I

memoir

(pp. 383-90).

Compare the Coniptes rendus,

T. 74, pp.

1573-6, 1872,

andT.

76, pp. 1293-6, 1873.

Sur deux lois simples de la resistance vive des solides. T. 79, pp. 1324-8 and 1407-11. Paris, 1874. This rendus, Comptes memoir contains a general proof of the hypothesis first adopted by Homersham Cox in 1849, when dealing with the transverse re[1450.]
silience of bars (see our Art. 1435*) and afterwards shewn by Saint- Venant to hold for a considerable number of special cases

(see our Arts. 368-9).

By means

of this hypothesis

we

are able to

determine very approximately the

maximum

shift (or deflection)

and the period of the

of problems, but, as

principal vibration for a considerable range

we have pointed out earlier in this History, the expression for the maximum strain obtained in this manner is, as a rule, not sufficiently approximate to be of practical value see
:

our Art. 371, (iii). Boussinesq attributes the first statement of the hypothesis to Saint- Venant, but this is incorrect (see our Art. 201), although the deduction of the period of the principal
vibration

and the legitimate use of the hypothesis

its

(i.e.

the
of

demonstration of

applicability special cases) is certainly due to the

in

a considerable

range

French

scientist.

of elastic material to have certain portions of its Suppose a mass external surface free and others rigidly fixed, and let a mass Q of very small volume, but possessed of a considerable velocity, strike the mass in a definite point and become fixed to it without however modifying

its elasticity;

then,

we require some hypothesis by which we can

easily

1451]
approximate to
tin-

BOUSSINESQ.

21-".

motion after the impact of the system consisting of Q and the extended mass P. P is so small as compared with Q that the effect of its inertia may be neglected, the problem reduces to a simple statical one, but when the masses P and Q are comparable the problem becomes more complex, for the total motion of the system must then be idered as the resultant of an infinite series of simple harmonic motions and it is necessary to calculate the amplitudes and periods of tlu'.se motions. Saint-Venaut had been led to the following approximate laws (which are practically an extension of Cox's hypothesis) by the exact calculation of a number of special cases
the concentrated mass When the mass
:

any problem the expressions for the shifts are reduced to their to Q does not principal term (or term of longest period), and if the ratio of exceed a certain limit (which can be as great as 2, 3 or sometimes even 4) th.-n the square of the reciprocal of the period of vibration and that of the amplitude of the oscillations of the concentrated mass Q are both inversely propoi-ti..nal to the sum of this mass Q and of the products obtained by multiplying each element dP of the extended mass by the sauare of the ratio of its statical shift to the analogous shift of the concentrated mass.
If in

These are the simple approximate laws which Boussinesq proposes to demonstrate in the present memoir.

Let w, v, be the shifts of any point of the elastic body [1451.] after impact, then with the usual assumptions the stresses will be linear functions of the first space-fluxions of the shifts. Hence, if tin-

shifts be represented

by the expressions
-

u = zo, /4 \n
(

sin nt

\ B oos nt]

\
.

v-

(- Rinnt +
sin nt

'A

B count)
B cos nt]
)

(i),

w=
\vh,
!

\n
t

are fun. ions of x, y, ^ the space-ooordi nates only, then <,, <,, the streR8* will be given by equations of the tvp.
,
'

" -

sin nt

B cos ?i/J
float n*

*'" "'

where
u"
I

are functions of x, y, z only. ?, ... 7* Hence, if we suppose "!> -forces to acton P, the body-shift equations becoim of th. tvp.
UjCJTo
'*

+
'

J ."o

rfy

&

216
Equations
<l>-2,

BOUSSINESQ.

[1452

shew that any individual set of the functions (iii) are tne shifts that would be produced by applying to the 9 2 s mass body-forces w ^,, n 2 w ^ 3 parallel to the three axes of x, y, z each such set we must have at points of the external For respectively. surface which are rigidly fixed

<u

<&$

<

and at points which are

free

............... (iv),
ft

xx COS a

xy COS

COS

y=

0,

with two similar equations, where a, ft, y are the direction-angles of the normal to the surface-element at the free point. These results are sufficient to give the </>'s and it remains to be indicated how the ^4's and j5's would be determined from the initial conditions of the system.

Let </>/, # 2 ', <f>s and n' be a second system of values of [1452.] $3 an d n } satisfying equations like (iii). Multiply the three equations of type (iii) by </, $ 2 ', <f>3 respectively, add and integrate over the volume U of the whole system, P and Q we find integrating by parts and using the surface conditions (iv)
<,> ^a
'

Now we
and
shifts

have seen that due to a certain

,...

"^0) ...

elastic

and <f> l} 2 ^>s are the stresses system in equilibrium, hence these
,

space-fluxions of the shifts involving the usual 21 coefficients, i.e. they will be differentials of a It follows then quadratic function of the space-fluxions of the shifts. that the expression on the right-hand side of (v) under the sign of 2 ', </>/, or, 3 and </, integration is symmetrical with regard to <,, < 2
,

stresses will be linear functions of the

<

<

we must have

whence,

if

n be not equal

to ri
fc'
4-

= <AA' + ^^') pdU

...............

( vi).

Equation (vi) enables us to determine the values of A and B from Thus if u VQ w be the initial the initial conditions at time t = 0. v w be the initial speeds, we have from (i) and (vi) shifts, and w
,

.///(.. " //// P

J?

~]

BOUSSINESQ.

217

th" integrals being extended tliroughout the whole system U. Returning to equation (v), let ri = n and therefore <' = <, we then have
:

when- IT is th<- quadratic function of the space-fluxions of the <'s which would be the strain-energy for the shifts <,, <,, 3 So far Boussinesq's investigation is practically identical with that of Clebsch given in our Arts. 1329-30, but the form of his results renders them immediately applicable to the problem of resilience.
<
.

*f

In the problem of resilience at the instant of the blow are zero, and so also are the speeds uu , %, n except at the elementary volume immediately surrounding the point x, y, z at are which the impact of Q takes place. Now the values of < n <._,, clearly such that they leave undetermined an arbitrary constant factor, and we can so choose that factor that <k 2 + <f>.? + fa2 = I at the point But </>!, <^, <&, will then represent the direction-cosines of the x, y, z. Thus shift of the ]x>int #, y, z for a simple component vibration. the numerator in the value of A is the momentum of the impinging body Q resolved in the direction in which Q makes the oscillation of If this momentum be represented by Q V we have period 2ir/n.
[14f)3.]

wo

'

-"
QV

Further,

if

f be

the amplitude of the vibrations corresponding to n,

(viii)
:

we havey*= A/n, or by

(x)

is very great as compared with P, we can suppose point x, ?/, z of the total system. In this case equations of the type (iii) shew us that only one mode of vibration is possible which is that corresponding to a statical system <j, <k, <k wlm-h 8 3 2 th. -re is no on any 1, m< nt suppositions body force pn pn <k,, p?* <lt' of the system except on the concentrated mass Q at x, y, tli. re is a force Qn\ the <lin ti-.n of which is given by <,, <^ s Cox and SaintrVenant's hypothesia would thus be exactly trm if iniylit neglect the inertia of /'. ^upposing we cannot neglect this inertia, there will then be several systems of values for 0,, ^3, 0,. 1'nt we shall now shew that the expressions for w, v, ir \\\\\\ still l. n ,lue,l with a certain degree <>f ;.] roximation to their j.rin. i|.al terms, that to those which correspond to values of ^,, ^ a , <^ close to ^,, ^,.

= 0, except at the

[1454.]

When Q

<

-,

Let

ci.

ii.

15

218
and

BOUSSINESQ.

[1455

let us calculate the value of f-ffWdU. quadratic function of <f> lt <._,, $..
:

We

find, since

is

where TF and TFA are the same functions of

<f^\

^>.,,

<.,

and A^/',

A</>.,

Now we

respectively as JPis of

^ 1}
T

<f>.>,

<

3.
:

have three equations of the type

dT Vo
i

dx

^-0 -5

"

dy

dz
,

added and If these be multiplied respectively by A^,, A<.,, A<., integrated by parts over the volume ?7, we find that the last integral of equation (xi) is zero, because over the surface of the system either (a) the surface stresses are zero, or (b) at fixed points <f> and vanish, or A^ 2 A< are zero (c) at the element round the point x, y, z, Ac^ since the direction of the statical displacement is taken to agree with that of the dynamical and these have ^,, <.,, and <f>", <., respecHence (xi) reduces to tively for direction-cosines.
<
,

:,

<

:J

<

:{

are clearly of the order P/Q as compared with and the stresses must be linear in terms of the applied load. Thus it follows, since JFA is of the order (A<) 3 that it is of the order (P/Qf as compared with TF Hence if (P/QY * s negligible we may neglect the second term in fffWdU, and we accordingly find:

Now

A^j

A<./, A<

<,

for

they vanish with

/= J
snce

remembering the value of ($)- + (<W)* +

(< 3 )

at (x, y,

z).

Those are

the analytical expressions of the laws stated above.

[1455.]
bis

Boussinesq shews in the penultimate paragraph of

memoir how the above results are easily extended to the case when the blow of the impinging body is not concentrated on a very
small region, but there are several concentrated masses producing impacts at the same instant (pp. 1410-1).

He

concludes the memoir with tbe following words

H.-.71

ii.Tx.qNE.sQ.

Blfl

Reniarquons enfin que, dans les problemes les plus usuels, le mouvevibratoire etudie est de mdme sens pour tons les points du alors ]> initi.> des diverges parties dP de la masse dissysteme st-iinti'f au'isst-nt a diai|ue instant de maniere a accroitre leurs deplacements dus aux inerties des masses heurtantes on concentrees, et la
int-nt
:

valeur

grande qu'elle ne serait sans cela, c'est a dire pour P = Q. (] nominateur de 1'expression (xiii) de 7i2 est approche" par it Mais, vu la formule (xii), 1'mtegrale fff WdUy est aussi e'value'e dans le numerateur. Ces erreurs se compensent par suite defaut par en partie, et 1'on con^oit que la formule (xiii) de n2 soit encore assez apj trochee, comme Ta reconnu M. de Saint- Venant, meme pour des valfiirs assez grandes du rapport de P a Q (p. 1411). See our Arts. 366-69.
I'lus Ainsi lc

1 v^, +

0j"

<f>.?

de

1'ccart projx)rtionnel

de chacune de ces parties

la construction gtfometrique des pressiom <jue divers Elements plans se croisant en un meme point corps, et snr celle des deformations qui se produisent autour -I irnal de mathe'matiques, T. in., pp. 147-152. N"/'
les
'.

Paris, 1877.

This paper contains an elegant and simple method of proving the fundamental theorems in stress and strain without using any
of surfaces of the second degree. It might be followed advantageously by elementary text-books on Elasticity and Geology.
properties
83 the principal T.,, T3 be the principal tractions and ,, *2 each >rt in <1 -si -inlinjj order of magnitude. Instead of considering these two systems as they stand, Boussinesq first subtracts from the members of either half the sum of the greatest and least He thus tractions, or of the greatest and least stretches respectively. 7 - T3 ) and S = - *,), the obtain*, if /? = ^(T systems: J (*,

of the

Let T ,,

stretches,

P,T,-R
\vlii-ri-ly

and

S,8,-S,
;

T
f
.

S,
tli--

- i

inran princi|al traction ami stivtrh IMTOUK7 /' mul T and x have valu.-s lyin^ ivs|Hvtm-ly between /.'. These second systems evidently only difl'. r from the first by .f ith.-r a unit'.. nn Itkra pressure or a uniform stretch
:inl x antin'

what

regp<'<-tiv.-!y

in

all

din-rtions,

and

li-nflv

tin-

maximum and

\alues of stress and strain obtained from the*<> tw<> r< diiced RysteniH will h.ivr the same direction as those of the two primitive

minimum

1">7J stress is

Let th-

direction- cosines of
ft,

F be cos a, cos

any plane ovni-

\\hi.-h

the

cosy, then for the

(B

s/9,
I

-2

220
and

BOUSSIXESQ.

[14581459
:

F will

have direction angles

a'

a', /?',

y such that
,

cos

7?cosa

jr-

cos/3 -

Tcosfi

cosy =

A'cosy '
yT

From
struction
:

these results Boussinesq easily deduces the following con-

partir de Torigine et dans le plan des deux plus grandes forces principales R, T, on menera, d'un meme cote de la force principale moyenne T, doiix droites inclinees, sur cette force moyenne, Tune de Tangle donnc $ que fait avec elle la normale h Tele'ment superficiel propose, 1'autre de Tangle /3' dont le cosinus vaut (T/F^cosp, en donnant <\ celle-ci la longueur

on imprimera h ces deux droites deux rotations egales et contra.iiv> autour de la force principale moyenne T': & Tinstant oh la premiere droite viendra coincider avec la normale h, Tele'ment plan, la seconde representera la
p\iis

pression qui lui est appliqude (pp. 148-9).

is reached in the Clearly the maximum value of [1458.] plane of xz (or that of 7?, The angle x /?), and it then has the value R. and the normal to the plane across which it acts is given by between

7? (cos

cos 2 y)

T cos &
2

and therefore when

shear components of

F for the F cos 2a

/?

7r/2,

cosx = cos2a.

Thus the traction plane xz are respectively

and

and

F sin 2a.

We
the

maximum

see then that (for the primitive as well as the reduced system) shear is across a plane the normal to which bisects the
:

angle between the greatest and least tractions and its magnitude = = \ (T^ - T7;,). This is Hopkins' Theorem see our Art. 1368*. Thus the greatest and least total stresses, the greatest and least tractive stresses and the greatest shear all lie in one plane, i.e. that of the

greatest

and

least principal tractions (p. 150).

so that their squares, as is If the stretches are small, [1459.] then precisely similar results usually the case, may be neglected, In the reduced system the shift follow for the distribution of strain. of one terminal of a line of unit length relative to the other terminal gives, if it be measured perpendicular to the line itself, the change This change of angle is numerically in direction of the given line. greatest for the bisectors of the directions of greatest and least stretch and is then equal to S and S respectively. Hence the change of angle between these two bisectors will be the maximum slide and has for its value 2S= s 1 - s3 or the difference between the greatest and least
,

stretches.

UliO

Uli^J

BOUSS1KESQ.

'2'2

[14<>0.]

tim- lex problemes des temperature* xtutinnnaires, de

est

dans les cylindres ou /e.v un rectangle a cote's courb&s ou est comprise entre deux lignes fermees. Journal de matlie\ i., This memoir is really Paris, 1880. pp. 177-186*. nuti'pic*, T.
torsion et de I'ecoulemeiit bleu continu,

dont la section nor male

a discussion of the solution of the equation

by conjugate functions. It refers to Thomson and Tait's solution <-t tin.- torsion problem in terms of such functions and to the hydrodynamic analogies of those authors and of Boussiuesq himself: >m Art. 1430 and Chapter XIV.
Calcul des dilatations lineaires e'prouvees par les [14G1.] element* m'lte'riels rectiliynes appartenant a t<ne portion infiniment
te

stration tres simple

dune membrane elastique courbe, que Von du theorenie de Gauss sur

'tensibles.

deybrnie, et demonla deformation des

Recueil de la
Lille,

Socie'te'

des sciences de Lille.

See also the Comptes rwufa*, T. LXXXVI.. pp. 816-8. Paris, 1878. This is a geometrical investigation of the stretch of an element at the origin on the surface
T. Yin., pp. 381-90.

1880.

when

this surface is strained into

2z

= rV +

Zs'xy

t'y*.

h<

Boussinesq obtains a general expression for the stretch, which tli.-n .supines to be zero, or applies to the case of an ii
m< mbninu.

tensil)l

In this case Gauss's theorem as to

for the shifts of

cm \atuiv
in th<

follows at once,

and expressions

any point

neighbourhood of the origin are obtained. The analysis is easy and the results are not very complex in form.
Formules de la diesi* du mouvement transversal wte plaque plane indcfinie. Comptes rendus, T. cvui., pp. 639 J 1' Fourier in his TJieoric "///'/////// de la c/talenr (^ II .uls, 1889. vibrations of an gives an integral of the equation for tin- n intinitr daHtic plate see also our Art. 207*. SUJ.JM.SC tin- mid pUne of this plate to c<>in< i<l< with the plane of .//. th.-n tin (iiation to be
[1462.]
<
I
>

Bolv

is

.t

tin-

form

<Pw

/#

^V
(iX

222
where b 2
is

BOUSSINESQ.
a constant for the plate and

[1463
be taken as a factor of
initial shifts.
t"
:

may

see our Art 385. Fourier's solution of

1818 applied only to

Boussiiu-sq

proj)oses in the first place to generalise it by considering also initial does not seem to have noticed that this more general velocities.

He

case had also been dealt with by Fourier in his Tlieorie analytique Thus he gives a solution of (i) subject to the conditions of 1822. for t = 0, that
:

=/(&
at the point
,
,

^)>

dw/dt =/j

rj)

Here f and /i are two functions of of the plane x, y. rj which vary gradually from point to point of the plane and vanish at an infinite distance. Boussinesq further discusses what he holds to be the delicate and rather obscure point as to the real value taken by Fourier's solution
rj

when t = Q. The solution obtained by Boussinesq

is

given by
2

w=
+ 1

fff(
(*

x+

Za-Jbt,

y+

2ft Jbt) sin

p dad/3

t dt IT/;

(a;

+ 2ajbt, y +

2ft fjbt) sin p-

dadft,
to

where p" = a'2 + yS2 and the limits for the integrations with regard and ft are determined by
,

= x + 2a Jbt,
and

rj

=y+

2ftjbt,

taken over the whole area of the initial disturbance. rj being This should be compared with Poisson's solution given in our

Art. 425.

[1463.]

d' introduction

Legons synthetiques de Mecanique generate servant au cours de Mecanique physique de la Facultt des
Paris, 1889.

Sciences de Paris.

This work of 132 pages discusses the general mechanical principles which may be supposed to govern the systems of molecules by aid of which the physicist conceptualises the action

As in the note of 1891 (see our Art. 1464) draws the Boussinesq important distinction between the actual velocities and accelerations of individual molecules and the mean local velocity and local acceleration, which are those of a particle conceived to consist of an infinitely great number of individual
of physical bodies.

molecules (pp. 72-7). The seventh lecture deals with general notions as to stress and leads up to the topics of the eighth which

14ti4]

BOTJSSINESQ.

_^

contains soniu judicious remarks on the physiological and psychological aspects of force. Boussinesq holds that the only inof is force the mass product of acceleration telligible conception
:

seul s*ns jt<sitif mi

Et gardons-nous de confondre cette quantite precise, constituant le demontiv des forces nie"caniques, avec la signification relutivement vague d'effort muscidaire mais surtout avec celle, encore nioins detinic, de cause physique, que le mot force rappelle egaleniunt notions qu'il faut laisser a d'autres champs d'etude, ou notre esprit ne -lit imilhcureusement pretendre qu'a un degr6 de clarte mediocre pi
;

(p.

89).

Boussinesq divides the total internal energy of a body into two He parts, namely, an elastic and a thermal energy (pp. 105-6). demonstrates that the former or strain-energy (Venergie de ressort,
I'eneryie potentielle d'elasticittf etc.)
final

depends only on the

initial

and

configurations of the system, provided the system be in space of uniform temperature, and the changes of configuration be made
so slowly that the equilibrium of temperature destroyed at each instant see our Chapter xiv.
:

is infinitely little

(T. cxn., pp. 1054-6, Paris, Theorie elasiique de la plasticite et de la frayilite des x solides, M. Brillouin starts from the that to any hypothesis, definite homogeneous strain of a body corresponds always an absolutely unit {lie system of elastic stresses, but to a definite system of elastic This stresses there does not necessarily correspond a definite strain. leads liim up to some remarks on the Poisson-Navier hypothesis of intermolecular force. He holds that this hypothesis is not fundanientally erroneous, but requires modification owing to the fact that indi \idual molecules are in motion. This motion may be oscillatory and of small amplitude in the case of a true solid, but it
:

{1 464.] In 1891) entitled

a note in the Comptes rendus

may
oanv<

still
rt

Millicient to

tin
tli.

ino\enieiit of oscillation into

i-\plan:itiin

modify iiitrrinolecular action. Great pressure* one of translation, and this

.

This note of Brillouin another entitled: Air fi

by Honshu, S q o f la de jlnlit, (Can /</tysique rendu*, T. cxn., pp. 1099-1102, Paris, 1891) referring to similar opinions expressed by himself in his Lemons 8ynlhetique8...(wQ our An lectures d.-livered at the Sorbmme in l<':5) and in still unpublished from thr m:mu>.ii|>t of his lectures a genenl M(;sq cites
-

of set, rupture, flow, etc. led to the publication

description of

how

In-

ha^ aj.plird

id. -as

throw lighten the

elasti.-ity.

\i--osit\

and

similar to tho^e of Uiilloniu to inti-nial fVietion of fluids.

224

BOUSSINESQ.

[14651467

SECTION

II.

Memoirs on Wave Motion and

[1465.]

the Elastic

Theory of the Ether.

Essai sur la theorie de la lumiere. Comptes rendiis, 19-21. Paris, 1865. This is an abstract of a memoir by the author. It commences with the following words

Tome

LXI., pp.

Le Memoire que j'ai 1'honueur de soumettre a Academic des Sciences

1'

est relatif a la theorie de 1'elasticite (p. 19).

have been ever published in entirety, although doubtless portions of it were incorporated the memoirs of 1867 and 1868 see our Arts. 1467 and 1478.
It does not appear, however, to
:

its

in

The first part of the memoir appears to have contained the deduction of the equations of elasticity for an isotropic medium when terms of the second order iu the shift-fluxions are retained. The second part of the memoir applied the theory developed in the first to the vibrations which constitute light. The theories of double refraction of Fresnel, MacCullagh and Neumann were deduced as special cases, but the author appears to have met with the difficulty that the explanation of the dispersive power in this manner involves a pouvoir considerable ^extinction. Boussinesq merely suggests that in transparent bodies there may be
:

une action

speciale, destine'e a contre-balancer ce pouvoir d'extinction, et

(p. 21).

par suite & diminuer 1'opacite

[1466.]

comprime's.

Equations des petits mouvements des milieux isotropes Comptes rendus, T. LXV., pp. 167-70. Paris, 1867.

This

is

an abstract of a memoir afterwards published at length

in Liouville's Journal

: see our Arts. 1467-71. The equations are here obtained by a process slightly different from that of the memoir in the Journal.

[1467.]

Memoire sur
Journal

deformes. 1868.

les milieux isotropes T. de mathtmatiques, xin., pp. 209-41. Paris,

les

ondes dans

an

Boussinesq studies in this memoir the vibratory motion of " " initial stress isotropic medium which has been subjected to

1469]
..ur Arts.

BOUSMM->M
i;i)*,
(i)
I

225
This
all

21

0* and 129).

initial stress

maybe

i two kinds:
ii>t

a traction uniform in

directions which does

change the isotropy of the medium to aeolotropy and whirh represented by K, and (ii) a system of initial principal tractions A, B, C, producing aeolotropy symmetrical with respect to three planes at right angles in an element of the elastic solid.

may be

Of

these latter tractions Boussinesq writes

Nous admettrons que, dans la portion consideree du corps, les Elements plans nornialement presses ou tires par les actions deformatrices direction a tous les instants consecutifs, et que ces gardent la forces J, B, C varient avec le temps de maniere a conserver entre elles les mernes rapports BjA, C/A. Si nous designons par a, b, c trois noinbres constants, proportionnels a A, B y C, et du meme ordre de petitesse que les dilatations lineaires eprouvees par le corps pendant sa filiation, les rapports A/a, /b, C/c seront egaux entre eux, et a une rtiv mriue fonction du temps t. La fonction (t) peut d'ailleurs quelconque elle se r&luit a une constante, si les actions deformatrices restent les raemes toujours elle sera nulle ou constante a partir d'une certaine valeur de t, si A, B, C devieiment elles-memes nulles ou constantes au bout d'un certain temps. Quoi qu'il en soit, cette fonction rt.mt supposee connnr, la constitution du corps, a chaque instant, ne dependra plus que de a, 6, c (pp. 211-2).

mme

This quotation indicates Boussiuesq's assumptions.

Referring back to our Art 231, we see that the c, c', c" might have been taken equal to the a, 6, c of Boussimj. He assumes the Rtresses to be linear functions of the shift-fluxions and tin- coefficients of these functions to be linear functions of a, 6, c. Thru liy ron-i'lrrations (i) of symmetry with regard to tin- planes of the initial principal tractions, (ii) of tin- initial isotropy which must continue to exist in wholr or part according as a = b = c, or two of them
[1468.]
of that article

of tin- invariability of the stresses when the body (iii) a whole, f!xprri..n.s air <lr.lurrl tor the stresses as A" and and 7* eiyht constants p, I, l\ I", w, in', /*< Thr incthi'd adopted invol\rs no appeal rithrr to tin(pp. 212-8). rari-constant molecular theory or to thr principle of work. If the latter be adopted an additional relation is found )< tw.. n th< constant*, of
f|nal,

and
as

rotated funrtion

in

r
i|

..................

w.
l>,

thr mtkl
A'

A:a = Ji/b=C'/C.

Thus indrpcndrntly

of

<i,

there will

l>

and seven other constants.

[14ti!>
I'

tin-

memoir

\Ve can easily deduce Boussinesq's results from tho>, >r Saint Yrii;mt discussed in our Arts. 230-2. Tln>

226

BOUSSINESQ.

[1470

memoir immediately follows Boussinesq's in the same volume of the Journal. But the functions of the initial stresses which occur in the expressions for the elastic stresses are, it must be remembered, quoted by Saint-Venaut from a memoir which proceeds on
rari-constant lines (see our Art. 232). Boussinesq reaches less but are not they open to a criticism of the general expressions,

same kind.

His method

is

however too long

for

reproduction here.

Referring to Art. 232 let us take 1 C7 T7 4Pt MM JL t" J*\T0 "0 7 4- Pt' t,

^ ^O
^0 =

-*

71 "I" j- * Pt"

o,

=o,

0.

These agree in form with Boussinesq's values for the We then have the following types of traction and shear

initial stresses.
:

M = (T + PC) (1 + 8X - s
+
{8'

- 8g ) +
+
{8'

{a

+k+

m (e
(c

e")} sx \

+ pt" + q

(c

c)\ su

+ pc + q

e")} sz

where, as

is

shewn
a

in Art. 231

= 28 + 8',

m-2r+p

m=

4:S

+ 2q

(iii).

Here there are fourteen constants in the expressions for the stresses, but the three relations (iii) reduce them to eleven, which exactly agrees with Boussinesq's number (twelve) when the relation (i), due to the principle of work (and tacitly assumed by Saint- Venant in the form of The equations (ii) are equations (ii) of our Art. 231) is adopted.
1 exactly Boussinesq's in form, although he uses different constants
.

Substituting in the [1470.] of the body shift-equations

:

body

stress-equati ons

we

find as a type

dru
~

=
+

,o

c-/

{8

T+

(e

'

C
2

+ +

")
, '

-(r-s)
(Pu

e}

Vu
2

d'

dx*
.

+
dy*
.

"

d?u\
) dz 2 /

JP

*) '

j-(-T-* dx\ dx

d / du

dv
-jT-

..

dw\
-.
) dz )

..........

..

dy

(IV).

The
p.
e' ii

on his

m = + + 2 (m + ?u"), p =
r

=a,

= t,

following give the change in notation from our results (ii) to Boussinesq's 218; our constants being on the left of the equalities: T = K,
c"

= c,

I'

= l + 2m~K, d = m-K, 5' = l+K, = + 1" +p, r = m' + m", x = m'. l', q
l'
fj,.

= + 2(n + m' - m"),

l'

constants of our equation (v) \ l = \8, \., = \'5, /ij = ^5, 2 = pd,

Further among the compared with Boussinesq's equation (8) p. 221: p = $,

<r
i

= ffd, \ =

i>d.

U711472]
Put
8
-I-

BOUSSINESQ.
8'

227
,

(/>

+ r) (e +
+

c'
'

+
+

8+ T+r

c") "

= X,

+8- ])- r = \^ =

A3

= !,

-r-*-/7,,

wr ha\e
*

for the type of shift-equation

'

<

X + *=>
'

.de

+
-

"
rfw\
.

d / du ,dv j-(-7-+T- + <e\ ek dy

dzj

.................... (V).

Boussinesq's equations (p. 221) agree with this, excepting that \^ is not necessarily equal to X,, unless appeal be made to the principle of work. The constants X,, X,, (X3 ), /* /*.,, o-, are independent, but if the initial tractions A, B, C as defined in our Art. 1 hJ7 are zero, then /*=(), and

we have

<TJ

= fa.

[1471.]
/*', /'c") to

Boussinesq

now

supposes the quantities A, B,

(or,

7'e,

become after a given epoch constant, and investigates the motion of a plane wave in the medium whose vibrational shifts satisfy

equations of the type (v), the quantities c, e', e" being very small. He shews (pp. 222-3) that there will be waves of vibrations (a) almost in and (h) almost normal to the wave front (quasi- transverse and quasilonyit>"tin<i! waves), the divergence depending on terms of the same order as e, e', e". There will be exactly transverse waves if + X, = 0,

and

exactly longitudinal if

if f4 + A,= 0. Thus if the principle of work hold tinreduce to the single one fj^ + A., = 0, which will be found by m. In the case of ran -on -slant isotropy we ou^ht (iii) to reduce to l to Jia\- iii .. piations (ii) of our Art. L'.ll, <l = d, e = e' t f=f, or p = rt q = 8', whence it follows that I - m involves p = q and r = , or a perfectly llciu-.- no f>.r(i>-(li/ rans verse wavrs ran le propaMj.ic incdiuiii. gated in a rari-constiint isotK.j.i,- inrdiuni, however initially strained, unless the modi n n n-main isoimpic.

or,

in general
litions

Boussinesq next proceeds to discuss tli< t[ \\-.^\ I. idi<- :i te his result^ quasi-longitudinal wav.-s, nt to do HK.IV than would lead us too far into tin tln-.ry of light. On pp. _':.' ;j-37 he L i\ with th- <lir'ti..ns of vibration, plain-surface, etc. |>"1
(1 I7i'.|
i

>t'

of quasi-transverse waves. rcsncls \\ this case to In th* tonucr case the deduce the wave-suit i. n ..... Kresoel's. plane m I'resnel's theory, perpendicular to the din ti.. n of polarisation is,
In
tin

case;

of

<r,

i;ice;

when

r,

/.oro

Boussinesq he si

l.i.,

_'_".')

how

in

228
of vibration.

BOUSSINESQ.

[14731475

It is only possible for <r to be zero, without at the same being zero, if 1* be not zero, or since double refraction then depends on the tiniteness of 1\ it is only possible iu an isotropic medium iu which the initial strains are different in different senses, i.e. A, B> C must not in this case be zero. If o-^/x-j, but differs from zero, which arises when P = 0, or the initial stresses reduce to a uniform traction T in all directions, then the wave-surface is exactly that of Fresnel, but the direction of vibration lies in the plane of polarisation, or Boussinesq' s theory agrees with that of Neumann and MacCullagh. Thus the multiconstant equations of an isotropic medium subjected to initial tractions can be made to cover the theories of both Fresnel and Neumann as
l

time

fjL,

special cases.

He considers it very improbable that this manner of propagating longitudinal waves can be characteristic of any but an exactly Such isotropy, however, he holds to be inconsistent isotropic medium. with the physical properties of a doubly refracting medium, or he concludes that such a medium ought not to have the power of propagating waves of exactly transverse or exactly longitudinal vibrations in all directions. This argument Boussinesq suggests may be taken in conjunction with the others raised by Saint- Venant against Green's theory; see our Arts. 147, 229 and 265.
direction.

In the discussion of the quasi-longitudinal vibrations (pp. [1473.] 237-8) Boussinesq shews that if the medium be such that it can propagate exactly transverse and exactly longitudinal vibrations, then the velocity of the longitudinal waves will be the same wliatever be their

[1474.]
in

The memoir concludes with a Generalisation

,

(pp. 238-41),

which Boussinesq supposes the tractions A, C to remain for a certain time proportional to one set e, e', e" of deformations, and after the lapse of this time to become proportional to another set. He shews that the general results of the memoir still hold, and in particular that the distribution of elasticity is still ellipsoidal: see our Arts. 139 and
142.

[1475.]

iZtude sur

les

dans

les

milieux isotropes

et

vibrations rectilignes et sar la diffraction dans I ether des cristaux. Journal de

mathtmatiques,

T. xin., pp. 340-71. Paris, 1868. Comptes T. This memoir starts in the first 1867. rendus, LXV., pp. 672-3, place from the equations for the vibrations of an isotropic elastic

medium

of the type:

and supposes the vibrations to be

(a) rectilinear

and

(b) of very

147.")]

BOUSSIN B9Q,

229

It supposes the amplitude and direction of the period. vibrations to vary from point to point of the medium, and then investigates their laws.

short

If \ and
of
tin-

<

be functions of

x, y, z,

and

I,

w, n be the direction-cosines

ivrtilinrar vibration of period T, Boussinesq seeks solutions of the in of equation (i) of the types :
ITT

u-=lx cos

(t

<

w = n\ cos

(t
<f>

\vhrrr, <u bring the velocity of the wave, the terms in (ra>) nryliiriblr in the final equations as a result of (6).

are supposed

Obviously

</>

= a constant

is

the equation to the wave-front.

it is

In the case of the above isotropic medium,

rectilinear

found that the

accurately longitudinal or acare either perpendicular or parallel to the wave-front (pp. 342-5). Boussinesq finds that for longitudinal vibrations only three surfaces are possible wave-fronts namely
curately transversal,
i.e.

vibrations

are

either

parallel planes, coaxial circular cylinders and concentric spheres (pp. 348-9) and the same is true for transverse waves, if the

vibrations be supposed limited in direction to the lines of curvature In the case of longitudinal vibrations however the (pp. 351-3).

amplitude has the same value

for all points of the same wave-front whilf for transverse waves the amplitude varies from (pp. 348-9), one point to another of the same curve of vibration in the inverse
rati')
.f

tin-

of vibration.

distance of this curve from the in>igh bottling curve Boussinesq terms a curve of vibration the curve

the tangent to which is the direction of vibration of the particle Tlm^ in transverse vibrations the curves at the point of contact.
brat ion are
(pp. :r.o 3).
etablir tonics ccs
(I

a family of curves lying

in the front of the

wave

!<>i>.

n<>u^

KYOHI suppontf quo

\

ti,

r,

w
>

ari.ii.-nt

'inir

maniere continue
condition .jml'..n
1

[equation

point aux points prut poser les equations (i). from our (i) by substituting
d'tiu
aii'!

rxt qu'A

(ii)

in

th<

.,i,.|

equating to zero the coefficients of the COHHIU

('-</)]

230
les

BOUSSINESQ.
ten m
'.s

[14701478
satisfaite a
les

CM

T-GT.

petite distance

ondes spheriques. Done les lois obtenues ue sont vraies qu'a puitir d'une onde spherique, le rayon, qui est tres-petit et centrale, dont nous appellerons plus loin presque insensible (p. 353).

Or cette condition n'est pas du centre de IVhranleinent, dans

une trop

The memoir in the next place (pp. 353-65) discusses [1476.] quasi-transversal vibrations in a medium of which the elastic equations are of the form
:

a, b,

and c being small as compared with unity. These are of the same type as those Boussinesq deduces from his elastic theory of light (see our Art. 1480) for a doubly refracting medium. They are also practically identical with those of Sarrau and
others.

Boussinesq considers only the quasi-transverse vibrations corresponding to waves propagated from the origin of coordinates and his conclusions are indicated in the following words
:

Ces ondes sont celles de Fresnel, et les vibrations sont dirige'es sensiblement, en chacun de leurs points, suivant la projection, sur le plan tangent a Les lignes de vibration sont 1'onde en ce point, du rayon qui y aboutit. k tres-peu pres des ellipses spheriques, ayant leurs foyers sur les axes optiques leurs trajectoires orthogonales sont des courbes sphe'riques de m6me 1 suivant un nature. L'amplitude est soumise k trois lois ; elle varie rngrne rayon, en raison inverse de la distance k 1'origine et de plus, sur une meme onde 2 suivant une meme ligne de vibration, en raison inverse de la distance de cette ligne k la ligne de vibration voisine 3 suivant une trajectoire orthogonale aux lignes de vibration, en raison inverse de la distance de cette trajectoire k la trajectoire voisine. En appelant r le rayon men de 1'origine k un point quelconque, U, U' les angles qu'il fait avec les deux axes optiques, ces trois lois reviennent k dire que le carre! de 1'amplitude est dgal k une constante divise"e par le produit r 2 sin 7sin U'. C'est la formulc qu'obtient M. Lamd, dans ses Lemons sur V&asticit^ 126, par une tout autre voie et pour des milieux birdfringents d'une autre espece (p. 341).
;
:

The above results hold generally for elastic media of the [1477.] On pp. 365-71 Boussinesq applies the laws he has deduced type (iii). to the special optical problems of diffraction and of the definition (la
delimitation) of rays of light. lead us beyond our proper field.

To

discuss his results would, however,

[1478.]

Thdorie nouvelle des ondes lumineuses.

Paris, 1868.

Journal de
This memoir

mathe'matigues, T. XITI., pp. 313-39.

14-79]

IlnrsslNESQ.
to the

was presented

Academic on August

5,

1867, and a resume

of the theory appeared in the Comptes rendm, T. LXV., pp. 235-9, Various additions to the memoir containing expansions of 1867.
tin

theory will be referred to in the sequel.

Boussinesq's theory is an elastical one and therefore [1479.] referred to in this History, but the details of its applica-

must be

tion to the phenomena of light lie outside our field and we must refer the reader to the original memoirs for them. Boussinesq

makes the following assumptions

(a)

The

free ether

may be

regarded as an isotropic elastic

solid.

is

Its density and elasticity inside and outside transparent bodies (b) sensibly the same.

The velocity of wave motion in the ether of space is so difft-ivnt (c) in mi the velocity of sound in solid bodies, that it is reasonable to suppose that it is tin 'ther in transparent bodies arid not the material medium
1

of those bodies which transmits light.

The vibrations of the ether produce vibrations of the same (if) period in the molecules of the transparent body, but the amplitudes of these are so small that they do not produce any sensible elastic action lift wren tinparticles of the body. The displacements of the molecules of the body are functions he shifts of the ether in the immediate neighbourhood of those molecules and in certain cases of the shift-speeds. Boussin<>>i| expresses this analytically by saying that to a first approximation \\<
(e)

may assume the shifts of a particle of the body to be linear functions of the shift* and shift-fluxions with regard to space (and in some cases Tf ?/, ?', w be the shifts of tinalso with regard to time) of the ether. i of the ether, he writes >/. point (Note of 1872, pp. 364-5 see our Art. 1449):
./-,
:

Le ddplacemeiitfn|irtim>
<ju'oli !*M:-

/,',
'

/,'.

,/-,'

d'mu niol.Vnle
1

it

<!<

pon<lrrall<> oYvirnnont done lMirs uYrivt'os partielles des divers ..nliv>, \\\ la |H>tite8e eXCO.ssivr drs varial
lc fait

CMiniiic

mi

tmijours

MI

i-a.N

pan-il.

par IVmplni

jH.ur lc<|iicl 6ei in-iiiirrc'.M

1

'r, (|uand on .tiulir iinr f..m-tiii au\ rnvinms d'un point elle H'annule, et <|u'-n iTapcrroit aucunr rai-..n d> Mip]X)aer 860
iiulh-s
<>u
(!!><<, ntinucs

int
inti'-ricui- li'un |x-tit

lea axes,
1

de
>

In

K<>s (l plac-iiiciits en ce point. matiriv pon.lrr.il.lc nuitiMiuo j\

;

\oliiiin

<pi
<|iii

li-omjiu

s'ohtiriitlroiit

en nmltipliant

la

uuutae
'.1M

.ai-uinLfl

!-,

moli'i-ulivx

en font par;
ilc.s

con-i.l.

drs mo],

ulrs

!.i nmaae pnli; cos ddplaccmenUi moyoiiH aeront done auasi, a fort \-\\ nimts ,/. ire8, sans tcrnicM constants, don d p!
;

,n jM.int

pris

;\

rinti'rirur <lu volui,

deleur-

.1.

n\..->

1..

232

BOUSSINESQ.

[1480

(/) The product of the density (p) of the ether into the component of its shift parallel to any axis is of the same order as the product of the density (p,) of the body into the component of its shift in the same direction. Boussinesq in reality bases this upon (d) he considers the vibrations in the ether only to produce discordant actions between the ponderable molecules, actions incapable of continuing in and for themselves, i.e. giving rise to no elastic forces in the material
;

body.

In this case

les quantites de mouvcment prises, suivant trois axes rcctangulaires de coordonnees, par la matiere ponderable, ne peuvent graudir d'un instant h Pautre qu'autant que celles de 1'ether grand issent elles-memes 1'hypothese
:

la plus naturelle qu'on puisse faire, sur les rapports qu'ont entre elles les premieres et les secondes de ces quantites de mouvement, consiste a admettre

qu'elles sont 1449).

du me~me ordre de grandeur (Note of 1873,

p. 3fi3

see our Art.

The resultant per unit volume of the elastic forces parallel [1480.] to the axis of x due to the ether is of the form
7/9

(*+!) j
.

or

is

of the order,

fji

- x p
p

d?u
-j-^ ctxr
,

i.e.

2 (velocity of light) x p

Similarly the elastic forces parallel to the axis of x due to the elasticity of the material body will be of the order
2 (velocity of sound) x p :

-^
Cttfc

Hence it follows from (/) that the ratio of these forces is of the same order as the ratio of the square of the velocity of light to that of the velocity of sound, and accordingly the latter force may be neglected as compared with the former in dealing with the motion. If the transparent body has no velocity of translation as a whole comparable with the velocity of light-vibrations, the mean accelerations of its ponderable particles will be

and consequently its components of inertia per unit volume due to the vibratory motion will be the products of these quantities and p or, what is the same thing, the total reactions, per unit volume of the ether, exerted on the ether by the ponderable particles of the body will be
l ,

1482]

BOgttmDBQ,

233

because the sole force acting on the ponderable p:rtu-l'> is due to the impulse of the ether upon them. Hence the equations for the motion of the ether in a transparent l-.ily are of the typ(X +

rt-. + rVu-H-j^p
(p.

,</0

<f-V,

<Fu
...............
(1 ),

318 of the Memoir of 1868).

and Boussinesq now makes i^ a function of u, v, [1481.] their fluxions and retains only the first powers of these quantities:

The nature of this function will depend see (e) of our Art. 1479. on the aeolotropic or isotropic character of the medium (pp.
the equation which results by substituting w, in the laws of dispersion and of rotatory deduces (i) Boussinesq of double refraction (pp. 328-31), and 321-7), polarisation (pp. of 'elliptic' double refraction with application to the case of quartz
1

1!>-21).

From

He makes on pp. 338-9 a few remarks on the (pp. 331-38). conditions at the interface of two media. He points out that if the shifts in the two media along the interface be made equal and the
stresses across the interface, then the elasticity of the ether in both media being the same, all the first space-fluxions of the shifts will

be equal at the interface. The latter condition of continuity, which s not hold in the case of unequal elasticities, seems needful in order to obtain expressions for the intensities of the reflected

and refracted waves, which

C'eat pourquoi
<!<>

will

agree with experiment.

nous avons cru devoir admettre la Constance d'e*lasdeux milieux adjacents. Quant u la Constance de s;i mais elle nous parait densitd, elle n'est pas necessaire a notre theorie - la inn- condition natun-11. la constant lY-l.isn.it, regardons "Mime vraisemblaM' (p.
tiritr
lY-tln-r <lans
;
!
.

[14S2.]
><!.

Ailtlifin,,
</.sr.v.

,1,1

int'nin,

///.

Thcorii'

'>'

deft

./nitrniil <lr

//,^//////'//M/<TX,

T MIL,

pp.

425-4:^
to
I.

1868
,

paper extends Boussinesq's theory of the laws of the following phenomena:

I

lii-

tli.

tin-

-tractive

and rotatory powers of a mixture of various transparent

the theory easily leads to
II, tin1
1
!

substances,
laws,
light,

tin-

usual approximate -1\

and

magnetic rotation of tin- pl.-m.- of j,ol:m-.-.l aberration of light when tlu tran^inittiiikr 1>1\
>rmula for the velocity of
tin-

motion,I.

!':

wave

ot

K.

IT.

II.

16

234
in

BOUSSINESQ.

[1483

terms of the velocity of the medium and its refractive index being deduced. A more complete consideration of the problem of aberration will be found in the Note Complementaire of 1873:
see our Art. 1449.

[1483.]

mation,
et

les

Sur les lois qui regissent, d une premiere approxiondes lumineuses propagees dans un milieu homogene

transparent d'une contexture quelconque. Journal de matheParis, 1872. matiques, T. xvn., pp. 167-76. Taking the equations of his memoir of 1868 (see our Art.

1480) of the type:

dO
Boussinesq neglects the rotatory and dispersive powers of the medium and supposes ult v1} and wl to be linear functions of
u, v, w.

He

shews that by a proper choice of axes, they can be

tt
t

given by
vl

= OLU

fy

=$v Vw

Siu

+ W, + u, eu + & v
>

where a, 7, S, e, f are constants depending on the nature of the medium. All known transparent bodies are but slightly aeolo- j3, /3 7, 7 a, tropic from the optical standpoint and hence a. are small on this assumption 8, e, f very quantities. Boussinesq in a medium. If the motion of such investigates plane-waves those of be he with Fresnel deduces formulae zero, S, e, f agreeing for double refraction. If they be not zero, there are two waves whose vibrations are very nearly but not accurately transverse. Boussinesq studies the laws of these quasi-transverse waves, and shews
that they may be enunciated, like those for the accurately transverse waves of Fresnel, by the use of the optic ellipsoid of elasticity with the aid of a certain right-line of given length or 'optical axis
'

&

'

centre

of asymmetry', which passes in a given direction through the of the ellipsoid. For crystals which have one of their axes perpendicular to the plane of the others, mineralogical

For crystals, Boussinesq's results agree with those of Fresnel. where this perpendicularity does not hold, this agreement is not a
necessity of Boussinesq's analysis, and special experiments, Bous-

1484

1485]

BOraUimq

sinesq considers, would have to be made to determine whether these crystals also may be considered as having three rectangular

planes of optical symmetry (Fresnel's hypothesis) or whether they obey the more general laws possible according to the present memoir.
little doubt, having regard both to the and to the clearness of its hyporesults of its comprehensiveness elastic that theses, theory of light is in most respects Boussinesq's

[1484.]

There can be

superior to the elastic theories proposed by MacCullagh, Neumann, Should elastic theories be destined, as Green, Lame* and others.

seems probable, to be replaced by an electro-magnetic theory, there are yet, probably, many points of Boussinesq's investigations which l might be usefully transferred from the one theory to the other
.

SECTION
The Application of Potentials

III.

to the

Theory of

Elasticity.

Lea dtplocements quentrainent de petites dilatations [I486.] ou condensations quelconques produites, dans tout milieu homogene et isotrope indtfini, sont calculables d la inaniere d'uue attraction
newtonienne.

The

Paris, 1882. Coinptes rendw$,T. xciv., pp. 1648-50. body-shift equations for small vibrations may be written
:

in tin- t'nnn

*>-*where
6*

<:)
(

= p/p and

a*
:

= (X + 2/i) p

see our Art

:i

>

\Ve have at once

de/df = a*V*e
Let 6 at the point ./-,, y r, us consider matter distributed
,

,in.

bi-

given by

B(.i\ t

y lt z lt
of
will

throughout space
.1,-nsity

t) and which

K-t

th.

density at time

equals 0/4?r; thus, thi*

vary with

mvi-Htigations of the clattic theonr of light are not rendered utterly useless by the adoption of other con^tituti..m for the ether has been pointed <mt Ln a paper published for the first tinir in \. \\\ -t )ni

'/

l'h,/^,;,l r,ii>,T*.

CnmbridRf. 190.
l(i

236
the time.
will

BOUSSTXESQ.
Its potential at

[1485
z distant r from
a?,,

a point #,

y,

y lt z

be

where dty

is

an element of volume at
V'fc

a?,,

y,,

-z,.

Then
by Poisson's Theorem.

=-

(or,

y, *, I) ..................... (iv),

Boussinesq now puts

_

47r

r
(i)

ro
(ii).

eft

a8

'

eft*

referring to equations

and

His
6 and

first

equality seems to

me

legitimate only if we suppose vanish at an infinite distance.

d6\dx, dOldy, ddjdz to For, I presume, it is obtained

parts.

by putting
if d(7

-=-

(-}

(-J

an d integrating by

Whence

be an element of an

infinite

bounding surface we must have

zero
t)

JJ

fftffr.*.*.*)^ and ffl JJ r

r-

**(*.*.)&, e
d(xlt ytt
and

Thus we

find that 6

and

<l>

are to be found from the equations:

= aW, <r<S>/df
while
(i)
(it,

4>

=-

0,
:

gives us for the corresponding parts of the shifts

v,w)

= - dld (x,

y, z).

Thus the

shifts are equal to the

Newtonian

attractions

due to

a distribution of matter of density varying with the time and dilatation. proportional to the corresponding In addition to the above there may be parts of u, v, w for

which
equations
:

they are evidently given from

(i)

by solving the

^
If

(u, v,

w)

=6V
a

(w, v, w).

integrate both sides of equation (ii) over the volume of a surface so large that dO/dx, dOfdy, d0/dz vanish at its

we

boundary, we have

or fffOdvr

is

constant through the motion.

Thus the

total

mass

I486]

BOUSSINESQ.

-2.S7

of which 4> is the potential is constant and finite if 6 initially does not differ from zero except in limited regions. From this
result
<l>

due

Boussinesq (p. 1650) easily deduces that the potential to 6 tends to zero as the time increases.

[I486.]

Application des potentiels tl Vttude de Vequilibre et du Cement des solides e'lastiques, principalement au calcul des

deformations
efforts

et des pressions que produisent, dans ces solides, des quelconques exercts sur une petite partie de leur surface ou de leur interieur ; Memoire suivide notes etendues sur divers points

<fc This work Paris, 1885. i>kysique mathematique et d analyse. of 722 pages is the most considerable contribution of Boussinesq to the theory of Elasticity.

This volume also forms T. xm. of the Recueil de la Societe des Sciences de Lille. Lille, 1885. Portions of its contents appeared in separate memoirs contributed to the Comptes rendtcs for the years 1878-83 see T. LXXXVL,
:

pp. 1260-3; T. LXXXVII., pp. 402-5, 519-22, 687-9, 978-9, 1077-8; T. LXXXVIIL, pp. 277-9, 331-3, 375-8, 701-4, 741-3; T. XCIIL, pp. 703-6, 783-5 ; T. xcv., pp. 1052-4 ; 1149-52 ; T. xcvi., pp. 245-8. In

addition certain results of the theory were published by Saint- Venant on pp. 374-407 a and pp. 881-8 of the French edition of Clebsch: see our Art. 338.

The

object of the work

:

is

summed up on
ce travail.
:

f,itr'nl>i'-fin

But

et

resume de

pp. 15-19 of the It is to discuss thi-

solution of the following three problems

(a)

A
is

material

small portion of the surface of a large mass of elastic subjected to local stress, it is required to find the strain

at other poin

material

portion of the surface of a large mass of elastic subjected to a given deformation, to find the stresses <lu> to this deformation.
(

l>

A small

is

(c)

A
is

material
t<>

small portion of the interior of a large mass of elastic subjected to a given body-force (e.g. magnetic action),

produced by this body-force. solving these problems Boussinesq considers the shifts of the material to be zero at an infinite distance from the small
In
sul>j

find the strains

portion
is

local load, but lu

fix

ivmark< that

this o.udition

only introduced to

our ideas.

238

BOUSSINESQ.

[1487

Eii rcalitc, les phenomenes produits dans cette region resteraient, sans doute, a pen pres les inemes, si le corps etait entierement libre dans 1'espace ; car ses parties e"loignees, vu la grandeur relative de leur etendue et, par suite, de leur masse totale, seraient maintenues sensiblement immobiles par leur inertie, durant bien plus de temps qu'il n'en doit falloir a la petite partie, de masse insignifiante, qui est contigue a la region d'application des forces exercees, pour suivre les

impulsions qu'on lui im prime et se mettre dans un etat quasi-permanent de deformation et de tension, c'est-a-dire a fort peu pres, dans 1'etat d'equilibre coiTespondaiit a la fixation de 1'ensemble du corps et a 1'intensite actuelle effective des actions exterieures qu'il supporte & 1'endroit que Ton considere (p. 19).

The work
elastic solid.

will

thus be seen to deal with the influence of local

stress or strain in

producing stress or strain at other parts of an

We need not stay long over pp. 15-49 of the work, [1487.] which give a brief resume of the conclusions reached in the remainder of the volume. We may, however, just refer to one or two points in these pages
:

Lame and Clapeyron's solution of the problem of an infinite (a) elastic solid bounded by a plane subjected to an arbitrary distribution
of tractive load (see our Art. 1018*) is noticed on pp. 19-23. Boussinesq remarks on the extreme difficulty of obtaining physical results

from a solution in quadruple integrals. Further with regard to Lame, Boussinesq points out that U = fdm/r be the ordinary potential of a mass m, then just as

if

p being the density, so

and is Lame's solution thus applies only to elastic cases where there is no internal action (represented by p), but the direct potential has most value in exactly the reverse case, where there is internal action or p cannot be put zero (pp. 31-3).
' '

V 2 V Fr=- 87173
2

V = frdm be the 'direct potential,' then not zero as Lame supposes: see our Art. 1062*.
if

'

Pp. 23-36 give an account of the action of local stresses which (b) deserves very careful study by those who assert that the mathematicians have failed to perceive the influence of surface loading in producing local strain. The several points of this resume are discussed at greater length in our treatment of the body of the book itself.
local perturbation", pp. 35-6 Boussinesq points out that a or local strain produced by the local application of a load system in statical equilibrium, decreases less rapidly with the distance in the case of a body with its three dimensions comparable among themselves, than
(c)

On

"

1488]

BOUSSINESQ.

-Jo!)

one or two of its dimensions are small as compared with a third. example the influence of torsional couples applied round the normal to the contour of a plate has been shewn by Thomson and Tait (see our
Art.
platr
1-")!'.;,

to be practically insensible at twice

the thickness of the

from the edge, but the strain produced by a similar local application of forces in equilibrium to the surface of an infinite elastic mass ouly decreases as we depart from the centre of application inversely as the cube of the distance see our Art. 1521.
:

8 of the Introduction (pp. 36-41) contains some valuable (d) remarks on the difference between solutions by 'potentials' and by Fourier's series, the former tending in many cases to exhibit and the latter to obscure the physical laws of the phenomena investigated. To
obtain the physical characteristics of a phenomenon we want to ascertain how a small action at one point influences the condition of affairs at a second, and we shall rarely be able to ascertain this from a Fourier's series when we increase indefinitely the dimensions of a medium in two or more directions. The Fourier's series will then in general be replaced by a multiple integral, and the evaluation of this integral with respect
to certain auxiliary variables leads to a simpler solution, which it will generally be needful to further integrate over the region to which the This simpler solution is what is more directly action has been applied. obtained by the method of potentials.

Finally we may note that pp. 42-9 give a resume of some (e) One of these is of interesting general properties of the potential. considerable interest and simplicity, and according to Boussinesq it had It consists in the following statement not yet been noticed. The Laplacian V- of any function at a point is equal to one third of the
:

mean value of the second derivative

possible directions

of the
14).

function

taken for

all

round the point

(p.

Boussinesq next discusses and defines the various of potential with which he is about to deal. types situated at the point Let dm be the element of a mass
[1488.]

the integration be over the whole of the mass m. /,, *,, I'll- n, if r V(# a?,)* + (y y,) + (z zrf, we have the following types of potential at the point x>y,z:

and

let

the ordinary or inverse potential

the dire
<al

U
|

---- ................

(iii),

V=Jrdw...
with three

<

v),

(see our Art. 1062*),

ilu- lni/,inth
/////
t

,,tr,,t;<il

n triable*

)d

240

BOUSSINESQ.

[1489
;

latter will be called the first logarithmic potential Bousintroduces the words with three variables' to sinesq distinguish it from the cylindrical potential or logarithmic potential with two - y,) 2 uariables given by /log rdm, where r = J(x a^)- + (y
' .

The

Finally we have the second logarithmic potential with three variables,

V =![->' +(z-z )\og(z -z^r^dm

l

(vi).

If z l

0,

^ = /lg ( z +
,

or the matter be spread over the plane

xy we have

am

>

which

is

the form in which we shall generally

have to deal with

VV e easily J
.,

it.

j d-b -T hnd 7

= [dm
j

17
.

dz

r
log (z

u,
(vn).

d^f

f
I

zl

r) dm =

Hence

if

= 0, we

have at once

J 2 2V-7= 0. These relations Further, as in our Art. 1062* V V are deduced on the supposition that none of the matter lies in

F=

V^ =

and

V'-^P

0.

the space within which we are considering the values of these

potentials (pp. 57-61).

The most general types of solution by aid of potential [1489.] functions are given by Boussinesq in a memoir of 1888 entitled
:

Equilibre d'elasticite d'un solide sans pesanteur, homogene et isotrope, dont les parties profondes sont maintenues fixes, pendant gue sa surface eprouve des pressions ou des deplacements connus,

sannulant hors dune region restreinte ou Us sont arbitraires. Comptes rendus, T. cvi. pp. 1043-8 and 1119-23. Paris, 1888.
I propose to indicate Boussinesq's solutions at this stage and return for the discussion of special cases to the Application des
potentiels.

Boussinesq's problem

is

described in the following words

Comrae le corps dont il s'agit n'est a considerer que dans le voisinage de sa region superticielle, sensiblement plane, assujettie aux pressions ou aux deplacements de valeurs autres que zero, Ton peut, en adoptant pour plan des xy le plan tangent en un point central de cette region et pour axe de z la norraale correspondante dirigee vers Tinterieur, le regarder comme liraite d'un cote par ce plan et indefini dans tous les

1490]

BOUSSINESQ.
oil les

21-1

autres sens, ou coiiuuc n-inplixsaiit la moitie de 1'espace positives (p. 1043).

ordonnees

Boussincsq
surface z

supposes biconstant isotropy.

He

writes at the

= ():

*
M=
when
lit1

= 5*>ft'--^' ^ ~4"

...... (i)l

v=v
v
,

w=w

9 ............ (ii),

j) x

/>,,, j) 2

*/,,,

are functions of
t'o,

considers M,

v,

and

?/,

(l ,

x and y only. to vanish at infinity.

'

Further

He

then

proposes to solve the body-shift equations of type

rlfl

_+
:

V-u

........................

(iii),

where k =
>f

2rj, 17

being the stretch-squeeze

ratio),

subject to one

<

the following conditions

(a)
(&)
(c)
(rf)

MO

i'

and
au(l

w
PZ
/; z

are
ai> e

known

functions of x and y functions of x and y functions of

P*>

py
v

known

and and

are

known
known

x and y

px

j[)

are

functions of x and y.
(/

where pz is arbitrary, but y> r = y> = 0, had by Lame and Clapeyron by aid of quadruple our Art. 1019*. A simplified form of this case had integrals: see been given by Boussinesq in 1878, and the complete solutions of (a) and (6) before the end of 1882. In (a) and (6) however he had been preceded by V. Cerruti (Ricerche intorno all' eijuilihrin de' Reale Accademia dei Lincei, Serie 3 a corpi >/</x//'/ isnt, !>',.
Tin- sub-case of (6)
1).

(ii

solved in 1828

'

della

K"ina, 1882).
first

Clause di scienze fisiche... T. xin.. pp. Sl-li'2. In the memoir of 1888 Boussinesq solves for tin(d).

time

(c)

and the most general form of

V,

[1490.1
their
1

Let U,

W,

<fr <^,,

be functions of
in

Laplacian
Htates
]

V3

x, y, *
x,

which have
z
finite

zero,

and their derivatives

and

He

this

.Iwlicnti,,!! itt

for the case (6) and n.-Wh: Mfl CNU Vrt

of his problem in a ulightly different form on pp. that the solution is unique and shows on pp. His method is similar to that of Kirchhoff referred to below.
.

546

503

127^. iind

242
continuous even for z =
Q,

lUH'SSlNESQ.
then
:

[U91
1,

if k'

'2k

we have the following two

systems of solutions for

(iii)

~ dU_ _ dz

d
z_

/cl

k'

dx\dx
\~dx-

dV
dy

+
+

dW\
dz /'

V=

dV

d (dU +

dV
dy

dW\
<h )'

dz~~k'dy

W=
and

dW

~^~k'd^\d^
I

d (dU dV + + d
y> ~T~

dW\
d*
)

dx
V

~i~"

k ax
z d<&

y ^7

dy

>l

= d<f>

d(f> 1
'J

fy~k'dj

dx'

.(v).
{

These results may be easily verified by substitution in The solution (v) leads at once by (i), for z = 0, to
:

(iii).

Pv

ddz

_
k
'

dxdz'

By

aid of (iv)

(vi)
(6),

several cases (a),

we can now (c) and (d).

indicate the

method

of solving the

the potentials due to distriCase (a). Take U, F, [1491.] butions of matter of densities - uJ2ir - vJ2ir, - w /'2ir respectively will satisfy the body-shift equations, over the plane xy, then u v, vanish at an infinite distance from the origin of disturbance and be Thus we have at the plane xy. equal to u^ v
t t

(vii),

1492
where
tin-

U'.tt]
r is

HOUSSINESQ.

24-3

shir
V,

the distance between the point of the plane z = at which w and the point of the mass at which the shift ,,

is w,

w.

i-<

Case (6). may divide this into two sub-cases, which [1492.] milliard will give us the general solution for the case of any surface

We

Subcase (i). pf - p v = 0, pz = any arbitrary function of x and y. This is Lame and Clapeyron's case. In equations (vi) put </>, = and k'd^jdz + k < - 0, and we have
/

loading.

/>

0,

= kpz when
,

z ~ 0.
-f

Assume
whence
Let
(viii)
/^o

=- ^

it log (*

r) pa

dxdy,
(viii).

\\-dxdy
=
and

we

be the true normal pressure 2/i.p.., then by aid of (v) find the following general expressions for the shifts, etc.
:

...(ix),

where

^o> is

an element of the plane

u,v/.

obtains, for 2

= 0, the values of ff(zpdu>/r*) and //(^prfw/r5 ), where p<A.) is an element at x lt y, of a mass distributed over the surface s-0, and
r is the distance of x, y, z from this element.

[1493.]

Boussinesq in his Application des

poteiUiek...(\>\>.

He

writes:

;ind

ht-ivfore r*
if

/P.

we put be the value of p at x

Whence,

K = zq, dR-zdq
y,
:

(z constant),

we

have,

if

p(x lt

l ,

wlx-n

-.

Similarly:

244 Thus we
(i.e.

BOUSS1NESQ.
find for the value of 6 in (ix)

[1494

Further we have (dw/dz)^ =

Jp /(^ in this case negative, or a rarefaction) and the squeeze at the surface are proportional to the normal pressure. The former of these results had been previously obtained by Lame and Clapeyron see our
:

when z 0, 6 = p /(^ + /A). Thus both the dilatation /*)

Art. 1019*
It will be noted that in this subcase
:

du -- dv
-=

dy
The
of z
first of
is zero.

-r dx

0,

and

dp..

dy

dp u --j-^=0 dx

............... (xi).

these equations expresses that the twist about the axis

[1494.]

Subcase
:

(ii).

Let us take

<!>

T;

v *)> ^hen

we

have besides p v =

*4>

l+/cdxdz

+
,

^
l

dydz'\I ..................
I

(xn);

P *~
whence,
<

j^_d*4__d*$L l+kdydz dxdz

2 and V 2 <^ remembering V

are both zero,

we have
*

for z

*+

~d^~

-\dy~dx) dy

( dp

dpv\ "'

'

second logarithmic potentials Boussinesq now takes for < and our Art. 1488), for which we have the second differential in z equal to the ordinary potential. Let #, and be the shearing loads applied to the surface = 2/x/^, = 2/xp^, and parallel to the axes of x and y ; then
(see
,

$~ =
whence we can

~V
p.

(dSi +

dSs \
'

^ d^ ~
dz3

,'

_
2/ot

\dx

dy) dy

\dy

dx

'

satisfy all the conditions

by taking

r)

- r} & - d<a

Jy

=
{

Equations (xiii) were first obtained by Boussinesq, and are given on 80 of his Application des potentiels. Their solution (xiv) is due to Cerruti; the above method of reaching that solution is, however,
p.

1404^

BOUSSINESQ.

245

have only to substitute (xiv) in (v) to completely Boussinesq's. Thus we have obtained solutions of Cases (a) and solve this Subcase. in terms of generalised potentials. Similar investigations occupy (b) On pp. 182-6 of the Treatise, pp. 62-80 of Boussinesq's Treatise. however, Boussinesq puts into a slightly more compact form the results
of Case
(b).

We

Let us
(i).

re- write

our conclusions in the following manner

Subcase

M=
-

dx
d<f>

4-

kdxdz*
z
cP<t>

~
2/x

k dxds?

'

2/x

'

di/dz1

1+*
Here,
if

srf2^

stfty

.(xv).

*,//(

tog (*

we have

* & "" 7r 'sr

Subcase
(ii).

'//

1+A:

'

</./'/:

rfy

2ft

1 -f

d.i-ih.

dy
;

+k
,

f/i/dz

dx

'

+k

= -,

l+kdz
if

l+kdz*'

Here,

ami

*=4ir/t

\ or

-5

-r

7-

<Pi

= -

/d*L
I

dy J

47r/x

f*
r/.-

,/*,.
,

ay
(xvi).

II' IP.

tind for (xv) and (xvi) comliinrd th<- stresses across .m\ parallel to tin- IMMUMI.-I
\\.'

"'

'J
we
easily

For a single element of surface stress /></<*>, deduce, remembering the relations (vii) of Art. 1488:
'

246

BOUSSINESQ.

[14951496

the last factor in each case is the direction-cosine of the ray the elementary area parallel to the surface at a point P with the point at which the load is applied ; further, the factor

Now

OP joining

the component of the load parallel to propounds the following law

is
:

OP

hence Boussinesq

(p.

187)

Toute action exterieure exercee en un point de la surface d'un solide se transmet a 1'interieur, sur les couches matdrielles paralleles k la surface, sous la forme de pressions dirigees exactement k 1'opposd de ce point, et qui e"galent,
pour
1'unite d'aire, le produit

du

coefficient 3/2?r

par la composante, suivant

leur propre sens, de la force exterieure donnee, par 1'inverse du carre de la distance r au m6me point d'application et par le rapport de la profondeur z de la couche k cette distance r.

Case (c). u r and p z given over z = 0. combine (iv) and (v) of Art. 1490 in tlie following manner. = 0. We have at the surface z = Take IT = 0, =

We can

[1495.]

&

'

u =

dU
dz>

dV
7Tz>

p* =

k {du, dv +

l+
J>

k\-dx

-dy)-

These lead us at once to

_ '

we

find finally
,

V)

fdU

dV

k_

+ k \dx
[1496.]
1

(dU

dV_k^
dy
k
*/
1

+ k dz \dx

dy
In this case

Case

(d).

and px p y given over z-0.

,

We easily

deduce the

last of these equations

from
k'
-

d r o\
,

and

-_

35*]

1496]
combining
(iv)

BOUSSINESQ.

247
and
d<j>/dz

and

the surface z -

(v) we take we have

:

U = V=
I

<fc

0,

whence

at

W*~~dz'

dW

Px ~

d*<f>

"
tlydz

k'

dxdz

V dxdz
k

'

...(xxi).

cPfr cfy P*~ _k_+l k dydz" dxd~

d*W

k'dydz

From

the last two equations

we

find over z

P$ "

k'

\ (dpx * dp v +

Whence

W\
dPy

>//',

....(xxii).

where

= ff(z log

+ r) - r

Further,

;ift<

Substituting these values of some reductions

!

and

W in

(iv)

and

(v),

we

find

w=-

_rf

//.*,
r

rS/J
whe re

~2ir(l+/

Mil>jTt

of his

completes the set of solutions proposed by Boussinesq as Wi- will now r.tum to his Aj'j/i<-<if<'"/ nirinnir. n^ where necessary to the above njimtions (i) (XM

th.

248

RorssixESQ.

H407

In the Application des potentiels Boussinesq discusses Case (b) above by constructing it from three simpler types of For each of these three simpler types he integrals (pp. 62-80).
[1497.]

then analyses the nature of the shifts, strains and stresses due to a single element of the potential expressions (pp. 8198, and 107-8). These investigations, interesting as they undoubtedly are, have still
not the same practical importance as that which corresponds to for a simple pressure upon a small (b), Subcase (i), element of the surface. This occupies pp. 99-107, and we must

our Case

devote some further space to

it.

p d<i>

Referring to our equations (ix) let us consider only the element of normal pressure on the surface. Let U represent the shift distant r from the loaded element in parallel to the surface at any point a direction making an angle a with the direction of the pressure, and let w be the shift perpendicular to the surface, then we easily find for
:

points outside d<a

(xxiv).

U is obviously zero for a-0, and again for a^cos" 1 J(\/5 817 1). Between these values U is positive, while between the latter value and 90 it is negative. For a = 90, we have
1

l-2

and

or we see that each circle on the surface is depressed more than its radius is diminished. Although the formulae (xxiv) do not hold when r is vanishingly and w, for da> will be small, they still do not give infinite values for of the order r2 and therefore dta/r vanishes for an infinitely small to return to are obliged in fact for the shifts near r = element. On the other hand, if p and do) be the more complete formula (ix). both finite, (xxiv) will hold for all points of the body sufficiently distant

We

from

Turning

this region (p. 104). to the stresses,

Boussinesq determines what

is
,

an elementary plane perpendicular to the axis of words we have to determine 7z and ^, where R = \/r2 stress across
1

the total in other

is

the

90

If 77 varies from \ to 68 32* about.

(i.e.

for

/x

= 0)

to 4

(i.e.

for

X = /K), this angle decreases from

4-H]

BOUSSINESQ.

249

distance from the axis of z to the point at which we are investigating hr >t n v S By the aid of 6 as given in (ix) we easily find
t .

C08a
cos2 a
r*

3,,(/<u

-ir
Thus the
1

8m "
parallel to the

stress across

any elementary plane

'

HI

ii

nd ing surface

*.

and

is

directed from the point at

1
.

which the elementary pressure p d<o is applied From the result conclusion draws the 105): following (p. sinesq
Thrnuifhimt the whole surface of a sphere touching the surface of
the f/ire n plane at the point of application of the normal force p ,d w, the stress, which an elementally plane parallel to tJie surface of the
{

body
'>

is

subjected

to,

is constant.

It varies direct! >j as the force

from the point of application ami varies for different sphei*es inversely as their surfaces. This n suit is independent of the elastic constants of the
is directed

along the chord

thus we see that the distribution of stress over any plain- parallel to the surface is the same for all iso tropic bodies see our Art. 1494, Subcase (i). <p. 106)
man-rial:
:

[1498.]

Boussinesq next proceeds to discuss the depressions

UJMUI the plane surface of an indefinitely great elastic solid t<. various distributions of normal pressure (pp. 109-201).

due

The valuo
(

of

wot

or the surface depression,

is

givm

\, i\

easily

l>y

i\

),

it is

i-,
suppose p taken as a surface density, and let us choose as tin- criitruiil and OS axes of X and tinorigin "f c-.ordii, it // principal lu It the total pr -m. .in<l /',. axes of this distribution of matter. ;! A A in^' radii of pQ round the axes of a; and y respet'(i\' ly.
.

Now

it

tli.-

infliiPiu-i-

Boasftinenq has applied this rwult to an interoniing special eaae bearing on in tli. |u..t u,|,-f:,,.,- liiii.luu' in c.f baai ..( ophical Mugasinf.
1,

I.

IT.

II.

17

250
then,

BOUSSINESQ.

[1499

by a well-known theorem in potentials due to Poisson (see Minchin's Treatise on Statics, Vol. n., p. 307, 1889) we have approxi:

mately

This

may

be written

Now

the

maximum

value possible for the term

AV
-=~

v>- 2

cos2x

is

not greater than unity and AV + K? must be less than the square of the greatest radius- vector of the area to which the pressure is applied, hence in writing

we

of the result. ) \ distance from centroid / Thus in the case of pressure applied to an area the depression at a distance ten times the maximum radius-vector would be given with less than 1 p.c. error by (xxviii). It is often much less than this, thus
-

are at most neglecting only

/maximum radms-vectory

for uniform pressure over a circular area, the depression at 4 times the

given by (xxviii) with less thun '8 p.c. error. note another point with regard to the above result. J Suppose the total force 7 to be zero; then it does not follow that P (AV + AV) will be zero, but we see that a system of pressures in statical equilibrium, if applied to a small region on the surface of the body will not produce a sensible depression at a small distance from that region, i.e. the depression diminishes as the inverse cube of the
radius
is

We

may

distance (pp. 118-9).

Returning to (xxvi) we can, either by direct expansion or [1499.] by an easy application of Legendre's coefficients (see Ferrers' Spherical Harmonics, Chapter III.), find w for a distribution of pressure symmetrical round a point of the surface. We should havep =/(p), if p be the radius -vector, and if p be the limiting radius of the area to which we apply pressure, R the distance from its centre of the point on the surface at which the depression is w we obtain
l
:

P>R
_._

l-ff"
I

7 At >-/.

d
I

2 2 /I 3\1 /1\ A? if
I

if/I

5Y7?
1

P<R

'

,2 ~3

/i

Q\2^r,

/I

r\2

rt e

(xxix).

1500]

I'.nrssiN'ESQ.

251

For example, Boussinesq gives a number of interesting cases of this. at a great distance from the loaded area, only the early terms of the second integral are required, and we have

which agrees with (xxvii). Further the depression wc at the centre of the loaded area comes from lit- first term of the 6rst integral and equals
t

w =
e

~
P
\
Jet

p dp ................. (xxix)

bis.

surface aiiuuli of the same small breadth when subjected to the same stress per unit area produce the same central depression. 1 Boussinesq finds the value of the central depression for p oc p*" ,

This shews us that whatever be their radii,

all

will

Po

2 1 The first two cases oc (p* - p )~* (pp. 1 19-20). of to distributions pressure vanishing at the centre and at corresixmd For the same total pi-essure tin- edge of the loaded area respectively.

oc

1 p*- - p"- and p

the mean tin- depression in the second case is double that in the first first depression in the second case is, however, only 2- that in the On pp. 121-6 Boussinesq gives expressions for the de(pp. 125-6). pression at the edge of the loaded area and for the mean depression over that area.
;

On pp. 126-139 an interesting proposition is proved, and to a corresponding proposition in the case of a circular ' Consider two pressures p and p plate is discussed at some length. infinite of an elastic two face solid round uniformly applied to the plane
[1500.]
its

relation

circumferences of radii p and p,' so that the total loads ^>irp dp p and 27rp,Wp,'/> are equal, then by (xxvi) the depression due to the first load at a point on the second circumference is given by
l
l

'

w
and
this is exactly equal to

w
or

7'..W'/X'W

t.. tli. depression at the first circumference due to the load on the Now suppose tin* load on on<> srcond, since the total loads are equal. riivuiufrivnrr not to be uniformly di.stril.ut.-d, tlini it will produ.v th. saim- ///"/>, ili-prension round the second riivumffiviu-r wherever it In-

placed.
>
i

H--IIC.-

tli.-

in.

-an

drpivsxjon

round the second

ciriMiinfen-ni-.-

ni -t

1..

the
<>f

tin-

law

same load on the first circumference, whatever distribution 1x5. Hence we conclu.]. t\oo equal loads
for the
ltd the

same

d\9tr\l>

perimeters of ttvo concentric circles produce the at each others circumferences. precisely
1

idrnti.-al

law

hol.l

for

\\

|,.adi-d

.'iivuinl.

r,

n,

,.

-,

,|,,

,.,it

rir

\\itli

172

252
circular plate the edge of our Arts. 336 and 1382.

BOUSSINESQ.
which
is

[1501
:

either built-in or supported

see

[1501.]

which the pressure

Bonssinesq next deals (pp. 130-42) with the case in is uniformly distributed over the loaded area.
notice a

We

must

first

method by which the equation

(xxvi)

may

be easily transformed into an integrable form, when the pressure varies only with the distance from the centre of the area.

Take the point P at which the depression is to be found outside the loaded area and let it be the origin of polar coordinates r and <j>, being measured from the line to the centre of the disc. from the point
<

Then by (xxvi)

Now transforming the variables to p and the angle marked the figure

i^

in

we

easily find

1-1
This

/*/'
Jo

'"~~^Jo
may

be expressed in the form

Now

let the point

P lie

inside the loaded area, the notation remain-

1502]

BOUSSINESQ.

253

to 7?, the integral may be expressed in the ing the same, then for p = form (xxx), but for p = to p, a slightly different form is needful. As before, but taking now the annulus outside

w =
n

IS

or since

it

involves only sin3

1 w = 2-

<f>

we have
fp
d<t>\

_"
*t*

fwf-i

Jo

JP=

R
:

Whence we e have

for a point inside the loaded area

*- f

vr*{c
/*
......

(xxxi).

See Boussinesq's pp. 113-7.

For the case of [1502.] the simple forms

:

/>

constant

we can throw

the above into

H.-.(xxxii).

Hence,

if

loaded area and

p = PJ(*pf) we have
irp.

be the central depression,

that at the edge of the

pl

tcp.

p! IT

Thus
I

(we - we )/wc = -363 about. Values of W for other points may

:

..l.taincd

directly

from (x\\n)

Tin- im-an value of tt) o\-r tinthe series-expression in (xxix). I'xdrd area or w m , is easily found from the second result in (x\\m In: consideration that i-y
fr-iin
i

2ir

/'

See BouHsi-

rj:.

and

lo.

254

BOUSSINESQ.

[1503

It must be noted that a discontinuous change in the [1503.] normal pressure occurs at the circumference p = pi, and Boussinesq on pp. 142-9 undertakes an interesting investigation of the nature of the
surface-stress along this line of discontinuity. we find
:

From

the results (xxv)

-if
where
r3 =
is

fa - X? +

(y,

- y) 2 +
,

~,

and p

a function of xly ylt or =fi(x1

y^.

With

tlie

notation of

our Art. 1493 we find:

In the limiting case z = Q fl takes the value/! (x + cos x, y which j has at an infinitely small distance c from a;, y. Noting that
t

fdq___
l.
I

_2\fi-

3F

we have

still

for limiting case

1

c sin Y) sin

^TTJO

and this will in general not be zero, if has sensible variations along the circumference of the circle of infinitely small radius e described round x, y as centre. For example, if x, y be on the boundary of a curve the pressure on one side of which is p l and on the other p.,, we have, if the axis of y be parallel to the normal to the curve
:

**

7 = -5Z Pf* Pi sm \d X +

(*"

sin

= -(p>2-Pi).
7T

Similarly

we can show
all

that under the conditions just stated

zx

0.

along the circumference of a circular area (on the bounding an infinite elastic solid) to which a plane normal pressure p is applied, a radial shearing stress of magnitude In order to avoid the difficulty of to be applied. PO/TT would have
surface
this shearing stress at points
its

Thus

where the pressure suddenly changes

value, Boussinesq supposes that although the distribution of pressure over the main part of a loaded area may be any

whatever,

still

at the edge of the area the pressure decreases

more or

less rapidly to zero.

1504]

BOUSSINKSg.

255

L'efietd'un tel decroissnm ML .suppose purement local, sur !.> ubaisseim-nts WQ produiti uilleurs que tivs piv.s <lu bord, est d'ailleurs totalement vu <iu'il n iutroduit ou no supprime qu'une pression totale in.siu'iiitiant
:

il>lc,

ne fournissant qu'un potentiel

\\ '--'

negligeable

aux

dis-

tautv.s

tini-

iies

aucune

>. En d'auti*es termes, ce decroisaeinent sujyprime les dusconqui, sans son existence^ se jrroduiraient sur le lord ; inais il n'a influence, generate, ou rioblige a modifier aitcune conclusion

concernaut Jen dcplacements produits a des distances sensible^ du contour de la region d' application (pp. 148-9). This argument seems quite legitimate.
[1">04.]

Pp.

special cases of loaded areas

infinite elastic

149-158 are occupied with some interesting on the plane boundary of an otherwise solid. Let the total load as before be P and its

distribution be given by p0) let depression of the area, p l its radius Then Boussinesq finds
:

be the central,
co its

we

the edge

and

magnitude.

Po

(w e

-w

e )ltoe

18-272"
(7 being arbitrary)

-9F

(7=1)

82_

576

S-8993

-061

(7=0)

The value

of

7)

/'
,

in the

Table

or the special
is

wc

of our

*7*

Pi

In the last case th<

dbteiboUon of pressure

so chosen

256

BOUSSINESQ.
is

[1505
o

1506

that the whole of the loaded area

equally depressed.

Since for a

uniformly loaded area the

mean

depression =

w
J7T

(Art. 1502),

we

see

that for the same total load the equally depressed area has a slightly less depression than the mean of the equally loaded area, the ratio of the two depressions being STT 32. On pp. 159-62 Boussinesq extends the case of equal depression to pressure applied over an elliptic loaded area with principal axes 2a, 26. He shews that if the pressure be applied according to the law
:

*"

/>.

then the elliptic area will be equally depressed

Pp. 167-81 of the work are occupied, partly, with a [1505.] discussion of some problems on the potential due to Beltrami, and partly with the application of the principle of inversion as in
electricity to obtain the depression

pressure.

One

special case of inversion

due to other distributions of is worked out on pp. 177-8

and on pp. 180-1. Boussinesq points out how a distribution of pressures may be obtained giving no depression at all outside a given contour, although the pressures themselves extend to regions

beyond

this contour.

Pp. 182-9 relate to Cerruti's solution for the case of [1506.] whatever over the plane boundary of an otherstress surface any

The results are, however, easily obtained by solid. of the second logarithmic potential see our terms in Boussinesq on an discusses 188-9 Art. 1488. Boussinesq interesting pp.
wise infinite
:

special case

which may be just referred to here.

at the origin.

Suppose a single shearing force Sl applied to the surface element du Then referring to our Equations (xv)-(xvii) we have

Hence we

find

*y = tya = 0, *x = {z log (z + r) - r} for the depression w at the surface

the maximum-slope lines of this surface are obviously = given by systems of circles lying in the plane z 0, passing through

The contour and

1 On pp. 162-6 Boussinesq investigates the value of the depression outside the uniformly depressed area, i.e. in the last case of the above table. He finds
:

I.-.07

i:,os]

i;or^i\

the origin and having their i-entivs on tin- axes of x and y respectively. In front and behind the point of application of the shear there will be congruent mound and hollow.

On pp. 190-201 Boussinesq deals with various forms [1507.] of the potential solution which are embraced in those we have He points out that as a already discussed in our Arts. 14-90-6.
solid is not proportional to the pressure,
;

rule the depression produced in the plane surface of an infinite i.e. w does not at each

and he indicates that for pressures applied (z o) point vary as over limited portions of the surface this proportionality cannot hold.
however, to find distributions of normal pressure which give a depression proportional to that pressure at each point. Looking back at equation (xv) we find for z = 0, proportional to 3 Hence if we were to take <f> e~ az \(x1 y), efty/efc , and w to d^fdz. we should have achieved our object provided V-</> = 0, or
It is easy,
will

A solution of this
provided

is

X=

C cos (mx + ft) cos (my + /?),

Thus,

^-.

noti that the mean pressure over the plane xy is zero, ami that tin- etf'rt of this pressure, owing to the factor e"**, gets very small at distances from the surface which are only a few times the dimensions of the nvi.in-l.^ within which the surface pressure U alternately positive and negative. pressure of this kind seems to be, however, of purely theoretical interest.

and we

[150s.]

problem

,,f

Houssincsq next turns to the extremely important d-'teriiiinini; the stresses when a rigid body of known

shape

is

pressed with a given force

infinite plane.

upon an

elastic
its

medium

bounded by an

The

di>eiiN>i,.n

under

general or

and 713-9 of the volume special aspects occupies pp. 202 -0'2 lo and on deals 713-15 with the general pp. Boussinesq m.-iei statement of the problem. He supposes that the bodies in
,">:>
<

are smooth,
total
t

and 7* =0 at the surta< of contact. Next the the bodies is given, and finally if we be between pressure
i.c.
*

he central depression

is

given over the surface of contact

258

BOUSSINESQ.

[15091510

Practically we are chiefly concerned with the case in which the surface of contact is a small area only in the ]>lauc u;//, ami it is easy to see in this case, that were the elastic body to have even a slight curvature expressed by z = <f> (x, y), and the rigid body a form given by
z

\fr(x, y),

we should have
)

............... (xxxiii),

or, the

same condition as if we had supposed the elastic body plane and the form of the rigid body given by
z

= t(x,

y)-<f>

(x, y).

Further since the surface of contact is small the part of any convex body iii contact with the elastic medium may be taken as an elliptic If A\ and R.2 be its principal radii of curvature, and the paraboloid. axes of x and y be taken in these directions, we shall have

and

in the special case of a plane elastic surface

***^~4rjr

|r)

.................. (xxxiv).

It is obviously necessary for the equilibrium of the system that the resultant pressure should be in the normal to the rigid body at the origin, or that, if the pressure be due to the weight of that body, its centroid should lie on the normal. Boussinesq considers on pp. 204-6 the more general case in which the exact orientation of the rigid body in

the position of equilibrium is one of the unknown quantities of the He points out how the problem breaks up into simpler problem. problems of which the solution may be obtained, but he does not solve these problems for any special case.

[1509.]

Besides the conditions we have considered in the

previous article, there are certain others to be fulfilled at the contour of the surface of contact. This contour will itself have to

be determined by the total amount of pressure, and along this at first undetermined contour we must have zz = 0, or zero pressure. This condition is discussed at some length by Boussinesq on pp. 208-10, and the reader is referred to our Art. 1503, as an indication to the sort of considerations which arise.
[1510.]

Turning

to various

special cases

we may note the

following

Case

of which

(a). is in

Tlie rigid body is a solid of revolution, the end of tlie axis contoct with tlie plane boundary of an infinite elastic solid.

1510]

BOUSSINESQ.
is

259

The

solution of this c:ue

indicated by Boussinesq in a footnote on

pp. liOC-7, and it may bo obtained by aid of formulae and di.M'u^e.l at some length by Boussinesq on pp.

due to Beltrami These 167-74.

1

formulae are the following.

face density the centre, then
\\

MM

have tor

Let a circular area be covered with a a function only of the distance p from if V(p) be the potential of the area and p l its radius, the density, p < p

A (p),

which

is

A(p)

= --

(Pi/

ftdft

d [PV(y)ydy\ =11 ......

ir*pdp) p

V/F-V^./o Jjp^f)
d

(xxxv),

and

for the potential at a point in the

plane of the area, p > p l

K (y) y

'

/yN
|

fxxxvi)

Now by our equation (xxvi) w is the potential due to a distribution of density (1 -fj)pj( 2 TT/X) over the pressed area. Hence we have the inside Q (p) following values for the pressure produced by a depression

the circle and for the depression

(p) outside the circle

-<
It

__
K

...(xxxvii).

must be remembered (see our Art. 1508) that wc -wv (p) is the ^(p) of p, and that w c will then quantity which is a given function
'

have to be determined so that

gives us after some changes
:

2-irpj^dp

equals the total load 1\.

This

Jo

>

r
(xxxvin).

\-TfJ JO

The
In-

last integral

can be evaluated

if

j/r(p)

be known, and thus

found

Theae integrals

y, and "' (p') can tlirn be ascertained by (xxxvii). luive been evaluated l.y (Vrruti for the case of a
is

or when .'/(/>) paraboloid of revolution, of the memoir <-it,.l in our Art. 1489.

of the form Cp*: see pp.

43-4

Case (b). G'enercU Cote. A riyid solid of any against the plane surface of an infinite elastic solid.
-ae formulae were dtlU J'
iv.,

tt/uipe

it

By our

prested equation

first

HI

togna, Ser.

T n

j.p.

given by Beltraiui in 1881 : see his memoir, inutricke. Memorie del? Accad. delU Scieuxe 402-3. Bologna, 1881.

260

BOUSSINESQ.

[1511

(xxvi),

wv =

'-

II'.

and thus

t0

is

the potential due to a surface

in

distribution

-p

Hence we may state the most general problem

:

the following manner The potential V at all points of an area in the plane of xyis given =t0 what is the distribution of density over this
>

area which would produce equations to solve

:

this potential?

We

have the following

V2 V = 0,

for all points in space lying outside the given area

jand

= 0,
Q

outside the given area for z

V=w

within the given area.

(p.

Boussinesq shews

that the required pressure

223) that the solution for is that given by

:

is

unique, and

See his pp. 221-4.

Case
(c).

Case of a flat rigid disc pressed on the plane surface of

an

In this case must be constant over the infinite elastic solid. area of the disc, if we suppose the load to be so applied that the face of the disc remains parallel to the initially unstrained surface of the
therefore constant (= w ) over the area covered by of distribution of load over the area is precisely the same as that of the electric charge upon the same disc supposed to be a conductor insulated and charged with electricity For the case of a loaded elliptic disc we have seen that (p. 225).
elastic solid.

is

the

disc.

Hence the law

=
Boussinesq

~^

)"'
is

(see

ur Art 1504)
-

now shews

that the depression

given by
(xxxix)i

l-r,

where for points inside the area covered by the disc, the lower limit of integration v equals zero, while for the points (#, y) outside that area v
is

determined by
(See pp. 226-9.)

The case of rigid discs pressing upon elastic surfaces [1511.] leads Boussinesq on pp. 213-21 to some discussion of the diffi-

I'.nrssiNESQ.

2fil

arising from discontinuity at the contour of these discs,

and then to some general remarks on the nature of such discontinuity in a variety of problems in mathematical physics. The values we have obtained for the pressure at the edges of circular and elliptic discs shew that, if they remained absolutely Hence rigid, the pressure at their edges would become infinite. either the elastic solid would be ruptured at the edge, or the edge itself would be broken away. Generally of course the varying
pressure over the face of the disc will cause the disc itself to bend.

These remarks seem to throw considerable light upon the phenomena of punching. In particular if we can apply such results
for "infinitely thick plates" to the plates dealt with by Tresca we find it intelligible why the portion of an elastic surface under
,

a punch curves
the punch, and

itself to

why

if

avoid an infinite curvature at the edge of the punch be forcibly pressed upon the

sin face, it sets into

lines across the area covered

a concavity under the punch. network of by the punch remains unchanged

; :

been produced this is explained naturally enough by the concave form taken by the surface beneath the punch
after set has
-st bon toutefois de remarquer qu'il ne suffirait pas completement, par lui-meme, & la faire admettre ; car, la region periphrrique e"tant in ontestablement d'apres la loi de repartition obtenue, beaucoup plus pressed que le centre, rien ne dit qu'un ecrasement doive se produire, k aucun moment, dans la region centrale supposee nn'-mr "tre reste'e plane, ni, par suite, que les caractores de structure qu'ello pivsente doivent ilisparaitn-. alors que le contour eprouve an contrahv. l-s
II

alterations profondes (p. 215).

In discussing the general occurrence of discontinuity in mathematical physics Boussinesq refers to discontinuous solution obtained by Thomson and Tait and by St Vcnant in the case of re-entering angles of prisms under torsion (see our Art. 290), by
hi ins. -If

in

himself

in

various hydrodynamical problems, by Rankine ami the case of pulverulent masses (see our Arts. 16131 .">

>

ami by Tresca
1
1
."

in the case of the flow of plastic solids (pp.

217-21

>

2.]

Case

(fl).

Cme
'!

tynclastic curvature
\

upf<

of any rigid surface pressing at a point of //,///, surface of an infnite elastic jw/iV.
/.'

in <nir

Art

L008,

:inl //

!.

ili-

prin.-ipal

ralii

"1

QUITO

.T. xx., p. 731

M72.

262

BOUSSINESQ.

[1512

ture, and P the total pressure in the direction of the normal, we have by (xxxiv) to determine w? from

w being the potential due to some distribution of density (I -17) p /(2ir/*) over the area of contact, which we shall assume, pending justification, At the contour of this ellipse to be an ellipse of semi-axes a and b. we must have p = Q, to avoid discontinuity. Boussinesq proceeds as He divides the ellipse into a number of concentric, follows (p. 231). similar and similarly situated ellipses of semi-axes varies 6, where Over each of these ellipses he distributes as a density the to 1. from 2 d according to the law of electrical distribution on an total mass 3P After some slight algebraic changes insulated elliptic conducting disc. he easily finds from the results in our Art. 1510 Case (c), that the density at x, y, due to one of these discs, will be
,

V
Integrating from

p-^-1?
C

a2

62 for the actual density

= va^/a2 + y 2jb~

to 1,

we have

of the entire system of discs

Hence we

find for the potential of the system

31-7

x-

dv
'" (
}'

contact,

where the limit of integration and is determined by

v is zero for points inside the ellipse of

.(xlii)M,
for points outside the ellipse of contact. Comparing (xlii) with (xl) we see that the latter will be satisfied, if:

Wc =

~\

^l

~n

w= ~
......

(xliii),

B
where

D=

v/(

2
) (//-'
\

,/')

1513]

ROUSSINRSQ.

263

Boussinesq shews (pp. 234-5) that there are always unique real values of a and 6 to be found from the two last of these equations if /?, and /?2 are positive. He easily demonstrates that
:

whence we

find

tlit-

integral vanishing for points inside,

and

its limit v

being given by

points outside the ellipse. He further shews that this solution gives continuity in the slope of the tangent plane to the elastic surface along the boundary of the area
of contact,
i.e.

(xlii) bis for

along the curve which projects into the ellipse

1.

This might have been expected from the fact that pQ

by (xli) along that curve. Thus all the necessary conditions are satisfied by the solution (xli)-(xliv), and as the solution must be unique (see our Art. Thus we see that the surface 1489,yfoi.) this is the solution sought. of contact is really limited by an ellipse, the principal axes of which are tangents to the principal normal sections of the rigid body. The pressure at any point is proportional to the ordinate through that point of any ellipsoid having this ellipse for its section by a principal Further the mean value of t0 within the elliptic area plane, of the constant depression [= ffv><flxdy/(irab)] is found to be $we or
(see
1

in

our Equation xxxix) which would be produced by a flat punch mini by th- ellipse of contact and subjected to the same normal
(p. 240).

pressure

adding any arbitrary additional pressure distributed over the ellipse according to the law discussed in Case (c), and therefore giving only a uniform additional depression over the surface of contact, we liavr a solution of the important case of a cylindrical punch with any elliptic cross-section and a face curved to an elliptic paraboloid, thr

By

punch
dit -ular

In-ill^

subjected to

any arhitnn piv*smv along

its

axis

p<

r|en-

to the surface.

[1513.]

It only remains to indicate

"

how a and
dv

b
'

/.
<

.....

may lJ =

be deter1

thru {I/a
of
tli.

-RJR^

an.

if

ami

/'

tin-

.-on,|,l,-t.-

rllipti.-

first

and second orders, wo have

to find e

from

S--

.,

264

BOUSSIM.SO.
Boussinesq expands the right-hand side in powers of
e

[1514
and shews
:

that

if e

be the usually small quantity,

+ higher powers of e, then

For values of Rz jKl < *1, we may take very approximately e - 0. For other values numerical tables could easily be prepared from For e to 1, e passes from to 1, Legendre's Tables by aid of (xlv). or b/a varies from the to the J power of RJR^ To find a and ft,
Vf - or is a known only to remark that quantity; a 6(1 17) .TO/I! 2 but we have a? = a (F- E)/e which accordingly determines a and therefore b, since e and with it and are known. Boussinesq shews that very approximately

we have

<

HI)'-

where

e
e'

4
;

is

of the

form

128

...

we may determine a and

10(1-77) \a' P
See pp. 241-8.

Approximately therefore when b from

:

^ and
~U
1

J?2 are

not too widely different

A U
1

Il l\X

J and

-=

I +*l

/T

On pp. 249-55 Boussinesq proves certain properties of the potential having relation to the distribution of electricity on elliptic discs and ellipsoids, but with no special reference to elastic problems.

On pp. 715-9 of his volume Boussinesq makes an [1514.] extension of the above results to the case of two smooth elastic
bodies pressed normally against each other at any point. He remarks that, when a rigid body of synclastic curvature presses against an elastic body also of synclastic curvature the problem to be solved is the same as when a rigid paraboloid of reduced form This (see our Art. 1508) presses upon a plane elastic surface. of definite an indent in the auxiliary paraboloid produces plane elliptic contour and with a definite pressure at each point given by (xli). If, therefore, when two elastic surfaces of synclastic curvature press against each other, we choose two auxiliary rigid paraboloids which under the same total pressures produce in planes surfaces of

1516]

BOUSSIN.

265

of the same

the same materials respectively as the two elastic bodies indents elliptic contours, there will be the same normal
pressures at corresponding points in the two cases, and these normal pressures will be the normal pressures for the unreduced

-nrfaces. Accordingly to solve the problem we have only to choose two auxiliary rigid paraboloids giving the same elliptic contours of contact with planes, and, before reduction, the same
elastic bodies.

surface of synclastic curvature as the surface of contact of the two Taking the common normal to these bodies as axis
z,

of

we should

satisfy all
:

conditions by taking the surface of

contact of the form

= a^a? + 2a&y -f
(t :]

"

The constants

<;,.

u..,

must then be determined from the

three conditions involved in the elliptic areas of contact having the same position and dimensions of principal axes for both

bodies.

For

be the same
IP

in this case, since the pressures as given by (xli) will for the two solids, and since the shearing stre>

zero at the surface of contact, all the conditions of the problem

will

be

fulfilled.

[1">1.").] Boussinesq remarks, p. 719, that this important property of the form of the elementary surface of contact of two elastic bodies pressed normally against each other was first recogniscd by Hertz in his memoir: Ueber die Berulirung festei-

elastischer

Korper, Journal fur... Math em utilc, Bd. xcn. S. 156-71. Hertz recognised that the laws of this contact arc approximately true for the impact of smooth elastic bodi< s and
Berlin, 1882.
it especially to the case of the impact of n\> solid sphn Boussinesq discusses Hertz's problem at length, and \\v shall run-id, it In !(', as it belongs essentially to the theory of the
i

applied

application of the potential to elastic problem <.

Let r, and r, bo the radii of the two spheres, and /' th< thoir spherical surface of contact considered positive \\hrn it is of the same th<Tln-n. if /.', sign as rt and opposite to r,. radius of curvature at the vertex of tin- lii-t auxiliary riirid j-ar..!...]..!.! which uinl.T tin* same pressure would makr tin- >am.- .-niral d.
[1">1G.]
i
!
|

10
I

area of contact in a planr Loundary as

/r,

th.it

m..,!,- in

tin-

= !/#!-!//.

I.

ft

IT.

II.

18

266

BOUSSINESQ.

[1517
:

Making a = b

in

(xliii)

and

(xliv)

we

easily find
,

^ = | ^r^.
(1

and

/*,.

Hence

a'/JJ,

= ?ILl3)/>,
O/A

Similarly for the second sphere, if 7?2 correspond to 7^ , and i/

to
17

and

/n'

and

ft,

and

/A

^
1

=
8/x

Tims we

find, if
1
-w
i

t
that

and

&=-i
rl

But
so that

we have

^ + -J = ^ ("i

i)
'
,

or

fj

for the special case when the spheres are of the same elastic material. The total approach of the centres of the two spheres and the

radius of the circle of contact are given

by

<

xhx >-

It follows from these equations that or the pressure varies , as the square root of the cube of the approach of the centres. The strains will be the greatest at the centre of the area of contact,

P x

on

where we find

for

the normal squeezes the values

the
lateral

TT

(A.

/M) TTrt

and

3P
4 (A +
//)
7T
2
,

respectively, while

squeezes are iust half

these values

see

equation

(xli) of

Lame and Clapeyron's result in our Art. 1493 and our Art. 1512.
justify the application of these formulae to the
(p.

[1517.] collision of

To

two spheres, Boussinesq makes

717) the following

remarks

1517]

BOUSSINESQ.

267

Quand le rapprochement des deux spheres est du a un choc, les seules deformations j>erceptibles out lieu pres do la surface de contact, dans des parties clont la masse totale et les inerties sont insignifiantes, Aiusi 1'equilibre inteYieur re"gi par les en egard a leurs tensions.
formules (in Art. 1516) y existe sensiblement a tout instant du choc. Le systeme elastique de deux spheres, ou plus generalement de deux corps contigus a formes massives et arrondies, est done de ceux ou la force vive se trouve separee presque entierement de la force de ressort, de maniere a n'en troubler que peu les lois ; et la reaction mutuelle P y iiirme a 1'etat de mouvement, simple fonction du rapprochement $ des parties en presence non encore de"fonnees sensiblement. C'est bien jue supix)se la theorio oilmen taire du choc direct des corps elastiques, confirmee par 1'experience dans ce cas de corps massifs.
It

must be remarked that

this

assumption supposes the relative

velocity of rebound equal to the relative velocity of impact, or Newton's coefficient of restitution e 1. This certainly does not hold in the case of large masses of metal, where e is more nearly
zero.

The assumption supposes no energy

:

to be lost in the form of

elastic vibrations

and of course none in the form of permanent of shape see our Arts. 209-10 and 217. changes
Following Hertz and Boussinesq, masses of the spheres
:

we have

if

TO,

and

bo tho

aiJL*
if

=! +
'1

-:
'2

whence

32 m, +

&

is tin-

niMxiiiMiin approach.

If v be the velocity of impact

we have

to

dctn -mine
ft

32^ + *!,
"15
II* IK.
tli.

ft-*
1

m.TO,

+
,

in ixiiiiutn

\.iln.-

of the radius of the area of contact, a

is

given

i.\

182

268
The semi-duration r

BOUSSINESQ.
of the impact
is easily

[15181519
found from

According to Hertz the have

:

definite integral

= 1-4716,

nearly,

whence we

T=
The
for

1-4716 (
for the radius of the area of contact

results

(1)

and

(li)

the semi-duration of the

:md impact ought to be capable of easy

experimental investigation. For the impact of a sphere (radius r) against a perfectly rigid = 2 ft = 2/r plane, we have only to put in the above results m,=mo, and v equal to twice the velocity of impact.
i
,

[1518.]

The

sixth section of Boussinesq's

Treatise occupies

pp. 256-75, and discusses general properties of the ordinary and Boussinesq first shews that the ordinary logarithmic potentials. and the first potential logarithmic potential with three variables are finite even when the subjects of integration become infinite He then proceeds to prove at a point, or along a part of a line. a general theorem (pp. 260-5) by aid of which we can easily

evaluate the differentials of these potentials with regard to #, y, z for a point occupied by matter. This leads him to a demonstration
of Poisson's theorem and various allied theorems for the direct and logarithmic potentials. Thus, if V, U and -^ be the direct, ordinary (or inverse) and first logarithmic potentials (as in Art. 1488) we must replace the results of that article for points

occupied by
r

"

potentiating matter
87rp,

"

by

V~U =

4-7T/9,

\Jr

= 47rl
/

pdz

(Hi).

[1519.]
ticitd

The following section is entitled: jSquilibre dtlasd'un solide indefini, sollicitd dans une etendue finie par des

forces exte'rieures quelconques (pp. 276-95). In a footnote on p. 281 Boussinesq gives the following general solution of the equations of isotropic elasticity when written in the form of type
:

1519]
ie.

BOUSSINESQ.
A"
is

269
:

when

the body-force per unit volume

/I

Further we have:

X+

r-^

V
/x

//

These solutions are easily seen to satisfy the body- shift equations. does not notice that they had been previously given by Sir W. Thomson: see our Chapter XIV. He has in the previous paragraphs of the section discussed various special cases of them. These solutions oi respond to the case of an infinite elastic medium fixed at infinity under a system of body-forces applied to a finite volume, or, what is pra -tieally the same thing, to the case of a finite elastic body with a fixed boundary when body-force is applied to a very small element of it at considerable distance from the boundary. Since the solution is in terms of potentials, which together with their differentials vanish at an infinite distance from the field of force, the condition as to the
l'.ou-*>inesi|

fixed

boundary
(a).

is satisfied.

but not zero. be the direct potential due to a distribution of matter of density 2T/(8ir/i), dw being an element of volume,
Case

Take

X= Y= 0,
C

Then by

(liii)

if

'-/si*.
and we have

//=

X-f/x
87T/A

d(frZdv)
2/x)
:

(X +

dz

*-,

with the follow m- type of solution

X+
8*7* (X

/A

tP(frZdm)
'

X+_/A
..(X

cP(JrJ8Tcfar)
2/i)

2/n)

-A/-/.

dydz

X-f/x
_
)

d*(SrZdm)

most general solution

general solution,
*,
//,

tinObviously the addition of thivr sueli sprriiil solutions gives us Ilefore stating thU for all the body forces finite.

w.-

mu-,t
in

n.it"

(hut

",

r,

/r.,i,is

:,

and that

%
=

the potential integral

thr shifts at the point the t'orre at the point

where r Vjfc-a:,)" In order to bear this in mind

"1

'/-

d
*1.

we

shall write for

/.<

/.,

when

We
of the type
:

then find for the general solution

270
Cane
(b).

BOUSSINESQ.

[1519

<lr
e/tzr,

r
4ir(X

This solution is really due to Sir W. Thomson: see our Chapter XIV. Boussiuesq discusses various modes of reaching it on pp. 284-91 of his
Treatise.

Case (c). Consider a single force Z1 applied to a small volume cliff which may be taken at the origin. We tind that, if U denote the shift l>erpendiciilar to the force at a point distant r from its point of application, r making an angle a with the positive direction of the
force
:

(7

-Srj + COS 2a),

327r/n(l-

cosa

From these shifts the stresses can easily be found and the solution analysed after the method of our Art. 1497: see Boussinesq's pp. 81-92 and 291-5.
Case
(d).
2 2

Take

X= Y = Z = 0, A=B = 0,
we have
as a solution, if

and

a function for

which

VV

(7= 0, then

X+

/x

w=
where

Further

1 520

1 521]

BOUs> iv

27 1

Since satisfies an filiation of thvfourf/t order Boussinesq suggests = = 0, or that it might be possible to tintl a value of <f>, for which

an<] 7^ // a given function of a; and y when s = + a. Thus we should solve the problem of an infinite plate of any thickness subjected to auy given system of purely normal loading on its faces. This problem

had U-eii solved by Lame and Clapeyron by aid of quadruple integrals, but their solution does not really exhibit any laws of the phenomena shewn by such a plate (pp. 278-281) see our Arts. 1020*-21*.
:

[1520.] Boussini 'S'l's

locales

We

now

pass to

the last section of the text of

entitled:

Treatise.

This

is

Sur

les

perturbations

dans la theorie de I'e'lasticite, et sur la possibilite, pour le geovietre, de remphicer des forces donnees, sexerqant sur tine petite
ltrtie d'uti solide, par d'autres forces statiqueinent e^uivalentes, OffpUquM a, la menie region tres petite en tous sens. It occupies
pp.

296-318 and deals with the important

principle

of

the

elastic equivalence of statically equipollent

small distances

systems of loading at from the loaded element of surface. have

We

fivcpieiitly had occasion to refer to this principle, remarking how it is practically assumed in all the usual solutions for torsion, llrxuiv and even extension, and appealing to Saint-Venant's experimental

arguments

in favour of it

The
tin

principle to

see our Arts. 8, 9, 21, etc. be demonstrated is stated by Boussinesq

:

in

following words

(p.

298):

Des forces ext^rieures, qui se font ecjuilibre sur un solide elastiqur ct dont les points d'application se trouvent tous a rinterieur (Tune sphere donnee, ne produisent pas de deformations sensibles a des
distances de cette sphere qui sont d'une certaine grandeur par rapport a son rayon.

There are two namely body- and

fl.")21.]

classes

of external

forces

to be consider*

<1.

surface-forces.

/foe///- Forces.

Case

(i).

Let there be two

let c

parallel

.|.pi>ite

t'"i--cH

%idw and

Z^~, and
t

first be supposed their points of application, supposed small. omdinates r, a determine the to act at the origin, and let position of any point with regard to it ; but let the second act at the ,' U tbe coordinates of a point 0, 0, c on the axis of z, and let
, ,

be thLet the

and Between

272
with regard to 0, 0, c bourhood of the origin
. 1

BOUSSINESQ.

[1521
immediate neigh-

Then

for points not in the

if

we
cos

have,
a'

n be any
- sin 3 a,

integer:
sin
a'

cos a
J

= cos a -

= sin a +

Sa-

lience by aid of
axial shifts
:

(Ivi)

we
2

easily tind,

and

being the radial and

1-3 cos -

.._ ~

Zjfsdm

2 1-3 - ~ cos a

W=

l-3cos 2 a-2(l-277) -U
(

1 OTiyx,

77)

cos a

The stresses are easily obtained from these values of the shifts and 3 or: tlie, stresses decrease inversely as obviously vary inversely as r tlie cube of the distance from tlie centre of the region of perturbation : compare our Art. 1487, (c),
,

Let there be two parallel forces Z^dw and Z^dw acting Case (ii). at the points 0, 0, and c, 0, or a couple of moment C cZ^fa. have then to consider the influence of a couple of small arm applied to an infinitely great elastic solid. makes with Let ft be the angle

We

the plane of the couple, and let and w perpendicular to both similar to that of Case (i),

V
;

be the shift tending to increase ft and then we find from (Ivi) by a method

TT U=

C r C
\(}TTfjL

cos a cos
-

167r/x,(l -r])

IT-- (1-3 T
sin a cos

ft

sin 2 a),

V= -

C
,-

cos a sin
x

107r/x(l-r/)
4:77

r
,

ft

W= C

(O
(1
77)

3sin2acos/3

see that the stresses produced by such a couple again decrease inversely as the cube of the distance from the sphere of perturbation
(pp.

We

303-4).

The results of these two cases compared with those of our Art. 1441 shew us that the influence of such body-forces in an infinite elastic

medium

does not produce stresses which decrease with the distance anything like so rapidly as in the case of bodies having one or two dimensions small and subjected to surface loading with a zero statical To such bodies Boussinesq now turns. resultant.
1

The two

forces are clearly pushing

and not pulling with the sign we have

chosen for Zj.

1522]

BOUSSINESQ.

273

Surface-Forces. Boussinesq points out that in the [1522.] case of surface-forces we may expect a solution involving exponentials with negative indices and refers to the problem discussed
in our Art. 1507 as suggesting this. The earliest solution for a system of forces in equilibrium on the edge of a plate is due to Thomson and Tait and somewhat later a more complete solution has been given by Maurice LeVy*: see our Arts. 397 and 1441. Boussinesq discusses the work of these authors on pp. 306-18,
! ,

will indicate the general lines of his investigation here. and z a, Consider a plane plate whose faces are given by z and let it be bounded laterally by any cylinder whose generators are

and we

parallel to the axis of

z.

We

shall suppose the radius of curvature

of this cylinder at any generator to be very large as compared with tin- thickness of the plate a, so that the tangent plane to the
cylinder at any generator may be taken to coincide with the boundary of the plate for a distance considerably greater than a. This tangent plane will be taken as the plane of yz, the gum rah.
i

of the cylinder being taken as axis of z, and to the contour of the lower face of the plate.
plate

y being the tangent

To the

faces of the

we

shall suppose
(**,

no load applied, or
1^)

7x t

0, for

and z =

a.

On
*t

the lateral boundary of the plate,

,

we have

the stresses

?,

and

which

it is

that their

mean

proposed to analyse, subject to the condition to z a shall be zero, or that values from z

the surface load has a zero statical resultant.

solution of

the

body-shift equations

suitable

to

this

case

is

by

therefore

0=

0,

where ^

is

a function satisfying

tin- r<|ii;iti<>n

we take with

Le"vy
-

t -a+to (*,?)"
where n
'

IK

an integer; then the comlr

on
.Vnfiir.i/ /'/,//<..,,,/,,/.

the faces of the plate

lYwtfN
.7

^ 7M
Pans, 1877.

nathtmatiqutt.

T. in., pp. 21U-806.

274

BOUSSINESQ.

[1523
values of the stresses over

are clearly satisfied, and further the the lateral boundary will also be zero.

mean

We

must have

as an equation to determine <. For the stresses over x = 0, we have

a-d>,.\ -

dy~ /3_

,-2

cos

mrz a

(lix).

^ /mr
/m2
(

\a

--~ \
<f>

dy J x ^
)

sin

mrz a

Now these equations will enable us to give any value we ph = to z - a, that is to say they allow us to along a generator from z select at our will the shearing stresses on the edge of the plate which round the normal to the plate. They produce a torsional couple further allow of this couple or system of shearing forces varying from generator to generator, since n is also an undetermined function of y.

M
<

If we take ^ n independent of y, we have and both [1523.] zero and we have Thomson and Tait's solution for a distribution of shearing stress along the edge of a plate parallel to the contour of the
face

and the same along each generator. In this case (Iviii) gives us

nnx a

and therefore

for the given distribution of shearing stress over

x=

-7T-COS of

mrz a

If Ty
series
:

= \(z) be the given

2

distribution,

we
,

find at once

by Fourier's

a
.
.

mrz

The only

finite stresses will

then be
a

cos

mrz a
mrz
.

a sin

Thomson and Tait have shewn (Treatise on Natural Philosophy, 729) that for x=2a, or at a distance equal to twice the thickness

1524]
from
tin-

BOUSSINESQ.
nl^'r of the plate, tlic values of tin-si- stresses

275
are only about

002 of their values at the edge, or we see that the

local perturbation

has small influence at slight distances from the edge, supi>osiiig the distribution of shearing stress to be the same along every generator of the bounding cylinder. See our Arts. 1440-1.

Returning to Levy's [1524.] before indicated that

:

more general

solution,

we

notice as

<&= o.
Jo

Further we have for the moment of flexure M' round the tangent to the contour of the face z - 0, and for the itwnient of torsion about the normal to that contour

^zdz =
\dxdy
'

on the edge parallel to a generator The total shearing action per unit length of rim is given by
-coswr).

But by

(Iviii)

we may

write

nee, if 8 be

we

have, since ds

= dy:

an element of the contour of the edge of the

plate,

will dei>end iqwn y, but if t/te Now in this second approximation variation of t/te edge stresses with y be //, it is dear that although we do not as in Thomson and Tait's first approximation take </< N /Sy
<

zero, still

-* will be small as compared with "?"

Hence we
see

'

and

as

compared

with
is

<.

from
:

negligible as

compan-d with

(1\)

that moment of flexun the momnit. of torsion, anl from

.I/'

the

(Ixi)

that very approximately

276

BOUSSINESQ.

[15251527

Since in this case the magnitude of the shifts and stresses in

the material of the plate will decrease as we pass from the edge at least as rapidly as in the first approximation (Art. 1523), mconclude with Boussinesq that If the edge of a thin plate be
:

subjected to shearing forces perpendicular to the faces, and to torsional couples round normals to tlie edge, the relation (Ixii) holding between them, then these actions neutralise each other at a

small distance

M
the
(p.

from the contour. In other words torsional couples and shearing forces dM/ds perpendicular to the faces produce same effects at a very small distance from the edge of the plate
*

313).

This

is

Thomson and

Tait's reconciliation of the Kirchhoff

It

and

given by them in 1867 and independently by Boussinesq in 1871 see our Arts. 488*, 394, 1438 and 1440. The above investigation shews
:

Poisson boundary-conditions for thin plates.

was

first

very clearly the nature of the local action at the edge of the
plate and measures the area over which that action
spread.
is

sensibly

Boussinesq concludes his discussion by remarking that it does not seem probable that the local perturbations which present themselves in other cases, in which the principle of the elastic
equivalence of statically equipollent loads is applied, will allow of being investigated with the same ease as in this particular case
of the boundary conditions at the edge of a thin plate (pp. 317-8).

The remainder of Boussinesq's volume is occupied [1525.] with Notes complementaires, several of which are concerned with We will briefly results of great value for the theory of elasticity. refer to those of importance for the history of our subject.
Note I. (pp. 318-56) deals with a potential of four variables, [1526.] It contains some or what Boussinesq terms a spherical potential. interesting results for the theory of potentials, but its only value for elasticity is the integration of the equations for the vibration of an The solution takes the form isotropic elastic medium (pp. 351-6). The substance of previously given by Stokes see our Arts. 126875.
:

this

Note appeared in the Comptes rendus, 1648-50; T. xcv. pp. 479-82. Paris, 1882.

T.

xciv. pp.

1465-8 and

Note II. (pp. 357-664) deals with a new method of [1527.] integrating an important class of partial differential equations, and with applications of the method to elastic and other problems. Portions of this

15281520]

BOUSSINESQ.

277

Note were published in the Comptes rendtts, T. xciv. pp. 33-6, 71-4, 1-J7-30, :>M-7, 1044-7, 1505-8; T. xcv. pp. 123-5; T. xcvn. pp. i: I 7, pp. 843-4, 897-900, 1131-2. Paris, 1882 and 1883.
I.

5i

(pp.

357-403, 652-5)

is

occupied with a method of

integrating the differential equation

The equation definite integrals of arbitrary functions. obviously an extremely general one and the solution admits of being modified so as to suit various types of " initial conditions." The results can be applied to a great variety of physical problems, of which for our nt purposes it suffices to note the transverse vibrations of bars and plates. Space does not admit of our reproducing in general outline
by means of
is

Boussinesq's suggestive analysis and conclusions, but some of his results will be indicated in our discussion of his application of them to the ial elastic problems with which we are more closely concerned. II (pp. 404-34) applies the method to the theory of heat and to thr friction of fluids; III. (pp. 435-577, 655-64) deals with elastic IV. (pp. 578-651) discusses applications of the problems; while solutions obtained to the theory of liquid waves. It is 111., therefore, with which we shall be occupied in the following articles.

problem dealt with by Boussinesq is that of which (coinciding with the axis of x) is infinitely extended from the origin in the positive direction. Any forces are supposed to act on the extremity x = 0, provided they cause only transverse vibrations in a principal
[1529.]
first

The

a uniform rod or thin prism, the central line of

plane of

inert

i.-i

throughout
Tli

its

of the prism. Initially the rod entire length.

is

supposed at

thr motion of such a rod are given with a slight notation in our Arts. 343-5, and an- tin- follow ii: nation for transverse shift w: >/
i-i|u:itioiis tor

lv

u IMTO o*

= EJIp
//

in the notation of our work. for

* = -oo and to = for a:-ao # = may bo of the following
,

r'urfli.T,

\\\\\,\\

Tin- conditions at

t\\

(a)

Geometrical constraint varying with the

/'/.

dw/dx^F^at),

for

.r

278
(b)

BOUSSINESQ.
Total shear

[1530
i.e.

and

thefiexural couple varying with the time,

2

d^w/dx =
3

where

K F (at), d w/dx* = - K^ (at) for x = 0, K= \l(Ev>) and = l/(tfa>*

2 JST,
).

Boussinesq takes instead of these forms the more general ones

d*w/dx* = K{F(at)

- w},

d' w/dx*

= K, [dw/dx - F,

(at)},

which he considers might be realised when the definite movements F(at) and F (at) are communicated to the end of the bar by means of springs (par rintermediaire d'un ressort et dun encastrement elastique, p. 437).
l

(c)

Infinitely long bar carrying

a load

at its centre,
for

x=

0.

dw/dx = 0, and

\M

~=

E^

+ \F(at),

x=0,

where F (at) is the force exerted at time t on (pp. 481-491). On pp. 438-9 Boussinesq demonstrates the uniqueness of the solution for cases (a) and (b).

The solution of the above equations [1530.] manner (pp. 360-8, etc.) following Consider the quantity
:

is

obtained in tho

wehave

d<t>

("

//A

,,(

i?

\sdc

Similarly

where a" = 8/a.

g /> Q f (^) ^
=

.............. (iii),

may evidently drop the dashes in a and a" in (ii) and (iii), and the law of the successive differentials is then obvious. The above investigation depends for its exactness on the limits being no functions of s, otherwise we should have to introduce special terms can get over this depending on the differentiation of the limits. the limits 1/e and es for a instead of GO difficulty, however, by taking The limits for a will is a vanishingly small quantity. and 0, where

We

We

es and 1/e, for a", 1/e and 8 and so on. Differentiating with regard to s the special term introduced by the limit differentiation will be

then be

1530]
for the first differentiation.

BOUSSINESQ.

279

Hence we must have

Similarly, for the second differentiation

and

for the third,

and so on, the law followed by these products being clear. above results we can easily deduce a solution of the
equation
:

From

the

differential

"
,

*" -Q ~

da*

Aamme
thenasin(iii):

Hence,

if

we take $

-\ = coa

^
of

or

s i"

.ra

we ^ ave

of the equation.

Noting the interchangeable nature

- and

we

see that

is

also a solution.

Thus

finally

we have
10

or,
;

(p,

|'oints
tin/.

out that for the special casr of a rod infinite

!i-

one diroction only, v

o?.|.-r

u].|.-i// f

U)

saii-ty

M.iiililions
\\iili.niN

ilmt
i

sj^n. :uid liaviy"( n |.,r t = oo wili

\:iln-

pp. 440-1).

".in any value Fiiriln-r d\ \\ill

GO
)
)

280
hold, since

BOUSSINESQ.

[15311532
and
its

is a sine or cosine, if f(at) i/r supix)sed finite for all values of t.

differentials

be

can [1531.] of our Art. 1529.

We

We

now easily satisfy the special may write w in the form

:

terminal conditions

~2^)
where we must remember that
f 00
I
:

sin

da ...... < vii )'

cos-da=

a2

30

T
I

a-

sin-da^^/Tr

............ (viii).

Case

(a).

When w = F(at)
or P u *
:

and dw/dx =

(at) for

a=

0,

we

take

only/2 and/,,

Case

(b).

When &w/da? = KF (at),

or put
:

cFw/do?

= - K,F,

(at) for

x=

0,

we take only /j and /,

Here >

'

^'
J

a< > = (

(p.

444).

and
i

Hence ^-

() =

r^
\

F(at)dt =

fat

(Pw

^\

eft

the total shearing

of the bar up to time t. impulsive force applied to the end aj = 1 Similarly F{~ (at) = total flexural impulsive couple applied up to the time t. (p. 447.)

Case

(c)

see our Art. 1539.

[1532.]

Two

additional

cases

(d)

and

(e)

are
:

considered

by

Boussinesq on pp. 445-6.

They are the following

Case

(d).

When

x=

0, let

w = F (at)

and d*w/da? =

K^

(at),

then

\F,

^ - ^J

(cos

- sin
^)Jc?a

(xi).

1533]
Case then
,**
:

BOUSSIM
(e).

281

When z = 0,

let d*tD/dx>

KF (at)

and dw/dx = F,

(at) t

~>.'J3.]

Boussinesq

now

deals with special subcases of these results

(pp. 448-9).

Subcase (/). Suppose the bar to be continuous in both directions all shifts symmetrical with regard to x = 0, then we must ha\e dw/dx =*Q at x = for all values of t.
but

Take
if

a*,

= a* for

^-2 or
:

"
as the case

may

be.

We

have from

(ix),

w F (at)
=

x=

wm
(xii), if

*
.

ri

d'w/efo

= ^/^ (a/)

for

a:

^T ft [ COS Sr J.. L
Similarly

V
4V(7-0

+ 8m

a?

-\KF-* (aid
t

dtt

4a(^d
;

whon the li-Mis-incs.) ti--at* (Subcase (y)) the problem = couple vanishes at .r = 0, ie. cPw/tfa? Q, wliilr riihrr 10 Of for a; = are arbitrary functions of the time and (Subcase (/<)) = G whil- cither <hr >!. or </ // db \\Ji.-n tin- i-nd a; = 0is pivoted, i.e. w f-. as=. The read, r will find it are arbitrary functions of the time. easy to write down the integral solutions in these cases as w. lu\. I..IM- f,,r Subcase (/).
i-

<*ase (i). The particular problem of a bar one dinrtion to which during a very short interval

infinitely long in

(<--Tto<-r)a
H"

definite iiirliiiatimi ^ to its unstrained central line is given at u pivoted

t'-i -niinal.

is

diMOMed

at considerable length on pp. 449-56.

:

tin-

tollnu inu solution

2a

sin

^3?
,

r be very large AH
'1

compared
B

\\ith
I (

i.e.

if

n ronsiderablitin-

f f

of

tim
'"

point (Xnuridered

not at an

immensely

the inclination was ui\en and it' HIOJ = 0: gre:r

of
ict

4at
1!)

IT

II.

282

BOUSSINESQ.

[1534

1535

The solution obtained in this as in other cases of the trans verse vibrations of a rod differs very considerably from the usual type of
wave-motion
:

la barre dlastique ne transmet le mouvement transversal qu'en le dissdminant et le rendant insensible, contrairement <\ ce qui arrive pour le mouvenient longitudinal, rdgi, comme on sait, par 1'equation de d'Alerubert (ou des cordes vibrantes), laquelle exprime line transmission intdgrale, sans

alteration, c'est-a-dire sans condensation ni dispersion (p. 456).

Boussinesq next deals (pp. 456-63) with the case in which [1534.] the initial shifts and speeds are given at each point of an infinitely long He finds a solution corresponding in form to those obtained by bar. Fourier and Poisson for similar cases (see our Arts. 207-11 and 425),

namely

If
-,~
I

00

_
[F (x + 2ajat)
(sin

a2 + cos a
(sin

V27T

F
where

(x

+ 2ajat)

a2

cos a 2 )] da,

= aF" (x) when t = 0. Fourier in his Theorie (x), dw/dt analytique de la chaleur, 411-12, Boussinesq states, had obtained this = ; result for the transverse vibrations of a bar for the case of l (x) but I think Fourier had really obtained a more general solution see our Arts. 207-11 and 1462. = Q, and F(x)=Q except for a small For the special case of l (x) length dxl of the bar about x we easily find by changing the variable of

w F

F
1

integration to a^

and writing
do -

F
.

(jCj)

dx l = dq

w=

( (sin (si

(x^-xf -+
t

cos

(xi-

which gives the displacement at time at xl

.

due to a small displacement

The exact limits within which solutions of the above type [1535.] are legitimate are discussed by Boussinesq at some length, not only for the case of the rod, but for the infinitely extended elastic plate. In the latter case the discussion occupies pp. 464-80. The evaluation of the integrals involved is treated by a somewhat complex method. An error on p. 465 in the determination of the quantity S is corrected in the memoir referred to in our Art. 1462 see p. 643 of the memoir. The most important results of Boussinesq's present discussion can, however, be deduced from the conclusion of that article. Let us consider the case where a definite movement is given at the origin to the infinite plate, everything being symmetrical round the Further, let the initial velocities be zero, orj\ of Art. 1462 be origin. zero. easily find that when a definite shift w =/ is given at time
:

We

1536]
t

BOUSSIM
a-

to a small area the origin at time t

:

at the origin, then the shift

at distance r from

Hence transferring the epoch to the effects of all shifts from t =

t

/,,

writing
to
t,

oo

^ (,) dt^ we have

=f<r/(8b) and taking

Now

change the variable from ^ to

470)
:

where

then we find

=*/{(-,)},
(j>.

'I'll

is

may

be shewn directly to satisfy

i.e.
:

the shift-equation

for

the

transverse vibrations of a plate,

(Ptoldt*

+ b*V V*w =
1

..................... (xvii),

where in

this case

_ V
See pp. 472-5.

d1

=d?

rf

-rTr'

When r = 0, we have from (xvi) w = \f/(t). We have thus found a solution giving an arbitrary displacement at the origin at each instant of time. see further that if we take if/ so that ^ (- oo ) = 0, we have w = for t = - oo whatever be r, and also for r = oo whatever be t (p. 470). It remains to shew that dw/dr = Q for r = 0, in order that then- may not be an abrupt change of curvature at the origin. This is investigated by Boussinesq on pp. 471-2. The result is not dir.-etly obvious on differentiation of w, because the subject of integral>ecomes infinite at one of the limits.

We

[1536.] The equation (xvi) also solves the case of given normal impulses applied to the plate (thickness 2c and density p) at the origin
of coordinates.

This problem requires a solution of tin- rquati-in (xvii) subject to the conditions 10 = for / = oo and for r x, <tw/dr = Q for r (all these we have stated are satisfied by (xvi)), and further the total
shear
1

round a circumference of radius

r,

or

2p&

2wr

-.

must be

a given function F(t) of the time for r

- 0.

By

differentiating (xvi)

and rearranging we

find

Tin

follows easily from the value of

/{'.

given in our Art. 898, remembering

fc=//ea/(3p).

ID-2

284

BOUSSINESQ.

[1537

This gives for r = 0, F (t) = Ifapbif/' (t), so that \j/(t) is fully determined and the problem accordingly solved. Since dwjdt for r = is equal to (), we find at once
\f/'

or the speed of the disturbed centre is always proportional to the It follows that the shift of this centre is at each disturbing force. instant proportional to the total impulse up to that instant. On pp. 477-80 Boussinesq draws a number of interesting conclusions with regard to the equation (xvi).

The next section (pp. 480-505) of Boussinesq's [1537.] Treatise is of special interest. It is entitled Probleme de la resistance dynamique des barres et des plaques, notamment de leur resistance an choc, traite par les memes proce'de's : extension d'une
:

loi

We

de Young au cas du choc transversal. shall deal briefly with several cases discussed by Boussinesq.

Case (i). Consider a bar of infinite length in one direction the general expression for the shift of which, when subjected to any kind of action at the end .r = 0, is given by equation (vii) of our Art. 1531. easily deduce the following system of differentials at the origin, remembering results (i) to (iii) of our Art. 1530:

We

"o =

y* {/a (o +/4 (>} +

I

Jo

r/i

<*,

(dw/dt)

=
=-

Vi {/' (at) +/
J

'

(at)}

+a
jT/i'

(< -

JO ^

(dw/dx).

V^ {/, (at) -/

(at)}

^ h

f.; (at

- Ja2 ) rfa,
2

4* {/; (at) -// (<)} 1

T/,'

(a<

Ja

) rfa,

V^ {// (at)

+/,' (<)}

+
o

"

(a<

- la 2

da.

Now

if

(dw/dt)

for all values of

we must have = 0,

/,=/
whence we
find at once

and

/,'

Similarly

we

deduce,

if

(d*w/da?)e
(<Iw/dt)n

for all values of

lt
.

t\

= a(d?w/dx*)

Now

(dw/dt)^

is

the velocity

taken by the bar at the origin, and

1538]
if

BOUSSIM :-<;.
1

285

h be the distance of the 'extreme fibre from the neutral axis, and s the corresponding stretch, we have 8 = h((Pw/d3?\> at the origin, or n-infiiil.fi ing the value of a
:

F = fi
\\hfiv
12 is tin-

x s *

...........................

xix

velocity of longitudinal

waves of sound (= \JEjp).

//*

In the case of a circular section

K /h=l/J3, etc.

of a rectangular section

At the instant of a blow, for example, a blow at the centre of a rod infinitely long in both directions (i.e. when (dw/dx) 9 = 0) V will U tlif velocity of the impinging body, hence if s be the maximum sate st if toh of the material all velocities greater than that given by (xix)
,

will

It

damage the material locally. is not however necessary to consider the bar

infinitely long

the

above results will still hold in the first instant of an impact and before there is time for reflection of the disturbance from lixcd or supported iids. We have appealed to this result in our Art. 371. It is an extension of the corresponding result obtained by Young for longitudinal impact (i.e. P-Ilx*) see our Art. 1068 (Boussinesq
1
:

PP. 180-6, 498-9).

Cense (ii). [1538.] the case of a plate from

We
tin

can deduce a somewhat similar result for

ivsult (xvi) of our Art. 1535.

We

easily find

Idw
>

= -i iro
(dwjdt\ =
i/r'

(<),

thus
1

dw\

/dw
and
.

if

Je

1-f

tin-

tliickiifss of tlu

plate,

.v,
'

tin-

-tivtfli.
at

-.-,

''

ding to the two prim-ipal

oi 14111,

fiii\.itur,:

and

tin-

and V the

velocity of impact

.,ui

An, 58B

,.!,d

iilwayn leas than unity, we nee that the velocity of the impact damage a bar locally in always less in the cane of transverse th. in in the case of loii^itii<iin.il impact (Boassineftq pp. 601-2).
n will Huftice to
:

286

BOUSSINESQ.

[1539
' '

Now

is

the square of the velocity Oj witli wliich

spreads

are propagated through the plane of the plate (see our Art. 595* and Hence we have finally equations (iii) of Art. 389).
:

Unfortunately this does not tell us like (xix) the maximum normal see however that any velocity equal to the velocity of impact. product of the velocity of spread-propagation into the maximum safe-

We

stretch into

(='9069) will on the greatest strain theory damage the

"*Jd

plate

Case (iii). Boussinesq now (pp. 490-6) returns to the [1539.] is attached at some problem of an infinite rod to which a mass If the mass be subjected to the force F (at) we point of its length. must by (c) of our Art. 1529 satisfy for x = the conditions

and
1

dw/dx =

0.

Boussinesq's conclusions as to the limit to the velocity with which a body of any mass, however small, can impinge upon a bar or plate without damaging its elasticity seem to me of special physical importance. They indicate how light bodies moving at great speeds may be used to destroy, cut or shape harder and more massive bodies. Thus they are full of suggestion for the science of gunnery and the mechanical arts. One of the most interesting mechanical processes illustrated by Boussinesq's theoretical results is that of the sand-blast. In this case the velocity of the blast ranges from 100 to 2000 feet per second, the blast of air or steam carrying with it 'sand', which term may be used to denote small grains or particles of which quartz sand is a type, but which may include globules of cast-iron or even fine shot. Corundum can be cut by the less hard quartz sand, and quartz rock by fine lead shot, while the hardest steel can be cut by a stream of quartz sand. Sand-blast machines are in use for cutting, perforating, obscuring, or engraving glass, for sharpening files, for cleaning iron and steel castings, for A further example of the cutting letters, etc., in marble and stone, and so forth. same principle is probably to be found in the experiments referred to in Art. 836 (A), in which steel and quartz were cut by soft-iron, and in the copper wheel of 3" diameter which may be seen cutting glass at the Crystal Palace.

Some idea of the necessary velocity of the sand-blast may be approximately obtained from equation (xx). Assuming uni-constant isotropy of the plate, we

haveO^ j= ft, v!5

and hence

V= '9366 ft x
Thus we

2 ),

nearly.

For the case of

steel

and ^='04 as a maximum for see that a blast of 640 feet per second would certainly suffice to cut the steel. For tempered and annealed steel ts 1 reduces to '004 That something (Art. 1134) and hence a blast of 64 feet per f-econd would suffice. considerably less than this might suffice would appear to be indicated by the 34 feet see our Art. 836 (h). The per second of Davier and Colladon's experiments velocities we have calculated, however, approach nearer to those used in the sandblast machine. The whole subject is deserving of careful experimental investitaking round numbers, untempered steel (Art. 1134).
feet per second,
:

ft = 17, 000

gation.

1539]

BOI*>

287

and

The latter condition by Case (i) of Art. 1537 is satisfied by/, fz = 0. The former condition will be satisfied by taking
:

=/a

and'

where

J the ratio of the

mass of the central load to the mass of unit

length of the rod.

Writi Writing
:

= at and

I/ ft

'

_,

we have

to solve

the differential equation

Remembering

that

F (- oo

= 0, we

find as the solution of this

Boussinesq shews that the term involving the arbitrary constant thus, so far as the disappears from the value of w (p. 492). shift is concerned, can put it zero or any finite value we please. Let us take it equal to

We

then

we have

where the exjwnential has always a negative index. K' liiation (xxii) combined with the value of w from
1531, or:

(vii)

of Art.

solves the problem completely.

1

has on

Instead of the last term on the right p. 491 the term :

<>f

this

our second condition Boussineaq

His
fact

M- our
is,

v.

Hence

his F'(t) ought to be equivalent to

(t)

om

.* it
-(

in

to be half the force applied to the mass If, and takes uass of unit length of the rod as unt't of meut (p. 481). It seems clearer to take a perfectly general nnit of man.

because he defines F'

BOUSSINESQ.

[1540

Boussinesq deals in detail only with the special case in which the motion of J/ is due to an impulsive force of magnitude Q acting during Then we have the very small period t = to t = e.

F(at)dt=Q.
Hence by putting C =
in (xxi)

we have
t

/, (at)

0, if

< 0,

Let

be the shift for x =

Q,

after a slight transformation, if r

then we have by Case = 2at/v*

:

(i)

Art. 1537,

Substituting the values of v and

9
r

/?

and writing

we

*->/*
easily find
:

""

Boussinesq discusses at some length the integral \( r ) which be written

may

so that X(T) is always less than I/X/TTT to increases indefinitely. Generally (p. 496)
:

which value
\

it

tends as T

or>

;?(lJ
We
can easily find for the shift speed at x

.2n+l)'

This [1540.] a body of mass with velocity F, and (xxv) express t, while the speed

solution can at once be applied to the case in which impinges on a bar infinitely long in both directions for we have only to take Q = MV, and then (xxiv) the solution. Obviously w increases indefinitely with (dwjdt)^^ diminishes and ultimately vanishes.
.

En eftet la formule (xxv) dotmant (dw/dt) x niontre que, i>our t infinimcnt petit line masse #=0 detient presquo la totalitd de la quantity de

.= -Q/M
iiiiie

h 1'upoque f = 0, a la barre a 1'origine

irnpul-

mouvcment qu'une

BOUSMN:

289

sion brusque y a t';iit naitre, tout commc >i cettc m.-ussc s'etait trouvee i>olre ct il d<>it etre, par suite, ii pen pres indifferent rpiand fill- ;i -ulii I'impulsion quc le corps heurtant ait recu sa vr se initiale I' quand il etait encore librc
;

on apri- in tre joinl h la liarre. II n'y a, entrc le.s deux cos, dc difference, que ^' la m.micre dont la viteaM oommunique, dunint 1'instant initial *, an troncon heurte de la Kirre, inaiiierc plus eonfornio aux hyix)theKcs ordinairo de la theorie tie Ivl.-ustieite quand mi suppose la ni;usse J/ dejh en contact avoc la barrc des linstant ^ = (p. 4!>7).
'

Case (iv). Boussinesq on pp. 498-502, deals with the [1541.] of a bar indefinitely long in one direction carrying a weight .I/ at its terminal, and subjected to the longitudinal impact Q durinu the same interval of time t = Q to t = ( Let Q = MV, then Boussinesq
.

find* for the shift

Q =

its speed ^JK/p being the velocity of longitudinal vibrations

:

wx=0

of

the terminal and for

MV
po,n
i

(x xvH v

Thu>

tin- shift

"

does not tend to increase indefinitely with

but to

it, changes its sign with V but its magnitude remains un chan^'d. wr have only to put two bars, infinitely long in one direction, end t> end, each bearing a ma.^s J/ to obtain the solution for the case in which a mass attached to the middle of an infinitely long bar receives an impulse in the direction of the bar. Turning to our Art. 222, putting therein Vl = F, F2 =-0, /fc^O, J/i = J/i J/3 = o^Mu, and then making a^ infinite, we easily find from ("2") article by integrating the stretch and putting x = 0:

approach Since

tin-

limit 3/T/(po>Q).

J,

see that

whether

impulse
will be

M
no
.

(. of we rquationi igree entirely with <\\\i) after nm. be att;ich<-<| to the bar initially and receive n

;l

T,

or a

mass

\\itli

momentum

MV

strike the bar, ih.i.

<lf).
,

.liireivn<-e in

the values Of

U^

(l

and (/

afte.

inn-

subjected at the truncated end (Mip|MMxl at .1 from ti he to moving with \el.city I'. The longitudinal iuijiaet ..fa bendy of mass s aim \ 'en ant \ memoir investigation of this cae had been suggested of!868: see (MO
I

J. f.''>' (\). Ill an .!.// 'til) rMMissine.s.j \\ out the extrem.-lv interesting and practically xalualile CAbe of .1 bar in the toi-iii of an infinitely lon^ truncated ri^'hi circular cone,
]

290

BOUSSIN i->v.

[1542

The legitimacy of the solution seems to me, however, to depend upon the cone being of very small vertical angle, otherwise we have no right to use D'Alembert's elementary theory of rods which supposes
directly stated

the cross -sections to remain plane. This assumption is not, I think, by Boussinesq, but it ought to be kept in mind. The equation for the longitudinal vibrations of such a cone on D'Alembert's theory is easily found to be

d?
where u is the shift at distance (x + c) from the vertex and For waves in the direction of x positive we have
:

O = JE/p.
2

whence we

easily find

= --Jdx
Thus
initially,

du

1 7: -7:

du
dt

+-

u
c
.................. (XXV11).

x+

when u =

0, if s

be the stretch, and

the velocity,

or, if s be the safe elastic stretch (or squeeze), no body can strike the truncated end of the cone with greater velocity than s x Q without 1 damaging it. Young's theorem (see our Art. 1537) is thus extended to such solids of revolution with truncated ends, as may in the very beginning of the motion be looked upon as truncated cones. At the end x = of the cone we have the condition

du\
-=CM

IT

(xxviii),

which enables us to determine the form of f(&t). In addition we have the conditions that /(0) = 0, and du/dt= V when # = and t = 0. If v = Jt//(pw) we have from (xxviii) using (xxvii)
:

whence we determine

Here &2 = 1 4v/c and the natural or the hyperbolic sine is to be used according as 4i/ > or < c, or according as the impinging mass is greater or less than three-quarters of the mass of the truncated part of the
cone.
1 generalized form of Young's Theorem may be found at once from the result given for the squeeze (-s) of the impelled bar in 2 of our Art. 222, by find putting x = Q and t 0. -8= (velocity of impact) /(velocity of sound in impelled bar).

We

154-3]

BOUSS1NESQ.
tind

291
>
:

We easily

by aid of (xxviii) and (xxi\

itt\

/?/\

-5-

Ve

*"

/fcn*

i
,

mt
_

cos

sin

2v

X:

2v

, '

tot
or,

cosh

T sinh

V
2cos
knt
\

..(xxx).

v
/fen

^7'
,

or,

-2 cosh

see

These equations tell us at once a great deal about the impact. We that if k tan y or tanh y according as 4v > or < c, then the maximum shift (ux_ ) m at the free end is reached when (dujdt)^ = 0,

or:

2v.
Y,

or,

ycothy),

and
Further we have (dujdx),^ = 0, or the action of the mass on the truncated cone ceases, when t = t^ = 2tl Thus the duration of the blow is equally divided between the periods when the mass is continually lurcasing the compression of the bar and when it is continually It is easy to see that the blow ends before releasing that compression. the cone returns to its original length by substituting 2^ in the value of MX_O The velocity of rebound of is given by
.
i

which confirms
tit*

tin

blow when t = tt is of of the because in the case interest, indefinitely long cylindrical rod, there is no limit to the duration of the blow see our Art. 1541.
:

velocity of rebound depends on the masses Indies in collision. The termination of the

nsult referred to in our Art. 216, namely: that and dimensions of the

[1543.]

Boussinesq next consul,

Inst.a.l

what happens

after the tormina

tion of the blow.

(du/dx)a>m0 = t whence we u h>-ii t = t, the two solutions must coincide,

of (\\\iii) the terminal condition is now find cf (tot) +/(O<) = 0, or remcmlu tin- that

we have

for

>

t,

292

BOUssiXKsi
find for the shift speed
t

[1544

We

>

t.,

speed decreases with increase of t, and hence the greatest value reached for t = t.2y or at the end of the blow, thus the impelled and the impinging bodies never come into contact again. The shift at the now free end of the cone decreases gradually and ultimately becomes zero with t = (p. 662).
or, this
is

It remains to find the maximum squeeze and the time at [1544.] it takes place. Boussinesq easily shows by aid of (xxvii) that the maximum squeeze takes place before the end of the blow and at the In order to obtain the maximum value we impelled end of the cone. have only to differentiate the third equation of (xxx) with regard to t and equate the result to zero. find

which

We

at

\dxdt

x=<)

4v

sin y cos- y
will decrease as

siiih
t

2 y cosh y

increases from to (du/dx) x=(l #2 i.e. from the instant after the impact up to the end of the blow, except in the first case (v > \c) for 3y > TT, or k tan y > ^/S, or v > c, or when the mass of the impinging body is greater than three times the mass of the truncated portion of the cone. Should this hold the squeeze becomes a maximum sm , when t = 3 where
, ,

Thus the squeeze

=
and by the third result of (xxx)

2i/

3y
-

TT

"
e -(3y-ir)coty

(XXXU).

will take its minimum value for y= 1*3027, about, then equals *8101 which is slightly less than the maximum value, unity, which it takes for y = 7r/3 or ir/2. s m takes its maximum value, F/fi, at the Thus except for v>c, If v> c its maximum value must be instant the blow commences. found from (xxxii) and then by the preceding remarks does not differ

The exponential
it

and

widely from F/O x Vv/c (pp. 663-4). Boussinesq concludes his discussion by remarking that if the thicker end of the cone be cut off at the section x = I, and this section be fixed, then we shall have (see our Art. 223) a solution of the form
(x + c)

n =/(OJ -

x) -f(tlt

x- 2/),
;

where the second term on the right is due to the reflected wave this term will, however, be zero at the impelled terminal until t = 2//O, or

i:>4.->

1546]

BOUSSINESQ.

293

\v- see that the above investigation holds for this new case during the whole of thr interval 2//Q after the impulse.

Boussinesq deals on pp. 502-5 with the case of at the origin normally by a mass of coordinates with a velocity V. He replaces this problem by that of a mass attached to the origin of coordinates and subjected to the normal force F(t). Using the notation of our Art 1536, we have
[1545.]

Case

(vi).

platr of infinite radius stnu-k

tin*

rxpn -ssion

'2(pb~

x 27rr

for the total shear round a cylinder of

radius r al>out the origin, and therefore for r

l.v

tli-

iv>ulteof our Art. 1536:

Kring thr mass of thr plate p<T unit of area and v = Af/m. Solving this equation in the same manner as that for /"() A.t. 1539, we have:

n our

If

we consider tho
with velocity
'

special case of the

blow produced by the mass

ino\iiiij

V we

have

f
'

F(t) dt
*

= Qfort<

0,

and

<

[' -

F(t)
*

<lt

MV
> 0).

for

slijhtly

i,'r-at.-i-

than UTO,
(t

llt-nce

<

0),

and +(i) =
t

(*

Whence we

easily find from (xvi) for

>

U
Tlm>
),
I

Pi

\v<-

s-<-

that

in

this
in

rasr thr shift

this

MI-

of

and thr plate acts ,,ur Arts. 1539-40.

manner

<juitr

tends to thr finitr limit dillrrmtlv from the

|i:)Mi.]
nititl,
<1
:

Tin- nrxt section (pp. .~>05-46) of linussincs.^ work U Comment il faut modifier ce* lois d" rh<\ dans le cos de
f

ban-ex
I-

'tout

lalo open* with

only,
it

finie.
r.'in.-irkl

N0&)<

00

nnp:i'
:irii-h-s

'illy,

nnti.-in^
l,,r

the reeoltfl "l.tainrd

tli.-

in

thr prr\i..iiv
of

hold

liniir

vrlority

impact be

al>"\

;i

rtain

inngni-

294

BOUSSINESQ.

[1547

tude and thus damage be done to the body at the instant of the For velocities less than this limiting velocity no damage blow.

need be done to the body unless the ratio of the mass of the impinging to that of the impelled body exceeds a certain value, and for such velocities the maximum strain will not be reached at
the instant of the impact. Turning to Saint- Veuant's results for the transverse impact of rods given in the table in our Art. 371, (iv), Boussinesq remarks
that they
ft is
is

may

be thrown into the form

=- o

V
s

^~p>

and the notation a factor depending on the ratio Q to that of our Art. 371. Boussinesq compares this with his con-

dition for

damage due

to

immediate impact,
or

i.e.

K -^ \L

and

notices that

when Q/P

> 1/0,

this latter condition replaces

remarks (p. 508) that j3 seems to be roughly Hence Boussinesq's 3 see our Art. 371, (iii), where s = h/p. In Art. 371 condition would come into play when Q/P = or > (p. 254) I have suggested that the critical value of Q/P lies between f and J.
Saint-Venant's.
: .

He

[1547.]

The remaining

longitudinal impact of bars.

latter

portion of this section deals with the Two cases are considered when the
:

impelled bar has the non-impelled end

case

(i) fixed, (ii) free.

The

corresponds
;

to

1868

see our Art. 221

discussed by Saint-Venant in the former case presents' the analytical

that

solution which Saint- Venant and

in their

Flamant discussed graphically

memoir

of 1883

see our Art. 401 et seq.

If the impulse occur at the end taken for the origin of x, then, I being the length of the bar, we must have for the first case the shift u = 0, when x = l, and for the second case du/dx = when x I. If 1 a?= E/p, the solution must therefore be of the form

u=f(ai-x)+f(at + x-2l)
the upper sign referring to the first case. The condition at the impelled end, or for x

(i),

0, is

d?u
v

de

F(t)

a2 du

J^

<

u >>

1 a is here used for the of our Arts. 1541-6, so that the results be compared with those of our Arts. 401-7.

may

at once

1548]

norarna

295

bar,

where v = QjP the ratio of the weights of the impinging mass and the = P/g and F(t) is the force on Q at time t and vanishes for t < 0. = 0, integrating and writing Substituting (i) in (ii) putting x

('

F(t) dt

= F~

(t)

we

find, if at

or,

/-"* f
But y* and vanish for negative arguments. This holds for > 0. Hence (iii) enables us to write down first the value of ./*() for = to = 2/, and then, from this value of f() substituted on the right under = 21 to 41 and so on. the integral, to write down the value of/() from Thus /() is entirely determined in finite terms. Hence by (i) the problem is analytically solved. The solution involves a novel and valuable method capable of application to a number of problems in
impact.
[1548.1 velocity V

we have F~

For the case of an impact by the mass = MV. Hence we find (t)
l
:

M (=Q/g)

with

h a^.iin completely determines /(). = to t = r, the small interval during which Properly the time from to = ar, or e', ought to be excluded from the blow is given, or from = tin- value of/'(), for we cannot differentiate f() at the origin (sino() = abruptly, for <0) but only slightly to the positive side of it, has any vanishingly small positive value. In fact it will i.e. when be found that () increases by jumps (cf. our Diagram IV. p. 278)
\vlii.

whenever

increases by 21 (pp. 515-6). < Boussinesq x'\\> (|>j>. ">1 >-15) the general solution.

--

Enc=4/ 3

';,'

290

BOUSSTNF,S(>.

[1549

no J {=+ -urn J ?=+< El L

=&

-i

f=w

Boussinesq does not calculate these functions to larger values of the The above results generally suffice to determine the maximum strain and the end of the impact. The end of the impact will be reached for the least value of t for which du/dx = for x = 0, or by (i) for the least value of for which/' () = +/' ({-2Q.
variable
.

[1549.] Pp. 517-22 are occupied with the second case viz. that in which the non-impelled end of the bar is free, or we must
results are in

take the above equations (v) with their lower signs. Boussinesq's agreement with Saint- Venant's (see our Art. 221)

but his method

complete.

is

easier

and

his

conclusions

somewhat more

We
(a)

will briefly

resume the
This

results given

by Boussinesq.
t

End

of the Impact.

is

reached for

21

e"

where

e" is

very small quantity, or immediately after the wave of impact has After this time travelled to the free end of the bar and back again. the bar and the mass separate further and further, or the impact

M
.

is ls it

definitely concluded.

The

velocity of the impelled

end of

flic

bai-

at this instant Ve~ 2/v

v

It then increases rapidly to

2F, after which

On the other hand returns to Ve~^ with every change of time 2l/a. the mass continues to move with the less of these velocities, i.e.

Ve~ 2/v
(b)

(pp.

518-9).

Kinetic Energy.

The

velocity of the centroid of the bar after

2/ the impact is over = Fv(l - e~ "), and therefore the kinetic on orgy A", 2 2/ of translation of the bar- \MV*v(\ Remembering that the ")

-~

energy of the

mass

M after

the impact

is

over

= |3/F 2e~ 4/ ", we

easily

1550]
find
tor
1 :

BOUSSINESQ.
A'

297

the kinetic energy of vibrations in the bar due to the

impact

K\= JJ/P

(1

- e" 4/ ")

fl-v tanh

-)

Hence we see that if the mass of the impinging body be very great as compared with the mass of the bar (i> very great), the energy lost in vibrations is very small, while if the bar have a large mass as compared with that of the impelling body, almost
in vibrations (p. 520).
all

the energy

is

absorbed

Obviously,

JT, / Jfi

= - coth - -

1.

only to

To obtain the case of a rod impelled against a rigid wall, we havemake v = oo and impress equal velocities, - V on both impinging
t

body and bar

after the impact is entirely over

:

(p.

521).

We

see at

once that the bar rebounds with the velocity of impact, and without vibratory energy see our Art. 205.

Maximum Strain. The greatest squeeze is equal to F/a and (c) occurs at points distant not more than Jc' from the free end at time not greater than 3'/a, i.e. close to the free end immediately after the b Binning of the impact. This maximum squeeze is the same as that given by Young's Theorem (see our Art. 1542 fin.) at the instant
the

impact begins.

The maximum

stretch equals

y -

(1

2/K
|e~~
)

and

occurs close to the impelled end immediately after the end of the blow = 2//a). In most cases it will be expedient to take this last strain as (t that of safe loading, stretch being more important in respect of safety than squeeze.

[1550.]
n nn-impelled

On

pp.

522-534 we have the

fixed, or

first

case treated, the

taken.

the upper sign in (v) being The solution in this case has been discussed at consider-

end being now

able length in our Arts. 401-7, and we refer the reader to Hi articles. note one or two additional points occurring on pp.

We

46.
(a)

On
tin-

tion

we may
at

">:." -46 Boussinesq shews that to a second approxiin.i neglect the inertia of the bar concentrating one, third its The shift at this end will then be given by inijM lied cud-.

pj.

This of course neglects any loss of energy doe to thermal action, etc. The use of this mass-coefficient of resilience (see oar Vol. i., Appendix Note E ..it it is, (b) an.l Y..1. n., Arts. 367-71, 1460 et *</.) is attributed to however, as we have pointed oat due to Homersham Cox and Hodgkinson.
1

T. E. PT.

II.

20

298

BOUSSINESQ.

[1550

This expression will give the shift u with a considerable degree of accuracy even without ^f|m being large, but the assumption does not see our lead to an accurate expression for the maximum squeeze This squeeze is investigated by Boussinesq Art. 406, (2) and footnote. in an approximate manner on pp. 542-4, and he finds that it is ex:

pressed, for

M/m

large,

by

- fk/

'

l)

see our Arts. 406, (2) (a)

and 407
(b)

(3).

more elaborate series of values for the maximum squeeze than those of our Art 406, (2) (a) (c), are given by Boussinesq on p. 545. For practical purposes, however, those of our Art. 406 would be sufficiently accurate.
In a footnote, pp. 541-3, Boussinesq deals with the interesting (c) case of the mass- coefficient of resilience (see Vol. T., p. 894, (b)) for a thin circular plate of radius a, either built-in at its edge or simply Let us apply the formula of our Art. 368 to this case, first supported.
calculating the value of

A somewhat

r-J)'?
where

W,

the weight of the plate and J the ratio of the statical element dP to that at the centre, where the impact of For the case of isotropy we the weight Q is supposed to take place. find from the value of w in (xi) of our Art. 330 that
is

deflection at the

having the value unity for a built-in edge and (3X + 2/x)/(7X + 6/1) Whence by (i) y = J (1 - %/3 + I-/3 8 ). Let = us put Q' Q + yP, then it only remains to find the *Jfs/g of our Art. in (i) and (ii) of our This is given by putting rQ = 0, and y2 = 368.
ft

for a simply supported edge.

Art. 334.

We

find after

some reductions

!_?_
22Qi
where Q^ = H/p.

Hence we have

40

^ V
due to the blow of a body of weight
1

/J8P\

35V
plate,

This gives us very accurately the depression at the centre of the

at its centre.

is thin we tal<e the y- of Art. 330 zero and put then for both, dw/dr=0 for r = 0, involves JB = 0, while iv = for r = a, determines the central deflection (7. When the edge is simply supported l/p = 0, but when the edge is built in l/p is determined easily from dw/dr = for r = a.

= 0;

For both cases since the plate

1551

1552]

BOUSSINESQ.

299

[1551.]

546-77

is

entitled:

Section 23 bis of Boussinesq's work occupying pp. Sur les deux probUmes d'nn choc par comfle'chir la

pression faisant

mouvement rapide dune charge roulante

hori:nt<ile, appnyee

barre heurtee, supposee ires Ugere, et du le long d'une telle barre

ses deiuc bouts.

interesting neglecting the vibrations of the elastic bodies considered. shall deal with these in the following two articles.
[1552.]

with two

problems much

This section really deals simplified, however, by

We

In our Art. 407 (2) we have referred to the possia bar buckling under longitudinal impulse, and have given a not very satisfactory condition against buckling suggested by Saint- Venant and Flamant in their memoir. It is this point which Boussinesq discusses at considerable length on
bility of
is negligible

pp. 546-60, on the supposition, however, that the weight of the bar as compared with that of the impinging mass.

/ be

I be the unstrained length of the bar, I' its strained length ; let the central deflection on buckling, c the chord, the longitudinal compressive force, EUK~ the flexural rigidity, and m^ = Fj(E^). Then it the origin be taken at the centre of the chord and y be the deflection at distance x\ we easily find

Let

<-/:'*
= m*/*
since
is /r/2
I

sin8 inxdx,

y o

y-fconmxt giving me = IT to a first approximation, is all that necessary in order to obtain the value of V c to a second approximaout we tion. have Integrating
1 Krferring to our Art. 110* for the value of t\v trrins .f tlio bracket we find
:

I',

and retaining only

tin- first

From
/'>ir s
I

AW

(ii)
a

we we
tli-

that

I'

must be >ir/m, and therefore />ir/w or

//*

for iln-rr to

in:illy,

since

buckling. spn-'zc (/-/')// is due to

In-

:inv

F is

(-)
the a of that Article, that Article equal to
1

is

the

'
/',

the

and wo muit pat the

of

<

202

300
In the terms in

BOUSSINESQ.

[1552

its

of (i) and (ii) we may obviously replace by Let 8 be the value as given by a first approximation, or by ir/l. total shift I c of the impelled end, then we easily find from (i) and that (iii) 2 ... 8

w/

a result also holding when /*= 0. If sm be the maximum squeeze

4

we have

when h is we find by

the distance from the central axis of the 'extreme

(iv)
:

fibre',

or

we have F/Ew = TrV/Z2

Before flexure the radical on the right will be zero.

nearly.

After flexure

Hence

We
body
Q.

are

now

We have very
Qd?b

in a position to

measure the action of the impinging

:

approximately

Hence the motion

of

will be pendulous until the bar buckles,

but

after buckling there will be a simple retardation of Q till the initial velocity be destroyed, provided this destruction of the velocity takes place before the deflection ceases to be very small as compared with

the length of the bar.

The maximum
a

deflection

and

strain occur

maximum,
:

or

when the energy

0V -

by

(iv)

and

(v)

when

is

has been absorbed by the bar,

i.e.

when

if

^remain <

7T

lt

i.e.

Eta

-ya

1553]
Putting Efp
,

BOUSSINESQ.
aa we find for the

301
terminal shift 8 m
:

maximum

-1

fi<** '" "V P ~P' Vft V Q P = ZfTrV 2L-F+-*p?*]' V

\i

V*

-]

I~Q

>

irV
~P~'
find
:

Substituting these values of 8 in (iv)

and

(v),

we

"\f

'

"c*

TrKT

~^~v ^?^v"
=

whfi

/V-Q P
"?
73-)

'irV

~T~ V

P ^^
fc> r

The condition fagrees with

that of

/5<

the non-buckling of the bar

our Art.

Boussinesq supposes

407, (2), if it be remembered that very small as compared with Q.

The second problem dealt with by Boussinesq is [1553.] see our Art. 1419 *. The Willis Problem of the rolling load
9 :

equation at the bottom of our p.

764

(Vol.

I.)

may

be written

the origin being at the centre and not at the end of the bar,

LA writing x' + a for x. Boussinesq gives this equation on p. 562 and (Mviipics pp. 562-77 with the discussion of a solution of it.
It does not
is

seem

to

me

that Boussinesq's value for the deflection

a simpler form, or one more capable of readily giving numerical results, than the solutions obtained and discussed by Sir G. G. Stokes in 3-10 of his memoir of 1849 see our Art. 1279 *
in
:

tli

Boussinexq finds centre:

(p.

569)

if

y be the
j

deflection at distance

x from

-'/>

iy m*;"/ 1 2 3 mLi\*F'z5v"
-

win-re for

{Httitive,

T-

0,

and
r

for negative
t \

/^
L'

<*

*>"k

10 *
.

+ *'\
'

..-I?)
kir

(ooah, or, oos

I*
~
O*
'

302
and the upper
f3

BOUSSINESQ.
sign,

[1554-

with the sin and cosh in T, are to be taken if with the sink and cos in T if B < The load a. is supposed to start from the end x = Further, as in our Art. 1419*, S is the statical deflection clue to the rolling load concentrated a at the middle of the bar, 2a is the length of the bar and /? = ga /(4: V*S),

> J, and the lower

sign,

-]-.

V being the velocity of the travelling load. + k~ denotes the difference 4/3-1, k being always taken positive. Boussinesq draws from his form of the solution conclusions similar to those of Sir G. G. Stokes summarised in our Art. 1282*, but I do not think he adds any novel results.
[1554.]

Before leaving this section

:

we must

refer

to

the

following important practical problem dealt with by Boussinesq in a footnote on pp. 552-5 see also our Art. 1556. Consider a thin
cylindrical belt or ring of radius R, thickness r and suppose it subjected to a uniform pressure
surface.

and breadth b, p on its outer

it

What

is

the least pressure which can cause

?

to collapse

or lose its circular form

Let the
r

= R(\ +
0,

angle

to have collapsed or bent, so that radius-vector, e being a function of the radial then as in our Art. 585 the bending moment at the point

belt

be supposed

e) is
is

the

new

defined

by

given by

Suppose

AC

an axis

of

consider the portion

AT of

the ring.

symmetry of the strained central line and Take moments about the point P.

"Jf

Q'

<

1555
The

1556]

BOUSSINESQ.

303

Q at A will iMjuul r jtb, the moment about P of the on the portion of the ring cut off by the chord AP will Hence if J/ be the moment at A we have obviously- pbAP* ^AP.
total thrust

us

Thus

*(

^
j

a constant.

If A* be taken as the compressed radius immediately before collapse, easy to see that this constant must be zero, for the mean value of e will be zero. Hence we find, since at A de/dO = :
it

is

=e

cos

(V
by

12;;/?

But
h;i\r

when

increases

27r,

hence

if t

be an integer

we must

Tin- least collapsing value of

will arise

when

2,

thus for collapse

we must have

If the ring Income a curved plate, we ought at least, I [1555.] think, to replace by the plate modulus //(-J'J-A for uniconstant should then have for the collapsing pressure on a flue isotropy).

We

with unsupported ends

;>= or

>{//-,.

It is noteworthy that this is exactly the form of the old Prussian Govrnimciit formula for the strength of flues, the origin of wlmh formula is unknown see our Art. 986. On the other hand Fairl;iii n s -\JM -riim-nts with Hues having cast-iron ends maintained at & faced
:

distance seem to shew that p varies inversely as the length of the flur When the ends are not thus fixed, the pressure does see our Art. 984. not vary so exactly as the inverse of the length : see our Art. 982.
:

had been [1556.] The contents of this footnote in the Treatise Resistance previously published by Boussinesq in a memoir entitled (fun anneau a Inflexion, quand sa surface exierieure tupporte une pression normale, constants par unite de longueur de sa fibre moyenne. Comptes Paris, 1883. rendus, T. xrvn pp. B49 The problem appears to have been .n-\ iou sly discussed by M. L6vy in a
:

.,

du probtone de Celastique paper entitled Sur un nouveau cos intcgrable et tune de sea applications (Comptes rendus, T. XCMI., pp. ',94-7), which
:

3(H

BOUSSINESQ.

[1557

dealt with the above case and gave somewhat complex results in terms of elliptic integrals. L6vy found : that if

JW

^r3

the belt would not change its circular form or be liable to buckle. But he did not shew that if p be greater than this, the belt would buckle. Boussinesq in the memoir of which we have given the title above, proved as in our previous article that we must have
1

Er

the belt be not to lose its circular form. Levy replied to Boussinesq in a somewhat inconsequential note to be found in the same volume of Comptes rendus^ pp. 979-80, remarking in particular that his own result was deduced from a solution for finite changes of shape and that he had previously noticed Boussinesq's conclusion. Boussinesq terminated the discussion on pp. 1131-2 of the same volume by the remark that the ring must pass through an infinitely small change of shape before it can take a finite one. The problem really involves the same paradoxes (and the same solutions of them) which occur in the case of the buckling of struts or the collapse of flues.
if

According to Levy both Boussinesq and he had been anticipated by I may notice that they had also been anticipated by Bresse, who shewed in 1859 that a flue (? ring) of any slight ellipticity would not collapse under external pressure unless p>\E^IR*: see our Art.
Resal.

537,

(d).

[1557.]
entitled

The

with the theory of elasticity

:

last portion of Boussinesq's treatise which deals It is is Note in. (pp. 665-98).

aux solides heterotropes les plus simples, solides isotropes deformes, des lois d'equilibre et des lois les plus importantes de mouvement demontre'es dans cette etude pour les solides isotropes.
Extension,
cest-a-dire

aux

is

The type of aeolotropy for which Boussinesq generalises his results given by stress strain relations of the following kind
:

xx

a8x

+fsv +

e'sz ,

'i/z

"

d<r v ^

/-v

subject to the conditions

and

1558]

BOUSSINESQ.

305

The latter are the well-known relations of the ellipsoidal kind, tnio probably for all amorphic bodies. The former are the dangerously near approach to the rari-constant conditions, which in our Art. 140 we have described as but a doubtful sop to the multi-constant Cerberus. The substance indeed of the portion of Saint- Venant's memoir of 1863 considered in that article forms the basis of Boussinesq's note.
Adopting the above conditions, with due reservation how[1558.] ever, we may throw the stress-strain relations into the following form

by taking

five

new

constants

a, J3, y, A, /x

such that

we have

= y\x +
where x =
Tin -so
<**x

results

+ P*y + y*zbecome those

a=

p = y=l. Now take new

for bi-constant isotropy,

:

if

we take

variables such that

x'

= x/Ja,

y = y/JP,

z'

= s/^y,

where

M, v,

are the shifts.

Then

x=

du'
~j~>

dv' T~>

dw'

&*

the stress-strain relations become of the form

**
/

xx/a

= jrx

*"'

^+ =A&
\
1><

Thus the

body-stress equations of equilibrium will

of

tin-

type

IT
dy'

-d?+

- X/ ^o, etc. where Tims any solution for an isotropic solid ImumUjd by the surface = becomes one for the uuolotropic solid bounded by z') f(xlja y/Jfl, 2/v/y)^^ provided the body-forces applied to the latter M v w at a;, y, 2 be taken as KJ iTJa, Y'JPi ^Vy* anrl tnc sllift8
t

tt'/^/o,

at x, y, *

To obtain the stresses internally or at the surface we must take the system or>, 0P7, y*^ Jpy**> >/yaiv, N/"/^(PP- 665-71).
v'/JP, w'/Jy.
In a long footnote pp.
^

(see our
d>-

Art

GG5-8, Boussinesq refers to his n relations 1167) and deduces the stress-strain

(ii)

above

HMO.

306

BOUSSINESQ.

[15591561

The greater portion of Boussinesq 's Note in. (pp. 672-98) [1559.] deals with the vibratory motion which may be set up by a region of disturbance in an aeolotropic medium of the elastic nature defined by The equations of motion, if there be no body-forces, will be of the (ii).
type

when

as before

du n dv dw + Y-r-. y = a-r-+p-7dx ^ dy r <h

(iii)
2

Taking as before the new variables given by

the type becomes

du
2

d-u'

d u\

Thus these equations do not reduce, like those for equilibrium, to the equations for an isotropic solid. They reduce to the system of have been which considered by Sarrau and Boussinesq to equations hold for the ether, the elastic constants being supposed the same for all directions, but the density of the ether being taken to have the values p/a, p/fi, p/y for vibrations in the directions of x, y and z respectively : see our Art. 1476.
L'integration dc ces equations de mouvement ne se reduit done pas a une simple application des potentiels spheriques consideres dans Ic me'nioire <lr,s Peut-etre deviendrait-clle cftcctup. 319 a 356 ci-dessus (see our Art. 1526). able, avec moins de complication qu'elle ne 1'a 6t6 jusqu'ici par la rnethode de Blanchet ou par celle de Cauchy basde sur le calcul des residus (see our Arts. 1166*-1178*), si Ton pouvait generaliser d'une mani6re convenable la notion

de ces potentiels sphdriques. Heureusement, les souls resultats concrets qu'on ait jm deduire des integrations difnciles effectuees par Blanchet et par Cauchy, resultats relatifs a la propagation du mouvement autour d'une region d'ebranlement infinimcnt petite prise pour origine des coordonnees x, ?/, 2, pcuvent, 5, peu pr6s tons, se demontrer directement (pp. 672-3).

Boussinesq then discusses at length the solution of the [1560.] He first supposes a = (3 = y = 1 which equations of type (iv) above. Then he takes on the basis of this leads to the well-known solution. solution a second approximation, supposing a, ft, y to differ slightly from The results, which he obtains, are prineach other and from unity. for the elastic theory of light, and may be of importance cipally looked upon as a partial development of those of Sir G. G. Stokes to an elastic medium of the aeolotropic character assumed. Boussinesq applies them on pp. 694-7 to the problem of the lateral limitation of disturbances in the form of light or sound rays.'
,

'

Boussinesq concludes his Treatise (pp. 705-12) with a which we have reproduction of the memoir on earthwork to
[1561.]

15021563]
i

BOUSSIM

307
as a whole
is

red in our Art. 1624.

The work

a remarkable

contribution to our subject, suggesting a wide range of new analytical methods and a variety of directions for valuable experi-

mental investigations in elasticity. It forms one of the most important contributions to our subject, published since the Annotated Clebsch: see our Art. 298.

SECTION IV.
Memoirs
[1502.]
</'tns
I
l

OIL

Plasticity

and Pulvertdence.

mi

solide

Lois geometriques de la distribution des pressi<ms. homogene et ductile sounds a des deformations

unes.
is

This

Comptes rendus, T. LXXIV., pp. 242-6. Paris, 1872. an investigation by aid of what Boussinesq terms

cylindres isostatiques, or what in English are generally spoken of as conjugate functions, of the uniplanar equations of plasticity.
in

Cylindres isostatiques are to orthogonal curvilinear coordinates two dimensions what Lame's surfaces isostatiques are to
those
in

three dimensions.

to

Lame
tatic

In a footnote, Boussinesq referring uses the words cited in our Art. 1152.* Boussinesq 's
for

cylinders in plasticity are, however, a case

which

theorem holds.
xy he the plane of symmetry, we shall have to consider and these will be functions solely of x and xx, yj, x, If a 1" the ;mu'le tin- normal n to an elementary plane makes with the posit he direction of x, we have for the traction and shear across
[1563.]
If
//.

onlv the stresses

(hi-

|>l;ii.

R sin (2a -

i/r),

^ = Jtf cos (2a )

where

cos^ =

sin^,

R = + J(T, -

+ 4*?

see our Arts. 248 and 465, (6). The priii. -ij'.il tnn-tioim will therefore be determined by the angles a, = 90* and 2os = 270. Now construct tin ;in.l ._, where 2a 1 cylinders of which the normals are inclined at each point at angles a,, a, respectively to the axis of x and let them be represented by the families These are Boussinesq's iwstatic cylinders. i>i /i ( x y). Pa =/ (*> y)-

-^

-^

>

308

BOUSSINESQ.

[1564

These surfaces give at each point by their normals the directions of the principal tractions 7\ and T^. In this case we shall have R = Tl -T.,, and according to Tresca and Saint- Venant (see our Arts. 248 and
259):

T^-T^ZK ..............................

(ii).

Boussinesq takes the curvilinear rectangle bounded by two pairs of If dn and dn^ be the adjacent curves of the above two families. normal distances between the members of the pairs at a given point,

we have

where
for either

l-

normal distance.

Considering the equilibrium of the curvilinear rectangle by resolving the principal tractions which act across its faces along the normals dn^

and dny, Boussinesq

easily finds

dT
From
(ii)

.dloh
and
(iii)

dT
:

-.,

.....

we have

an d Xa are arbitrary functions of p l and p.2 respectively. and p 2 by two new parameters, p^ and p 2 ', determined by dp 1 = Xi (PI) dp^ and dp.2 = ^2 (p 2 ) *W> then we see that
Xi

where

Now

replace p l

- log V s ),
'

T,-T,=2

Here p/ and p 2 may be treated as the curvilinear coordinates and the dashes may be dropped. see that equations (v) suffice to determine any three of the quantities 2\, T.2 1^ and A 2 when the fourth

We

is

known.
,

The third equation of (v) gives us dn^ x dn^ dp^ xc?/o 2 or draw the two families of curves for equal variations dp l and dp2

if

we

of the

parameters, these curves will divide up the plane of xy into curvilinear rectangles of equal area.

Boussinesq shews (p. 245) how to construct graphically [1564.] these families of curves, if one of the quantities Tlt I\, 7^ and A2 is given at every point of the whole length of an isostatic line. The
construction resembles that adopted by Maxwell in dealing with lines of flow, etc.: see our Art. 1556* and also the Treatise on Electricity and Magnetistn^ Vol. I., Chapter xn.

-- 1566]

BOUSSINESQ.

309

Since the systems p l and p2 are orthogonal, Boussinesq easily deduces that both P! and pa must satisfy the differential equation :

m)

__
\dy)
)

+4
dy>)

\dx*

*dx dydxdy

Solutions of (vi) give the only possible isostatic cylinders for the deformation of a plastic solid.

Sur Vinte'gratwn de V Equation aitx dtriv&s partielles [1565.] des cylindres isostatiques produits dans un solide honwgene et duetto. Cmnptes rendus, T. LXXIV., pp. 318-21. Paris, 1872.
In this memoir Boussinesq solves in a rather complicated form equation (vi) of the previous article. Writing that equation in the wellknown symbols adopted by treatises on differential equations, we hav<:

Further taking h = + >Jp* + q\ nesq finds

:

2 2 p - <f -= A cos 2o, 2pq =

1? sin 2a,

Boui

dp

dp
s

where

h /"

P-;/t
+
cos (a

*/J
8

(sin(a N/l+m

VTT^ )
F
l

'*

f f <FF (h')

cos
<*//] j

m (A* -

d,
x and

where

F (A')

and

(A')

are the functions of A'

y reduce when a = 0. The solution appears

value.

log A to which

far too complicated to be of

much

practical

K'/'i'ttiun aux ddrivees partielles des vitesses, dans >n> [156G.] solide homoyene et ductile d6form6 paraUeleiiient a, un plan.

Paris, 1872. Before discussing this memoir we may in the first place refer to a footnote on p. 452, somewhat generalising equation (iii) of our Art. 1563. If Tl be given as a function of 3P, by some relation

Comptes rendus, T. LXXIV., pp. 450-3.

other than the plastic relation, Tl - T2 = 2K, of that article, these [nations are still integrable. Boussinesq suggests for example the condition for the limiting equilibrium of loose earth, or
(

(l-sin0)/(l-f sin<),

<f>

being the angle of

friction.

In

case the third equation of (v) in our Art. 1563

becomes

310
[1567.]

BOUSSINESQ.

[15671568

Boussinesq proposes in this memoir to investigate the

uniplanar motion of a plastic mass, and he obtains the components of the velocity perpendicular to the isostatic surfaces from the
following considerations
:

That the cylinder on the curvilinear rectangle (see our Art. (a) 1563) will have the same volume at times t and t -f dt.
(b)

isostatic surface

That the matter situated on one side of an element has no slide relative to the matter situated on the
is

of

an

other,

hecause the stress

If UL

entirely normal.

and

he the velocities in the direction of the normals

:

dn^ dnz

(see our Art. 1563), Boussinesq finds

where

*t x

J2

frl^ Pi

and

/*!

hz =
last

as before.

The

equation

may

be written

an
but its integration is rendered extremely a function of both p l and p 2 (p. 453).
difficult

by the presence of

/*,,

Sur une manibre simple de determiner expe'rimentale[1568.] ment la resistance au glissement maximum dans un solide ductile,
homogbne
et

isotrope.

Gomptes

rendus,

T.

LXXV., pp.

254-7.

Paris, 1872.

Boussinesq draws attention to the formula deduced by Saint-

Venant from Tresca's researches

in plasticity,

namely

2\ 3 is the greatest difference between the three printractions is taken z 3 ), and (7\, cipal by Saint- Venant to be a constant: see our Arts. 248 and 259. Boussinesq raises the

where

T T
,

is an absolute constant. He considers that it question whether is not with variable the small of the parts relative velocities sensibly

of a plastic mass, and that it cannot really vary with a uniform normal pressure round any element of volume, because such a pressure not sensibly increasing the density would not render the

molecular equilibrium more stable.

It is only possible

he thinks

15601570]

BOUSSINESQ.

311

for the variation of to depend on the manner in which T9 is comprised between the other two principal tractions or upon the

ratio

He

therefore proposes to take

K,

or
1

J (7\

T,) = some

"

function of

Thus
the

it

is

motion to a second.

to vary from one case of plastic possible for This variation of is more fully discussed in

memoir

of 1876

see our Arts. 1586 and 1594.

[1569.] Boussinesq further suggests pure traction experiments as the best means to obtain K, supposing it to be constant. In
this case

he considers that

=T

= 0, and

therefore that

K (= J2

,)

can be found at once.

If

K be

variable he suggests that its variation could be deter-

Let a rectangular bar, subjected be placed between two parallel polished plates covered with oil or grease, and subjected to a uniform pressure P applied through these plates. Let the stress S requisite to produce plasticity be noted for each value of P. Then we shall have
to

mined
a

in the following manner. longitudinal traction S,

T = 0, T = -P, T^S,
2
3

and hence

It

const-nit, and, if not,

would then be easy to determine, whether is an absolute how it varies with the ratio SI P.
is difficult

It

to see, however, considering the

phenomenon
|

of

local stricture
p.

which occurs with ductile metals (see our Vol. r. how the 891) proposed arrangement could practically the requii. .I system of stress, even if the oil or grease really
til--

frirlinn

,f

the platCH
I'

liavil)

-11

V >rlisil>lr illllllr!

[1570.]
ri/fitidres

Integration de
cl

Equation

aux
'

de'rive'es

isostatiquex qui se pro"

partielles des I'inUrieur (fun massif

1

'leux soil mis

PP.

de fortes pressions.
-7:;.

Comptes rendus, T. LXX v

669

71.

312
Taking the equations same article by
:

BOUSSINESQ.
(iii)

[1571
replacing
(ii)

of our

Art 1563 and

of the

where <f> is the angle of friction, Boussinesq obtains the solution of He finds these equations for a mass of loose earth.
:

2sin</>

See our Art. 1566. As in our Art. 1564, Boussinesq then proceeds to determine the
equation which must be satisfied by p lt
If
:

k= / '^ 3 1 + sin

V
.

he finds

</>

with the notation of our Art. 1565 that

2

+ #>) pqs + (f - kY) t = 0. This equation he solves in the same manner as the See pp. 669-70 of his memoir. equation of that article.
(p
2 (1

- Iff) r +

differential

[1571.]

Essai theorique sur

I'dquilibre d'elasticite des massifs

et et

pulverulents compare" d celui de massifs solides Mdmoires couronnes des terres sans cohesion.

sur la poussee me'moires des

savants etrangers publies par I'academie ...... de Belgique, Tome XL., See also Comptes rendus, Tome Bruxelles, 1876. pp. 1-180.
LXXVII., pp. 1521-5.
Paris, 1873.

Previous memoirs dealing with loose earth had been more especially devoted to the limit of its equilibrium, without
its elasticity, and from this standpoint they do not within the limits of our subject. We have, however, referred by title to one or two such memoirs in the course of this Thus the researches of Rankine are cited in our Arts. history.

reference to

properly

fall

453 and 465 (a), those of Holtzmann in Art. 582 (b) and those of LeVy, Saint-Venant and Boussinesq in Art. 242. Rankine's researches were afterwards thrown into a geometrical form by Flamant in the Annales des ponts et chausse'es, 2 e Semestre, pp.
242-68. Paris, 1872. (An interesting elementary discussion of the stability of earth will be found on pp. 111-40 of Flamant's Stdbilite des constructions : Resistance des materiaux. Paris, 1886.) Boussinesq in his Introduction after referring (pp. 3-4) to the
previous history of this branch of the subject continues:

Mais
considerer

il
:

y a un autre genre
c'est celui

d'e"quilibre egalement important a que presente une masse sablonneuse en repos,

1573]

BOUSSINESQ.

313

soutenue par un nnir assez ferme pour n'e"prouver aucun ebranlement Dans cet etat, le frottement mutuel des couches est ge"ne"ralement moindre que dans le precedent, tout comine, a Pinterieur d'un solide en e"quilibre
(IVhisticite, lea tensions restent partout inferieures a celles qui altereraient d' u ne maniere permanente la structure du corps : les particules sont done moins retenues par leurs actions mutuelles que dans le cas ou le

inur df sou tenement les fuirait en ce"dant sous leur pression, et elles exercent sur ce dernier line pnussee superieure a celle qu'indiquent les formules de Rankine. C'est surtout ce genre d'gquilibre que je me propose d'e*tudier ici je 1'appelle equilibre cTelasticite, car je considere l's pressions qui s'y trouvent effectivement exerc6es comme dependant fa petites deformations qu'e*prouverait la masse, supposed d'abord homogene et sans poids, si elle devenait ensuite pesante comme elle I'est
:

-n

tfet (p. 5).

More attention must therefore be devoted to Boussinesq's memoirs on pulverulence than to earlier memoirs, because (i) they deal with the elastic equilibrium of a pulverulent mass, and (ii) they appear to contain the most complete scientific theory yet
given of the stability of such a mass. Boussinesq bases his theory of pulverulence on the [1572.] hypothesis that masses of pulverulent material stand midway between solid and fluid bodies, and act like fluids when not
subjected to pressure, but when subjected to pressure gain an Bouselasticity of form as well as of bulk, and act like solids.
onsiders the slide-modulus to be proportional to the mean to be zero or negligible as Supposing the dilatation compared with the individual stretches sx sy szt we have for tinpressure.
, ,

mean
:

pressure of an isotropic Further the slide-modulus JJL

medium
is

^/ + 77) or p, say. to be proportional to p, or ;/>/>

(r +

hence he finds as stress types:

^ = ~ P (1
[1~)7.'J.]

2m5z ),

y*

= pm <r vz

(i).

On

p.

certain

difficulties

pMlv.-Mil.-iit

mass.

7 of his Introduction Boussim -s.j <lisr which arisr in tin- ln.midary conditions of a At a free boundary clearly the pressure is to

be zero.

At a

perfectly rough fixed boundary, as in the case MiiiL^ walls the shifts ought to bo zero, or the cotn-h

<>t

material along the wall remain unmv< -<1. Tins fixity of the wall the is, however, gennally incompatible \vitli ng
fixity
'

tli.-ii

in

the
i.e.

taral
I.
I.

Mat.I'!.
II.

same positions wh.-n in tin- jirimitiv.when n<> 1.1\ t'..roa su-h ;w weight is supposed
l

21

314
to act
u, v,

BOTJSSINESQ.

[1574

on the mass, but this is the state from which the shifts are supposed to be measured. The remainder of the Introduction is a re'sume' of the conclu-

sions reached in the memoir.

[1574.]

I.

of the

memoir

is

entitled

Formules des pressions

e'lastiques, solides,

priiidpales exerc&s d Tinttrieur des milieux flnides ou pulve'ridents, dont la constitution est la
It occupies pp. 11-22.

meme

en tout sens.
recite

The

first

two or three pages

strain,

some

well-known kinematic properties of

concluding with the consideration of the three principal tractions and three principal If slt s2 s3 be the latter, Tl} T2 T3 the former quanstretches.
,

tities,

Boussinesq puts

or ^ (T^

T+ T

3)

and

i(r,-r,), HZ-.-T,),
equal to functions of s lt
s. 2,

i^-r.)
says, if s lt
s.,,

s3

which he

s3 are suffi-

ciently small, can be expanded by Maclaurin's theorem in rapidly converging series of integral positive powers of s lt s2 s3 (p. 14). This is the same sort of assumption as we have had to criticise in
,

the investigations referred to in our Arts. 928 * and 299.

Accepting
it

with this qualifying remark,

it is

easy to follow the

:

considerations of

-P=A

symmetry by which Boussinesq deduces that + 0+C6* + D{(s2 -s y + (s.,-Si) 2 + (s -s.y} ...... (ii),
:i

where A, B, C and D are constants (p. 15). and its value when the Write the right-hand side of (ii) as constants A, B, C, D are replaced by dashed letters A', C', D' as K' then Boussinesq shews that the following are the forms of the principal

',

traction differences

T>)

= [K

-f

(B" + C"6)

Sl ] (s,

- ,3

),

*y =

'

B" +

C"6)

s3 }

( Sl

- s,)

These formulae can be applied to all isotropic bodies, and Boussinesq proceeds to apply them to various types (pp. 17-22).
(a)
8 i~ *2
lt

*3~ *i>

In this case the strains represented by &, ss , Elastic solids. become sensible only when the stress- differences 3t Hence for small strains, T^ are themselves sensible. T^

we have

83

83

8^

Si

8%

1575]
Hence,
T,

BOUSSINESQ.

315
T,)

J^ + T,+ T

s)

J(^ - Ta) - ^(T9 -

is

of the form

or the usual expression for a principal traction of an elastic solid, if A be the initial stress, which is supposed to be uniform in all directions see our Art. 616*.
(6)
*i

Fluid Bodies.
*i
.

Here we have

finite strain-differences 82

-83

*n
l

*a

T3

for vanishingly small

fluid

stress-differences

3,

Tlt

If these finite strains are produced

whatever be the value of

p, then

we have a

and
l

T = Ts=T = -p = A
9

.................. (vi).
3, 3

sl

- &, are produced by vanishingly small stress-differences T^-T^TZ T19 T T.,, only when p is vanishingly small. Hence terms of the type K' + (//' + C"0) 8 must be divisible by p, or = mp, say. If we neglect
}

(c)

Pulverulent Bodies.

In such bodies

finite strains sz

*,,

of the third order in the strain, this can only be realised if K' = niK9 1?' = and C"0 be of the second order in the strain. Further, since p is to vanish with the strain, we must have A = 0.
trrnis

We

easily deduce:

whence

where
If

- p = BG + C& +
we

D {(*, - *

2
3)

+ (<rs - tf + (,

may be neglect the squares and higher powers of the strains when p is vanishingly small, 6 is known from physical considerations to be vanishingly small ovrn fmUnit.- sti.iin iliH'Mt-.-iiccs * a - s , im slt i- a , it follows that 8 II- nc least be of the order of their squares. \ve may neglect Cffi
on.sulered a constant; further, since

and put

pulvoml. nt bodies neglects tho squares of th^ = 0, while ~p(=BO) is sup|M.s,'<| t<> thus obtains equations (vii) in r..Mjiiii,-timi \\iili ^ = a |ii:itiniis for such media.
for
I

.Miu'ly

piitn

Unit.
tli-

II.

t'unda-

.-.

;:. ii. tin- rneooil c,f Kxprcsnont (pp 23-7) is entitl.-.! generate* dta forces elastique*, d Fintcrieur cits corps ifclasticilc constant*, nil u .lis. n-ioii of th' ou pulvcrulf'
: I

212

316
ation of strain from

BOUSSINESQ.

[1576

any system of axes to the axes of principal stretch. Boussinesq gives results of the types
:

sx

where a1?

b lt

= 2 (tWi + bj)^ + c2<v?3 ), a^ c^ss yz Cj are the direction-cosines which the new axis of x makes
+
61
2

*o

<r

with the axes of principal stretch, a a 6 2 c 2 those of y and a 3 b a ca those of z. These results are identical with those of Maxwell see our Art. 1539*. Boussinesq next gives corresponding formulae for the resolution of stress, these are of the type
,
, , ,
: :

See our Art. 133.

From

(vii)

by aid of these results he

easily deduces

(i),

or

= -p(l -Zmsx \
with the condition
sx

sy

sz

^z=pm(T = 0,

.................. (ix), yz

as the general type of stresses in pulverulent bodies

(p. 27).

[1576.]

in. of the

memoir

(pp.

28-37)

is

entitled: Equations

diffdrentielles de I'equilibre d'dlasticite des massifs pulvtrulents. Boussinesq here limits the scope of his investigation
:

Je m'occuperai principalement, dans

la

suite

de cette etude, de

I'equilibre de massifs pesants, tels qu'un monceau de sable, formes de tres-petits grains solides juxtaposes sans cohesion, mais se comprimant mutu el lenient (p. 28).

He

supposes the atmosphere to penetrate into the conglomera-

tion of such grains and, pressing round each grain individually, to have no influence on their mutual action, i.e. to contribute nothing
to the value of

in equations (ix) above.

He

terms the natural

naturel) of the mass that in which it is free from its own weight and the pressure p is zero at each point. He takes x, y, z as the coordinates of a particle in this state, and u, v, w for the
state
(tftat

components of its shift, when the mass is supposed to become heavy, and accordingly to take up a new position of equilibrium.
lent

Boussinesq further considers the limit of elasticity of the pulverumass not to be passed, and confines his discussion to a

uniplanar distribution of strain.

horizontal.

Suppose the plane of xy to be this plane, and the axis of z to be Then, if gravity make an angle a with the axis of y, the stress reduce to equations body

15771578]

BOUSSIM

317

where none of the

If

stresses are functions of z. to investigate the stresses only we must have a third and Ty. This is easily found from (ix) by aid of relation between T,

we wish

the identity
cPo-xy

~fady
(see

_ d\ + ~lk*

<?>r

our

Art

1420), to be

where
Equations (x) and
pulverulent body.

p=(xi)

J (xx +

w)
uniplanar stress-equations for a

are the

In a footnote, p. 31, Boussinesq gives the interesting [1577.] equivalent to (xi) in the case of uniplanar strain in an elastic solid. It is, if 77 be the stretch -squeeze ratio
:

df
Solutions of (x) and (xii) for the case of a heavy elastic solid are given by
:

where

<

is

any function

of x,

y which

satisfies

the equation

and

is

an arbitrary constant

see our Art

32-4 of this section of the memoir are occupied }']>. [l.')7s.| with certain supplementary formulae. Thus if ^ lu tin- tnu-ti>n and lie shear across a plane tin normal to which makes an angle ft with the axis of a;, Boussinesq shews that f< |ulv< nilmt IM..J

where

/if

(taken }>ositivc) and

/?

are defined by

R sin

- o, 2ft =

R ooe 2ft =

318

BOUSSINESQ.

[1579
:

The formulae (xiii) are easy corollaries from those of Rankine our Arts. 4G5 (6), and 1563. If 7',, 1\, 1\ be the principal tractions
:

see

where the algebraically least traction, l\, coincides with the direction which makes an angle J3 with the axis of x. If x' be the direction of lines parallel to the plane of xy which make initially an angle /? with the axis of x, and y that of lines perpendicular to x' we have
: '
'

(xv )'

*= ^
where,
A* sin 2/?

sin 2 03 -ft)

= - mp<rxy

Jtcos2fi

= mp(s -sx ).
!>

The

principal stretches are

Pp. 34-37 deal with the conditions at the boundaries of a [1579.] pulverulent mass. At a free surface we must have the stress across the surface zero, or in the case of uniplanar strain :
TJC

cos y + xy sin

y=

0,

xy cos

y+

yy sin

(x vii),

is the angle the normal to the free surface at any point makes with the axis of x. For a rigid boundary as a sustaining wall, Boussinesq considers the extreme cases of perfect roughness or perfect smoothness.

where y

For perfect roughness

u^Q,
For perfect smoothness
:

(xviii).

u
and
nt

cos y

+v

sin

= 0,
)

R sin 2 (y - /3

= 0,

y being the angle the normal to the rigid boundary makes with the
axis of x.

Since
conditions

R
:

will

not as a general rule be zero, we

0,

may

write these

u cos y + v sin y =

sin 2 (y

/?

(xix).

Boussinesq remarks that the conditions for perfect roughness, or

u=

0,

0,

1580]

BOUSMN
*

319
'

suppose that the particles of the mass which in the natural state see our Art. 1573) were in contact with the rigid (i.e. weightless state mil mlary remain so after the mass assumes the strained condition. This cannot in practice be the real state of the case. Sustaining walls, he remarks, undoubtedly do not allow of the motion of the particles in contact with them, but these particles will often be in other positions than those of the 'natural state u and v at such walls may be as but considered theoretically given, they are in practice unknown functions of the coordinates of position.
:
I

Avec lea donnees dont dispose 1'ingenieur, I'cquilibre qui se produit dans un massif, an moment meme oil <>n le i'>rme en dechargeant successivement de la terre sur le sol ou contre un mur de soutcncment, ne paralt done pas susceptible d une determination precise, et il doit dtre fort complete ou affecte* d'un grand n>mlre d'anomalies locales. Mais ce qu'il iniporte de connaltre, c'est le mode dV<|uiinro <l''f>ititif qui subsistera, lorsque les petits dbranlements que tout massif eprouve presque a chaque instant auront fait disparaitre les irregularites et amene uu tassement complet, ou groupe* tous les grains sablonneux de la manicre en quelque sorte la moins forcde. Un tel mode d'dquilibre, par le fait menu- qu'il s'dtablit de preference a tout autre, doit etre, de tous les modes compatibles avec les circonstances, celui qui assure le mieux la stabilite' interieure du massif en Ve'cartant le moins possible de Vetat naturel (\)\>. 36-7).
iv. pp. 37-45 of the memoir solves the equations of our the case of an infinite mass of pulverulent matter bounded by a plane sloping at an angle o> to the horizon. Boussinesq takes as plane of xy any vertical plane perpendicular to the bounding plane, and

[1580.]
1

">76 for

320
as axis of
vertical

BOUSSINESQ.

[1580

in

x the line bisecting the angle between the talus OA and the OG. The magnitudes of the angles will then be those indicated The values of the shifts and stresses in the accompanying figure.

the plane of the figure can distance I from the line OA.
I

now

We

only be functions of the primitive

have

= x cos a + y sin a,

and equations

(x)

become

-J-.

{xx cos

a +

(7y

gpl) sin a}

= 0,
(xx.)

These equations, having regard to (xvii) which must be the bounding surface or for 1 = 0, lead to
:

satisfied

along

i cos
or,

a + (7y + gpl) sin a

0,

( xj/

gpl) cos a

w sin a = 0,

remembering
<o

=
:

- 2a and p = - J (

.^),

after

some reductions to
%(xx
Hy)

/>sin

Hence by

(ix) of Art. 1575,

w=0, we find

xy
:

+ pgl

pcos w =

.......

(xxi).

sinw

Thus,

if

<

and

ij/

be arbitrary functions of y and x respectively

<a

sin

sin

CD

The properties of <rxy however, which can only be a function of and therefore must satisfy the relation
,

I,

(fox

do-

dx
finds

cos a

dy

sin a'
<

lead to the easy determination of the forms of

:

and
n
],

if/.

Boussinesq

sin<o

\
|

+
v=

(c

+
,

y+
+

cx

.(xxii),

sm<o
-=

[- y

+. car

cos a

(c

-c ) x

n
J

where c, c', c", c/, Cj" are five arbitrary constants. Obviously the terms in c/, c/' answer to a displacement of the mass as a whole and those in c" to a rotation of the mass as a whole.

1581J

BOUs>lM>v.
stresses
sin

For the strains and

we deduce
to

the values
sin
to
,

-sinto),

^ = -p(l
cos
to

+ sin to),
sin

xy

= p (c +

cl) sin

to,
|

P
If tin-

~~

(c'

cl)

o>

(xxiv).

motion of the mass as a whole be disregarded, Boussinesq (pp. 41-42) shews that any system of initially parallel straight lines in the plane xy becomes a system of concentric and similar conies with their axes parallel to those of x and y. This conic system reduces to a system of circles when the straight lines are parallel to the bounding plane, and to a system of straight lines when c = 0.
[1581.]

Boussinesq

now

proceeds to find the stress across any

Let the plane pass through plane from equations (xiii) of Art. 1578. the axis of z and make an angle c^ with the vertical (see figure in Art. 1580), then its trace on the plane of xy being OP, we easily find that
ft

of equations (xiii)

is

given by

/?_

3*"

Whence using

(xxiv)

we have

tan 2/J

=c +

cl.

Take an auxiliary angle

c

We

given by 2/? = to + cl = tan (to - 2e)

2e,

or
,

(xxv).

then easily deduce

p</l

cos

(to

- 2c)
'

cos2(co-c)
COS 2

(to

{cos
)

(to

2e)

sin

to

sin 2

(c,

c)J,

...(xxvi).

2=

-J2?
COS 2 cos
(to

sin

to

cos 2

-)

c)

Kurt her, since

^i--j)(\ - 2ww M ) and

we deduce

sin

to

sin 2

(c,

*"~

c)
(

2mooe((o-2c)
ain
to

\\\ n

i.

ooe 2
(<

(t!

c)

at

ros

- Uc)

(xxv-xxvii) contain the fmi<l:tim ntul results of Boussinesq' se theory for the elastic f|uilil.nmn of pulvrrul -nt masses.

We

322

BOUSSiNis..

[15821583
=
;

at once that

when

e,

or

=c

the value of s n

that

is

to say

there is no stretch (or squeeze) in directions making an angle with the vertical or horizontal, or in directions given by the solution of The principal axes of stretch must bisect the angles between (xxv) for these directions of no stretch, and the magnitudes of the principal
.

stretches are given

by

= +~ - m
'2

sin

cos

(o>

.................. (xxviu).

2e)

Boussinesq remarks that the practically useful cases [1582.] are those in which the constant c of (xxv) is zero, or e is a constant angle, and sums up for such cases as follows
:

If
in

two systems of equidistant

parallel straight lines

be drawn

mass, the one inclined at an angle e to the other at an angle e to the horizontal, and the thus vertical, the transverse section of the mass into a of dividing system equal

tbe unstrained

then this double system remains after strain a double squares, of parallel straight lines, the squares being converted into system rhombuses having tbe same sides as the squares, but adjacent
sides

rotated

relative

to

each

other through

the small angle

The whole strain therefore reduces to a sin (0/{m cos (o> 2e)j. slide upon each other of parallel slices of the mass inclined at an angle e to the vertical (p. 45).
[1583.]

an
CD

infinite

heavy

In a footnote on p. 45 Boussinesq deals with the strain in elastic mass bounded by a plane inclined at an angle

to the horizon.

Taking:

= -.p(l -sinw),
*-**

^ = -^(1
,

+sino>),

*... A A.1 A. I.
I

x,~pooBv-pgl
we
see

from our

(xii)

that

p must be of the form

:.

P=fi+fJ
I find from

...........................

xxx )-

= \0 + 2nsx
:

l that the shifts are given by

1 This is the case of an infinite solid with a free plane surface. Boussinesq's results as expressed in (xxix) do not seem general enough to enable us to deal with a i-iiiid plane boundary as well, which we can do in the case of results (xxiv) for

a pulverulent mass.

1584]

BOUSMV
7^

323
/z)
:

Whence from

= /icr^, we
cos

have, if v = (A + 2/x)/(X +
o>

- Offl = />

COS2

<i>

cosw
tin-

Now

Boussinesq equates the expression on

left-hand side of this

result to tan (w

2c) sin M,

and

constant for great values of I. constant, and that we must have

sjn-aks of this auxiliary angle e iK'coniing It seems to me that it must always be

:

(xxxii),
or,

/i
stretch

= 0, and

/,

(pg cos

w)/i/.
:

The maximum

and squeeze are then given by

.

{- 1 + V(T^77
(xxxiii),
:

tin- angles y, and y.,, they make with the axis of x being determined as roots of

tan 2y = (v 1 ) cot o> + v tan o> where the squeeze corresponds to the value of y < ir/2.
Tin-so results, a slight extension of Boussinesq's,

seem to me of

For example, supposing |M.iblr application to geological problems. rupture to take place perpendicular to the directions of greatest stretch, we 6nd, that a massive slope of rock at an angle of 45, would und< T its own weight rupture in planes making an angle of about 80 to 81 The planes of rupture thus with the downward direction of the slope. This below the internal planes perpendicular to the surface. fall nuinei i<-al result supposes uniconstant isotropy to hold for the material of the rock. That the strains and stresses become infinite with / is only to bo expected from the nature of the theoretical problem, which suppose a
heavy mass,
infinite in size.
1 v. of the memoir [ ")<S4.] (pp. 46-53) deals with the modifications necessary in the results of the previous section when the

pulverulent mass is bounded by a sloping wall. Let this wall slope at an angle t to the vertical (see fig. below), then the angle

it

makes with the

axis of

is

given by x
tin

=T+
4
is

&

~~ *

Boussii
(i)

considers two cases, namely, \vbrn rough or (ii) perfectly smooth.

wall

either

perfectly

Case
'i

(i).

ami

Walt perfectly rough. In this case we take (soe our Art as given by equations (xxii) equal to zero, win n
r

324
for all values of r.

BOUSSINESQ.

[1584

We

easily find that

1

" c = c/-c = 0, sec (<o - 2i), cosec 2 X = c" = - tan(w-2t) c' = -cot2 x

I ............

(xxxiv).

Since c =

0,

we have from (xxv)

or,

of the figure in the parameter e is now constant and the line our Art. 1580 coincides with the direction of the supporting wall. Thus by Art. 1582 the strain of the pulverulent mass consists of a slide
of

OM

magnitude
sin w/jfji cos
(o>

2i)}

mass perpendicular to that of angle < with the fixed wall in the unstraiued, and the 1 = <r, angle <f> 8< in the strained condition. Then we easily find fy/sin or the slide parallel to the fixed wall,

parallel to the supporting wall. Suppose a plane in the pulverulent

xy

to

make an

<

sin

co

sin2

<f>

m cos

(co

(xxxv).
2i)
,

the Boussinesq takes two special cases. Namely, when 8< = change in angle of the talus itself, and when S< = ', the change in angle of a plane making an angle of 45 with the wall in the unstrained = ir/4. In the former case <f> = 7r/2 + w i, and in the later condition.
<

Hence

sin

to

cos

(co

i)
'

_
co

sin

w
'

in cos

(CD

2i)

2m cos (co
0/ cos 2 (w
x - ^)
.

2i)

sin

Case
(xxvi)
is

(ii).

IFaW perfectly smooth.

ex

zero for

=i

this leads to 2 (i
c'

In this case the n< of equation = 7r/2, or from (xxv) e)

:

+ cl = - cot (co -

2i).

We have further to
for all values of r

make the

shift perpendicular to the wall vanish, or

v cos

x~ u s
,

n X = QI

when
a;

r cos x

y = f sin

X-

This leads by (xxii) to

c
i

= 0,
=

and, remembering that at the wall

X+

ir/4
cl

o>

2,

also to c"
co

0.

Further we find C//COB \ =

sin

sav

Boussinesq takes

= 0,

or

1584]

BOUSSINESQ.

the axes of x and // through the strained position of the element at the origin 0. Thus we have finally
:

and
<)n
.so

=i-

-"M
ir/4
J

..... (xxxvii) .

fait
iH)li,

d'un unir

une idee nette du tassement qui se produit dans le cas actuel ayant OM' pour face posterieure, en concevant, an lieu de ce mur

ix>li,

un mur rugueux
,

OM

lt

incline*

sur celui-ci de 45, ou faisant avec

h,

Oy

1'angley CU/^a + t-^

et en considdrant le tassement, parallele

OJ/,, qui se

produirait alors.

D sin *l \m cos
AOM'

o>

Ce tassement, & une distance D de OM^ sera dgal a - 2 li > = - D sin o>/{m sin (<a - 2i)} *. Pour amener le

^J

k son

e*tat d6finitif,

il

suffira

bloc autour de 1'origine 0, dans le sens de

de concevoir ensuite qu'il tourne en Oy vers Oxy de la petite quant tr

i

sin

/J2mcos

-2U'-^J

i= - sin

/{2m sin

(<u

- 2i)}, en vued'annulor
(
i

ion egale et contraire dprouvde dans ce tassement fictif, d'apr^.s \ \ \ \ l.i l>.ir ligne matdriellc priiiiitivcnn-nt couchee contre le mur reel OAT et qui no recoit enectivement aucune rotation autour de (pp. 50-1).
,

w<-

This follows since the term in c" in the first solution corresponds as havr Mnti-i] in Ait. I.~>s0 to a rotation of the mass as a whole of
-=

magnitude

c"

see equation (xxii)], or

by (xxxiv) to

<os[~u>

2(1

7) ]},

to the value of
1

'

in (xxx\

i)

Hi'

uni'l'

(i),

for o.V,

now

-".V, is to be reckoned negative when Rtibntituted for the falls on the opposite side of OO to OM'.

of case

326

BOUSSINESQ.

[15851586

The change in inclination of the talus to the smooth wall will he given by the third formula of (xxxvi), or by
:

sin

oj

cos "
\ ,

4// '

sin

oj

sin 2

(o>

- i)

^??i

coa

w-a

./.
i

- ,NN -r
two

2*. .&./..

-8ft

-(""'">
and smooth

The

solutions found for the

cases of the rough

supporting walls are unique

[1585.]
d'etre possibles,
vi.

(p. 50).

hypothetical one.

(pp. 53-68) It is entitled

suite

is
:

an interesting, if somewhat Des modes d'e'quilibre qui cessent

d'e'lasticite'

par

des limites

de la matiere

pulve'rulente.

Boussinesq terms the elastic limit in the case of a pulverulent the 6tat ebouleux, which we may render as the state of He considers that a pulverulent mass may withstand a collapse. but not a positive traction. Thus from equation stretch, positive
solid
(vii), it

follows that

stretch s

< l/2ra

not result from

p must always be positive and the maximum in order that equilibrium may exist. But it does this that s is marks the the stretch which l/2m

point of collapse.

A
be

less stretch

than

this, to

be determined by

Boussinesq accordingly takes for experiment, may the conditions of non-collapse or stability
sufficient.

p>0
where
</>

and

<
alflt

..................

(xxxix),

is

an angle between
is

and 90

(for its physical

meaning

see Art. 1587) and s

the greatest positive stretch.

may, according to Boussinesq, look at the con[1586.] dition of stability of any isotropic elastic solid in the following manner (pp. 57-9). Suppose s 1 and sz the principal stretches in
the case of uniplanar strain, then for the limit of elastic stability we must have sl some function of s.2 (including a constant as such a function), or we may write, he holds
:

We

7\

Now if the corresponding principal tractions be Tlt T we have - s,\ 2 + T = 2 (X + /K) (s, + s ), and therefore -T. = (s,
2,

1587]

BOUSSINESQ.
for

327

Now

modulus J (3X
such a solid

the special case of a plastic solid the dilatationsince resistance to change of bulk in -f 2/ji), or
is

shape
T!

\ must be very great

9

great as compared to resistance to change of as compared with /z. Hence if

T.,,

+T

be not very great as compared with 7\

we

have,

expanding by
tern

Madam-ins theorem and

retaininff <ili/ the lowest

.................. (xli)

T.-T^ZK-K^T.+
where A" and
If

T,)

are independent of

T T.
lt
:

retain only the first term on the right, we have SaintVenant's fundamental hypothesis for the state of plasticity sec

we

our Arts. 247 and 260. If we retain only the second term on the condition of (xxxix) that a pulverulent right, Boussinesq's second of collapse, will be found to coincide the not reach shall point body
with
it.

For, since
T,

we have

= - p (1 - 2WW.) and p = - T9)/(T + T,) = - 2ww,, (T,

t

T,

71)
:

or for stability

T ~ T ,m< T + *1
*
l

sin

<ft

............ (xlii).

This agrees with

(xli), if

we take A"=
to

and

= sin
and

Thus
plasticity.

K=

corresponds

pulverulence

^=

<ft.

to

Here, as in Arts. 1568 and 1594, the discussion seems to trench on ground which much needs accurate physical investigation. Boussinesq cites no experimental evidence, and the appeal to Maclaurin's Theorem is far from convincing. Bous^iiH-sij's treat-

ment

of

the

elastic,
it is

plastic

and

pulverulent

limits

may be

suggestive, but
1

certainly not
at
-,iiilit

final.

\\V may l>nk

\vr

ion (xlii)
aii^li'

from

(xiii)

rasily
is

timl

tin-

aiiotlin- sfaii-1 j...int. 'OSS any Jtlanc

aii^li*

niaki-s willi
it

tlu-

normal n to that
a

jilau*-.

Let tlis
:

h<

^.

Tln-n

will

ho found that \

maximum

\vln-n

ami

that in tins cage,

>!l

">-

Y
Preiiii-ini: ^>at
i

= Hin*

</>

<f>

t.-rm.-.l

(ho angle of internal fricl tot,

we may

thi, result as toll-

328

BOUSSINESQ.

[15881589

The inclination of the stress across any plane to the produced normal to that plane ought for equilibrium to be possible to be less than, or at most equal to, the internal angle of friction (p. 56).
Equation
(xliii) also

gives us

or,

we conclude that The planes, across which the stress makes the greatest possible angle with the production of the normal, make with the plane submitted to the maximum pressure an angle equal to
:

result is due to Rankine, who deduced discussion not involving the same principles.

+i Thi is

it,

however, from a

[1588.]

Using (xxviii) and the second of (xxxix) we easily find that cos2 (w - 2e) > sin 2 w/sin2 .................. (xliv).
<

Hence to the slope of the talus must be less than, or at most equal to, the angle of friction <. Boussinesq gives some details from a memoir of Saint-Guilhem (Annales des ponts et chaussees, T. xv. pp. 319-50. Paris, 1858) as to It varies from 24 or 26 for small shot or the angle of friction. mustard seed to about 55 for very dense earth. The natural talus, for example that observed at the foot of steep rocks, etc., is about 31 for to 33 for marl, limestone and earth fine and dry sand, from 32 recently thrown from the wheelbarrow, about 37 for chalky earth, about 38 for moist quartz sand and about 45 for moist gypseous sand.
relation (xliv) is easily shewn to involve the condition [1589.] The 2 at (xxiv) and (xxv), the that cos2 w > sin o> tan 2 (w 2e), or, looking Thus the first condition of (xxxix) is satisfied if condition that p > 0. the second be. and 7r/2, Suppose cos T = sin oo/sin <, where T is an angle between then we easily find from (xliv) that
c

> | (o>

T)

and < \ (w +

T).

In the case of a rough revetment wall

:

its

inclination

to the

The limits within which i, vertical is equal to see our Art. 1584. or the direction of the face of the revetment wall must lie thus form
what Boussinesq terms a Maltese cross, and for all values outside the arms of this cross slipping takes place for the given slope of the talus
1

Boussinesq in a footnote,

p. 63, returns to

the solution for the elastic solid,

which we have dealt with in Art. 1583. He appears to think that the principal stretches can both be negative, but I have been unable to find any special application of the solution with possible boundary conditions in which this would He states that it would be necessary for the plane boundary of such occur.
a solid to have a less slope than that given by sinw = rstant elastic solid, i.e.w<30. I do not think this solid with a free plane surface.
is
,

or

for a unicon-

true for an infinite elastic

1590]

BOUSSINESQ.

329

easily find from (xliv) that the two limiting values of the slope of the talus for a given value of the inclination of the revetment wall are the roots of cos 2t tan o> = ^ (xlv).
:

We

+ cosec

<

sin 2i

Boussinesq remarks that in actual practice this only gives the slope of the tangent plane to the talus at the revetment wall, the talus itself generally not being plane and having at a distance from the wall any Thus we have the declivity not greater than the angle of friction <.

r.

in the first of which o^ corresponds to the upper, and in the second w2 to the lower sign in (xlv). The remainder of this section of the memoir is devoted to numerical details of the relations between o> and i for the cases of perfectly rough

and perfectly smooth revetment

walls.

vn. (pp. 68-81) is entitled Calcul de la pression exercee [1590.1 gur tout element de surface normal au plan des deformations, et de la poussee totale que supporte un mur plan de soutenement.
:

In this section Boussinesq first discusses at some length (pp. 68-74) values of the parameter e (which characterises the mode of equilibrium: see our Art. 1581 and fig. Art. 1580) for which the stresses
tli-

nn and nt across the plane given by e, (see equation (xxvi) of Art. Let </>, be the angle 1581) take their maximum and minimum values. the resultant stress makes with the normal to the plane given by e, then: The extreme values of the two components of the stress, or !!, n* Jiosc which convsjioinl to a mass witli its talus at an an^'lc to the horizon on the point of collapse are given by the equations
(

sin

(o>

+ 2^) = sin w/sin

<f>,

= tan

tan*

(xlvi).

^_

HI

II

<ft

COS

^ HJH

(c t

+ ^) '

V/>

'

tan

</>,

PI,

II.

3.30

BOUSSINESQ.

[15911592

The auxiliary angle >Jr, which is to be calculated from the first of these equations, ought to be so chosen that the absolute value of o> + 2>/f is less th.m - m takes its least wiluo and it is to be taken r/2, if we require the limit when between ir/2 and TT if we require the limit when - nn takes its greatest value. Since the inclination fa of the resultant stress to the produced normal to the elementary nlane must lie between - w/2 and 7r/2, its value is completely determined by the second of the equations (p. 74).
;

is a Boussinesq points out that the limiting equilibrium when is that which has been studied by Maurice Levy in his memoir of 1867-9 see our Art. 242, while Rankine in 1856 (see our Art. = 453) had considered both cases of limiting equilibrium for cl 0.

minimum

For the special case of a rough supporting wall c - i, [1591.] or the inclination of the wall (see our Art. 1584), whence from (xxvi) we have at the wall where e x - i
:

cos 2

(CD

cos
t)

(CD

, 2i),

^t=

cos 2 (<a-

- .

-sin

CD:

whence,

if

be the resultant stress

tail fa =

sin CD/COS

(CD

^=

pgl sin q> cos 2 (to i) sin

................. (xlvii).

see at once that the stress across each element of the wall is the same in direction. Taking a strip of the wall of unit horizontal length and depth d measured along its sloping face from the talus, we easily find for the resultant action P
:

We

=
and
distance If i

{ o Jo

,-

2 cos 2

(<o

- ^)

sin fa

...... (xlviii),
i.e.

this acts at the hydrostatic centre of pressure of the strip, \L from the top of the wall.
0,

at a

or the sustaining wall be vertical

tan fa

= tan

o>,

P = paL
f

z
-

cos

CD

..............

cos 2cD

(xhx).

In this last case we have, from (xliv), tanco = sin<, whence we see that the angle of friction between the wall and the pulverulent mass (which ought always to be greater than fa) must have its tangent greater than the sine of the internal angle of friction of the mass (pp. 80-1). Boussinesq also deals with the corresponding problems for the smooth wall ; these having less practical importance, I do not reproduce.
[1592.]
viii.

(pp.

81-95)

is

entitled

Resolution des proles

btimes d'dquilibre

les

plus important* dans

applications,

au

1592]

BOUSSINESQ.
stability

moyen d'une condition de specifies aux parois.

qui

tient

lieu

des relations

This chapter is occupied with a discussion of rules for practically finding the resultant action between a sustaining wall and a pulverulent mass which will: (i) just support the pulverulent
in ass,

or

(ii)

which

will give the greatest possible stability to

the

mass.

Boussinesq first remarks that having regard to the manner in which earthwork is generally put together, it is impossible to ndei thai n and v, the shifts from the "natural state," are zero at the rough wall He considers that the see our Art. 1578. pulverulent mass is in reality put in with many finite slippings and shakings, so that it finally takes up a form of equilibrium totally different from that obtained by using the conditions u = v = 0, the wall.
:

Ce mode doit etre le plus favorable possible a la stabilite" inte>ieure du massif, c'est-a-dire, celui pour lequel la dilatation maxima s acquiert aux divers points ses plus petites valeurs compatibles avec le degre* de
t

mur pent opposer car le mode d'equilibre ainsi defini, deja completement realise nn instant apres que Ton a depose les dernieres couches de terre ou de sable, ne tarderait pas a s'etahlir par 1'effet des petits ebranlements, dus a mille causes diverses, que le massif eprouve presque a tout instant, et qui permettent aux grains sablonneux de se grouper de la maniere en quelque sorte la
resistance que le
s'il
:

iiY-tait

|>;is

moins forcee

(p. 82).

Excluding the material in the immediate neighbourhood of

the wall where the wall's influence produces perhaps local disturbances, we see that all the modes of equilibrium realisable
are given, subject to the limitation of the value of
e

in

Art.

The last equation, how1589, by our equations (xxv)-(xxviii). ever, shews us that the principal stretch s, will be a minimum,
o>

stable

being a constant, when e = a>, and this corresponds to the iimst mode of equilibrium, or that nearest to the "natural state" = 0. This mode of equilibrium will therefore be set i'.r \\hich
,

up

if

the wall be able to carry the corresponding resultant action.

In the case of most stable .|uilil>rium the resultant action, taking place at the hydrostatic centre of pressure, is given \
1

W& tan
2

- 1) oos(

cos (2

<u)

sin*,

If

332
where
<

BOUSSINESQ.
1}

[15921593
is

the angle

P makes with

the normal to the wall,

.

determined

by:
7T +T -

0)\

.(li).

Fort =

0,

P~2i

cosco,

and

^^w

(Hi).

If the sustaining wall will support this thrust then the pulverulent

mass has the

maximum

of stability possible.

Boussinesq next turns to cases in which the wall will riot support this thrust, and discusses the moment of the forces tending to capsize it, and the relative degree of stability corresponding to these cases (pp. He shews that, when the sustaining wall is vertical or i = 0, 86-95). then the pulverulent mass will still be in equilibrium, if the wall will just withstand a thrust given by
:

= pgl?

cos

o>

sin 2/

-2~sin2(a> + ^
.(liii).

where ^

is

the least root of

sin
(o>

2{j/)

= sin

oo/sin

The values

of

P and P

l ,

Thus very considerably. 9397. There is thus a wide range of values from the just stable stage to that of maximum stability (pp. 91-2).
:
:

as given by (lii) and differ (liii) respectively, for to = 20, $ = 45, we have :: '1935 l

P P

[1592 bis.] The reader must carefully bear in mind the different character of the solutions obtained in our Art. 1590 and
again in our Art. 1592. The solutions of Art. 1590 give the resultant action of the pulverulent mass on the sustaining wall, = 0, provided we make the physically incorrect assumption that u v
at the wall.

The

solutions

of Art. 1592 do not

involve
:

this

assumption (which in the case of a rough wall leads to e = i see our Art. 1584, Case (i)) but, disregarding the condition of affairs in the immediate neighbourhood of the wall (i.e. giving u, v definite, but undetermined values there), give the resultant actions on the wall for those values of e which correspond to (i) the maximum
stability in

the

pulverulent mass, and

(ii)

the least resultant

all.

action on the wall consistent with equilibrium at

[1593.]
IX. (pp.

95-133)

is

entitled
I'e'tat

Sur

I'dquilibre-limite

en general,

fitude particuliere

de

dbouleux qui se produit

1593]

BOUSSINESQ.

333

un massif pulvei-ulent, au moment vh un mur de soutenement commence d se renverser. This section deals with the stability of a pulverulent mass on the point of collapse as a limiting case of a pulverulent mass in motion. In obtaining the equations for the motion of a pulverulent mass Boussinesq supposes
:

(i)
(ii)

that the mass remains homogeneous and isotropic,

that the strains are produced so slowly that the inertia
is

of the elements of the mass

(iii)

negligible

*,

that the stresses in consequence do not sensibly differ

from the
(iv)

maximum

elastic stresses,

the

set

that the elastic stretch in any direction is proportional to stretch which occurs in the same direction in a small

interval of time dt.

These assumptions lead Boussinesq to equations equivalent to which hold for either a plastic or a pulverulent The equation (ix) of Art. 250 resulting from (iii) of Art. mass. 247 will not, however, be the additional relation peculiar to the case of a pulverulent mass. Indeed Boussinesq criticises the form of that relation as stated by Saint- Venant and Le'vy even for a
(x) of our Art. 250,
ic

mass.
,

*2 ss be the principal elastic stretches in descending order of magnitude, Boussinesq, generalising the results of Art. 1586, considers that s -s3 takes at the elastic limit a definite value for

If

*i,

each value of the dilation (si + 2 + s3 ), and for each value of Thus he considers the elastic limit given by a *,). (*, ,)/(*,
relation of the form
:

-*-/(*+
or, in

............ (liv)>

the case of both plastic and pulverulent masses, for whirl

= 0,

by

for the small elastic vibrations of a pulverulent mass are not and cannot be even approximately satisfied by sine and ooaine terms involvhe time. This is the analytical equivalent of the effectiveness of sawdust or and in checking sound vibrations.
1

The equations

334

BOUSSINESQ.

[1504

i:>o:>

Or,

Ig

fi

being as usual the slide-modulus. He remarks that for the cases treated by Saint- Venant
(a)

torsion

of right circular, cylinder (see our Art. 255),

s2

0, s3

= =s
T!

s l}

and therefore
flexure

T =
2

2fjf(l),
s2

(6)
fibres,
s.2

circular
t

of a

prism,

=s

for

the

extended

for the contracted fibres,

and therefore
respectively.

T = 2/A/*(oc),
2

or

= 2#/"(0)

Hence Saint- Venant's plastic modulus K, which equals /jf, will not be the same for all these cases, unlessy is an absolute constant
(p. 101).

that Boussinesq's relation (liv) is really of a very arbitrary character, and that at least some physical evidence in favour of it ought to have been adduced.
It

seems to

me

[1594.]

With regard

to

the surface-conditions, Boussinesq

practically refers to Saint- Venant's treatment (see our Art. 254), and like Saint- Venant he also neglects a possible semi-plastic

midzone of material

(p.

102): see our Art. 244.

On p. 103 Boussinesq makes an important remark with [1595.] He notes that for a pulverulent mass, by regard to the form of (Iv). aid of equation (vii) of our Art. 1574, it may be written in the form
:

T IT

= m}

Kfc'
any system

Now
be

this equation, if satisfied for

lt

T<>,

will still

satisfied if the principal tractions and therefore the general system of stresses be altered in any definite ratio. Further if the body-forces be

negligible as

compared with the stresses, equations (x) of our Art. 250 combined with the body-stress equations shew us that the magnitudes of the velocities u, v, w will remain unaltered by this change of stress.
Boussinesq applies this result to the case of a reservoir of pulverulent matter with a small hole in its base
:

Dans un dcoulement de
limite des

que

la

sable par un orifice, la vitcsse tend done vcrs uno hauteur de charge devient un peu grande, et elle se mail in it
it,

des lors con.stante. Ainsi s'explique I'lmiformite' d'ecoulemcnt qu'obtcnaient les anciens avoc les sablicrs dont ils se servaient pour mesurer le temps (p. 104).

l.v.Mj

1597]

BOU.SMM>V.

335

In the particular case of uniplanar strain studied by [1.VJ6.] are respectively 0, 0, and - p, while 10, dujdz, Boussinesq, "*, z* and are all zero. Thus dv/dz equations (x) of our Art. 250 become
:

These will be found to be satisfied by (xxii) and (xxiv) of our Further Art. 1580, remembering that u and v are now velocities. the solutions of that article satisfy the conditions, which are necessary at the free surface. But in order that the limit of elasticity may be reached at all points where the mass is commencing to move we must have by (xliii)
:

or, substituting for

the values of
2

(^-^)

we have Rankine's relation -p+^) sina = ............ (Ivii).

and
p,
2
<

again satisfied by the solutions for the cases of limiting equilibrium that we have found in Art. 1590.

This condition

is

[1597.]

The

condition that remains to be satisfied

is

that at

the wall.

Its introduction into the

:

modern theory

is

due

to Le'vy.

Boussinesq writes

Une derniere relation, spciale a la face poste"rieure du mur, ne s'applique qu'autant que les particules contigues du massif sont sur le point d'y Sprouver des glissements finis, circonstance qui semble devoir s se produire des le commencement de renversement du mur, ton tea fois quVllr ne sera pas en contradiction avec les autres Equations du Or sa realisation exige que Tangle fait en chaque point. prob!6me.
1

avec

le

prolongement de
<lu

la

normale a
mat

la face pO8te>ieure
; ;

l>Miiss<V (jui

lui est appliqu'<\

maximum

mur

rt d<-

l.-i

\aill- jin ris nn-nt irn- s.ill<iiiin-usc du

du mur, par la Tangle du frottement massif (p. 107).

The

h.ivr sc.-n

solutions (xlvi) for the limits of stability satisfy as we .ill but this last condition. In order that they should

also satisfy this condition, it as given for the wall of <f>

t
,

(xlvi),

would be necessary that tbe value = i) by the second equation of (e, should be just equal to tbe angle of friction between the
the pulverulent mass.
If
it

wall

ari<l

be, thru the solutions (xlvi)

will still

we have obtained
give the

for limiting equilibrium stresses wh n tin mass to

continue to
to the

begins

collapse

owing

upsetting of the wall (p. 109). When the angle of friction

<>,,

is

^n

at. r

th.m the above value of

its

th.-n

.-i

\s<din

<,i

material

|uililriiiin

at tho inst.n.i

adjacent to the wall retains tin- wall lupins in upset

336

BOUSSINESQ.

[15981599

Now Boussinesq remarks that in practice sustaining walls [1598.] are generally sufficiently rough to render a thin stratum of the Hence the angle of friction pulverulent mass stationary upon them. between wall and mass really reduces to the angle of friction of the pulverulent mass upon itself, or to what we have denoted by the
angle
<

<.

The second equation

JTT

2i

+ 2$ =

of (xlvi) then leads, as the only practical solution, or to

:

if

#!

<,

to

J-J*-*

(Iviii),

for the requisite inclination of the wall. It will be found in this case that the value of the resultant action reduces to (p. Ill):

P = %pgL
This result
wall.
is

cos(<f>

+ i)

(lix).

due to Levy.

Thus we

see that the solutions (xlvi) only hold for a special type of

[1599.] Boussinesq next turns to the case in which the wall has not the above inclination and proceeds to solve this case by a method suggested by Saint- Venant (Comptes rendus, T. LXX., p. 283 see our Art. 242). It consists in supposing the stresses to
:

by small quantities from the values they have for the case which (Iviii) is satisfied. The analysis by which a solution is obtained (pp. 112-124) is too long for reproduction, but we shall examine it in a later modified form in our Arts. 1613-6. The solution obtained is exact provided the pulverulent mass instead of being supposed uniform be considered as slightly heterogeneous,
differ

in

its
<f>

angle of internal friction

<j/

being taken slightly greater than

and varying from point to point of the mass. Boussinesq from $ necessary to insure the shews that the divergence of exactness of the solution only exists in a wedge of the material bounded by the face of the wall and by a plane through the intersection of the wall and talus and making an angle JTT with the vertical (pp. 116 and 122). Boussinesq further shews (p. 125) that
<f>'
</>
*//

<

sin <'/sin

</>

< sec 8,

of true i, or measures the divergence J (/> of the secant When from that inclination of wall given by (Iviii). above-mentioned of the is the the angle 8 (which really angle and apply wedge) is small, then we may regard <f>' as equal to

where 8

is

TT

<

the approximate solution

(lix).

16001601]

BOUSSINESQ.

337

For small values of 8 Boussinesq finds for the resultant action the wall
:

P on
,

t* n tan

"*\ (* --

<*<** (* + *)*(*-*)
with (Ixix).

"'

This will be found to agree for <f>= <fo, 8= For a horizontal talus and vertical wall:

and

= \MV

tan'g-Qcosg-f) V* =

These results hold for all cases in which 8 being positive, <, the external angle of friction nearly satisfies
tan
(t

ft)

See our Arts. 1590 and 1618. In the remaining pages of this section Boussinesq deals with the cases in which the back of the wall and the talus are no longer plane. The results, owing to their complexity, do not seem likely to lend themselves to practical applications (pp. 127-33).
[hJOO.]

In the present memoir Boussinesq speaks of the

In results (Ix) and (Ixi) as approximations to the true solutions. in them as later papers he takes the values of given providing a

lower or an upper limit to tbe value of according as the heterois of the supposed to be such that the wedge (Art. 1599) geneity

whole mass is either more or less stable than it really is. These be reached by a proper choice of the values of <f> and <>r in (Ix) <, (Ixi): see our Arts. 1607 and 1616-8.
limits can
1
(

001.]

x. (pp.

134-56)

is

entitled
<1i
:

fitiule,

en coordonnees

polaires, de

fnrimitini<x planes) dune Vtquilibre-limite (par infuse plastit/ue on nnh^'nilcnte cumpriim''?.. Applications a unc masse annulaire, cl un massif compris entre deux plans rigide*

se

This section of the

to the

ni

supplement

memoirs dealt with

m.-ir m.-iy be looked in our Arts. 24f>

upon as a

Bouwinesq supposes the inertia of the plastic or pulverulent mass He further suppooes the as well as the body-forces to be negligible.

338

BOUSSINESQ.

[1G02

flow to be uniplanar and a function only of the axial distance r and the We have from the equations in the footnote on our longitude <. p. 79:

~~ _ u
T"

'

"T

dr

_ v
r

ra<

Now

if

p be

half the

sum and
:

half

the difference of the

algebraically

principal tractions, and a the angle r least principal traction, then we have

makes with the

'

Now

by equation

(xli) for limiting

equilibrium

where for plasticity By means of (Ixii

0,

and

for pulverulence
:

K=

and

sin

<f>.

Ixiv) Boussinesq finds

da\

d cos 2a
rfr

da

^)-2r(cos2a+^)-, c/r
J2-

Since J?p is a constant, if we differentiate the first equation with regard to 6 and the second with regard to r, we shall then, by subtracting one of these equations from the other, obtain a differential If this be solved the value of p can then equation involving a only. easily be found by multiplying the first equation of (Ixv) by dr and the second by dO, adding and integrating after substitution of the value
of
a.

[1602.]
plasticity
:

Boussinesq treats in particular the following special cases of

belt of matter bounded by two coaxial, right-circular cylin(a) drical surfaces subjected to normal pressures and by two smooth rigid In this case p and a are planes perpendicular to its axis (pp. 137-9).

For the special case of plastic material Boussiiiesq's independent of 6. results agree with Saint-Venaiit's see our Art. 261.
:

Although the results of (a) are rigidly true only for the (b) special conditions stated, Boussinesq considers them as approximately ;i)|)licable to the case of a like belt placed upon a smooth plane, the
interior surface of the belt being subjected to a pressure

tending to

1602]
extend
140).
it

BOUSSINESQ.

339
free (p.

and the extemal surface and the upper face being

(ix) of

In this case we have from

our Art. 261

(Ixvi),
o

win -re r

is

the radius of the inner, r n of the outer surface.

hollow cylinder of which the base (c) placed in contact with rigid smooth surfaces, is submitted to a mean pressure pz and The treatment is sure p (pp. 140-2).

and exterior surface are but of which the upper

the interior surface to a

again only approximate.

Boussinesq argues

Alors la matiere se dilate & la fois ou se contracte & la fois, et en moyenne dans deux sens rectangulaires normaux aux rayons r, presque <5galement, tandis qu'ello dprouve par suite, suivant les rayons r, une contraction ou line On a done presque = c'est-a-dire que dilatation moyennement doubles. les elements plans parallfcles aux bases de 1'anneau supportent des tractions (positives ou ndgatives) assez peu diflfdrentes de celles qu'dprouvent, aux memes points, les plans mdridiens (p. 141).
,

I see no reason

why

this

should be true.

Assuming

its

truth,

however, we have:
1

log-J

(Ixvii):

which

is equal to the value of Art. 261, but twt to that of Tz. Hence, from the relation

4 given in equation

(viii),

of our

we

find:

p.

= Po +

K (\
V

............ p) T f-'-log r r /
I

(Ixviii).

If the radius r is decreasing we must take the lower sign (p. 141). = 0, as in this case r is increasing, we take the upper sign, For/?,

and

find

Tin-

ivsulLs
is

(Ixvii)

however,
A.t. -262.
(/)
:i|i|.!i.

even

less

(lxi\) \vn-HatMa.-t.n-\

first

ivrn
ih,-

by Tn-sra
abovr.

tli.m

S,--

his proof. also our

Tin- action of
in

niiirr,

a circular pun. -h (pp. 142-4). II the above dnibiiul f<>nnidar

in.-sij

to

tin-

\\

rusca \\hfi-c tli.- material to b- punched rest ii^'id plain-, riiln-r dar orifice of the size of tb- puurh and vitli, or fin \\itli.. iuilni-diati 1\ opposite tO it8 face ill tin- plain-

340
Tresca's

BOUSSINESQ.

[16031605

discussion of the cases (c) and (d) will be found on of his memoir of 1869: Sur le poinyonnage des tnetaux... Paris, 1872. published in the Recueil des savants etrangers, T. xx.
pp.

784-803

general solution of equations (Ixv), when da/d<j>=Q, but not (e) = No results of practical importance seem to flow necessarily dp/d<f> 0.

from

this

assumption (pp. 145-6).

in equations (Ixv), or the least (/) Case of da/dr = [1603.] traction principal making the same angle with a radius- vector at every point of its length (pp. 145-56). p being a constant, we have in this case

.,
(1

/)

=
J"|
c are

C'

(c

- Rp) log {r>

(c

- cos

2a)|

where

(7,

C",

and

arbitrary constants.

Boussinesq applies results (Ixx) to the consideration of the special case, where a cylindrical sector of material is placed between two intersecting rigid planes, sufficiently rough to stop all sliding of the The application to the case particles of the material touching them. where the rigid planes are hinged to a common axis and squeeze a wedge of plastic material placed between them might possibly have

some

practical interest.

To the memoir is appended a Note Gomplementaire: Sur [1604.] methode de M. Macquorn-Rankine, pour le calcul des pressions exercees aux divers points d'un massif pesant ...... (pp. 157-173). The method dealt with by Boussinesq is that discussed in Rankine's memoir On the Stability of Loose Earth (see our Art. 453), but as it does not start from an elastic hypothesis, we have not considered it in our volume. Boussinesq explains and supplements Rankine's investigations, but remarks of the hypothesis by which Rankine solves his fundamental
la

equation

Peut-etre trouvera-t-on un jour quelque ordre de phdnomfcnes auquel Phypothese con,siddre"e sera plus applicable, et qui rdalisera ainsi cette curieuse analogic d'une distribution de pressions avec le mouvement de la chaleur dans une barre (173).

The memoir concludes with two notes, the first of which deduces Hopkins' theorem for the value and direction of the maximum shear (see our Art. 1368*), while the second deduces Saint- Venant's theorem see our Arts. for the direction and magnitude of the maximum slide 1570* and 4(8).
:

Various papers on the stability and tbrust of loose [1G05.] earthwork by Boussinesq, briefly resuming, generalising or simpli-

100.")]

BOUSSINESQ.

341

fying the results of the above memoir, will be found in volumes of the Comptes rendus.
(a)

T. LXXVIL, pp. 1521-5.

Brussels

memoir under the same

title

extract from the Paris, 1873. as the latter see our Arts.
:

An

1571-99.

Sur les lois de la distribution plane des pressions a Vinterieur (b) T. LXXVIII., 757-9 and des corps isotropes dans Vetat tfequilibre limite. 786-9. Paris, 1874.
In the first part of this paper Boussinesq supposes a conservative system of body-forces applied to a mass under uni planar strain. The first two body-stress equations then become
:

dx

dy

dx

dx

+
dy

=0
dy

..

..(i),

being the potential of the body-forces. Hence we find, as in our Arts. 1576-7, for an elastic body

2X^(^ + W)
and
for a pulverulent or plastic

/d

d*\.^ * +
(jf

^=

"<")

mass

/cP
I

\dx'

cP\/S-w\ + ~+^ T~ ~ -Ta \xx yy j

) (
)

dy*J

* j-j

\ dxdy \xx +

T ~^
y

......... (ill).

The remainder of the first part of the memoir is devoted to the condition of limiting equilibrium discussed in our Art. 1585. The second part of the memoir is devoted to discussing the (c) integration of equations (i) for the case of limiting equilibrium. 7 for the priiiripa] Boussinesq, as in our Art. 1568, takes T , and t - T7.,), then for limiting = T 7' and + tractions, 2 ), q J ( 7\ puts p J ( rquililirium 7 will be a function of p and generally a linear one. 7 have, if a be the angle the greater traction T , makes with the axis of x:

We

= - j? +
(i),

coa 2a,
if

*P=-/? -flcos2a,

0=9 sin 2a.

cos a\ )

Hence from

P = p-<f>:
.
,

d(P-q)

d(P-q) sin a -

29
o

/ da da - -jsin a -f -j*\ dx dy
.

= 0,

C08a-2q( '
n-nuirks (hat (iv)

/
\

da da 7- COS a+ -p dx dy

Sin a

/
1

i.e.

2K:
>1

see our Art.

is

subjected.

t-un lx< s<l\cd \vh.-n 7 is a constant, 1863, and 2 when ^- 0, or the weight ot tinnegligible as compared with the pressures to which it is In both these cases 9 is a given function (very approximately

342
linear) of the sole

BOUSSINKN...

[16061607

or P, and (iv) contains therefore variable p </> only the variables /' and a. Boussinesq now proceeds to take P and a as the independent variables, or solves the equations (iv) for x and y in terms of P and In other words he finds the point at which there is a given condition of
.

stress.

The solution is an interesting piece of analytical investigation, but the results seem too complicated to be of very great practical service. They are used however in the investigations of the following papers (d).

un massif

les modes d'equilibre limite les plus simples que peut presenter sans cohesion fortement comprime. T. LXXX., pp. 546-9 and pp. 623-7. Paris, 1875. These papers discuss at considerable length of analysis the cases dealt with in Arts. 52-3 of the Brussels memoir. The processes adopted in the later treatment seem very much simpler than those of the Comptes rendus investigation.

(d)

Sur

In the Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil [1606.] Engineers, Vol. LXV., pp. 140-241 (London, 1881), will be found a paper by Sir Benjamin Baker entitled The Actual Lateral Pressure of EarthThe paper itself work, together with a discussion and correspondence. deals with some sixty-five actual examples of retaining walls and of the It points out the defect of Rankine's theory in pressure of earthwork. supplying accurate data for practical construction, but suggests empirical rules rather than an improved theory as the best way out of the
:

difficulty.

Flamant of Boussinesq's theory

(pp. 209-12) an application by as published in his Essai (see our This is followed on Art. 1571) to a special case cited by Sir B. Baker. pp. 212-23 by some discussion by Boussinesq himself of the case of

In the Correspondence will be found

a level mass of homogeneous material supported by a vertical wall. He follows the lines of his Essai, Articles 43-8, see our Arts. 1596-1 600, giving as his equation (15) p. 218, equation (Ixi) of our Art. 1599 for P. The thickness of the wall is then easily found by the method of Article 41 of the Essai (see our Art. 1592). If h be the height, b the minimum 1 breadth, p the density of the earth, p that of the wall, we have
(p.

219):

where k is given by equation (Ixi) of our Art. 1599, and <^ is the angle of friction of the earthwork against the wall see our Art. 1597.
:

Now in order to make the above solution exact Boussiuesq [1607.] supposes that in the neighbourhood of the wall the angle of interior takes slightly higher values than at other parts of the friction <
1 This result follows at once from Art. 1599, if we take moments for all the forces acting on the wall round the axis about which it would rotate if it capsized as

a whole.

1608]

BOUSSINESQ.

343

pulverulent mass, at which it is constant, and he denotes these values It is shewn that the maximum value of <f' by <f>' see our Art. 1599. is given by the formula (p. 221 see our Art. 1616)
:

sin" <'

= sin*

</>

(1

sin

9
<J>)

tan <,

(ii).

Boussinesq further considers that his equations in the actual case

slightly exaggerate- the influence of the interior friction
slightly too small value of
6.

and so lead to a

quite safe and to obtain a limit of 6 too high, values might be given less than the true ones, by calculating these lesser </>j, slightly values as if tlie maximum of the variable an-h- of interior friction <', supposed \<\ the formulae, were just equal to the true value of the angle of frietion f the earthwork in question for in that case the latter would be more stable than the theory supposed (p. 221).
to

To be

and to

After some discussion as to how this may be done, Boussinesq itlers that a higher limit will be found for 6 by taking
sin

</>

- sin

sin
</>!

</>'

N/8

+ sin a <'

sm<p

(in).

Here <' is to be put equal to the known interior angle of friction, and and <, substituted in the value of k and in (i). then the values of
<

his

For the particular example, earlier hypothe

p'/p

and

</>

= 45, Boussinesq = 6-69; = 4-18;

= 5-79.

finds,

on

(<=45,

<,

= 45)

h/b
:

on Rankine's hypothesis of a smooth wall

(* = 45, <fc-0)

A/6

on hia modified hypothesis, using

(iii)

= 45 (<'

and

<

</>,

= 39

49'

by

(iii))

h/b
:

According to Boussinesq therefore we must have

etween

A
:l

h
" (I

6-G'J

-V79'

and he says we may take it equal to 1/6. Sir B. Baker's rule as a result of his experience was to take 6 = A/3 (p. 184), or almost double the value L'nen l.\ sq's theory, suppiMii:,' no factor of safety to be used in .still further modifies this superior limit in a the latter. ^ see our Art late paper Iocs not seem to me that Uoussinesq's modified hvpothoHis is h> -.1 KM! standpoint; it insolves a entirely satisfactory from the number of disputable points aee Proceedings, pp. 221-3.
!

'

-t

608.]

avoir

un mur

\ote sur la determination <k Vcpafaewr minimum que doit vertical, <?un* hauteur et (Pune densite donneett pour

344
contenir

BOUSSINESQ.

[1609

un massif

terreux, sans cohesion, dont la surface superieure est

Annales des ponts et cliaussees, T. HI. pp. 625-43. Paris, This is perhaps the best and clearest account Boussinesq had 1882. yet published of the application of his method of treating earthwork to the special problem of a uniform vertical wall supporting a pulverulent mass with a horizontal surface. It may be looked upon as a slight
horizontale.

expansion of the paper contributed to the Institution of Civil Engineers (see our Art. 1606), and it practically gives a complete treatment of this case independently of the results reached in the Essai (see our Art. The same objections may of course be raised as to the manner 1599). in which <' is determined. We shall pass this memoir by, however, as Boussinesq did not give Ms final and complete treatment till 1884.

Note on Mr G. H. Darwin's Paper 'On the Horizontal [1609.] Thrust of a Mass of Sand? Minutes of Proceedings of tJie Institution of Civil Engineers, Vol. LXXII. pp. 262-71. London, 1883. Boussinesq considers that the value, 35, adopted by Darwin does not represent the angle <f> of interior friction of sand, but concludes partly from experimental, partly from theoretical considerations, that it should be taken as 40 -5. With this value of <f> Boussinesq shews that the results of Darwin's Experiments, Series I. iv., are fairly in accord with the theory developed in our Arts. 1599 and 1607. Boussinesq next turns (pp. 266-7) to Darwin's Experiments, Series vi., where the talus had a slope equal to 35 or to the angle of friction at the surface. In this case Boussinesq refers to pp. 125-6 of his Essai for the expression for the thrust on the wall The see our Art. 1599. value there given, however, is only an inferior limit. Boussinesq now develops the theory of the Essai with a view to the discovery of a He considers that this can be obtained by giving <f> a superior limit. value derived from
:

sin </cos 8

= sin <f>,

friction (= 40'5 for sand) and 8 the angle <f>' being the interior angle of defined in our Art. 1599. The assumption is defended in the same manner as that for the value of in the case of a horizontal talus see our Art. 1607. It does not seem to me, however, that Boussinesq's discussion of Darwin's experiments in the case of Series vi. can be looked upon as on the whole favourable to Boussinesq's theory, and I can hardly agree with the concluding remarks of the author
<
: :

Mr G. H. Darwin's valuable observations appear to confirm as fully as possible the Author's formulas for the thrust of a pulverulent mass in limiting equilibrium. These formulas are due to Rankine's principles, simply developed and completed by the addition of the element of slip of the mass against the wall sustaining it, and constituting in this form the rational and corrected expression of principles due to Coulomb himself. Coulomb's theory, in all cases where it is justifiable to apply his fundamental hypothesis of a plane rupture of the maws, gives identically the same results as Rankine's formulas

16101611]
as has been
i

BOUSSINK-

>

345

ices ....... are just

shewn by M. Maurice LeVy. It will then be found that these those in which the author's formulas merge into those

of Rankine, in such a way as to represent all that old theory of Coulomb (p. 270).

may now

be retained of the

this Note by Boussinesq on Darwin's experiments appear also in an article contributed to the Annales des ponts et chaussees, T. vi., 2 Semestre, Paris, 1883. pp. 494-510.

The contents of

[1610.]

Resume
'2

cT articles jjublies
terres.

par

la Societe des ingenieurs civile

de Londres sur la poussee des

Annales des ponts et chaussees, Mtmmr, T. vi., e S<>me*tr*>, 18S3, pp. 477-532. Paris, 188:5. This It considers matter to which we have already repaper is by Flamant. ferred, i.e. the memoir of Darwin with the notes of Boussinesq, Gaudard

and others.
Boussinesq gives, pp. 510-24, an Addition relative aux experiences de M. 0o6tn. This has reference to a long paper by Gobin on pp. 98-231 The theoretical basis of Gobin's of the same volume of the Annales. His hypotheses are briefly investigations seems to be very doubtful. The experimental part of Gobin's lined by Boussinesq on p. 511.

memoir occupies pp. 184-212, and Boussinesq in his paper compares Gobin's results with his own theory
:

resume", les experiences de M. Gobin s'accordent parfaitement avec de M. G. Darwin, pour confirmer la the\>rie de I'dquilibre-limite des terres exposee au ix. de mon Etnai public' en 1876 (p. 524).
celles

En

See our Art. 1609.

Formules simples et tres approchees de la poussee des terres, [1611.] les besoins de la pratique. Comptes rendus, T. xcix., pp. 1151-3. pour In this paper Flamant, after pointing out that Boussinesq Paris, 1884.
ibli la parfaite concordance avec les faits d'expdriences, constates surtout en Angleterre par M. Darwin et en France par M. Gobin, de sa thoorie de Pequilibre des massifs pulvrrulents ou sans cohesion (p. 1151),

remarks that he had formed the idea of preparing tables of the thrust for the cases most commonly occurring in practice, where the mass adheres to the wall (i.e. <f>i = <f>). In the course of his calculations, however, he discovered that for a horizontal talus and vertical wall,
vertical

component

..f

th.

thrust, or with

the

notation

of <>m

Art

1599,

is

most a constant for values of

<f>

from 20 to 33, and then

\.

IT.

II.

346
and that
for values of
<

BOUSSINESQ.
from 33 to 45,
it

[1612
diminishes so slowly as to

be equal to

U
internal slope of horizontal, there

when

<

= 45'.

For the more general case of a wall of height h (= L cos i) with an i to the vertical and of a talus sloping at to to the still exists a direction in which the component of the
is

thrust

sensibly equal to

but this direction varies with

<j>

and makes very approximately an angle

with the back of the wall for all values of (measured in degrees) Within i. between 20 and 45, of i less than 20 and of u> less than these limits this component does not differ from the above constant value
<

<

by 1/10 of its value. For i> 15, Flamant says that a X will be found from

closer approximation to the angle

Since the resultant thrust acts at a third of the depth of the wall from its base and makes as a rule the angle of friction fa - <, with the normal to the wall it is possible by the simplest graphical construction to obtain from the above known component the resultant thrust.

In the Comptes rendus, T. xcvm. [1612.] be found the following memoirs by Boussinesq
:

(Paris, 1884), will

Sur la poussde d'une masse de sable, a surface supe(a) rieure horizontale, contre une paroi verticale on inclinfe, pp. 667-70.

1613]

BOUSSINESQ.

347

Sur la pousse'e d'une masse de sable, d surface supe(b) rieure horizontale, contre une paroi verticale darts le voisinage de laquelle son angle de frottement inte'rieur est suppose" croitre Ugerement tfaprls une certain* loi, pp. 720-3.
(c)

rupture,

Calcul approche de la pousse'e et de la surface de dans un terre-plein horizontal homogene, contenu par un

vertical, pp.

790-3.

These papers put in an easy form the approximate integration of the differential equations for a pulverulent mass supported by a vertical wall and having a horizontal talus. They give Boussi-

The method of integration had been suggested by Saint-Venant in a report on Levy's memoir (see our Art. 242) and had been first carried out by Boussinesq
nesq's theory in its final form.

a more general case in a rather complicated manner in his Essai: see our Art. 1599. We have already referred to the results of the integration as given in the memoirs discussed in our Arts.
for

1606-11.

We

propose here to consider Boussinesq's method of integra-

tion at slightly greater length for this special case.

Let the rear-side of the wall make an angle with the the origin be takeii at the intersection of this face with the talus, Oy teing the horizontal line perpendicular to the trace of the
[1613.1
;
\
)

tical

let

talus
..f

on this face, friction, :uul let

and Ox being

vertical.

Let

<f>

be the interior angle

4-

sin

*) = tan* (45'

348

BOUSSINESQ.

[1614

Now if the wall be about to collapse and the pulverulent mass accordingly in its limiting condition of equilibrium (I'etat ebouleux)
we have
:

Hence the equations to be solved at every point: see our Art. 1596. become, if p be the density of the mass
:

dxx .r
~

dx

^
Now
at

CM.'// n + + -TL +ffP = Q ~^cfa dy - a*w) (w - a2^) = (1

>

dxy

= ^ H dy 2 2 + a ) ^]
\

dyy L

-T

/'\
(i).

= xy = 0, and therefore by the third the free surface = 0At the wall, where we may suppose a thin coating (i) of the pulverulent mass to adhere, we must have the ratio of the tangential component of the reaction to the normal component equal to If no coating of the mass adheres to the wall this ratio must tan <f>. equal tan <j, the angle of friction between the wall and the mass. Now the following is a solution of (i)
equation of
:

(ii).

the surface-condition at the talus, but not that at the wall For example if i = 0, we must except for special values of fa or i. have a = 0, or the wall perfectly smooth. Herein lies the inconsistency of Rankine and Levy's solution for the stability of pulverulent masses see our Arts. 1596-8. Now Boussinesq introduces into the values of the stresses as given by (ii), additional small terms with a view of making them exact.

This

satisfies

<

Thus

let

= -gp(x +

t),

^ = gps, w = -gp(a?x + r)
,

.........

(iii),

where t, s and r are functions of x and y to be determined. The first two equations of (i) shew us that r, s, t are the three differentials of a 2 The last single function w with regard to dx dxdy, dy* respectively.
equation of
(i)

leads to

r-a?t=
(1

(1+a

2 2
)

j-a*)x + t-a?r

..................... (iv).

Boussinesq now (p. 669) enters upon an investigation with [1614.] a view to shewing that the right-hand side of (iv) may be put zero. Itseems to me that this follows at once if we neglect the squares of r, t and r small as s, and t, and consider compared with x. The only difficulty which arises occurs when x is itself small, and I do not clearly follow Boussinesq's reasoning as to this point. Assuming it to be correct we have
:

r-a?t = 0.

1015]

BOUsMM-v

349

Hence

"-' </"+/."),

= -</"-/,"),

= </"+/.") ......... (v),

is <a, or i <45- J<, there will be a wedge comprised between the rear-side of the wall and the line y = ax where, although f" is still zero,y will exist because its variable y ax is negative. The more usual case is that in which i is < 45 - J<. In this case r, 8 and t will be zero all over the plane y = ax, and we can take as the solution for all points in the wedge 10 A (see figure Art. 1613) between the planes i and tan' 1 a

where and y, are arbitrary functions of y ax and y + ax respectively. Now r = * = t = when x - and y > 0, hence /" and //' = for all itive values of their variables y+ax. This includes all possible values of these variables in the pulverulent mass, if tan t is >a. If on the other

>

hand tan t

r-^f",

= -/',

t=f"

.................... (vi),

provided these do not give values of r, 8, t comparable with that of x. They hold with decreasing exactness as we pass from the plane y ax where r = s = t = towards the face of the wall (p. 670).

remarks (pp. 720-1) that of the two 'surfaces bottom / of the wall one must lie in the solid 1 angle between the planes i and tan' a (for i < 45 -\<j>)', for otherwise, if they both passed out of this angle, they would in the upper portion, where r = 8 = t = 0, become as in Rankine's theory directions = ax, but these meet without entering the parallel to the planes y above solid angle wherein / lies. Accordingly Boussinesq considers it natural to suppose that one of the rupture-surfaces takes the line of the wall. The pulverulent mass will then be on the point of slipping at the wall, and if the angle of friction between wall and mass be taken -<f>i, we shall have a condition to determine the arbitrary function
Boussinesq [1615.] of rupture' through the

f"

All the equations will then be fully satisfied except (iv), (y ax). which we have supposed to reduce to r a*t = Q. In its unreduced form (iv) is not satisfied by a homogeneous mass in the region 10 A, Boussinesq now points out that this is the (see the figure, Art. 1613). be given a only equation which involves <, and he suggests that variable value <' in this region. This value <j>' will be supposed to differ more and more as we pass from the plane OA and approach the from wall, being taken to satisfy (iv), or what is the same thing the equation (f) of Art. 1613, which may then be written
<
:

The values of the

niat-ri:il

stresses given by (iii) and (vi) will then be exact for homogeneous in y(Xd and heterogeneous m th< manner indicated by (vn, in Anl. Let ft be the acute angle, reckoned positive on the side of y posit M whi.-h tin- |.l in- subjected to the least pressure makes with the vertical measured upwards, then by our Art. 1578
:

Un

2ft

2/(

350
It follows

BOUSSINESQ.
from
(vii)

[1616
of

by using

(vi)

and the value

a 2 that

sin <' cos 2/3

<' is thus

= sin

fa

always greater than <f>. Boussinesq then shews (p. 721) that the surface of rupture which starts from the base of the wall will have its several elements inclined to the vertical at an angle a given by

He further demonstrates that the surface of rupture through the bottom of the wall when it ceases at the plane y = ax to be plane (i.e. parallel to y + ax = 0) becomes concave to the upward vertical through the bottom of the wall.
i

= 0. In

[1616.]

this case

The remainder of the memoir confines itself to the case of when y = 0, we must have, fa being angle of friction
:

between wall and pulverulent mass

tan fa

w/yy = -/"/{<* (*+/")}, by (iii) and

,

(vi).

Whence we

find

or,

a + cot

fa
easily

The normal pressure on the wall

is

now

determined to be

(vm)>

where

'

*0,

Supposing yjx = tan

stresses in (vii)

we

find
:

by substituting the values of the

when tan

6 < a

9)

............

(x).

Thus <' increases as diminishes, or takes the wall, or remembering the value of a:
sin2

its

greatest value

<

at

$ = sin2
=

<

+ (!=

sin <) 2 tan 2 fa,\

whence,

tan fa

<fc

- sin

Boussinesq shews that for a given value of x the least value of the

normal pressure in
of sin<

(viii),

or of

lying between sin

+ a tan <i and sin 2 4> (pp. 722-3).

1

<

is

to be found for a value

il

1618]

BOUSMMX..
memoir by deducing
certain

He

finishes the second section of the

results for the curved part of the surface of rupture that it is a circular arc.

on the assumption

In the third section (p. 790) Boussinesq points out how [1617.] the conditions of the equilibrium limit are affected by the presence of a second bounding wall parallel to the axis of z. In this case the function y," (y + ax) must be retained, and the results for the special case of two vertical and parallel walls are given without analysis.
[1618.]

how the above formulae,

In the fourth section of the memoir, Boussinesq shews obtained for the case of a mass for which

the interior angle of friction <' increases slightly towards the wall from the value (f> to 4>, may be applied in practice to obtain to

a sufficient degree of approximation the thrust of a homogeneous mass with a constant angle of friction. In the first place Boussinesq points out that the normal component of the thrust on the wall, upon which the overturning effect really depends, will be decreased if the angle of internal friction is increased and vice versa.
II suffit done d'imaginer deux massifs he"te"rogenes constitues conforme"ment a la formule (x), dans Tun desquels 0' et <, soient egaux ou un peu superieurs a Tangle de frotteuient du massif homogene nine, tandis qu'ils lui seront un peu inferieurs dims 1'autre, pour quo le moment de la pousse"e soit moindre, dans le premier, et plus grand, dans le second, qu'il n'est dans le massif propose (p. 791).
I-

We
(ix),

and the mean of them

thus obtain inferior and superior limits &, and &s of k in if the limits be taken sufficiently near

will constitute

a close practical solution of the problem.

.

of k as possible, then, sin. .ve want as high an inferior limit x k increases when < or <, decreases, the first of the heterogeneous and <, as small as possible, masses should be obtained by making consistent with their being equal to or greater than the real value of the angle of internal friction of the real mass, or by making them both then find (see equation (Ixi) of our Art. 1599) : equal to <.
<

We

_ tan (45

-j<fr) sin cos (;!

(45-^) cos
)
t

<f>

$-45

On

the other hand for the superior limit k^

<

we must make

the

interior angle of friction </>' of the second heterogeneous mass less than don- l>y putting the maximum value of <', the true <f> and this will i.e. *, equal to the true <. anl therefore $' will be less than this real

352
value

BOUSSINESQ.

[16191620

at other points. Accordingly we make the value of A-, as given from (xi), the least possible for variations with tan substituted by (ix) in <f>. Afterwards the maximum <& must be replaced by the angle of Thus to obtain k we seek the minimum value of k interior friction <f>.

as given

by

1 + sin d> 1 ~ __ __ ______ k~>~ 1 sin <

sin +___

tj> *

\/sin
__

- sin
-=

<j>

_
a

sin2

d>
_7
i

- sin ^

vin\

Boussiuesq

(p.

792) finds that

in (xiii) is a

maximum

for

^2 tan $ v

v9+tan 8 (45-J</>)
The
solution of (xiv) for
<f>,

Boussinesq says,
2 v V2 tan
.

tan

(<f>

x/9

____ + tan2 (45-J<i>)

is
<I>
.

(xivV

very nearly
............ (xv).

After some reductions

we have from (xiii) and (xiv) 2 = kz % tan (45 - <) {3 + tan2 (45 - J</>)}

......... (xvi),

is to be given its value as obtained from where (xiv), or approximately from (xv), <t> being put equal to the angle of friction of the homogeneous The true normal thiiist will then be mass.
<f>

J (&!

-f

&2 ) gpx ............................ (xvii).

The calculation of the superior limit of k is thus clearly a complicated matter, and the real accuracy of Boussinesq's theory will depend and & 2 upon the closeness to each other of

Boussinesq concludes by stating that the numbers obtained from these results are in agreement with the experiments of Darwin and Gobin see our Arts. 1609-10.
:

850-2 of the Gomptes rendus, T. xcvm. be found a notice by Saint-Venant of BousAfter shewing how sinesq's theory of the thrust of loose earth. Boussinesq's investigation improves on those of Rankine and Levy, and pointing out how much closer it agrees with experiment, Saint-Venant concludes
[1619.]
pp.
(Paris, 1884), will
:

On

constructions,

Les nouvelles recherches de M. Boussinesq rendent & Fart des ou les Economies possibles et sans danger ont tant d'importance, un service reel, et on peut les regarder comme fournissant

aux ingenieurs des moyens de

a ce qui
e"tait

desire dans la question enoncee

calcul qui repondront, pour bien longtemps, (p. 852).

Sur le principe du prisme de plus grande poussee, pose [] 620.] par Coulomb dans la thdorie de V dquilibre-limite des terres. Comp-

1621
tes

1622]
x<
\

BOU.SMN i->v
1

In this memoir Paris, 1884. pp. 901-4. of the his from deduces equilibrium of limiting theory Boussinesq
rend'i,'\\
in.,

pulverulent matter
...la

proprie"te suivante

de maximum, qui est

comme

I'expression

du principe du prisme de plus grande poussee, e"mis ct si ingenieusement utilise par Coulomb en 1773 (Savants etrangers, T. VH., Essai sur une Application des regies de Maximis et Minimis a quelques Problemes de statique, pp. 343-82 see p. 359) la poussee exercee eifecdeveloppe"e
: :

tivement sin la paroi mobile continuerait a s'y exercer si le massif pulverulent se terminait a la surface de rupture la plus eloignee de la
paroi, toute la masse sous-jacente devenant solide, et elle est la plus forte des poussees qui ont lieu, a I'Stat d'equilibre-limite, quand le

du has de

massif se trouve limite ainsi par une surface rugueuse quelconque allant la paroi mobile a la surface libre (p. 901).

Unfortunately we do not
try all possible surfaces

know the surface of rupture, and to would be a more complicated process than

integrating approximately the differential equations for the equilibrium limit as Boussinesq has done. Coulomb assumed that the
surface was a plane, which is a priori arbitrary as well as inexact. The thrust determined by this assumption can therefore only be

considered roughly approximate in default of any better method.

[1621.]
Paris, 1884.

Complement a de precedentes Notes sur

cliaussees.

la poussee des terres.

Annales des ponts el

Memoires, T. VH., I" Semestre, pp. 443-81.

Boussinesq begins by citing the results of his Essai (see our Art. 1599) and then applies them to the case of a horizontal talus. Let k be the coefficient which occurs in the expression for the normal pressure on the wall (see equation (Ixi) of our Art. 1599), then Boussinesq points out that the method of the Essai and of the memoir of 1881 (see our Art. 1607) does not give a sufficiently close superior limit to the value of k.

Let the superior limits to & as given by the values of <f> -2.] from (iii) of our Art 1607 MiKstituted in (xii) of our Art 1618, and from (xiv) of our Art. 1618 substituted in (xvi) of the same article be &,' and k t respectively, and let the inferior limit as given by (xii) of our Art. 1618 with $ its true value be /-,. ssinesq states (p. 451) that he has found by taking a sufficient number of values of* from 20 to 50 that very approximate -lv
:

*.-*l-T T<*.'-*.)
1

There appears

ame volume

to be an almost verbal reprint of this of the Compttt rtndui.

memoir on

pp. 975-78 of

354

BOUSSINESQ.

[1U23

1624

Hence
(see

the mean, ^(k +Aj), adopted by Boussinesq as the value of k our Art. 1618)
l :

Or, to obtain the value of the coefficient k, we need not for practical purposes calculate the difficult &2 ^m* can deduce the approximate solution from the easily found A:, and k2 Obviously this new approximation consists in subtracting y^ (&</ k^ from the old approximation (&, + kj) obtained by the method of Art. 1607.
'.

On pp. 453-5 of the memoir, Boussinesq applies (xix) to M. [1623.] Gobin's experiments (see our Art. 1610), and on pp. 455-7 to G. H. Darwin's experiments (see our Art. 1609). In both cases theory now
approaches closer to experiment, but it may be questioned whether the agreement is still a sufficient one. Boussinesq next turns to some experiments of Aude recorded in the Memorial du genie, No. 15, p. 269, 1848, and also cited in Note v of a memoir by M. Saint-Guilhem, Annales des ponts et chaussees. Memoires, T. xv. pp. 340-5. The discussion occupies pp. 457-69, Paris, 1858. but the results are not in my opinion more decisive with regard to On pp. 469-73 Boussinesq's theory than those of Darwin and Gobin. we have a discussion of the angle given by theory for the inclination of the surface of rupture to the vertical and comparison with the experimental value determined in certain cases by Gobin (see our Art
1615).

The remainder of the memoir (pp. 473-81) is occupied with a discussion of Coulomb's prism of greatest thrust, after the manner of the Comptes rendus article see our Art. 1620.
:

Sur V integration, par approximations successives d'une [1624.] equation aux derivees partielles du second ordre, dont dependent les Memoires pressions interieures d'un massif de sable a I'etat ebouleux. de la Societe des Sciences de Lille, T. xin., pp. 705-12. Lille, 1885. This memoir is also included in the Application des potentials ..... see our Art. 1561. have seen how Boussinesq makes the pressure on a vertical, or moderately inclined wall, of a mass of earth with horizontal talus depend on the solution of the differential equation (see our Art. 1613)
:

We

have noted how by neglecting the right-hand side of (i) (if are small as compared with x), he obtains as a first approximation a solution of the form
s,

We
t

r,

=f(y-ax)+f

(y + ax).

1625]

i;ursMN

355

hand

If the forms of /and/! are known then by substituting on the rightside of (i) we obtain for a second approximation the equation

r-a*e=F(x,y)
where
a

.......................... (ii),

=y+

/' (x, y] i a known function of x and y. This equation Boussinesq now proceeds

to

solve.

He

writes

ax,

ft

ax,

and obtains

first

~
dadft
and then

J_ g/a-ff
4a*

o + 0\
2
'

'2a

)
dft ....... (Hi).

v =/(/?) -

da

where / must be determined by the condition for the slipping of the mass against the wall. Boussinesq then proceeds to calculate F on the basis of his first see our approximation in the case of a vertical supporting wall Art. 1616. He obtains a somewhat complicated value of w to a second approximation for this case on p. 709. From this he determines He finds for the value of the r, s, t and the stresses at the wall. constant k (see our Art. 1616) determining the thrust on the wall:
:

*
1-f-atan^,
In
<

_
1

the

case

of

= <, = 34, we

find for

ordinary sand resting against a rough wall, k by the first approximation

:

when

=2081,
while by the second approximation

k=

'2181.

Like the first approximation the second may be looked upon as an exact answer to a problem in which the angle of internal friction varies from its value at y = ax and increases up to <, at the wall see our Art. 1615. The law of variation would, however, be difficult
<
:

Boussinesq contents himself with a tentative investigation, from \\ )ii( li he concludes that a very close value of k is -2308 for the above special case. His practical method of the arithmetical mean between a too great and a too small value (see our Art. 1618) had Hence he considers that his practical method of the given *2309. mean gives close results. It will be observed that it gives closer results than the second approximation, the rate of approximation being apparently not sufficiently rapid.
to express.

[1625.]
res.
}>]>

Tables numeriques pour le calcul de la poussee des terAnnales des pants et chaussees. Memoires, T. ix., 1" Semestre, 515-40. This is a statement by Flamant Paris, 1885.

356

BOUSSINESQ.

[1626

of the final form of Boussinesq's theory with numerical tables for the value of the thrust calculated for various angles of the talus, of internal friction

and of the rear-side of the supporting

wall.

From

these tables Flamant deduces the results

we have

referred

to in our Art. 1611.

The
all

tables ought to be useful as giving

with sufficient accuracy

theory.

that

is

obtainable from Boussinesq's

[1626.] Summary. Among the many pupils of Saint-Venant few have dealt with such a wide range of elastic problems as Boussinesq, or contributed more useful work to elastic theory. Belonging in a more marked manner than Saint-Venant, Phillips or Maurice LeVy to the mathematical as distinguished from the

technical group of elasticians, he has illustrated our subject by ingenious analysis rather than by special solutions of mechanical and physical problems. If in several cases his researches have been

anticipated by those of other investigators, he has yet managed to throw new light on old problems, and where he has not succeeded

he has greatly added to our appreciation of yet unsurmounted difficulties. Thus his investigations on plates and rods were preceded by those of Kirchhoff and Clebsch, yet
in giving final solutions,

Boussinesq's methods, if scarcely final, are at least clearer and more concise than KirchhofTs. If Thomson and Tait reconciled Poisson's and Kirchhoifs contour conditions some years before Boussinesq, yet the latter, especially in his work on potentials, has thrown the whole matter into a more concise and simple form. If Cerruti in the application of potentials in some respects
anticipated Boussinesq's results, yet the latter's great treatise will remain for many years to come a classic of our subject, every page

almost of which

Much

the same

loss of individuality aside his contributions to the Putting theory of potentials, perhaps the most original part of his work lies on the border-land of elasticity proper, namely, in his con-

the theory Hertz, but he was able to follow

fascinating to the mathematical physicist. may be said of Boussinesq's contributions to of impact; he followed Stokes, Saint-Venant and
is

them without

in either

method

or results.

tributions to the elastic theory of light and to the theory of These theories must of course be judged by the pulverulence. physicist and the engineer yet if they be not final they are still
;

1626]

BOUSSINESQ.

357

the best which have hitherto been propounded from the elastic standpoint; indeed, they are perhaps the limit to what elastic

theory can provide in these directions. Like the majority of the leading French mathematicians, Boussinesq is as a rule lucid
in his analysis, if occasionally

wanting

in physical touch.

CHAPTER
SIR

XIV.
1

WILLIAM THOMSON (LORD KELVIN THOMSON AND TAIT.

ONE
of the

),

[1627.]

has laboured with

elasticity,

many fields in which Sir William Thomson much profit to physical science is that of

and the concluding chapter of this volume may not be devoted to a resume of his contributions to our subject. unfitly His first papers on elasticity will be found in the Cambridge
:

and Dublin Mathematical Journal, Vol. II., pp. 61-4, and Vol. in., pp. 87-9. Cambridge, 1847 and 1848. They are entitled On a Mechanical Representation of Electric, Magnetic and (a)
Galvanic Forces (M. P., Vol. i., pp. 76-80) Note on the Integration of the Equations of Equilibrium of (b) an Elastic Solid (M. P., Vol. L, pp. 97-99).
.

medium

Consider the body-shift-equations of an isotropic elastic [1628.] These are of the type 3 subjected to no body force.
:

(X +M

)J+^VW=0 ..........................
d
ix

(i).

Then

if C,

I,

m, n be arbitrary constants, the following are solutions

-r J

^+P

+ my + n
<">'

_ ~ '
where

-l-

/x
/

fix

my + nz\
;

r l2(\+2 *)M r = (xz + y* + a 8 )*.

" n]
r}
}

1 The manuscript of this chapter was completed before Sir William Thomson became Lord Kelvin. 2 The letters M. P. stand throughout this chapter for the Mathematical and Physical Papers by Sir William Thomson, Vols. i.-m. Cambridge, 1882-1890. 3 Sir William Thomson speaks of Sir G. G. Stokes' memoir of 1845 as being " the only work in which the " true formulae (i.e. bi-constaut formulae for isotropy), had in 1847 been given. This is hardly exact see our Arts. 614* and 1267*.
:

1629

1631]

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON.

359

It will be

found that
.

Ix+my+nz

This is clearly a special case of results, which Boussinesq much later dealt with under the title of potential solutions '. Sir William Thomson remarks that the most general solution can be expressed in terms of
*

He adds (6), p. 89, (M. P. Vol. I., particular solutions of the type (ii). can be easily shewn to be the shifts produced at the j>. <J9) that u, v, point x, y, z of an infinite isotropic elastic medium due to a force applied at the origin of coordinates in the direction I, m,n: see our Art. 1519 (6).

In the preceding article we have given the results of the [1629.] second paper, those of the first hold only for an incompressible isotropic = and results (ii) become solid. Putting X//x = oo in (iii) we find
of the type:

d Ix+my + nz _~(\ '

(2

1}

dx

r)

In this case the twists are of the

form

These Sir William compares with the expressions for the components which an infinitely small element of a galvanic current at the origin, in the direction of I, m, n, produces on a unit magnetic
of the force

pole at the point x, y,

z.

((a) p. 64,

M.

P., Vol.

i.,

p. 80.)

In the first paper the author further shews that the follow[1630.] ing systems of shifts are also solutions in the case of an incompressible
solid
:

(I).

and

(II).
first set
,

~mz-ny u=C
-y

v=

The

exerted at

of shifts are compared with the components of the force y, z by a charge of electricity at the origin; and the

twists corresponding to the second set of shifts are compared to the laments of the magnetic force of a small magnet placed at the origin its axis in the direction \sitli /,//*, 71 upon an ideal magnet pole at ar, y, z: see our Art. 1813.

hi.31.]

On

the

Thermo-elastic, Thermo-magnetic

and Pyro-

electric

Properties of Matter. This paper appeared uu.ln- tin- title: the Thermo-elastic and Thermo-niagnetic Properties of Matter,
t'

Quarterly J<

Mathematics, Vol.

I.,

pp.

57-77, Cambridge,

360

SIR

WILLIAM THOMSON.

[1632

1857. It was reprinted with additions in the Philosophical Magazine, Vol. 5, pp. 4-27, London, 1878, and appears as Part vn. of the

On the Dynamical Theory of Heat, M. P., Vol. I., pp. 291-316. are solely concerned with pp. 291-313 of this latter paper, and our reference will be first to the pages of the Philosophical Magazine and secondly to those of Vol. I. of the Papers.
article
:

We

This

is

one of the most important of Sir William Thomson's

Its object, so far as we are concontributions to our subject. from the Second Law of Thermo-dynamics is to obtain cerned,

the most general possible theory of elasticity for unmagnetised and

unelectrified bodies.

The author

defines the

"

intrinsic energy of a

body

in a given

state" to be, "the mechanical value of the whole agency" that would be required to bring the body from a standard state to the

given state. This agency may be spent in overcoming the resistances of the body or in exciting thermal motions. The intrinsic
energy, e, can depend only on the standard and given states, are to deny the possibility of perpetual motion.
if

we

Sir William Thomson now assumes that six independ[1632.] " the mechanical condition of a ent variables can fully express 1 solid mass, homogeneously strained in any way" homogeneous The words homogeneous strain are not in this paper further
.

Let these six variables be denoted by let t be the temperature in the and a, a, a", a, &', a", " or state standard a ", <r <TO <T O the being denoted by given state, and t Then we have
defined
:

see our Art. 1672.

the letters

',

',

and
where
</>

= =

<j>

(a, a', a",

<r,

</, <r", t)
o,

(i),

<f>

(a

',

<>",

<r

',

<T O ", $ ),

denotes a certain function depending on the nature of the

substance.

Now
,

',

suppose the body strained so as to pass from the state a", <r o- ', 0V to the state a, a', a", <r, v cr" without change
,

',

be the quantity of heat that must be of the temperature t, and let supplied to it during this process to prevent its temperature being
and
Here there is a footnote referring to Kankine's introduction of the word strain, This is of calling the corresponding forces straining tensions or pressures. historical interest as shewing that the word stress had not yet (1855) come into
1

general use (pp.

6,

293).

1632]
lowered.

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON.

361
its first

Now let

the body be brought back to

mechanical

condition through the same or any other of the infinitely numerous possible sequences of states, the temperature being still always kept
at
t,

and

let

H' be the heat

:

supplied.

Then, by the Second

Law

of

Thermodynamics

f + ?' =
t

0,

or

#=-#'.

amount of heat absorbed by the from one to state the other must be independent body of the sequence of states through which the body passes, and depend only on the initial and final states, provided the temperature remain constant throughout. Accordingly we have
It follows therefore that the in passing
:

H=+(a,
where

a',

a",

<r y </, er",

t)-+(aQ

a/,

", <7

<TO', <T O", t)...(ii),

ty denotes a function of the variables.

Hence, if e denote the whole augmentation of mechanical energy which the body experiences, i.e. the change in its intrinsic energy from one state to the second, or

=
where

(a, a', a", a,

<r',

a",
e

<

(,

',

o", <r<

<*>

*t

',

t)...(m),
(iv),

we have:

= w + JH

w denotes the work done by applied forces in compelling the body to pass from one condition to the other, and / is "Joule's
".

equivalent

from this that the work, w, required to strain the from one to another of two given states, keeping it always at body
It is clear

the same temperature, is independent of the particular succession of mechanical states through which the body passes it depends only on the initial and final conditions. This theorem Sir William
;

Thomson

attributes to Green

see our Art. 918*.

He

adds:

It is now demonstrated as a particular consequence of the Second General Thermodynamic Law. It might at first sight be regarded as imply a consequence of the general principle of mechanical effect; but this would be a mistake, fallen int.. from forgetting that heat is in general evolved or absorbed when a solid is strained in any way; and the only akmirdity to which a denial th. proposition could l<-u<l would be the possibility of a self-acting machine going on continually drawing without a body surrounded by others at a In the assistance of any at a lower temperature, and performing an equiva-t 11

l.nt of

Mechanical work
II.

(p.

7,

.!/.

/'.

V..!.

p.

295).

T.K.IT.

24

362
[1633.]

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON.

[1633

results available from the Thermodynamics, which is expressible in the form 2 (fft/t) - 0> Sir William Thomson now supposes the body to pass through the following reversible cycle from and back to its primitive condition as to strain and temperature

To obtain the most complete

of

Second

Law

(i)

Without altering the

t'.

temperature from t to of heat represented by

If

t'

strain (a a ', a ", <r , o- ', o- ") raise the t be small, this requires the quantity
,

where
/

e
It

denotes the
J

value of

(see

Equation

(i))

for a

',

",

OJ

"0

"o

4 *"

(ii)
<rfl , <T ', oO

the temperature Keeping "

to
a, a', a", cr,
cr',

<r".

at t', pass from the strain a a ', a ", This requires the heat (see Equation
,

(iii)

Without

altering the strain, lower the temperature to

t.

This

requires the heat

(iv)

ture.

Return to the primitive strain without altering the temperaThis involves the heat

-H.
Hence we
find

where

= e-e

see Equation

(iii).

Hence

it

follows that

From Equations

(iv)

and

(v)

we

easily find
t

dw

=e +

dw

w-t-^

.......................... (vn).

...

These are the fundamental thermo-elastic equations: see

Vol.
1

p.

9 (M. P.,

i.,

p. 297).

Sir

See J. H. Parker: Elementary Thermodynamics, William Thomson, Math. Papers, Vol. i. p. 236.

p. 139,

Cambridge, 1891, or

10341635]
[1634.]

SIR WILLIAM TIK>MS<.\.

363

be the specific heat at constant strain for any be the specific heat for any temperature t when the body is allowed or compelled to alter its strain with the temperature in any fixed manner. Then we find

temperature

Let and t,

let

de

df

(viii),

'<C,

<(l

where

is to

The

last

be taken successively equal to each component of strain. equation by aid of (iv) may be written
:

De -~-*
Dejdt denoting the total differential of

^,
e.

P., Vol. I., pp. 300-304) Sir William be small and he practically takes as his six strain components the three stretches and slides from the standard state, i.e. we may put

[1635.]

On

pp.

12-15 (M.

Thomson supposes the

strain to

aA

-o

- <TA = OY

He then assumes that w may be expanded by Maclaurin's Theorem, whence retaining only the expressions up to the squares and products
of the strains, he easily finds for the stresses expressions of the types:

~
jue

fdw\
( d*w \
f d*w \
/

toA ^ + \JS3?). *m +
^
fdw
+
d*w \

d*w \
\

dho

...

(xi).

w;
,

d*W

"r'/o

da-do-

These are clearly the usual expressions for the stresses in a multi-constant
solid
initial

wli.-n

stresses be zero, twenty-one constants.

It tli.sr there are initial stresses in the standard state. we have the usual stress-strain relations with

have already |>"int. <l out that such important physical con. hi sions as those which flow from the Im- .n it y of the stress-strain relations seem to demand a basis in physical r\i>< im. nt rather than in a mathei

We

matical theorem: see our Arts. 9-'>* ami

242

364

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON.

[1636

Sir William Thomson then turns (pp. 16-18; M. P., [1636.] Vol. I., pp. 304-7) to the problem of rari- and multi-constancy and He remarks the inter-constant relations.
:

may be true that such relations do hold for natural crystals, it is quite certain that an arrangement of actual pieces of matter may be made, constituting a homogeneous whole when considered on a large scale (being, in fact, as homogeneous as writers adopting the atomic theory in any form consider a natural crystal to be), which shall have an arbitrarily prescribed value for each one of these twenty-one coefficients. No one can legitimately deny for all natural crystals, known and unknown, any property of elasticity, or any other mechanical or physical property, which a solid composed of natural bodies artificially put toTo do so is to assume that the infinitely gether may have in reality. inconceivable structure of the particles of a crystal is essentially restricted by arbitrary conditions imposed by mathematicians for the sake of shortening the equations by which their properties are expressed (p. 16).
it

Whether or not

It is, perhaps, somewhat hard to accuse the rari-constant elasticians of being actuated by a desire to shorten mathematical equations, when certainly one of their objects was to get over the difficulty

by appealing
action
:

of a purely mathematical deduction of the generalised Hooke's Law to a general physical principle of intermolecular
see our Arts. 192

and 300-6. At the same time the appeal model is a valid argument pro tanto. The exact nature of this mechanical model was not described for many years (see our Art. 1771), and I cannot say that
to the existence of a 21-constant

when described it carries conviction to my mind. The further arguments cited against rari-constancy
930*, 1322*, 192
ratio as

are the

stock examples of cork, jelly, india-rubber (see our Arts. 924*, (b) and 610) and the values of the stretch-squeeze

determined by Wertheim, Everett, Clerk-Maxwell and The materials above cited may Sir William Thomson himself. be fairly excluded from the list of elastic bodies to which the rari-constant theory applies; while the group of experiments referred to were in several cases made on bodies the isotropy of

which was more than doubtful. In none of these cases were any investigations made as to whether two constants would really suffice to describe the elastic properties of the material, or whether the actual elastic system
was not represented better by some suitable distribution of elastic homogeneity than by bi-constant isotropy: see our Arts. 925*, 932*, 192, 1201 and 1272.

16371638]

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON.

365

On p. 18 (M. P., Vol. i., p. 307) Sir William Thomson notes [1637.] that some of the rari-coustant relations lead to three principal axes of elasticity. Many natural crystals certainly have complete symmetry of form with regard to three rectangular axes and "therefore probably possess all their physical properties symmetrically with reference to these axes ". But it is further noted that many natural crystals do not exhibit this symmetry of form in reference to rectangular axes, and the instance of Iceland spar is cited with three cleavage planes inclined at equal angles to one another and to the 'optic axis' of the material. Then Sir William ThomHon adds:
must be the case, the elastic properties within the limits of have correspondence with the mechanical properties on which the l>rittlMi<>-s in different directions depends, the last-mentioned class of crystals cannot have three principal axes of elasticity at right angles to one another
If,

as probably

elasticity

(p.

18

M.

P., Vol.

i.,

p. 307).

Now exception must, I think, be taken to both the principles enunciated above. It does not appear that all the physical properties of crystals with three rectangular axes of symmetry of form are symmetrically Further, if arranged about these axes: see our Arts. 6S3-7, 1218-20. the ili.stribution of hardness has relation to a system of rectangular axes differing from those of form, it does not seem a priori certain that we should expect distributions of elasticity and brittleness to be symmetrical about the same system of rectangular axes. In fact without experimental investigation it does not seem legitimate to assert that the stiape of the crystal, as determined by its planes of cleavage, defines in any way the nature of its elastic distribution. In particular it may be observed that the elastic constants of a material are frequently insensibly altered by large sets ; it is very probable, however, that such sets may materially influence the cohesive powers of the material. It does not appear, therefore, improbable that distributions of cohesion and brittli-n->s may follow different laws or systems of axes from the of elasticity see our Arts. 683-7 and 1218-9.
:

[1638.]

From Equation
M:u-hiurin's

(vi) of our Art 1633, by supposing w theorem and the first terms only retained,

we

ha\'
t

(/du>\

/du>\

/'In-

d7*

where the usual relations between the have been assumed.

stresses

and the strain-energy

366

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON.

[1638

From this result Sir William Thomson draws an important series of physical conclusions which are embraced in the following sentences
:

conclude that cold is produced whenever a solid is strained by opposing, and heat when it is strained by yielding to, any elastic force of its own, the strength of which would diminish if the temperature were raised but that, on the contrary, heat is produced when a solid is strained against, and cold when it is strained by yielding to, any elastic force of its own, the strength of which would increase if the temperature were raised (p. 19 N. P.,
;

We

p. 308).

If the strain remaining This may be expressed otherwise thus constant, an increase of temperature is marked by increase of the stress required to maintain the strain, then the body will give off heat when
:

the strain

is

produced.
:

The following are given as examples of these statements The cubical compression of any elastic fluid or solid in any (i) This follows at ordinary condition would cause an evolution of heat.
once from the fact that most elastic bodies require increased pressure to maintain their volume constant when the temperature is raised
1
.

(ii)

twisted wire,

if

further twisted within

will produce cold, and if it be allowed to suddenly heat. This follows from the fact that dp/dt is negative: see our Art.

elastic limits, untwist will evolve

its

754.
Spiral springs, as we have seen in Arts. 1382*-3* and 1284 (c), (iii) act principally by torsion ; hence when suddenly drawn out they will This cool and when suddenly released they will rise in temperature. result was confirmed experimentally by Joule see our Arts. 689-690.
:

suddenly stretched by terminal traction (iv) is cooled, and warmed when the traction is suddenly removed. Sir William Thomson's next case is that of india-rubber, which in the early version of the paper he supposed would be cooled, if suddenly
if
1

bar, rod or wire

The dilatation-modulus
i.,

for

see our Vol.

p. 885.

This

may

an isotropic material be put in the form

is

given by

G = ^ (3X + 2/x)

Hence

1639

1641J
1

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON.

367
i

drawn out
l>ut

The

cooliug effect was only found for low temperatu

-,

at a higher temperature, 15 C., a pull was shown by Joule to produce a heating effect: see our Art. 689. This led Sir William

Thomson to predict that a vulcanised india-rubber band with a weight attached at one end would shorten on being heated. The phenomenon '* may be termed the Gough-effect ".
This is an experiment which anyone can make with the greatest ease by hanging a few pounds weight on a common india-rubber baud, and taking a red-hot coal, in a pair of tongs, or a red-hot poker, and moving it up and down close to the band (p. 20 ; M. P., Vol. I., p. 309).

The remainder of the memoir deals with certain properties [1639.] of elastic crystals. For a regular crystal Sir William Thomson obtains stress strain relations agreeing with those of Neumann given in our Art. 1203(e), except that he writes them in forms of the type
:

Here, if K = 0, the regular crystal becomes an isotropic solid. Hence " K expresses the " crystalline quality in the elasticity of a crystal of the cubic class (p. 22; M. P., Vol. I., p. 311).

We have next and lastly a suggestion that the state of an elastic body, which can l>e expressed by any six independent variables which describe the changes of shape, should be indicated by the " six edges of a tetrahedron enclosing always the same part of the solid ". In the case of a regular crystal Sir William Thomson takes this
[1640.]
strain of
"

tetrahedron with its edges parallel to the diagonals of the faces of the He obtains an expression for the strain-energy in terms of three crystalline constants and the stretches of the six edges of this tetrar He further obtains expr< hedron. quantities corresponding to the stresses, which are in this case the tractions normal to the faces of the dodecahedron with unit facial area, obtained by drawing planes The investigation is perpendicular to the edges of the tetrahedron. uious, but it has not I believe been made the basis of any further
cube.
investigations.

[HJ41.]

Sir William Thomson's

memoir placed the

principles

of thermo-elasticity on a firm foundation, and advanced that branch of our subject much beyond the theories of Duhamel and Neumann: see our Arts. 868*-8%*, 1196-7 and 1200.
It

difficult
1

opened up the path of accurate investigation into the borderland of tin-run. dynamics and elasticity, whi
i

The correct utatement of the therrao- elastic properties of india-rubber had been given by Gough in 1805; but his paper had been forgotten : see our Vol. i..
p. 886, footnote.

368

SIR

WILLIAM THOMSON.

[16421644:

Arts. 716, 717, 725

more than one distinguished physicist had gone astray see our and 745. The memoir may fairly be said

to give the

first really legitimate proof of the existence of a strain-energy function depending only on the strain from a standard state and not on the manner in which the strain is reached.

[1642.]

On
:

Thermo-electricity in Crystalline Metals,

and in

III. of a Metals in a state of Mechanical Strain. This forms memoir entitled Experimental Researches in Thermo-electricity.

Proceedings of the Royal Society, Vol. vn., pp. 56-58. London, 1856. (M. P., Vol. I., pp. 467-8.) Sir William Thomson had been
led to believe, by the analogy of strain as influencing the optical properties of transparent bodies, that the application of stress to a

mass of metal would give

crystal.

it

The present paper announces the

the thermo-electric properties of a results of experiments

on copper and iron wires. Let a portion of a circuit of copper wire be stretched within the elastic limits and let an extremity of this portion be heated, then a current sets from the stretched to the unstretched part through the hot junction. If the wire be alternately stretched and unstretched on the two sides of the heated portion, the current is reversed at each change. In the case of iron wire the current flows from the unstretched to the stretched
portion through the hot junction,
i.e.

the reverse of the case for

copper wire.

On the Effects of Mechanical Strain on the Thermo-electric [1643.] Qualities of Metals. British Association Report, Glasgow Meeting, 1855, Transactions, pp. 17-18. London, 1856. (M. P., Vol. IL, pp. 173-4.) This paper announces further results similar to those stated in the
The experiments were extended to other metals than previous article. Fuller details are copper and iron and to set as well as elastic strain. given in a later memoir: see our Art. 1645.
Electro-dynamic Qualities of Metals, (a) PhiloVol. 146, pp. 649-751. London, 1856. the (b) Proceedings of Royal Society, Vol. vin., pp. 546-50. London, 1857. (c) Philosophical Transactions, Vol. 166, pp. 693[1644.]
the

On

sophical

Transactions,

London, 1876. (d) Proceedings of the Royal Society, Vol. 473-6. London, 1875. (e) Philosophical Transactions, xxiii., pp. Vol. 170, pp. 55-85. London, 1879. Abstracts of these memoirs will further be found in the Proceedings of the Royal Society;
713.

1645]

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON.

pp. 50-5,

369
;

(/) Vol.
Vol.

(g) Vol. xxin., pp. 4-45-6, 1875 The whole series forms an 1878. xxvii., pp. 439-43, (h) Article under the above title divided into seven parts and an
viil.,

1856

Appendix

in

the Mathemat

Physical Papers, Vol.

II.,

pp. 189-407.

The

iv.. vi., vii.

parts of this Article which directly concern us are Parts and portions of the Appendix.
:

III.,

Part III. is entitled Effects of Mechanical Strain and [1645.] of Magnetization on the Thermo-electric Qualities of Metals, (a) pp. 709-36; (/) pp. 52-4 (M. P., Vol. IL, pp. 267-97), and it is the first It gives portion concerned with our present subject.
fuller details of the

experiments referred to in our Arts. 1642 and

Pp. 709-27 (M. P., Vol. n., pp. 267-86) deal with the action of elastic strain and set in the production of thermo-electric effects.

1643.

It is well

known

that

if

a circuit be formed of two different

metals, one junction being maintained at a higher temperature than the second, then a current will flow in the circuit. Let it

be from metal A to metal B through the hot junction. The metal B is then said to be higher in the thermo-electric scale than the metal A. At the bottom of such a scale stands bismuth,
near the top iron and above iron antimony. No thermo-electric effect has been found in an unequally heated circuit of the same 1 metal, if that metal be all in the same condition as to strain
.

The

what thermoelectric effects elastic strain and set have on portions of the same metal forming a circuit. The effects of a uniform dilatation and
object of the present

memoir

is

to ascertain

compression are not ascertained, but Sir William discusses in a

series of ingenious experiments the effects of longitudinal traction and lateral contraction in the case of both elastic and set strains
in

differentiating

metal into classes

(i.e.

the strained and

unstrained) which do not coincide in the thermo-electric scale. Thus Sir William found:

A.
from
its

For

elastic strain.
in i-opji.T
\\ii

That a longitudinal traction caused a deviation

position in the un-ir.unnl ntate towards hismuth, )>ut in iron towards antimony. (Stum \\.-i.s found also to shift the position in the thermo-electric scale of platinum wire.)
1

The

section

of the conductor

must not change suddenly

Vol. L, p. 371 ./In.

Me

Maxwell,

and Uagnttitm.

3rd Ed.

370

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON.

[1646

That a lateral contraction caused a deviation in iron wire (ii) towards antimony. Hence Sir William argues that a lateral traction would cause a deviation towards bismuth, or that it would have an
effect the reverse of that

produced by a longitudinal traction

1
.

The

crystalline characteristic is therefore established for the thermo-electric effect of mechanical stress applied to iron, if it be true that traction pro-

duces the reverse temporary effect to that of pressure in the same direction ((a) p. 715; M. P., Vol. IL, p. 275).
Sir William cites an ingenious experiment to shew that iron under a simple longitudinal stress has "different thermo-electric qualities in different directions" ((a) pp. 715-7; M. P., Vol. n., pp. 275-8.)

B.
(iii)

For set. That set produced by a longitudinal

traction in both copper

and iron wire causes a deviation from the thermo-electric position in the reverse direction to that caused by an elastic strain of the same kind ((a) pp. 712-3; M. P., Vol. n., pp. 270-2). That set produced by a lateral contraction in iron wire causes (iv) a deviation in the reverse direction of the elastic strain of the same kind M. P., Vol. n., pp. 278-9). ((a) pp. 717-18 The combination of these results (iii) and (iv) leads to Magnus' conclusion that drawn wire, i.e. wire subjected to longitudinal stretch set and lateral squeeze set, differs in position from the unstrained wire in
;

the thermo-electric scale. Magnus stated his results for iron in the words " the current is from hard to soft though hot ". This Sir William Thomson shews is not an exact description of all thermo-electric currents produced by set. He constructed a conductor of 24 little iron cylinders
set end to end, alternate cylinders having been compressed to set. By an ingenious system alternate junctions were heated and cooled. A current was then found to pass from unstrained to strained through hot, " soft to hard i.e. from through hot ". Thus it appears that it is not the hardening of the iron, but the direction of the strain which is the determining element. Copper and tin wires were found, like iron, to give the same thermo-electric effects in the cases of set due to longitudinal traction and to lateral contraction. The whole series of phenomena point

to strain producing a crystalline character in

the metal so far as

its

thermo-electric action

is

concerned.

Further experiments were made on the thermo-electric effect [1 646.] in the cases of coils, parts of which were hammered and parts not, of coils parts of which were annealed and parts unannealed; and of coils parts In the first case the current of which had torsional set and parts not. for iron was from hammered to unhammered through hot, but for steel, copper, tin, brass, lead, cadmium, platinum and zinc this direction was
reversed.

In the second case for iron and steel the current was from unannealed to annealed through hot; this direction was reversed for
1

The terms

and perpendicular

'longitudinal' and 'lateral' are here applied to directions along to the current.

1047

1650]

>IK

WILLIAM THOMSON.

371

In the third case the current was from torted to copper and brass. untorted (brittle to soft) in iron, and the reverse for copper. In these \p'riments the wire was first uniformly torted to set and then the in parts of it removed by annealing ((a) pp. 720-2 Af. P., Vol. n.,
;

pp. 283-6).

The next part of the memoir which is of interest for our [1647.] present purposes is entitled Methods for comparing and determin anic Resistances, iUuxtnitl } ><i /'/v////i ////</_// Experiments on t/te ts of Tension... on ttie Electric Cowlurliriti/ of Metals, ((a) pp. 730-6; M. /'., Vol. ii., pp. 298-306). Pp. 733-4 (M. P., Vol. n., pp. 301-6) are all that concern us. Here a single experiment is given to shew that equal longitudinal stretches, whether elastic or set, in iron and copper wires alter their relative electric conductivities. The resistance of the iron had increased relatively to that of the copper ; the author had not then determined the absolute effect on the conductivities of the strain, but had been led by a partial investigation to believe that it diminished in both metals.
:

The remainder
will

of the series of

memoirs

cited in our Art.

1644

be found dealt with in our Arts. 1727-1736.

[1648.]

Elements of a Mathematical Theory of Elasticity. Transactions, Vol. 146, pp. 481-98. London, 1856. This memoir is incorporated in the Encylopaedia Article on Elasticity: see our Art. 1741.
Philnxvpliictil

of Vesicular Ice by Pressure. Vol IX., pp. 209-13. London, 1859. Roytd Society, Proceedings, Note on Professor Farnd^ifs Recent K.r^rimcnt^ on Regelation? Royal Society, Proceedings, Vol. XL, pp. 198-204. London, 1862. These papers deal with the melting of ice under pressure, and
[1649.]
the Stratification
'

On

on the nature of the motion of a plastic solid like ice under stress. The discussion is general and unaccompanied by mathematical analysis, but to enter into it would lead us too far beyond our
present limits.
1

<!50.]

Note on Gravity and Cohesion.

IV.,

Proceedings of the

'/

Society of AW///A///-//A. Vol.

,'iifnr

Lectures

and Addresses,

pp. 604-6. Edinburgh, 1862. Vol. I., pp. 59-63. London.

1889).
is an attempt to shew that gravitation will suffice to cohesive force, provided only th.it the ratio of the space occupied by matter to the space unoccupied by matter in any

Tli is
iin

finite

body

is

sufficiently

great

Sir William

Thomson

refers to

372

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON.

[1651

woven and
adds:

fibrous structures as exemplifying this position

and

.it is clear that the same result would be produced by any sufficiently intense heterogeneousness of structure whatever, provided only some appreciable proportion of the whole mass is so condensed in a continuous space in the interior that it is possible, from any point of this space as centre, to describe a spherical surface which shall contain a very much greater amount of matter than the proportion of the whole matter
. .

of the body which would correspond to I

its

volume

(p.

606).

do not feel convinced by the arguments used, especially if matter be not treated as continuous as it is in the case of fibrous The hypothesis of un tessuto fibroso o or woven structure. reticolare has been dealt with by Belli (see our Art. 756*.) Sir William Thomson does not seem to have been acquainted with
Belli's

memoir, nor does he, I think, meet such arguments as those

of Belli.
[1651.] Shells and

Dynamical Problems regarding Elastic Spheroidal

Spheroids of Incompressible Liquid. Philosophical London, 1864 (M. P., Vol. Transactions, Vol. 153, pp. 583-616.

This paper was read November 27, 1862. It in., pp. 351-94). contains a solution of Lamp's Problem by means of solid spherical harmonics. The introduction of these harmonics seems to be due
Art. 1397.
see our independently to Sir William Thomson and Clebsch In a note added to the memoir in December, 1863, Sir William Thomson refers to Lame's memoir of 1854 (see our
:

Art. 1111*), which he had only discovered after the communication of bis own paper to the Royal Society.

The form in which the analysis has been applied in the present paper very different from that chosen by Lame (who uses throughout polar coordinates); but the principles are essentially the same, being merely
is

peculiar

those of spherical harmonic analysis, applied to problems presenting and novel difficulties (p. 616 ; M. P., Vol. HI., p. 394).

Whether it is easier to deal with the strain of elastic spherical bodies by means of polar or cartesian coordinates will, perhaps, be always a matter of opinion, and depends very much on the method At the in which the student has first approached the problem.

number of interesting of the earth depend, assuming problems concerning the physics harmonics of the second order, and the perfect elasticity, only on
same time the solutions
of a considerable

16521653]
and

Silt

WILLIAM THOMSON.

373

discussion can in these cases be carried out in an especially easy elementary manner by aid of polar-coordinates, which,

indeed,

give

the

results

in

the

form

most

convenient

for

geometrical interpretation.

As we have
our
first

already dealt at length with

(see Arts.

volume

Lams Problem in 1112*-! 148*) and there put on record

the general forms required for special investigations we shall content ourselves here by referring to the principal results of Sir William Thomson's treatment.
[1052.]

Taking the body-shift-equations of the type

(i),

if

we

write,

p=-

(A +

p.) 6,

we change
A.

the type to

(Jx

Here p
i

is

the

mean normal

pressure per unit of surface of a small

Put A. =00 , and $ = 0, jx>rtion of the solid. le solid three equations of the type :

and we have

for

an incora-

/"

dv

and
to find the four

dw
dz
(

dx

dy

unknowns

u, v,

w and p

4-5).

See our Arts. 1215

and UM7.
[1653.]

To remove

the body-forces assume

=+

/ X u _i7-__
1

__

4-

where

jiii<l

th

i-rfore

F,

W,

theoretically be found

'.

Thomson and
1715.

Tail's

Kntnmi

Part

ii.,

Arts.

780-1:

see oar

Art.

374

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON.

[1654
:

1655

On

substitution the l>ody-shift-equations reduce to the type

(iv),

which is the form from which Sir William 2 and ( 38-44).

starts

his investigation
:

When
When

a force-function exists,

(iii)

can be much simplified

see

42

and our Arts. 1658 and 1716.

given for the spherical shell, then the above values of -M O v wn must be subtracted from these given surface-shifts before the problem is stated in its reduced form. When the conditions of the problem are that the surface-stresses are given, then the stresses which result from these shifts at the surface must be deducted from the given surface-stresses before the problem is solved from (iv). 42-3. Special cases of this are dealt with in
,

the conditions of the problem are that the surface-shifts are

,

[1654.]

7-13 give the general solutions

of the equations of the

type

These are
t=ac

1=0

v=

2
i=o

\ I

vi+l +

v'i_i

r"

2*" " 1
1 .-

dy\_(\.+

o/ji)i

where

and
Mi, ^i, w<, w' <t v'j,
t^'i, denoting six solid harmonics of degree i. inclined to think the separation of the solution into two elements one of which depends on the twist terms pure and simple after the manner of Clebsch (see our Arts. 1394-5) would have given to (vi) a more concise form.

am

[1655.]

14-18 determine the values of the

Vj,

harmonics u it

six typical solid

iy

u' h

v' h

?//,.

in

terms of the spherical surface

165C]

MM WILLIAM THOMSON.

375

harmonics which determine the values of the shifts at the inner and outer surfaces of the shell for the particular problem of given surfaceThus for r = a, and r = a, we have shifts.

and the problem

in

is
{ ,

to find the six solid harmonics

it

terms of

{ ,

B C

A' t #,, C' t

,

u it v The problem presents

t ,

it

u' it v

iy

w'{

little difficulty

beyond rather cumbersome algebraical expressions, the length of which For the case of the first one or prevents their being reproduced here. two harmonics, which are really those of chief practical and physical interest, the reader will find it easy to reproduce a simple form of the
investigation for himself.

21-30 deal with the case when the two surfaces of the Here the components given surface stresses. /', (J, R of load parallel to the axes of re, y, z on an element of the surface of the shell are shewn to be given by the type
[1656.]
shell are subjected to
:

where
and

r-T-=x
rfr

d
dx
-r-

+ 3 -r +y-ry dz dy

(vii).

= wa; + vy + wz

The values of u, v, and 6 as given by (vi) have then to be substireduced to proper solid harmonic form. tuted in (vii), and Q, Sir William Thomson shews that the surface stresses are given by the type (Equation (43), 28):'

w R

f.4

Pr-iJi

2
<=-

dx

du

dvt

dw

^(viii).

^.^pfisf
and
j/-_i

"

,/y

t"

}'

X+

series.

William here replaoea the doable aeries of terms in (vi) by a single The terms in u',.,!^*" and ^f^t-i are clearly harmonica of degree - (i + 1). Thus we ma\ f we note that the summation is to be think Mlioiihl, perhapn, have been been more from 1 = 00 to -oo. Thiclearly
1 I

in

389,

where the range of the

sainiii.iii.nis is

not dn, ctly stated.

376

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON.

[1657

1658

As in the case of given shifts, the surface stresses will give us six surface-harmonics of each degree, e.g.

These six individual surface-harmonics must then be equated to the terms in the values of P, Q, R in (viii) which lead to surface-harmonics of the ith degree for the two values respectively of r = a and r = a'. These surface-harmonics will arise partly from positive and partly from negative values of i in the expressions for the stresses. The method by which this may be accomplished is indicated rather than carried out in 2930, and for the general case would require the addition of a large amount of algebraical work which is only suggested. Even Lame, who carried the solution further than Sir William Thomson, still leaves it in the form of linear equations for the undetermined constants see our Arts. 1133* and 1141*.
:

[1657.]

dropped in
a
little

of this readiest

The method in which the terms of (vi) in u\ and i//^ are 27 and reintroduced with a different notation in 29 is not Here as elsewhere in the discussion likely to puzzle the reader. problem, the method of the general solution does not seem the
all

to reach the simpler cases, which are after frequently occurring in physical applications.

those most

interesting general case, when the force-function is a of the (i+l)th degree is worked out by Sir William He takes P = Thomson in 44-7. i+l /dx, P Y= -dW^jdy, and he indicates, without fully determining all the pZ = i+l /dz constants, the solution for the case of a spherical shell subjected to no

[1658.]

harmonic,

The
i+l ,

X -dW

dW

surface-loading ( 456). For the particular case of a solid sphere with no surface-forces, he The shifts are then given by does fully determine all the constants.
'

():

where

IH-")9]

SHI

WILLIAM THOMSON.

377

Aa a corollary we may note the case of chief physical interest for which z-l, we then have
:

where
10/x (19A.+

~
Sir William
force

Thomson

due to the tides raised in the solid earth by a distant body. If m be the mass of the tide raising body, c its distance and p the density
of the earth, he finds
(

calculates W.2 for the case of the disturbing

49-51)

The application of this has been discussed in the other works by our author dealt with in our Arts. 1663-4, and 1720-6.
54 gives the value of the shifts of a solid sphere [1659.] given surface displacements, and indicates the like results for a

for

spherical cavity in an infinite elastic solid. 55-8 deal with the oscillations of shape in a gravitating liquid sphere. simple harmonic normal displacement of the

tth order has for period

where a is the radius of the sphere and g gravity at its surface. For the case of t = 2, or an ellipsoidal deformation, the length of
the isochronous pendulum at the sphere's surface is {. If the liquid globe were homogeneous and 5J times the density of water,

and of the size of the earth, the period would be 1 hr. 34 in. 24 s. We may compare this with the result for a homogeneous elastic sphere given an ellipsoidal deformation of the type
V = A Y9 cos kt. Lamb finds for a globe of the size of the earth and of the density and rigidity of steel a period of 1 hr. 18 m. A difference of less than 2 minutes is made in the result whether

we suppose steel incompressible or of uniconstant isotropy. Thus the earth if it were as rigid as steel would oscillate more rapidly than if it were made of a liquid 5 times as dense as water see
:

Proceedings, London Mathematical

Society, Vol. xill., pp. 211-2.

London, isvj.
i

B.

FT. ft

-.">

378
Sir William

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON.

[1660

Thomson
p.

in his
(

paper on the rigidity of the earth

:

(M. P. Vol. in,

313) says

3)

steel globe of the same dimensions [as the earth], without mutual gravitation of its parts, could scarcely oscillate so rapidly [as 1 hr. 34 m. 24 s.], since the velocity of plane waves of distortion in steel is only ahout 10,140 feet per second, at which rate a space equal to the earth's diameter would not be travelled in less than 1 hr. 8 m. 40 s.

of fact Lamb finds, if r be the time a wave of would take to traverse the earth's diameter, and P the = r/'848 if the material be incompressible period of oscillation P = and r/'840 if it possess uniconstancy. Thus Sir William's minimum estimate based on the liquid sphere is about 16 per cent, in

As a matter

distortion

excess.

The memoir besides dealing with spherical .shells out that the problem of an infinite plane plate of homopoints geneous isotropic material, with given shifts or stresses at its plane faces might be treated as a limiting case of the spherical shell
[1660.]
(

To work out the plate, however, as a 31-4). case of a limiting spherical shell would involve, for the general case some rather formidable analytical difficulties.
19-20 and
Sir William
of solution.

Thomson

in

32-4

briefly sketches a different

method

The following system of shifts will be found to satisfy the body-shiftequations of elasticity
:

where U,

V,

W satisfy

V 2 = 0,
<

while

*
and
fif/dx is to

dU dV dW ~
dx

dy

dz

'

Sir

be so taken that it also satisfies V 2 = 0. William Thomson now remarks that if we take
<

U= (fe~px +/'O sin (sy) sin (te), V= (ge-** + g'e?*) cos (ay) sin (te),
TT=
(her**

h'e px ) sin (*y) cos (te),

1661

1662]

MR WILLIAM THOMSON.

379

subject to the condition p* = 8* + *, we have a solution capable of giving over the faces of a plate (taken as x = and x = a)
7xQ

^A sin (sy) sin (tz),

(te),

w* = B cos (y) sin

7*

C sin (ay) cos (tz\

?, a Tza with .4', ZP, C' for .4, 5, C. terms we have the most general solution
,

and three

Hence by a

like expressions for series of such

according to Fourier's principles. As a matter of fact, if the solution were completed, we should merely reach a somewhat extended form of Lam6 and Clapeyron's rather unwieldy results in quadruple int.-u'mls, of which since their statement in 1828 no practical use has, so far as I am aware, ever been made: see

our Arts. 1020*-!*.

59-71 are occupied by an Appendix entitled: Theory of the Equilibrium of an Elastic Solid. This appendix was reprinted in the Treatise on Natural Philosophy
[1661.]

General

see Part

IL,

pp. 461-8.
,

59 and 60 point out that the quantities ex Cy,**,^*,^, 77^ of our Art. 1619* (in Sir William Thomson's notation (4-1)

(B 1), (C 1), a, b and c) suffice to determine the most general tiin of -Main which can be given to a body in the neighbourhood The temperature being kept constant the strainof a point.
energy

is

a function of
variation

method

of

Sir

ex ey ez r) yz tjzx^xy Hence by the William Thomson deduces equations

,

which are identical with those of C. Neumann, or with those which flow from Kirchhoffs memoir of 1852 see our Arts. 670-1
:

and 1250.
03 the possibility of a solution of these generalised equations of elasticity for any type of elastic body subjected to a given system of surface-shifts is indicated, and it is shewn that und.Tc. tain conditions there can be only one solution of the elastic n uati.ii i- t.r this case. 64 is a brief reference to similar results
In
i

for the case of surface-stress.

65-6, 69-71 contains a short theory of elasticity for small strains, giving the usual results of Green's investigation of tinstrain-energy.

of
in

67 proves in a manner differing slightly from that and Kirchhoff the uniqueness of the solution Clebsch Neumann,
[1002.]

the case of small strain> wh-n thr surface-shift^ arc

^ivm

see

..ur

An-,

198,

_..

L278 and

i:i::i

252

380
68 turns to the
of load

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON.

like

[1663

problem when the surface data are those

shift, or when a force acts on the interior of the In this case the solution is not in general uniquematerial. configurations of unstable equilibrium occurring even with infi-

not

nitely small shifts.

instance, let part of the body be composed of a steel bar magnet a magnet be held outside in the same line, and with a pole of the same name in its end nearest to one end of the inner magnet. The equilibrium will be unstable, and there will be positions of stable equilibrium with the inner bar slightly inclined to the line of the outer bar, unless the rigidity of the rest of the body exceed a certain limit.
;

For
let

and

This conclusion as to the want of uniqueness in the solution appears to be deduced from physical considerations and not from It depends on the system of applied the analysis of the problem.

owing to the shifts of a a from e.g. simple pressure in an unstable a and a force couple in the stable positions of position to, perhaps, a Such dependence of the system of applied force equilibrium. on the shifts is supposed not to exist in a proof like that by which Clebsch demonstrates the uniqueness of the solution of the elastic
force itself

changing

its characteristics

portion of the body,

equations

see our Art. 1331.

ceedings,

On the Rigidity of the Earth. Royal Society Pro[1663.] Vol. xii., pp. 103-4. London, 1863. Philosophical Transactions, Vol. 153, pp. 573-82. London, 1864. Glasgow Philo-

Glasgow, 1864. sophical Society Proceedings, Vol. v. pp. 169-70. British Association Report (Glasgow Meeting, 1876), Transactions
pp. 1-12.

21-32 of the Phil. Trans, memoir were London, 1877. withdrawn by the author and in the reprint of the memoir in the Mathematical and Physical Papers, Vol. III., pp. 312-36, these
sections are replaced by the opening address to Section Thus we British Association Report referred to above.

in the

may

look

upon the final form of this memoir as Art. xcv. of the collected Papers On the Rigidity of the Earth ; Shiftings of tlie Earths Instantaneous Axis of Rotation ; and Irregularities of the Earth as a Time-keeper. Most of the important results of the memoir are embodied in the Treatise on Natural Philosophy and will be found pretty fully
:

discussed in our Arts. 1719-26.

1665]

MI;

WILLIAM THOMSON.

381

After some remarks on Hopkins's view that the earth [1664.] cannot be a liquid mass enclosed in a thin shell of solidified matter a view with which Sir William Thomson agrees the memoir passes at once to the consideration of "the relative values of gravitation and formula is now elasticity in giving rigidity to the earth's figure." cited which may be obtained from that of our Art. 1724 (c) in the Put X = oo in the value of c', or make the elastic following manner. mass incompressible, then we have by Art. 1724, (b)

A
:

gpa
If

sir

William had taken uni-constant isotropy the result would

have been very nearly

1.03 + 9-17-

gpa

Then follow investigations corresponding See the memoir 4-7. 5 15 of the memoir cover in a less
results of the

to those of our Art.

1725.

concise and lucid manner the Natural Philosophy epitomised in our Art. 1724-5. It

will be noticed that in that article we neglect the self-attraction of This neglect is defended in the superficial coating of water. 12 of the memoir, which thus refers to the result for e in our Art. 1725
:

may be regarded as a better expression of the true tidal tendency on the J ocean, than the slightly different result calculated with allowance for flfect of the attraction of the altered watery figure constituting the equilibrium spheroid, and its influence on the figure of the elastic solid > :ii|><MliiM,-iito of land and the influence of the sea bottom render the actual ocean surface altogether different from that of the equilibrium spheroid.
It
;

The neglect of the selfI do not quite follow the argument here. attraction of the ocean may be justifiable considering the hypothetical and rough character of the approximation, but 1 do not clearly follow why it should necessarily give a better result than the treatment which
inriudes the self-attraction
of the solid earth

16-20 contain suggestions for determining the amount of rigidity by means of the fortnightly tide. But to enter into the details here would carry us beyond our limits.

21-33 forming part of the British Auociati.t 1.1 ress, [1665.] with the Effects of Elastic YMKn;/ fVwMflOfl <uid tfiUat, ire here cited against "the geological hypothesis of a thin and the theory of a mainly solid mass, conrigid shell full of li<juil taining small hollows or vesicles filial with liquid, is supported.
.-.<
<

A
\

are cited with regard to the effect of interior liquulit

Mil

WILLIAM THOMSON.

[1666

l<i<57

on the tides and on nutation ( 24-6) the mathematical analysis of which has not yet been published. The general conclusions are thus resumed in 28
:

The hypothesis of a perfectly rigid The state of the case is shortly this crust containing liquid, violates physics by assuming preternaturally rigid matter, and violates dyiuimical astronomy in the solar semi-annual and lunar but tidal theory has nothing to say against it. On the fortnightly nutations other hand, the tides decide against any crust flexible enough to perform the nutations correctly with a liquid interior, or as flexible as the crust must be unless of preternaturally rigid matter.
:

although of
:

34-8 deal with the irregularity of the earth as a time-keeper, and much interest, do not touch on the topics of our History. 39-40 are appendices, the latter bearing upon the formula cited in Further Appendices deal with the Tidal 4 see our Art. 1664. Retardation and the Thermodynamic Acceleration of the Earth's rotation. These are taken respectively from the Philosophical Magazine, Vol. xxxi., pp. 533-7 (London, 1866), and the Proceedings of the Royal
Society (Edinburgh), Vol. XL, pp. 396-405.

Edinburgh, 1882.

[1

666.]

of

the

Royal

memoir

the Elasticity and Viscosity of Metals. Proceedings This London, 1865. Society, Vol. xiv., pp. 289-97. is incorporated in the article on Elasticity Encylopaedia
:

On

see our Art. 1741.

On the Fracture of Brittle and Viscous Solids by Proceedings of the Royal Society, Vol. xvn., pp. 312-13. London, 1869. Philosophical Magazine, Vol. xxxvin., pp. 71-3. London, 1869. The author noted on a visit to Kirkaldy's testing
[1667.]

Shearing.

works in Southwark that the rupture of bars of circular section by torsion took place in two different manners. rupture surface of bars of hardened steel
shewed

cross-

The

complicated surfaces of fracture, which were such as to demonstrate, as part of the whole effect in each case, a spiral fissure round the circumference of the cylinder at an angle of about 45 to the
length.

On
bar.

the other hand in softer or more viscous solids there was

a tendency to break right across perpendicular to the axis of the

These experiments of Kirkaldy's were confirmed by the rupture

surfaces of sealing-wax and hard steel bars, which gave spiral fractures, while those of steel tempered to various degrees of soft-

1G68]
ness, brass, copper

THOMSON AND

TAIT.

383

of torsion

and lead were planes perpendicular to the axis (Compare our Art. 810). It was thus demonstrated
:

" that continued " shearing parallel to one set of planes of a viscous solid, in it a developes tendency to break more easily parallel to these planes than in other directions, or that a viscous solid, at first isotropic, acquires " " cleavage planes parallel to the planes of shearing (Proc. R. S., p. 313).

Clearly in a hard elastic solid with small strain the direction of greatest stretch would be an angle of 45 to the axis of the bar, and hence the spiral fissure tends so far to confirm the maximum
stretch theory of rupture.

On

the other hand in the case of a

material which passes through the plastic stage before rupture, we know that it will begin to flow when the maximum shear reaches

a certain value (see our Arts. 236, 247 and 1586), and this flow may lead as Sir William Thomson suggests to the formation of
planes of cleavage. The paper concludes by noticing Forbes' and Hopkins's views as to the manner of rupture in the case of glaciers, and their reconciliation

by means of the above distinction between two kinds of

rupture.
[1668.]
Treatise

on

Natural
Tait.

Thomson and Peter Guthrie

4-727).

Vol.

Philosophy by Sir William I., Oxford, 1867 (pp. xxiii.

new

edition of this
II. (pp.

first

1879, and Part

of this edition
1

xxv.

Cambridge University
.

Press.

volume, Part I. (pp. xvii. + 508), 527), 1883, has been issued by the Our references will be to the pages

smaller work, Elements of Natural Philosophy, the same authors by appeared at Oxford, 1873, and at Cambridge, in a new It will not be necessary to refer, however, edition. 1879,

to this popular rfaume' of the more important treatise. Although lily the first volume ..f tin- Xntnrtil Pk&osophybu been published and the authors announce in the preface to l\iri II. of the second edition that the completion of the work is definitely abandoned, still the theory of elasticity and many of its applications naturally tall into this first volum.-. and tin- non-appearance of the later

volumes, regretable as
1

it is,

docs not

inflict

such a severe

loss

on

Braunschweig,
H.-liHhlt:
n,,.l

A German edition of the work with a preface by von ll< imholtz appeared in 18714, entitled Handbueh der thtoretuchen Phytik iibenettt von
:

\\;-rti

384
the elastician as
matical physics.
it

THOMSON AND

TAIT.

[16G9

1670

does on students of other branches of mathe-

The

following are the portions of the Treatise dealing with

119-190, 300-6, and Part II, 573-741, 832-48 and 829, Appendix 0. The paragraph numbers are the same in both editions, but the second edition has been largely modified and extended.

our subject: Part I,

[1669.]
only.

In
of

Part I. discusses our subject from the standpoint of strain 119-27 we have a discussion of the curvature and
flat

tortuosity interest :

bars or

rods.

The following

definitions

are

of

A bent or straight rod of circular or any other form of section being given, a line through the centres, or any other chosen points of its sections, may be called its axis. Mark a line on its side all along its length, such that it shall be a straight line parallel to the axis when the rod is unbent and untwisted. A line drawn from any point of the axis perpendicular to this side line of reference is called the transverse of the rod at this point.

*********
is

twist (t) of a curved, plane or tortuous, rod at any point is the rate of component rotation of its transverse round its tangent line, per unit of length

The

along

it (

120).

By the tangent line in the last definition is meant the tangent to the axis at the given point. Integral twist over any length s of the axis
= jtds.
The following proposition part of a bar
:

then shewn to hold for the twist in any

Let a point move uniformly along the axis of the bar and parallel to the tangent at every instant, draw a radius of a sphere cutting the spherical surface in a curve, the hodograph of the moving point. From points of this hodograph draw parallels to the transverses of the corresponding points of the The excess of the change of direction from any point to another of the bar. hodograph, above the increase of its inclination to the transverse, is equal to the twist in the corresponding part of the bar ( 123).
:

If the hodograph be a closed curve and the sphere be of unit radius the change in direction of the hodograph is simply the area enclosed by it.

[1670.]
this stage.

Some
Thus a
is

kinks' are given in

instructive examples of the 'Dynamics of twist in 123, rather by way of suggestion than proof at

piece of steel pianoforte- wire being free from stress given any degree of twist and then bent into a circle, its ends being securely joined. This circle can then be twisted into a figure of 8, the two parts being tied together at the

when

straight

crossing.

10711673]

THOMSON AND

TAIT.

385

The circular form, which is always a figure of free equilibrium, may be stable or unstable, according as the ratio of torsional to tiexural rigidity is more or less than a certain value depending on the actual degree of twist. The tortuous 8 form is not (except in the case of whole twist =2n-, when it lecomes the 610 [see our Art. 1694]), plane elastic lemniscate of Fig. 4, a continuous figure of free equilibrium, but involves a i>ositive pressure of the t\v<> crossing parts on one another when the twist >2w, and a negative pressure (or a pull on the tie) between them when twist <2?r and with this force it is a figure of stable equilibrium ( 123, p. 98).
:

[1671.] After some examples of tortuosity and twist of a geometrical character, the authors pass to the curvature of surfaces, define
antlcUistic

and synclastic (or saddle- back and dome ') curvature 12$) and have some remarks of special interest for our subject on ( flexible and inextensible surfaces and the conditions for their development into plane surfaces. Cases of inextensibility in two directions only (those of the warp and woof) are pointed out as existing in woven materials. In this case theoretically a stretch from up to <s/2 1 can be given in a diagonal accompanied by a squeeze from I in the to
'
*

'

perpendicular diagonal.
largely depends
(

011

this

power

It is pointed out how the grace of drapery of extensibility in certain directions

142-3).

154-90 deal at considerable length with the geometry of [1672.] strain and form a novel and lucid discussion of a somewhat trite topic.

The authors commence with a

homogeneous
strain,

definition of strain
:

and then pass

to

which they define as follows

If when the matter occupying any space is strained in any way, all pairs of points of its substance which are initially at equal distances from one another in parallel lines remain equidistant, it may be at an altered distance; and in parallel lines, altered, it may be, from their initial direction; the strain i-> said to be homogeneous ( 155).

Tin-

magnitude of the strain

:

is

thus

The
OB,

analytical expressions for the coordinates y, z after such a strain are

not in any way limited. a:,, y lt z l of the point

4
where
[xx], [xy]
t

[B]
\

etc.,

are nine ail.m.ii

constant*.

Clearly any plane remains after strain a plain any line a aii As a special case of the last i-liip.soi.i riiip-.oid. a sphere will become an ellipsoid after strain. Tins is Cauchy's It i, ellipsoid: see our Art. r> 7 V n^ltiptoid ($ 160). [1673.]
."..>(
t
,

line,

.11. \

Its axes are the principal

iw

<

Let the leng' M lemi-ftXOI <t' thi.> ellipsoid ho a, ftt y, the Him u- 1,^-1, y-1 radius of the un-nined sphere being unity

386

THOMSON AND

TAIT.

[1674

are in our terminology the principal stretches ,, s.,, s3 ; the authors term them the principal elongations. They demonstrate the following propositions The stretch sr of the body in the direction I, m, n is given by (a)
:

8r
(b)

= (a2 * + ^m 2 + frtf 2

1.

164).
initial

The angle
/,

<

after strain
y

between two directions with

n' is

direction-cosines

n and
2 2

l'

m,

given by

cos

<

= {a
/

+ fFm? + y-V}*

{a

/'

+ y-nri 2 +

r.
1

pm

+ yV 2 }*

164).

(c)

which are Ix +

The angle x after strain between two my + nz = and I'x + my + riz =

COSY = -

planes, the equations of

before strain,

is

given
,

by:

W/J + mm'/P
'

i.

/s

1R _

fe

165).

distortion or the strain

p.
(

There are two systems of parallel planes in which there is no is a uniform spread (see our Art. 595* and Vol. I., 882). These are parallel to the circular sections of the strain-ellipsoid
(d)

167).

The authors now ( 169-76) deal by an elegant [1674.] geometrical analysis with the special case of the strain specified by a 1, 0, and I/a 1 as principal stretches. This strain corresponds to the distortion of a lozenge into an equal lozenge by squeezing its greater axis till it is of length equal to the initially
less axis

initially

and stretching the less till it It is shewn that greater axis.

of length equal to the this strain corresponds to

is

the sliding of one plane in the material parallel to a second, or to what we term in this History a slide. The authors term it a

simple shear.

unfortunate, for that word was introduced by George Stephenson to denote the transverse stress in rivets, and has been consistently used in this sense of stress by Rankine and the

This

is

for majority of engineers since. Its present confused use partly work in own our stress and partly for strain has been avoided by

the introduction of the term slide for shearing strain. The principal axes of a slide are defined ( 173) to be the

axes of
distance

maximum
between
It is

stretch

and

maximum

ratio of the slide,

and the amount

a is the squeeze, of relative motion per unit

of the

slide.

the planes of no distortion is the amount shewn to equal a - I/a, or the excess of the

maximum

stretch over the

maximum

squeeze

174-5).

H',75

1677]

THOMSON AND

TAIT.

889

[1675.]

An

interesting problem appears, I think, for the first time

in the history of our subject in It is shewn that a pure stretch, 177. a simple slide and a dilatation combine to form the most general

homogeneous
stretch
\/ay
in

strain.

be considered as compounded of:

in

that strain be denoted by a, ft y, it may dilatation denoted by a (i) a uniform all directions, superimposed on (ii) a pure stretch
if

Thus

the direction of the principal axis ft superimposed on a /J/N/ay of amount v/a/y slide simple \/y/a in the plane of the other two principal axes.

In 181 the authors carry out an analytical investigation [1676.] of formulae (i) of our Art. 1672. They inquire whether there is a line in the body which remains unaltered in direction by strain, or, if values It is easy to of x, y, z can be found for which ar,/a: = y^y zjz = say. so that one such line always exists. see that there results a cubic for ThTe may, however, be three real solutions, in which case there will be three lines of directional identity, oblique to each other in the most In the special case, however, when general case.
, ,

these three lines will be always real and rectangular, coinciding with the principal axes of the strain- ellipsoid. In the course of the analysis the equation of the inverse sin tin ellipsoid (or the ellipsoid into which a sphere in the strained condition would change, if the strain were remitted see Vol. i., p. 882) is given. If [^VJf], [ YZ\ etc. represent quantities of the types
-

[A'Z]

[]
+

+ [y*]' + [], [YZ] = [xy]

i-

[]

+ [yy]

[yz]

+ [,,]

[]

then the equation

\']

ar
is

[Y^^ + [^]z^2([Y^]
The authors conclude
:

!/

+ [ZX]zx +
(p. 130).

[XY]xy)=^

win -re r

the radius of the spherical surface

[1677.]

that any homogeneous strain whatever applied to a body generally changes a sphere of tli- l"<ly into an ellipsoid, and causes the latter iln In particular to rotate about a drill.. --nigh a definite angle. caws tin- sj.h. K may remain a sphere. Also there may be n> rotation.

when there is no rotation, there are tin. -lir.vtions body (the axes of the ellipsoid) which remain fixed ; when there -u.-h <iirections but not is rotation, there are generally thn rectangular. Sometimes, however, there is but one (
In the general case,
,

in the

<

When
rela

not change
strain

the axes of the strain-ellipsoid are the lines which do tln-ir <lm-rfi..n the strain is said to be pun; ami
-ssary

and

sufficient

conditions for

a pun

183).

388

THOMSON AND

TAIT.

[1678
(i)

1679

Subject to (ii) of our Art. 1676 the formulae [1678.J 1672 may be written in the form
:

of our Art.

y = ex + By + az, zl = bx + ay+Cz ...... (iii).

l

Let a body thus strained be strained further in the manner

Xt

= A& + CM + bfr
(iii)

y.2

C& + /^ + e^,
find
:
:

z2

= bfa + a y +
l l

C^s. .(iv).
.

Combining

and

(iv)

we

= (A^A + CjC + b^b) x + (A c + c^B + b^) y + (AJ> + c^a + b-^C) z, asj

2/ 2

(c-^A

+ B^c + afi) x + (c x c + B^B + a^a) y + (cj> + B^a + c^C) z, V. x + (byC + a^B + da) y + (bj> + a^a + C^C) z

.(v).

and (iv) express irrotational strains, they give when (iii) superimposed a strain (v) which is in general rotational, or two pure strains, if superimposed, may give a pure strain and a rotation. If the strains be small, we shall have the constants represented by
Although
capitals nearly unity,

and those represented by small

Hence the squares and products

have the pure strain
:

letters small. of small quantities being neglected, we

z,

z,[ ................ (vi),

z2

(b

6j)

x+

(a

+ a 1 )y+ C^Cz]
(

arising from the superimposition of the two pure strains

185).

[1679.]

Our authors now turn

to discuss

what they term the

entire tangential displacement of a curve taken in a continuous solid or fluid mass. might speak of it in the terminology of our work

We

Consider any series of physical as the integral tangential shift. in a the unstrained Divide this curve curve body. points forming
into small elements, and let the length of each element be If multiplied by its shift resolved in the direction of the element.

up

these products be

summed

for

the curve the

tangential shift for carried out for the strained curve

the unstrained curve.

is

sum is the integral The same reckoning

for

the strained curve.

cite
(a)

the integral tangential shift Representing these quantities by / and /'

:

we

the following propositions

7'

-7 = J (/>"-/)*),

where D' and D" are respectively the shifts at the beginning and end of the curve as determined by the sense in which the arc is measured. Thus it follows that the integral tangential shift for a closed curve is the same whether reckoned along the strained or unstrained curve, and that the integral tangential shift is the same reckoned along either of two conterminous arcs. ( 188-9.)

1080]
(6)
,

THOMSON AND

TAIT.

389

Let Tyg, rn Tgy be the twist-components (see our Vol. I., p. etc. in the a homogeneous strain, i.e. rvz = ${[zy]-[yz]}, Then the integral tangential notation of formula (i) of our Art 1672. shift round a closed curve is given by
882) of

where TB^
its initial

in or,, s are the areas of the projections of the closed curve position on the coordinate planes yz, #e, and xy respectively.
strain can be expressed

(c)

The most general homogeneous

:

by the

shifts'

w=
where
i/r

d\l/

J~

=|

{(A

2 1)3* + (J5- 1) y

+ (C -

1) z-

+ 2 (ay*+ &z* +

cay)}.

Thus
shifts

for non-rotational
y, z

homogeneous
:

strain, if the integral tangential

be measured from a definite point of the body as origin up to

x,

any point

we have

Thus the

integral tangential shifts for the strained and unstrained curves on the terminals of the curve ( 190, (a)). only depend

The next stage in our authors' analysis of strain is to [1080.] consider the strain round any point when a body is submitted to
a heterogeneous strain. They sbew that " at distances all round any point, so small that the first terms only of the expressions by Taylor's theorem for the differences of displacement are sensible,
the strain
In
is

sensibly

homogeneous
w, v,
10

(p.

140)".
x, y,

other words any axes:

if

be the shifts of
, ' ,

relative

to

*l

du du ~ X = du -=- X + j-1/ y + dz j-Z, dx dy

,

1/1

-^a
,

dv

+
,

dv

as

|r

dv

a'

dw dw y + s* *'-* = s* +
'///
.

The

expreftaions for or,

p,

<r

in

190, (a) have

wrong

nignn.

390
where
t ',

THOMSON AND

TAIT.

[1681

1082

x' y z' are the coordinates relative to the given point and to the selected axial directions of any point in its neighbourhood before, and a,*,', y,', 2,' the coordinates after strain. Clearly we have for the quantities [xx], [ys], etc. of our Art. 1672,

du

dv

dw

This result obviously assumes that the second shift-fluxions

cPu
'

cPu
'

"
first shift-fluxions

can never be infinitely great as compared with the

du jdx

du
,

-j-

etc.

dy

If dS be any element of a surface in the body, I, m, n the [1681.] direction cosines of its normal, ryz r^ TXIJ the twist-components at the point x, y, z of the surface, we easily find
,
,

2ff(lTvz

-I-

mr^ + nrmj dS = f(udx + vdy + wdz)

)

= the
If

integral tangential shift round the perimeter of S.

<j>

be the resultant twist and

the angle

its
t

direction

makes

with the normal to the corresponding element of S we see that the quantity ffTcos<f>dS is constant for all surfaces drawn through the

same curve.

When

the twist vanishes, or the conditions

= dv/dz dw/dy, dw/dx = du/dz, du/dy dv/dx are satisfied, then udx + vdy + wdz is a perfect differential or when a strain is irrotational we must have u, v and w of the form
;
:

dP u=-T-,
dx
In this case f(udx + vdy + wdz)

dF v=^-,
dy

10

= -=-.
dz

dF

may

be termed the shift-function (" the

displacement function") and we see that it represents the entire tangential shift from the fixed point of the body up to the point x, y, z ( 190, (i)-(l).) along any curve whatever.

Some notice must be taken here of 300-6, which [1682.] The authors, objecting deal with the impact of elastic bodies.
Newton's Law
strongly to the terminology usually adopted in the discussion of in the text-books, yet appear to give their sanction
1

to the validity of that law in one of the worst forms in

1 i.e. that the velocity of rebound the same two bodies.

which

is

proportional to the velocity of impact for

1683
it is

1 684-]

THOMSON AND

TAIT.

391
1

often stated. They say that the results of recent experiments have confirmed Newton's Law, but they do not say that the results of more recent theory are opposed to it. They speak of Newton's finding the coefficient of restitution, e, for balls of compressed wool to be $, of iron nearly the same and glass {, but they fail to point out that e probably depends not only on the elastic nature of the materials in contact, but also on the masses of the colliding bodies, their shapes and their dimensions': see our Arts. 941*, 1183*, 1523*, 209, 213, 217 and 1224. In 302 the generalised Hooke's Law (see our Art. 8*) is cited to demonstrate that Newton's experimental law is consistent with perfect elasticity, but the argument used is not opposed to the variation of e with the masses, sizes and shapes of the colliding
bodies.

303-4 deal in a very brief manner with the longitudinal [1683.] impact of cylindrical bars. The only case dealt with is that of Case (i) of our Art. 213, it being noted that e in this case is theoretically the ratio of the lesser to the greater mass. This statement ought to have saved the writers of elementary text-books, which have been largely based on the Natumi Philosophy, from making the erroneous statements current with regard to the nature of e. Thomson and Tait refer for
further particulars to their discussion of the kinetics of elastic solids. that portion of their work has never been written a reference in the second edition (1879) to Saint- Tenant's elaborate memoir of 1867 might have been helpful to the writers of elementary works.

As

305-6 refer to the amount of energy lost in vibrations, [1684.] and notice that but a small part of the whole kinetic energy can remain in the form of vibrations after the impact of solid spheres of glass or ivory. This is the view since taken by Hertz and Boussinesq of the collision of massive bodies, and although the theory of the vibrations of solid elastic spheres has not yet been so fully worked
its application to the case of vibrations produced by possible there is still no .loubt that Hertz's theory throws a large amount of light on this all-important problem see our Arts. 1515-7.

out,

that
is

impact

1 The experiments seem far from conclusive, the influence on of variation of mass, size and shape have not yet been investigated with the needful accuracy see
t. :

296-301. 1 Even such a great authority as Dr Routh speakfl of e as a constant ratio //of the balls and does not hint that it may vary with depending on mass and size : ElIn one of the />///,!//.>. l-*2, p. 158. most recent Cambridge text-books we are told that e depends on "the substanoM of which the bodies are made and is independent of the masses of the bodies ". El. Cambridge, IHMI). All the elementary p. 203.
l/klopaedie
<!<>

Snt,,,-

/////,,-/,

,/,-,-

/%*/*, IU.

i.,

S.

seem

to

go astray on this point.

392

THOMSON AND

TAIT.

[16851687

It brings out in particular why in the case of a hollow sphere much of the kinetic energy of the blow is spent in vibrations, while in the case of the solid sphere this loss is little.

We now pass to Part II. of the Natural Philosophy, [1685.] which deals with the dynamical aspect of strain, i.e. with stress and the stress-strain relations. The authors pass from the treatment of
by the stages (i) flexible strings, (ii) rods and wires, thin (iii) plates to the complete elastic equations for any solid This arrangement, while certainly carrying the student by body.
rigid bodies
:

and

a graduated course to the more complex problems of elasticity, difficulties fails, I think, to fully emphasize the transcendent associated with the wire and plate problems, nor does it bring into
clear relation the elastic coefficients of wires
for

extended masses of the same material

and plates and those see our Arts. 383-94,

1236, 1251-67, 1292-1300, 1358-1364 and 1418-40.

[1686.] of flexible

i.e.

constrained to

573-87 deal with the general theory of catenaries, and sensibly inextensible cords hanging freely, or There is nothing lie on smooth or rough surfaces.
that
it

so closely related to our subject in this discussion detain us here.

need

588-626 deal with wires and rods and present many [1687.] " The authors define a wire to be an elongated interest. of points
body of
elastic material... bent or twisted to

any degree, subject

and the recionly to the condition that the radius of curvature are Art. our twist the of 1669] everywhere very great in [see procal
comparison with the greatest transverse dimension
that certain constants termed

by them

"

". They suppose the constants of flexural

and

torsi onal rigidity"

are known.

These constants

for

an isotropic

wire are the

stretch
in

Ewcf, EWK.? and

wire
is

&%

of our Art. 1287.

The

axial

the

This

is

justified in

neglected throughout the investigation. 592 (see, however, our Arts. 1592*, 1367,
"

1373 and 1425).

limits",

conditional I do not think, however, that the as those of discussion the in to referred frequently

588, and apparently amounting only to the single one cited above in the definition of wire are really sufficient. They do not seem to me to exclude the possibility of set, nor the application
of such a system of load that in a small portion of the wire axial

16881689]
stretch

THOMSON AND

TAIT.

393

Further

solely distortion of the cross-sections are nil or negligible. This the dealt with for cases our fact, indeed, authors, but by

transverse slide may become of relative importance. seems practically assumed that the system of load will produce curvature and twist, and that the effects of the
or
it
is

the

necessary, especially torsional rigidity can only be ascertained after the form of the distorted cross-section has been

word

of

warning

seems very

some when we

remember that the constant of

ally calculated
1
.

Premising that their wire may be isotropic, crystalline, laminated in structure, Thomson and Tait state ( 591) the " following laws of flexure and torsion ". Suj)|K)se the resultant stress of the matter on one side of any crossion of the wire on matter on the other side to be reduced to a single force through any point of the cross-section and a single couple, then
[1688.]
fibrous, or
:

I. The twist and curvature of the wire in the neighbourhood of this section are independent of the force, and depend solely on the couple.

II. The curvatures and rates of twist, producible by any several couples separately, constitute, if geometrically compounded, the curvature and rate of twist which are actually produced by a mutual action equal to the resultant of those couples.

1689.]
tin 'ie elastic

In

592 the

line of centroids of the cross-sections is defined

This line in our work is spoken of as the central line, the term elastic line being retained especially for its strainrd form. The series of points of zero stretch in the plane of the cross-sect form the neutral axis, and the points of section of these neutral axes by
central line.
i< >i
:

the corresponding osculating planes of the elastic line form the nentrxl Now Thomson and Tait write line.
:

the elastic central line remains sensibly unchanged in to whatever length ur conditional limits [see our Art. 1687] the wire be subjected, elongation >r r.ntra< -ti<>n produced by the neglected resultant force, if tlii.- is in Mn-h ,i direction as to produce any, will r;ni>- the lino of rigorously no elongation to deviate only inlinitvsimally frin the rl.^ti,- .-rntr.il line, in any part of the wire finitely curved.

straw within

This amount* practically to saying that at points of finite c-nrvutnn central and neutral lines deviate only infinitesimally. Such a statement is, however, incorrect. An examination of the fi^un- in our Vol. p. 403, shewR that the neutral lim- may pass at points <>t tinit< curvature to H considerable distance from the central line. Hut,
tini ,

.<

That the shown in our

1

flcxural rigidity theoretically vnrieit with the amount of curvature is JIM: Art*. f>19 -20, but tlii variation is really exclu 11 l>\

MB

'conditional lim
T. E. PT.
II

26

394

THOMSON AND

TAIT.

[1690

1691

matter of fact, this deviation does not sensibly affect the flexural effect of the stress-couples, which is the real point upon which our authors'
theory depends.

A wire "of uniform constitution and figure throughout, [1690.] and naturally straight" is now taken. Two planes of reference .-indrawn through its central axis cutting any cross-section at P in the lines PN^ and PNZ v, and v3 are the component curvatures in two planes perpendicular respectively to PN^ and PN^ and T is the twist at P. The authors then proceed as follows ( 594)
. :

Considering now the elastic forces called into action, we see that if these constitute a conservative system, the work required to bend and twist any part of the wire from its unstrained to its actual condition, depends solely on its figure in these two conditions. Hence if w PP' denote the amount of this work, for the infinitely small length PP' of the rod, w must be a function of !>!, v2 T and therefore if tf. , JV2 , denote the components of the coupleresultant of all the forces which must act on the section through P' to hold the part PP' in its strained state, it follows... that
.

Law IT. of our Art. 1688, or the principle of super-imposition, then leads at once to w being a homogeneous quadratic function of v lt v2 T, or
,

w - J (Av? + Bv? + CT* + 2av r +

2

Zbr^ + 2cv

v ......... 1 a)

(i),

where A, B,

C, a,

b, c

are constants of the wire.

it seems to me that this investigation is wanting [1691.] in accuracy in several points. First our authors' definition of twist (see our Art. 1669) when applied to a material rod or curve seems

Now

to exclude the possibility of the 'transverse' becoming inclined to Once it is the tangent, and being itself distorted by the strain.

recognised that the cross-section of the wire in the cases of both flexure and torsion is distorted, it does not seem to me possible

without an investigation such as that of Kirchhoff's (introducing Saint-Venant's results) to assume that the work is a function of and T only. To do so appears to be only repeating the old i/!, z> 2 hypothesis of Euler, Bernoulli and Coulomb under a disguised form,
>

i.e.

the non-distortion of the cross-sections is practically assumed without sufficient discussion under the purely geometrical defini-

tion of twist.
It cannot be said that this distortion is negligible, for it plays an important part in the determination of the constants C, a and b, for all but a rod of circular cross-section with elastic isotropy in the plane of the cross-section. The result (i) is, however, deduced

;:

1693]

THOMSON AND

TAIT.

That it is practically without any limitations of this kind. for a thin wire of any cross-section may, however, be recognised from the investigations of Kirchhoff, Clebsch and see our Arts. 1251-66, 1359-64 and 1418-36.
correct

By the well-known process for reducing a homogeneous [1692.] function, w in (i) may be put into the form:

w=

(A O
l

'
l

AM + A

3 0.*)

.................... (ii),

corresponding to three component couples about three rectangular axes

where

0,,
:

>

$s are linear functions of v lt v2

and

r.

Hence our authors

conclude

There are in general three determinate rectangular directions PQ lt PQt, through any point P of the middle line of a wire, such that if opposite couples be applied to any two parts of the wire in planes perpendicular to any one of them, every intermediate part will experience rotation in a plane

PQ3

to those of the balanced couples. The moments of the couules required to produce unit rate of rotation round these three axes are called the principal torsion-flexure rigidities of the wire. They are the elements denoted by A lt A 2t A 3 in the preceding analysis. ( 596.)
parallel

The corresponding rectangular directions are termed the three principal axes, and the form taken by the wire when balanced by couples round any one of the three principal axes is a uniform helix having a line
parallel to the principal axis for axis.

The helices so obtained are the three principal /telices 1 ( 598). If one of the principal axes coincides with the central line of the wire 2 then the three principal helices become the axis of the wire corresponding to pure torsion, and two circles corresponding to pure in either principal plane ( 599).
1<

flexin-

Our autlii> n-\v monstrate a numl>er of properties of [1693.] rods strained into helices, or of helical springs.
Wantzel's theorem of the helical form taken by a straight rod (a) of which the central line is a principal axis and the flexural rigiditi. s are equal, wlu-n subjected to couples in parallel planes not per] dicular to the c-nti:il lino, is pro\l in < 601: see our Arts. 1240* and 1606*.
(6)
:il

ready discuH8el
belioi

(Jiulio's

V. -nant's of 1*11
1

memoir of 1841 and > 1219* and 1608*.

Thomson and Tait apeak of htlix in the text and fjnrnl in the margin. Th, word aeems better reserved for a plane curve. A watch>i>rinK * the true type of spiral apring, not the npring of a spring balance, which i* a helical 1 The authors- *r*-ak of *conjn ic wire*' beinR 'neiiM' nio' a somewhat questionable ntatement MM) our Arts. 882', H: j:. and 1371-H.
latter
*

261'

396
In

THOMSON AND

TAIT.

[1693

force

602 and 605 our authors 1 give Saint- Tenant's expressions for the and couple, i.e. the results of 605 correspond with those of our Art. 1608* and those of 602 with the same results for the special case when ft = ir/2. A comparison of Saint- Tenant's method with that of Thomson and Tait is of value, as bringing out the terms supposed to be negligible in their investigation, i.e. the longitudinal stretch and Saint- Tenant's e: see our Arts. 1593*-! 608*. Thomson and Tait's results are slightly more general than the corresponding conclusions of Kirchhoff (see our Arts. 1268 and 1283 (c)) which suppose the crosssection of the wire to be circular.

Let I be the length of the helix, x the distance between planes (c) the angle between through its two terminals perpendicular to its axis, planes through its axis and its two terminals in the strained condition, the corresponding quantities for the unstrained condition. x and = Z cos /3/r, Then with the notation of our Art. 1608*, x = 1 sin /?,
<

<

<

and we may write

The authors then take x

( 607). small, and deduce various results bearing on the practical use of helical springs. For example

being the force in the axis tending to compress the helix

and

<

<

p=
small

inclination to the axis, or xjl be

Hence if the spiral be of very small we have approximately

:

is proportional to the compression in the axis, a determined by Hooke at a much earlier period from experiment: see our Arts. 7* and 250*; (ii) helical springs act chiefly by torsion, a property first stated by Binet and after him by Giulio, J. Thomson and Kirchhoff: see our Arts. 175*, 1382* and 1283 (c) ; if the number of coils be n, 1= ZTTT x n nearly, if r be the radius of (iii)
(i)

Thus

the load

property

first

the helix, and

<

= l/r, whence

or,

number

the total compression, (x x\ for a given load varies directly as the of coils and as the cube of the radius of the helical spring.
first

1 Two misprints of the the second edition.

edition

a', r'

for a, r

and

for

in

605 remain in

16941695]

THOMSON AND

TAIT.

397

This result agrees after proper changes of Dotation with that of Giulio cited as (vi) in our Art. 1220*.

Our authors next refer to KirchhofFs elastico-kinetic [1694.] analogy (see our Arts. 1267, 1283 and 1364) and cite as a special case of it the Elastic Curve of James Bernoulli (see our Arts. 18*-25*). straight wire having one set of principal axes of its cross-sections coplanar is bent in this plane by the action of two equal and opposite forces, F, acting in any line in the plane taken as the axis of x, and connected with the wire, if needful, by rigid bars. The corresponding elastico-kinetic analogy is that of a rigid body swinging on an axis under the action of gravity ( 613). If 1/p be the curvature we easily a find E<M?IP = Ft/, whence the equation to the curve is py = a being a constant. Thomson and Tait suggest that the elastic line for this case might be found by drawing successive arcs of circles whose radii vary 611). inversely as the ordinate y ( They discuss somewhat briefly

the types of solution of the differential equation py a2, and depict some of the forms 1 (traced experimentally from a flat steel spring) which the
solution
interest

may take ( 611). These forms are of very great physical and their comparison with various cases of pendulum motion is
of remark
is,

instructive.

A conclusion worthy
is

that the rectification of the elastic curve

in

same analytical problem as finding the time occupied by a pendulum describing any given angle ( 613).
the

614 gives general equations for the equilibrium of a bent some respects slightly more comprehensive than those of Kirchhoff and in other respects slightly less luminous as to form
[1695.]

and twisted

rod, in

than those of Clebsch.

The

points to be considered are of a very difficult

and delicate kind, and the difficulty and delicacy are both increased by the manner in which Thomson and Tait obtain their expression for the see our Arts. 1687-91. According to strain-energy of a bent rod both Kirchhoff anl t'lelisch there is a certain principle involved in the discussion of tin- (|iiilihriuiii of elastic bodies with one or two
:

dimensions indefinitely small see Kirchhoff*8 Principle referred to in ..in _'.":;. Art. Kn.lihofF on the ground of this principle neglects the body-forces on the rod, he further supposes surface-load to be Clebsch applied only at the terminal cross-sections: see our Art. 1259. also supposes no surface-load except it t< rmin.tl cross-sections, but he The al.scnr.- of surface-load introduces body-forces: see our An. I.".'!.'.. seems essential to the treatment of >><>th r|, i.,.-i, ..i:<l Kiuhhoff, for the
:
I

Forma drawn
xl.-.s

</<;<.;/,/

for

a spring loaded in a Rival

>m-irkun
/.'a
.

will le

eitl>

found in L. Haalcli 1880, a most interesting work.

'.

;i

fitifr

closely with Thomson and Tar smaller piece of the carve placed in a
Fig. 10 wit

curves agree as a
i

somewhat

different

ipare

with
:0 with their

Fi.

2, etc., etc.

398

THOMSON AND

TAIT.

[1696

former bases his expressions for the shifts (Art. 1360) and the latter his expression for the strain-energy (Art. 1287) on the assumption = (Arts. 1262 and 1286), and accordof Saint- Venant that w =

=^

Now Thomson ingly that the stress at the surface of the rod vanishes. and Tait after taking a, (3, y as " the components of the mutual force, and , 77, as those of the mutual couple acting between the matter on the two sides of the normal section through x, y, z" x, y, z being axes
proceed to take X&s, YSs, ZSs and L&s, J/Ss, NBs as "the components of the applied force, and applied couple, on the portion 8s of the wire" between the normal sections at x, y^ z and x + 8x y + 8y, z + 8z. There seems to me great difficulty about this. Do X, Y Z, Lj M, jW refer to surface load or to body-force, or to both ? If they refer to surface-load, we cannot fall back on Kirchhoff and Clebsch's discussion for the exactness of the expression of our Art. 1690
fixed in space,
t

If the above quantities, however, adopted for the strain-energy. represent merely body-forces, the generality is not greater than that of Clebsch's investigation and the treatment seems in many respects less luminous. Thomson and Tait's Equation (i) becomes Kirchhoff's (xxiii) in our Art. 1265, if Jf, 7, be put zero; their Equations (i) and to refer to body-forces, ought to be (ii), supposing JT, Y, Z, L, M, contained in Clebsch's (viii) in our Art. 1363, but the analysis necessary to prove the identity by transformation would be complicated. Thomson and Tait do not refer, like Clebsch, their force- and coupleof the total stress on a cross-section to axes ?/, components (a, /?, y, ) Thus since fixed in the element of the rod, but to axes fixed in space. the rod in the general case has finite shifts their method of treating the question does not directly bring the bending moments, shears etc., into Further in the application of many the equations of equilibrium. systems of applied force, the system would be known relative to axes would be not fixed in the element, and therefore A", Y, Z^ Z/, M, given directly, but only in terms of the unknown strained form of the rod ; the Equations (4) and (5) of Thomson and Tait would thus be still more complicated in application than they at first sight appear. Comparing the two methods with the corresponding equations for

the

elasti co-kinetic

analogy,

we may

say

that

Thomson and

Tait's

method leads
rigid

body method leads

to differential equations corresponding to the motion of a referred to axes fixed in space, while Kirchhoff and Clebsch's to differential equations

more nearly corresponding with

its

Euler's equations for the motion of a

body referred to

principal axes.

In the following sections, 615-9, the results are [1696.] of cases to naturally straight wires, but the authors special applied " somewhat a abrupt transition to to a uniform bar, beam or pass by
1 The conditions under which a surface-load may be practically replaced by a body-force are of great importance. One investigation for a special case of continuous loading has been given by the Editor Quarterly Journal of Mathematics, Vol. xxiv., pp. 87 and 106. Cambridge, 1889.
:

1697]
"

THOMSON AND
aud even
to continuous

TAJT.

plank

beams.

The need here

of a prelimi-

and nary investigation as to the form as to the real limits within which the strain-energy of this distortion may be neglected, becomes very manifest. In 619 it is shewn that
of the distorted cross- section,

the problem of a continuous beam is determinate, but the method sketched for its general solution becomes in most practical cases far too laborious to be workable, and a reference might have been expected to Clapeyron's Theorem see our Arts. 603, 607 and 893.
:

We now pass to, perhaps, the most interesting part of [1697.] our authors' treatment of wires, namely, problems relating to wires of equal or unequal flexibility rotated round their central line.
This occupies
621-6.

We

note the following points

wire of equal flexibility, straight when unstrained, offers (a) when bent and twisted in any manner no resistance to being turned round its central line. This is the principle of the equable elastic rotating joint, which admits of the rotation about any axis of one body being transferred equably to a second body rotating about any other axis. The wire which acts as the joint must have the tangents at the terminals of its central line exactly in the axes of rotation of the two If the wire be not accurately of equal flexibility there will be a bodies. periodic inequality in the rotations of the two bodies having for period half a turn of either if it be not absolutely straight an inequality of period equal to a whole turn of either ( 621-2).
j

Consider a piece of wire or ribbon which in the unstrained (6) state has its central line a circular arc of radius a ; the plane of greatest
flexural rigidity at each point being inclined at an angle a to the plane of the central line. Let its central line be strained into a complete circle of radius r, and let a couple Loa applied to each element on of the wire in the normal plane of the central line be required to hold the win-, 10 that its planes of greatest flexural rigidity make an angle <f> with the plane of the central line. Then the expression (i) of our Art. 1690 for the strain-energy per unit length of central line, since there is no twist, reduces to the form :

or,

transforming this expression by reference to the planes of principal

flexural rigidities (A v
.

and

A^ A > A
l

3 ),

to

MM
A

/cos$

<

coso\ f

T)

/sin<

sinaV)

r
<

)}
/sin

............

Clearly

dw

sin

4 /cos

cos a\

A t oos

sin

.^

400

THOMSON AND

TAIT.

[1697

Further let C be the couple in the plane of the central line, or plane of bending, which acts between the matter on either side of a crosssection then
:

cosa\

)
r

a /

This follows from our Art. 1692, for clearly

C cos
Thomson and
these results.
Ccise
(i).

<

and

C sin

<f>

= Na

Tait

now

consider most suggestive special cases

of

Rotation of a straight wire bent into

00, therefore
:

tJie

form of a hoop

round its Here

central line.

L=
Hence when
<

A-.-A* d*w - A, -A* = -L-y-' SID 2*, and -l-j-! cos 1*.
.

or when planes of maximum flexural ligidity coincide with the plane of the central line, w is a maximum, and the equilibrium is unstable. When < = 7r/2, we have again equilibrium, but, as w is
0,

a minimum,

it is

stable

623).

A wire equally flexible in all directions is strained from a Case (ii). circular arc of radius a to a ring of radius r and then turned round its central line.
Here A l = A 2 a =
,

0,

therefore

AI sin
-/>

or

jo

dtp*

Hence
stable

= and = TT are positions of equilibrium, the former being and the latter unstable ( 624).
tf> <J>
,

(iii). Suppose A.2 = oo which corresponds closely to the case of band or metal ribbon for example "a common hoop of thin sheetiron fitted upon a conical vat, or on either end of a barrel of ordinary

Case

flat

shape

".

strain-energy is not to be infinite we must have or the plane of inflexibility must make an angle sin" 1 (ra~ sin a) with the plane of the central line, when the band is bent to a radius r. have from (iv)

Here
<j>

if

the

r' 1 sin

=
l

a~* sin

a,

We

n G =
cos
<

l
<

/cos<

--

cosa\
I .

if

a /

Hence if approaches near to ir/2, or approaches the plane of the central line the band must snap across ( 626).

the plane of inflexibility gets extremely large and

16981699]

THOMSON AND

TAIT.
to

401
problems of stability
justify the

The many suggestive points with regard

which arise from this interesting discussion here devoted to its reproduction.

may

space

The next portion of Thomson and Tait's Treatise [1698.] 627-49 deals with the bending of plates ( 627-57). Of this give a general theory of such plates, containing much that is of a
are

most instructive character. At the same time certain assumptions made which it is needful for us to notice here, and which will,
perhaps, be brought out best by the independent discussion of a

special case.
If the plane of xy be taken as the tangent plane to a surface at the point x y = z - 0, then in the neighbourhood of the origin the form of the surface is given by
:

ttf)

(i),
.

where r =

in the case of the rod, Thomson and Tait take the strain-energy per unit area of the plate's mid-plane to be a homogeneous quadratic function of the r, 8, and t of
d*z/dx>, a
t

d*z/dxdy, and

= d^z/dy3

As

the bent mid-plane at any point. The constants of this function are not expressed at this stage in terms of the thickness of the plate and the usual elastic coefficients (see, however, our Art. 1713), and it does not appear from the discussion how far the general equations of elasticity are satisfied by the assumptions made. I take it that, * = being the unstrained mid-plane of the plate, 634-5 really amount to the SaintVenant-Boussinesq hypothesis that
:

throughout the material of the plate. Assuming this to be so, propose to find an expression for the strain energy at a given point of a plane plate with three rectangular planes of elastic symmetry, one beinu tin- mid-plane, when (ii) holds and the mid-plane at the j>oint in question is siujhtly l>ent to the form (i).
1

[1699.] 117):

The

stress-strain relations are of the

form (see our Art.

\

= cua +s, +

.
1

**

M^f't
Assume the following values

fay + d ',,
t

<r*

Y
*

u=e'8,+ d 8, + ctln
for the shifts
:

w^fir*,,

+ JCtf,

402
where
?*,

THOMSON AND
$, t

TAIT.

[1699

and C are arbitrary constants, and fi,fz arbitrary functions. found that u and v in (iv) have the most general values conTo satisfy sistent with the value chosen for w and with zx 0. *yz
It will be
'

= 0, we must

further have
for

C -:

+ d>t
c

an d

e'

The value chosen

w gives w = % (rx* + 2sxy + ty2)

+ ^ ^ dx dy
d'

0.

form of the distorted mid-plane, i.e. the mid-plane of the plate bent at the origin to the form suggested by Thomson and Tait. The term JGV enables us to satisfy the relation ^z = at all points of the Further /! and/2 clearly refer only to strains in the plane of the plate. plate uniform throughout the thickness, and these terms are therefore not due to bending at all. We may therefore neglect them from the Thus we conclude outset 1
for the
is
. :

u=

rxz

syz.

e'r

+
,

d't

---*?
Further
:

T~*
sy

??*??**
sz
e'r + d't = \
,

sx

=- rz,

= - tz,

.............. (vi),

<V=0,
whence
:

<r

w = 0,

<r

= -2sz xy

=
(vii)

=^=
stress- equations. the strain-energy per unit area of the mid-plane of the plate at the origin we have

These stresses will be found to satisfy the body

for

Forming the expression

W=

f-fe
I

J -e

(x*8x

+ W*y + WVxy)
Thus

d&,

2c being the thickness of the plate.

......

(Viii),

zz

=0, are

Their most general forms as determined from the body stress-equations and and /2 = - Ge'y + D^c, where G, D, and Z> 2 are arbitrary f^Gd'x +

D^

constants.

17001701]

THOMSON AND

TAIT.

403
:

or with abbreviated expressions for the constant-

17=^(^1*+ 9

'2Grt

+ #,*' + 4/X*3 -

rt)| ...(viii bis).

Now
round
of

let us find the couples acting on matter inside an element lines in the mid-plane of the plate parallel respectively to the axes

x and y on
:

strips of unit breadth

and height 2c perpendicular to these

axes

L=>

(ix).

~
-/:

_,

**

dW
ds'

Here the couples L and acting on an elementary strip parallel to and J\T the plane zy tend to turn x to z and y to z, and the couples acting on an elementary strip parallel to the plane 205 tend to turn y to This is indicated in the accompanying figure. z and x to z res(>ectively.
t

Let x = x + M, y = y + v, z' = z + w. Then a straight line [1 700.] perpendicular to tin- mid-plane before strain is given by# = o, y = ft. After strain this line becomes by (v)
:

x'-a
ra +
sfi

= y'-ff sa+tp

\(ra*
I

Tins is clearly no longer an exact straight if C be taken zero then M will not be zero and the values of the elastic constants On the other hand, if the plate be very thin. in (viii) will be changed. \Cz will be negligible in the above result and the transverses will

+ 28ap + eF) + Cz line unless (7 = 0, but

remain very approximately straight

[1701.]

lines.

We

are

now
:

in

a plate with three planes of

plane of the plate

elastic

a position to sum up <>ur conclusion* for symmetry, one coinciding with the

404

THOMSON AND

TAIT.

[1701

The strain-energy per unit area of the mid-plane required to bend (i) without stretching a small portion of the plate to the form (i) is a quadratic function of the curvatures r, s and t.
The bending couples are given by the differentials of the strain(ii) energy with regard to r, s and t. These agree with Thomson and Tait's conclusions for the most 640-1. But general case of aeolotropy in
:

(iii)

straight line in the material of the plate originally perpen-

dicular to the mid-plane, only remains approximately perpendicular to the mid- plane after bending. If it be assumed to remain absolutely

f and/

perpendicular, then the value of the flexural rigidities of the plate will not be given as the proper functions of the elastic constants a, 6, c, d', e,

This result

is

stated by

Thomson and Tait

in (2) of

633

The particles in any straight line perpendicular to the plate when plane, remain in a straight line perpendicular to the curved surfaces into which its sides, and parallel planes of the substance between them, become distorted
when
it is

bent.

Thomson and Tait cite this result as deducible from "the general " semi-inverse theory of elastic solids." The above investigation by the method " (see our Art. 3) while by no means free from objections, may suffice, perhaps, to suggest that the result in question is an approximation to be justified for very thin plates by the general theory rather than an axiom upon which the theory of plates itself can be based. It coincides with Kirchhoff's hypothesis of 1850, the truth of which we have questioned in our Art. 1236 (see also our Art. 1412). The results 633 may be both true as approximations (2) and (3) of our authors' obtained by the general theory, but they will hardly serve as a basis for an elementary theory of plates, for while (3) would lead us to introduce the term J(7z2 (2) would cause us to omit it. The whole question is, I The think, on a par with the Bernoulli- Eulerian theory of rods. postulate that the cross-sections of a rod under flexure remain undisIt received its first justification in torted is not an a priori truth. Saint- Venant's memoir on flexure (see our Art. 92), which shewed that the cross-sections actually are distorted but that in certain cases this distortion is negligible. Experiment on a moderate sized iron bar shews clearly the distortion of the cross-sections, and the distortion of the transverses can be exhibited in moderately thick iron or glass plates. If it be objected that our investigation depends on the assumptions (a) that the sole stress lies in the plane of the plate (i.e. Equation (ii)) and (b) that there is only negligible stretching of the mid-plane (see our Art. 1699) we must remark that the same assumptions are made by our authors see their 634 (1) and 633 (1). Hence their results may be compared with our investigation based on a more general theory. The further condition on which Thomson and Tait insist, namely,
,
:

that:

1702]

THOMSON AND

TAIT.

405

The deflection is nowhere, within finite distance from the point of reference, more than an infinitely small fraction of the thickness ( 632, (3)),
does not seem involved in our investigation, and it certainly appears at first sight to exclude from treatment the most useful and ordinary appli1 cations of the theory to thin plates From the above, I think, we may conclude that Thomson and Tait's ultimate conclusions are true, but that their axioms are not absolutely they would, indeed, if treated as rigidly and not approxinecessary mately correct, lead to erroneous values for the flexural rigidities. Further their mode of discussion scarcely enables us to clearly realise the nature of the internal stresses in the plate.
.

remarks and definitions occupying We have already noticed Rankine's analysis of uniplanar stress (see our Arts. 453 and 465 (6)).
[1702.]

Some

valuable

637-40 must be referred

to here.

Clearly, since L,

M,

N are only the ^-integrals of

the products of z

and

and *P, a precisely similar analysis holds for these couples. Thus let n as in our Art. 465 (6) denote the normal to a plane perpendicular to the mid-plane of the plate, and let this normal make an angle with the axis of x, and let, as in that article, t be
**, yy
<

then if the trace of this plane on the mid-plane be the in the normal to to turn n towards n, tending plane >s-couple
;

H
z,

and

by

JfJ the stress-couple tending to turn t towards integrating the results of that article multiplied

we have

by z with

regard to z:

U = L cos

2
<f>

M sin

3
<f>

+ N sin

2$,

)
'

ja = i(Z-J/)sin24>-#cos2<.
Hence
clearly there are

}
:

two directions determined by

tan2<J>=2AY(Z-Jf) ..................... (xi),

over which

which the stress-couple, whose axis is normal to the plane we are reckoning the stress, vanishes. These are termed by Thomson and Tait the principal axes of bending stress ( 637). Let <f> be a value of <f> satisfying (xi) tlu n
t.ii

we may

write (x)

-$.X)
where
1

ft

The pressure of the finger at the centre of the bottom of a round tin canister (teems to produce a deflection which is far from being an "infinitely small fraction " of the thickness and which might I think be fairly discerned by the ordinary theory.

406

THOMSON AND

TAIT.

[1703
synclastic

1704
stress.

Thomson and Tait now term ^(L + M) a

Clearly this term gives the in the plane of the plate.
;

stress-couple round every line On the other hand they term H an anticlastic stress clearly the terms in the stress- couples due to H are such that they change sign without alteration of magnitude

same

when <f> is increased by a right-angle. If the axes of x and y be the principal axes of bending stress then clearly the condition for a pure synclastic stress is that L = M, or for a pure anticlastic
stress that

L=

M,

i.e.

the principal stress-couples

with the same or opposite signs respectively. 325 and 453.

must be equal Compare our Arts.

In 644 our authors deduce from purely statical considera[1703.] tions the general equation connecting the couples Z, M, and the forces applied to any small element of the plate. This amounts in the notation of our Art. 384 to

j-jdor

-57- +

dxdy

-j-j-

=Z +

dX"
jdx

dT"
=

...............

dy*

ay

(xm).

Thomson and Tait do not

load,

distinguish between body-forces and surfacehow far the existence of the normal force Z' is consistent or inconsistent with the assumptions (a) that the stress is supposed zero 634 (1)), and (b) that the whole thickness of the ( Further they introduce shearing plate remains unchanged ( 633 (3)). stresses a, /?, perpendicular to the mid-plane of the plate, which seem 639 and equation directly excluded by their 634, (1), from which (3) of their present investigation indirectly flows.

nor do they investigate

a homogeneous quadratic function of the three curvaAssuming we can write down at once the equation for ture-components r, 8 and the normal deflection of an aeolotropic plate. This is more general than our result (v) of Art. 385, which may be at once obtained from Equations (ix) and (xiii) above. But the authors do not shew how the six flexural rigidities of the aeolotropic plate are to be determined in terms of the 2 1 elastic constants.
,

In 6458 we have a discussion of the boundary-conditions [1704.] a thin plate. The authors point out the contradiction between Poisson and Kirch hoff, and then proceed to reconcile their conclusions. This is the famous Thomson and Tait "reconciliation" to which we have
for

had repeated occasion to refer when discussing Poisson, Saint-Venant, Kirchhoff and Boussinesq see our Arts. 488*, 394 and 1239, 1522-4. It has been so fully explained in our Arts. 488* and 394, and the
:

precedence of our authors so fully acknowledged by Boussinesq, that there is no need to discuss the subject further here.

1705]

THOMSON AND

TAIT.

407

649-653 deal with the case of a finite or infinite [1705.] The material of the plate plate symmetrically strained round a point. iThe authors only investigate that part of -upposed to be isotropic. the shift of points on the mid-plane which is perpendicular to the

Their results are therefore far less complete than those of our 328-37. They give the couple L per unit length of a cylindrical surface of radius r, whose generators are perpendicular to the mid-plane,
plane.
^.

the axis of the couple being a tangent to the trace of the mid-plane on the cylindrical surface and they further give the value of the total shear S per unit-length of the same surface parallel to the generators. They do not, however, give the radial shift or the stresses in the material of the plate see our Arts. 329-31. Let Z' We the force applied normally to the plate per unit area of the Then for an isotropic plate we have by our Art. 385 mid-plane.
: : :

d rl d

dw

Call the right

hand
*

side Z'lA, then the solution is

w=

[^jrdrl^jrf'dr

+ \C (log 7- -

2 1) r

+ j-CV

+ C"logr+C""
where C,

.................. (ii),

fl", C" and C"' are undetermined constants. be the plate-modulus Further, L and S are given, if

of our Arts.

323 and 385, by:

dw
d*w

dw

and

or

(v).

The expression for L follows at once by substituting the isotmpie values of the constants in the results (ix) of our Art. 1699 and taking the axis of a; to coincide with the radius r. The expression for has been previously considered in our work (see our Art. 1536). Thomson and Tait do not apparently recognize that with their previous aystimp >' 01 -I to be zero. They appeal in fact to the "general theory of elasticity" (see 633-4), lmt on the Kasjs of that general theory their solution is only accurate provided BtfMMi like 7r, *?, p7, or in this case st and rr, are zero, or negligible as compared with the other stresses. The relative order of the stresses and the conditions under \\hnh we neglect certain of them in the cano of a thin plate form one of tho
1

it.

408

THOMSON AND

TAIT.

[17061707

most delicate investigations in the whole theory of elasticity: see our Arts. 385-8, 1438-40. Yet after an investigation which really depends for its accuracy on the neglect of the shearing stress and the normal stress 7r, we are confronted by the introduction without remark of

s
and of Z' equal presumably to (72) +e - (^)Clearly if ^ and Tz are not zero the statements 633 (2) and 634 (1) are only approximations, and we must shew in calculating the strain-energy (see our Art. 1699) that the terms due to these stresses are negligible. This in most cases is probably the fact, but the difficulties of the investigation do not seem effectively brought out by our authors' mode of investiFor the value of ^ in a special case see our Arts. 329-30. gation. Assuming our authors' conclusions to be correct, we have ( 649)
.

$C'(A+c)-C"(A-c)^
IrZ'dr

(vi),

S=-r

-C-..
r

...(vii).

Our authors give an interesting investigation of the [1706.] physical meaning of the various terms in the solution expressed by and (vii), ( 651), and then work out the following interesting (ii), (vi) problems, for the special analysis of which we must refer our readers to
the Treatise
:

The symmetrical flexure of a circular annulus acted upon by (a) any given bending couples and shearing forces distributed uniformly round the outer and inner edges ( 652).
The same annulus acted upon in the same manner with the (b) addition of any load symmetrically spread over its area. The solution In 655 our authors indiis indicated for a special case only ( 653). cate the solution of the circular plate problem for the case of nonThis problem had been completely solved by symmetrical loading. Clebsch some years earlier in his Treatise: see our Arts. 1380-2.

Two further paragraphs .( 654 and 656) in the authors' [1707.] treatment of plates deserve special notice. Let Z' (x, y) be the load on a plate at the point .r, y, then the form of the plate equation for an isotropic material is
:

+ ^L\

w=

'

x y)/A
,

(see our Art. 399).

1708]

THOMSON AND

TAIT.

409

particular integral,

w0j

of this

is

",

y") log/?',
8

where

R = J(x - x? + (y - yj and R = ^(a;" - a')

is

+ (y" -

y').

The

solution

thus thrown back on the complete integral of

Returning to the results (iv) of our Art. 1 699, let us suppose [1 708.] the material subjected to a unifonn anticlastic curvature (Art. 1702), = ^fs. = 0, and therefore obtained by putting L = Hence if a rectangle with its sides parallel to the axes of x and y were to have its edges subjected to the uniform couple (see figure of our Art. 1699), there would be anticlastic curvature and a deflection given ((iv), Art. 1699) by

a couple may be replaced the couple per unit length of the by a distribution of shearing force. edge may be replaced by shearing forces \P and \P at infinitely small distances from each other and such that P = \N. These will cancel each other except at the corners, where from each edge we shall have a force Thus we have the case of a rectangular /, or P as a whole. to normal forces /*, P at the ends of one diagonal and subjected plate normal forces - P, P at the ends of the other diagonal. Such a system of force therefore produces uniform anticlastic curvature in the plate and a deflection from the mid-point given by
reconciliation

Now by Thomson and Tait's

'

3P
In the case of isotropy,/*=/n, the slide-modulus. Clearly the shifts in this case are given by (iv) of our Art. 1699 as

3P

3P

3P

Turning to our Art. 29, we see that these results exactly correspond to the torsion of a very thin rectangular prism, i.e. if in the results of that > article we neglect c/6, write M^2bP, and therefore take r = 3/ /(8/c*) l and c being respectively /A an<l <. Thus the breadth of our plate we see that uniform anticlastic cui\:itun s |.r..luced in a ij 26,
j

Tli-uusoi, ;.M.| Tan thin plate by torsion. t the flexure and torsion problems later
(

ivtum
lity
<>t

t.
:

this identical case

71' 23
is

see our
]>lat<

Art
in

as a means of determining the tl* \ the slide modulus, a determination which

i

tin

necessary

in tin -ir

1713) terms of mode of

FT

n.

27

410

THOMSON AND
:

TAIT.

[1709

approaching the plate problem see our Art. 1698. The investigation is one of very considerable suggestiveness and great physical interest. In 657 the authors remark
:

Few problems of physical mathematics are more curious than that presented
by the
transition from this solution, founded on the supposition that the greatest deflection is but a small fraction of the thickness of the plate, to the solution for larger flexures, in which corner portions will bend approximately as developable surfaces in fact), and a central quadrilateral part (cylindrical, will remain infinitely nearly plane and thence to the extreme case of an infinitely thin perfectly flexible rectangle of inextensible fabric.
;

Unfortunately, they give no analysis, nor any suggestion for the mathematical treatment of this case.

The next forty-one articles ( 658-98) of the Treatise [1709.] form a luminous discussion of the general equations of elasticity, which, however, as traversing well-known ground need not detain
us long.

We may draw attention

to the following points

If denote the "whole amount of work done per unit of (a) volume in any part of the body while the substance in this part experiences a strain (sx) sy sz <ryz a-^, cr^ from some initial state regarded as a state of no strain", then
,
, ,

dW =
Upon

dsx + yydsy +

^dsz + ydcryz +
make

Txda-zy. 4- ^ydar^y.

this result our authors

which I believe had not been clearly expressed too often been disregarded since:

the following weighty statement, before, and which has

This equation, as we shall see later, under Properties of Matter [alas /], expresses the work done in a natural fluid, by distorting stress (or difference of pressure in different directions) working against its innate viscosity and is then, according to Joule's discovery, the dynamic value of the heat generated in the process. The equation may also be applied to express the work done in straining an imperfectly elastic solid, or an elastic solid of which the temperature varies during the process. In all such applications the stress will depend partly on the speed of the straining motion, or on the varying temperature, and not at all, or not solely, on the state of strain at any moment, and the system will not be dynamically conservative

671).

An attempt has been made by the Editor of the present volume to form the generalised equations of elasticity when the speed of the see the Proceedings of the straining motion is taken into account London Mathematical Society, Vol. xx., pp. 297-350. London, 1889.
:

There are a (b) to be regarded. " when brought to

number of definitions in these paragraphs which ought

any one
perfectly elastic body is defined as a body which, state of strain, requires at all times the

1709]

THOMSON AND
;

TAIT.

411

same stress to hold it in this state however long it be kept strained, or however rapidly its state be altered from any other strain, or from no
strain,

to

the strain in question".

Here the
*

effect of

variation of
'

temperature is neglected in the theoretical perfectly elastic body, but our authors point out that " by making the changes of strain quickly enough to prevent any sensible equalization of t< mperature by conduction or radiation," or again " by making them slowly enough to allow the temperature to be maintained sensibly constant ", the perfectly elastic body of theory finds close approximations among natural bodies

The
is

first

clear statement of the relation of thermal effect to strain

:

due to Sir William Thomson

see our Art. 1631.

In 673 we have the expression of (c) (see (a) above) as a quadratic function of the strain- components, and the remarks as to Boscovich's theory, which we have criticised in other parts of our History: see Arts. 924* 928*, 276 and 299.
the dilatation- and slide- moduli, or the of an isotropic solid, are defined as the bulkmodulus and the rigidity in 680. There seems some objection to the latter word as the term Jlexural rigidity has been widely used in

F=

(d)

What we have termed

2ft),

(3X -h

and the

ft

quite a different sense, i.e. in the cases of a beam and of a plate, where its value has on the multiconstant theory no direct relation to the slide-modulus ft. The reciprocal of the bulk-modulus is termed the Thomson and Tait use the letter n for our ft, the letter compressibility. =J k for our It follows for our X + ft. (3X + 2/x) and the letter = 9nk/(3k + n) and our 17, the stretch -squeeze ratio, that our = ^ (3k 2n)/(3& + 7*). Moduli expressed in terms of k and n are generally more complex than when expressed in terms of X and ft, but

F E

k has a more direct physical signification than X. Young's modulus, our stretch-modulus, is identified in 686 with "what we also sometimes call... longitudinal rigidity". This I venture to think completes the confusion which has hitherto been attached to the word rigidity
1
.

The criticisms of uniconstancy in 684-5, for the reasons often (e) cited in this History, do not seem to me to carry conviction with them see our Arta 921*-933*, 192, 196, 1201, 1212 and 1273.
:

1 In a footnote to thin paragraph occurs the slip concerning the stretch-modulus of ice to which I have referred in Art 872*, footnote. It should be noted that if a perfect fluid might be compared with an elastic solid for which the slide-modulus TO, hut the dilatation-coefficient X finite, then the stretch-modulua would also be zero ; but if a column of the material were placed in a cylindrical vessel with would be rigid sides and stretched by a traction T, the corresponding stretch T/X. In this case, owing to the vanishing of n. the dilatation-modulus wouM uch a material is illustrated by also be X. The phenomenon of th< the fact that even a column of water will, if air-free, bear a pull of many atmospheres If in the a fluid be compre**il>l. before rtiptur. leant degree, then a column will resist stretching, if it be given lateral support. The water rope ' paradox
-.

thus finds an elastic analogue.

272

412

THOMSON AND

TAIT.

[17101711

699-710 deal with Saint- Ven ant's Torsion Problem: [1710.] Our authors treat of the application of consee our Arts. 17-60.
jugate functions to the torsion of prisms and indicate their application to the case of cross-sections in the form of annular sectors ( 710). The method itself is due to Clebsch (see our Art. 1 348 (e)\ and the suggested application has been later fully worked out by
see our Art. 285. 705 a hydrokinetic analogue to the torsion problem is given, which differs, however, materially from that of Boussinesq published some years later: see our Art. 1430.
:

Saint- Venant

In

It runs as follows

Conceive a liquid of density p. completely filling a closed infinitely box of the same shape within as the given elastic prism and of length unity, and let a couple be applied to the box in a plane
light prismatic

The effective moment of inertia of the perpendicular to its length. liquid will be equal to the correction by which the torsional rigidity of the elastic prism calculated by the false extension of Coulomb's law
to give the true torsional rigidity. Further, the actual shear [i.e. slide] of the solid, in any infinitely thin plate of it between two normal sections, will at each point be, when reckoned as a differential sliding parallel to their planes, equal to and in the same direction as the velocity of the liquid relatively to the

must be diminished

containing box (705).

of inertia" the authors understand that of effective moment a rigid solid fixed within the box, which if the liquid were removed would make the motions of the box the same as when it contained

By

"

liquid.

The reader

will find it of interest to

compare Thomson and

especially in reference to the insight both throw on the position of the fail-point, as in general the point on the contour nearest the axis see our Arts. 23 and
:

Tait's analogue with Boussinesq's,

1430.

Another important matter in our authors' discussion [1711.] of Saint- Venant's torsion problem is contained in the following
words of
710:

A solid of any elastic substance, isotropic or aeolotropic, bounded by any surfaces presenting projecting edges or angles, or re-entrant angles or edges, however obtuse, cannot experience any finite stress or strain
in the neighbourhood of a projecting angle (trihedral, polyhedral, or conical) ; in the neighbourhood of an edge, can only experience

simple

1711]

THOMSON AND

TAIT.

413

longitudinal stress parallel to the neighbouring pail of the edge ; and generally experiences infinite stress and strain in the neighbourhood of a re-entrant edge or angle; when influenced by any distribution of force, exclusive of surface-tractions infinitely near the angles or edges in question. An important application of the last part of this statement is the practical rule, well known in mechanics, that every rering edge or angle ought to be rounded to prevent risk of rupture, in solid pieces designed to bear stress.

The
proof

writers

remark that want of space obliges them

formal proof.

to leave

this statement without

certain portion of the

may be

demonstration
difficult.

given readily as follows, although the general in the case of a polyhedral angle might be

Consider an edge of a solid bounded by two planes meeting in a taken as axis of z. Further let two parallel planes be taken perpendicular to the edge cutting off a wedge-shaped portion of the edge. It the planes be taken very close together and we deal only with a very
line

small portion of the wedge in the immediate neighbourhood of the edge, the variation of the stresses with z may be neglected as compared with their variations with regard to r and <, polar coordinates in the If 2a be the angle of the wedge and < angular face of the wedge. be measured from the angular bisector, the most general expressions for the radial and cross- radial shifts and for the dilatation will be found to be:

w = 2 \Cm
v

>

cos
{

m'<j>

Dm
-

sin

iri<f>\

rm

'~ l

+2

w _ 2 cos (m - 2)
m'<t>

$+

= 2 \D m

cos

- Cm

sin m'<f>} r

J/m _ 8 sin (m
'~ l

1 2) <} r"

'1
,

+ 2{vm _, (3/m _ 2 cos (w 2)</> -Zr m _ 2 sin (/// = 2 {(mL m _t - (m - 2) v.^L,,^,) cos (m - 2) + (m*m _ s - (m - 2) vm ^Mm .,) sin (m - 2) *} r"
<f>

where

vm
-

and m, m,
I'V

Cm t m t L m _ tt m _ z an- arbitrary constants to be determined the surface conditions, i.e., the values of the stresses over (i) the surfaces <f> = a and, </> = - a, and over (ii) a cylindrical surface of small radius about the axis of z, giving the internal stresses in the body at The latter stresses PP, small distances from the edge. will be of
<

tin-

form

414

THOMSON AND
,

TAIT.

[1712

where the values of the constants ap 6p a p and b'p are supposed are according to Thomson and Tait known. The former stresses ^,
,

to be zero in the neighbourhood of the edge, i.e. to vanish with r. By forming from (i) the expressions for 7r and Zj> w e find from

that

and

ra

-2

will both be of the

form

(ii)

and that accordingly

2. Hence powers of r of the order a in order that the stresses may not become infinite at the angle we must have

both Zr and

Z$

will involve

pir
or, since from
(ii)

>

2a,

the least value of

will be unity,

2a<7r.

Thus the

stress at the edge will not be finite if the edge be re-entering. taking the tangent to any point of a curved edge as axis of z, we may apply the above analysis to any small portion in the immediate neighbourhood of its point of contact. very similar proof holds in the case of a conical angle. and The condition that over <f> = + a, are to vanish in the , neighbourhood of the edge, compels us to give zero values to any constant terms in the expressions for 7r and ^. Hence the strain vanishes in the neighbourhood of the edge, if it be a projecting edge. This is the first part of Thomson and Tait's proposition.

By

711-718 deal with the problem of flexure. In a [1712.] " Saint- Venant's solution marginal note, this treatment is spoken of as of flexure problem ". But the problem to which reference is made is not that of the great memoir of 1856 (see our Art. 69), but that much " circular flexure," or of bending a straight rod into a simpler case of circular arc by couples, which is dealt with in the memoir on Torsion see our Arts. 9-13, 170. (pp. 299-304) and in the Legons de Navier In this case if the rod be of isotropic material, and if z be the direction of the unstrained axis, xz the plane of bending and 1/p the curvature
:

after bending

**

=
-<l

xxx
,

= *-,

= --,

p
Ve

=
:

"c

= Vxy = 0.

Whence we have

for the shifts

U = 7r{ z2 +
2p

rl(

x*~y*)}>
:

= -W>
p

w = --xz,
p

and therefore

for the stresses

^_^

zz

Ex
P

^, and xx =

yy

^=

*yz

_^
zx

^^ xy

0.

1713]

THOMSON AND TAIL

4-15

shifts corresjKmd in the case of a rectangular cross-section to the distorted form depicted in our Art. 1485*, the under-edge of the section corresponding to the outer side of the beam after flexure, and the axis of x being positive when measured towards the upper edge The anticlastic nature of the curvature of the section in our figure. on the faces of the beam perpendicular to the plane of flexure is obvious. Since the usual mathematical theory of elasticity assumes that measured from the same set of axes, the shifts are small, it is clear that the radius of curvature must be great compared with x and y, i.e. with both the depth and breadth of the beam. This is a point to which we have frequently had to refer in cases where the theory of beams has been applied to the case of cylindrical shells see our Thomson and Tait remark (717) that Arts. 537 and 1555.
:

The above

Unhappily mathematicians have not hitherto succeeded in solving, possibly not even tried to solve, the beautiful problem thus presented by the flexure of a broad very thin band (such as a watchspring) into a circle comparable with a third proportional to its thickness and its breadth.

An ingenious application of the results in Art. 1708 is 719-20 to obtain the flexural rigidities of a plate of isotropic Take a square element of the plate of unit side and suppose material. Let pairs of balancing couples NI the thickness of the plate to be 2. be applied to one pair of opposite sides, and pairs t to the other pair of opposite sides, each tending to produce concavity in the same sense. = ^E^/p and N^^Efjp. Hence by the Then we easily see that results of the preceding article, if v and r2 be the total curvatures
[1713.]
in

made

=
3

\v.,
:

If to be the strain-energy of the plate per unit area of mill-plane,

c

assumed a quadratic function of v,, the flexural rigidities we have

'
'

(see

our Art. 1698) and A' and

whence

= dw/dv = A'v + cVa

l
l

3(1

17*)

difl

These results agree with those given l.\ Kiivhhi.il ess: see our Arts. 1237 and 1296.
-i

i.y

aid of a very

So termed by our authors, notwithstanding that they have previously defined

'

rigidity

with reference to resistance to shearing action

see our Art. 1709,

(d).

416
[1714.]
elastic

THOMSON AND
724-9 deal
with

TAIT.

[1714

1715

what we have termed "the

equivalence

with special

of statically equipollent systems of load ", reference, however, to Thomson and Tait's reconIt is

ciliation of the Kirchhoff

a thin
applied

plate.

and Poisson boundary conditions for shewn that systems of forces in equilibrium

elementary lengths of the edge of a plate produce shifts at a distance two or three times the the edge. These investigations take as their starting-point Saint- Venant's solution for the torsion of a flat
to

only thickness from

insensible

prism of rectangular cross-section.

the

They

are a necessary part of

and a valuable contribution to our knowledge of the exact meaning of the above-mentioned At the same time we shall not principle of elastic equivalence. discuss them further here, as the whole matter has been investigated at a later date with rather more complete results by Boussinesq, and these results have been already cited in our
reconciliation

Thomson and Tait

Chapter XIII.
[1715.]
shift

730-4 deal with the solution of the general body-

equations of elasticity with certain special applications. Lame*, as we have pointed out, first introduced the potential solution into the theory of elasticity see our Arts. 1062* and 1489. But
:

to

Thomson and Tait belongs the honour

;

of having indicated its

applications, which have been carried out with and Boussinesq see our Arts. 1486Cerruti great ingenuity by
:

wide applications
1524.

Without entering into the

authors
obtain their solutions

we may,

elegant analysis by which our in our own notation

for

and

terminology, record their results

the important cases

with which they deal.

Let a spherical element (radius a) of an infinite homogeneous (a) isotropic elastic solid be subjected to the constant body-forces pX, pY,
pZ, so that the type of body-shift equation
is
:

Then Thomson and

1

Tait find shifts of the type

w,

1716]

THOMSON AND

TAIT.

417

d p(Xx+Yy + Zz]
dx
i*
is its

where the centre of the spherical element is at the origin and r distance from the point at which we are measuring the shift

medium subjected to the body-forces X', Y', Z at a/, y', z'. Let R = [x - x')* + (y - y'T + (z - *'?}*, and let the body forces be such that R*J'X* + Y* + Z* approaches zero as the point x' y', z moves to an infinite distance from the origin. Then the type
an
1

From the second of the above results our authors easily deduce, (6) by making a vanishingly small, expressions for the shifts at x, y, z in
infinite
elastic

of the shifts

is

given by

-(X + M )^
where p'F = {p'X (x - x')+p
f

......

(iii),

T(y- y')+p'& (z - z')}/JK, or is the body-force

y

resolved in the line joining x', y', z' to x y, be extended over the whole portion of the force is applied ( 731).

z.

The

integration
to

medium

must which body-

[1716.]
for

an

As the authors point out, the above general solutions (c) infinite solid enable us to reduce the body-shift equations for a
the type
:

finite solid to

Ifi

where the body-forces have been removed by aid of a solution of the above type and by imposing the needful surface-stresses or surface-shifts
(

732).
(d)

If the body-forces form a conservative system, or

p(Xdx+ Ydy + Zdz)^,n\\

it is

pointed out in

733 that they give

rise to

a dilatation

a nl that
i

the shifts which remove the body-forces are then of the tyj>e

where x
i

dx
W.
If

a solution of

Vx=,

ir=2^, W
2

being a solid

spherical harmonic of degree

then x =
cited

-S

,^

>

Wt

733).

The

remai!.-

in

kbfl

article

on conservative systems are of

great interest and should be consulted

418
[1717.]
(i)

THOMSON AND
In

TA1T.

[1717
:

1718

735-9 two important general cases are solved

The

to given surface-stresses or to given surface-shifts already been dealt with in our discussion of the

strain in a solid sphere or spherical shell subjected either these problems have
:

memoir of 1862
in

see

our Arts. 1651-5.

(ii)

coordinates.

The general solution for uniplanar strain The values given for the radial and

terms of polarshifts

cross-radial

agree with those of our Art. 1711 in other symbols and with other expressions for the four series of constants of the solution.

few remarks must suffice to [1718.] features of this portion of the Treatise.

indicate the remaining

In 740 a general proposition of importance is stated. The (a) authors draw attention to the fact that if two elastic solids of like substance and similar shapes be taken, and by the application of force they be similarly strained, then the stresses across similarly situated elements either of real boundary or of geometrical surface within the The total stresses across any similar surfaces substance will be equal. are accordingly as the squares of the linear dimensions of the two bodies, but any similar body-forces or the mass-accelerations are as the Hence it follows that the greater body cubes of the linear dimensions. The strains at similar points will be simply will be the more strained. as the linear dimensions, while the shifts at similar points will be as the squares of the linear dimensions. Analytically we may look at this result in the following manner. Taking the body-stress equations we see, since the body-forces per unit volume are the same, and since the bodies are similar, that the stresses must be as the linear dimensions. Therefore the strains, since the bodies are of the same elastic substance, are also in the ratio of the linear dimensions, while the shifts are as the squares of those dimensions.
In 741 our authors adopt the term plasticity for that group of (b) phenomena, wherein bodies change indefinitely and continuously their shape under the action of continued stress. This is the sense in which the word has been used in our History. They further describe under " the term viscosity of solids a distinct frictional resistance against every change of shape" which they say has been demonstrated by many indiaexperiments (" on metals, glass, porcelain, natural stones, wood, " found rubber, homogeneous jelly, silk fibre, ivory, etc.") and has been to depend on the speed with which the change of shape is made." They
further state that
:

frictional resistance to change of very remarkable and obvious proof of more or less rapid, shape in ordinary solids is afforded by the gradual, subsidence of vibrations of elastic solids marvellously rapid in india-rubber, and even in homogeneous jelly less rapid in glass and metal springs, but still demonstrably much more rapid than can be accounted for by the
; ;

resistance of the air.

1719

1720]

THOMSON AND TAIL

419

The last statement embodies KupfFer's discovery of 1852: see our Art. 748. The reference to silk suggests Weber's classical experiments: see our Art. 707*. Yet in both these cases the reduction of the amplitude of oscillation was attributed to elastic after-strain. Now it seems
to

me
"

difficult to identify frictional resistance

and

elastic after-strain.

creeping back to the original shape which goes on, it may be for minutes, hours or even days after the removal of the load (see our Arts. 720*, 817*, 827*, 1224*-6, and 1431*), can hardly be due to 1 I have previously referred to the danger of any frictional action real nature of elastic after-strain by the use of the term the masking I think it would be better see our Arts. 708* ftn. and 750. >sity to limit the use of the term viscosity to after-set.
.

The

"

The only other portion 2 of Thomson and Tait's great [1719.] Treatise with which we as elasticians are concerned is contained in
832-48, and deals with the earth as a solid elastic body. great deal of this portion is rewritten with supplementary articles by G. H. Darwin in the second edition, which I follow in this analysis. The problem itself is stated in the following words
:

A few years
was
raised
:

Does the earth

ago [see our Art. 1663], for the first time, the question retain its figure with practically perfect

rigidity, or does it yield sensibly to the deforming tendency of the moon's and sun's attractions on its upper strata and interior mass ? It must yield to some extent, as no substance is infinitely rigid: but whether these solid tides are sufficient to be discoverable by any kind of observation, direct or indirect, has not yet been ascertained [see our

Art. 1726].

832.

[1720.]

The

first

point to be dealt with

is

the limit to the

mathematical theory. This is considered in 832', but in a manner with which the Editor of the present volume cannot The following statements should be express himself satisfied.
noted:
Nature, however, does impose a limit on the stresses if they (a) exceed a limit the elasticity breaks down, and the solid either flows (as in the punching or crushing of metals) or ruptures (as when glass or stone breaks under excessive tens;
:

1 A curious example of elastic after-strain, which some of oar readers may have remarked, occurs occasionally with razors. A razor which seems by rough or uual usage to have quite lost its sharpness, will frequently, if laid aside for a few weeks, be found quite capable of again performing its functions after this lapoc

of time.
* An Appendix reproduces the Appendix to Sir William 1868: see our Arts. 1661 and 1250.

Thomson

memoir

of

THOMSON AND
(6)

TAIT.

[1720
658, 663, &c.,

The theory of

elastic solids as

developed in

shews that when a solid is stressed, the state of stress is completely determined when the amount and direction of the three principal stresses are known, or, speaking geometrically, when the shape, size, and orientation
of the stress-quadric
solid to rupture
is

given.

It is obvious that the

tendency of the
of this

must be intimately connected with the shape

quadric.

The precise circumstances under which elastic solids break have (c) It seems not hitherto been adequately investigated by experiment. certain that rupture cannot take place without difference of stress in One essential element therefore is the difference different directions.
between the greatest and least of the three principal stresses. much the tendency to break is influenced by the amount of the mediate principal stress is quite unknown.

How
inter-

Now throughout the investigation the stress- difference is calculated from the elastic theory, and therefore the very important assumption appears to be made that the elastic theory holds
to tbe beginning of plasticity or even to rupture. This is far from being borne out, except for very special materials, by experimental facts see our Vol. I., pp. 891-3. The stress-quadric as found from "the mathematical theory of elastic solids" can only be used in discussing the limit to perfect elasticity, i.e. to a linear stress-strain relation. At the same time we have seen in the course of our work that it is rather a value of stretch than of stress which ought to fix a limit to the application of the mathematical theory. The stretch-quadric may determine the fail-limit (see our Arts. 5 (e) and 169 (#)) but it is very doubtful whether we have any right to associate this fail-limit with the

up

rupture-limit.

In the next place the statements quoted do not seem to me to clearly mark the distinction between materials which flow previously to rupture, and those which do not. material be one which flows, is it clear that
stress

Nor
it will

further, if the
in all cases of

have the power of doing

so.

It is well

experiments that flow commences in maximum shear (or half the difference between the greatest and see our least of the principal stresses) reaches a certain value
:

known from Tresca's a plastic solid when the

Arts. 1368*, 259 and 1586. But the general equations of plasticity (see our Art. 250) are not those of mathematical elasticity, and it is the latter equations which are applied by Thomson and

1720]

THOMSON AND

TAIT.

421

Tail and Darwin to the present problem. That the equations of mathematical elasticity hold up to flow is not borne out by the

simple
traction

phenomenon
:

of stricture
I.,

in

a bar under longitudinal

see our Vol.

pp. 889-91.

Even

if plasticity

followed

at once on linear elasticity, it does not seem justifiable to apply the plastic condition to rupture, which follows, if at all, long after

been established and linear elasticity disappeared. Further, the theory that rupture depends only on the maximum stress-difference leads us to the conclusion that neither a plastic
plasticity has

nor a brittle material, if subjected to a strain in which the principal stresses are all three equal will ever give way. It may be inconceivable

that any

amount

of uniform

pressure applied

to

the

Mirface of a solid sphere of isotropic material would cause it to rupture, but it is also very difficult to believe that a uniform
its surface, would not, were it produce rupture. To hold that such a tension would not produce rupture seems to involve the assertion that intermolecular force is not only infinitely great at an infinitely

tension, if

it

could be applied to

indefinitely increased,

small distance, but also at some finite distance.

it

If this

were

true,

grasp how even a shear of a certain amount could cause the molecules of the material to permanently

would be

difficult to

separate by sliding over each other for such a slide is accompanied by a finite separation of the molecules in the direction of one of
;

the principal axes of the

that

slide.

To sum up

it

seems to

me

we may

maximum

legitimately find a "fail-limit" by the condition of stretch, and that when the material is such that it

a very high-elastic limit (e.g. hard steel), we may look upon the fail-points or fail-surfaces as those at which, in the present state of our knowledge, rupture will probably take place. I
think, that the

maximum
we

stress-difference does not give a limit

which can be safely applied to

elasticity, and, if

the
it

mathematical theory of

as a rupture limit, it ought only to be applied to plastic materials which are being dealt with by the general equations of plasticity. This is, I think, the use

are to take

which Boussinesq practically makes of it, when applying it to the problem of loose earth gee our Arts. 1568, 1586 and 1594. The n mainder of 832 is a r&um^of O. H. Darwin's memoir: On the Stresses caused in the Interior of the Earth by the Weight of /'/,//. TVon*., V,.]. 17:!. Part Continents and ,V pp. 187:

422

THOMSON AND

TAIT.

[1721
this

230. London, 1882. The discussion of the results of would carry us beyond the scope of the present chapter.

paper

Chree in a very valuable memoir entitled Some [1721.] Applications of Physics and Mathematics to Geology (Philosophical Magazine, Vol. 32, pp. 233-52 and 342-53. London, 1891) has
:

dealt with the application of the mathematical theory of elasticity He states some imto the problem of strains in a solid earth.

portant objections to the application of the theory of an isotropic elastic solid to physico-geological problems. These must be noted
of the
here, so far as they qualify the problem of the elastic solid tides The following causes have to be considered as earth.
:

1 the contributing to the deformation of the earth's surface mutual gravitation of its parts, 2 the centrifugal acceleration produced by the diurnal rotation about its axis, 3 the gravitational

influence of the sun and moon.

We

may

express the action of the last two causes by the following

:

force-function

F= p
=p
where

i<oV + i*>V (I - cos2 <) - f

2

r2 (i

- cos 2

{ror

rr2 ( J

- cos2 *) - T V ( J - cos2 ^)}

= the density of a> = the spin of the earth about its polar axis, p the earth at distance r from its centre, <f> = the angle the direction r makes with the polar axis, ty = the angle the same direction makes with = the the line from the centre of the earth to the tide-raising body, its central distance, and TO T, r are written mass of the latter body, 2 2 for J<u |o> and \M\IP respectively. Clearly if the terra ^o>V be put on one side, as only producing a radial extension, the effects of rotation and of the tide-producing body can be deduced, the one from the other, T', and the line of centres with the polar axis. by interchanging T and The solution therefore for the case of the body- tides in an isotropic elastic sphere can be deduced from the results of our Arts. 563 and 568. The first type of force, that due to mutual gravitation, leads to some difficulties in the treatment. Suppose the sphere in a state of strain owing to spin or tide to be converted into the spheroid r = a (1 + 21^), Then the internal stress due Yi being a surface harmonic of degree i. to mutual gravitation will be partly due to "the attraction of the " harmonic inequalities which produce a potential

or,

1722]

THOMSON AND

TA1T.

if g be the mean value of gravity over the surface neglecting tJte > and partly due to surface-stresses on the spherical surface r = a caused by the action of the harmonic inequalities. In the case of an incomjuv.ssible viscous fluid thej-.e stresses reduce to a surface-traction due to th- weight of the harmonic inequalities, i.e. to a surface-traction = gpaSt Y Darwin has shewn that in the case of an incompressible
t
.

we may replace this surface-traction together with the attraction of the harmonic inequalities by potential due to gravitational " an " effective potential
\i-rous fluid,

According to Thomson and Tait, Darwin's analysis is "almost literatim But the applicable to the case of an elastic incompressible spheroid." hypothesis of incom possibility is scarcely justified in the case of the earth. Further, this result, unlike the above expression (i) for /', necessarily supposes p to be a constant.

Chree in an important memoir in the Cambridge Philoso[1722.] phical Transactions (Vol. xiv., pp. 278-86. Cambridge, 1888) has worked out the shifts produced by the mutual gravitation of a nearly spherical r mass, of which the boundary may be represented by r = a(l +21 ,). For the purposes of our present discussion it will be sufficient to deal 2 with his results (p. 280) for the case in which i=2, and 7a = Q-cos <), the boundary of the gravitating mass is a spheroid of ellipticity e. In our notation (Art 568) he finds for the shifts, u lt v l l
,

""

< a JP

fr

10

(A

SX + 3\ +

G/tl

2,xJ

(ii).

The

shifts in

j>erfect

sphere due to a force- function of the form

9 '),

F = p(Tf* + r*Y
are easily found
(

if

r,'

= (J-cos4>),
:

'In.

'H

from our Art 568, or better still from p. 287 of Camb. Phil. Trans, paper cited above, to be of the form 5X + fr
I

(iii).

424

THOMSON AND

TAIT.

[1723 by
^,

Here if TO be put zero, T = r and < replaced shifts in a perfect sphere due to a tide-raising body.

we have

the

Now several important conclusions [1723.] the above results.

may

be drawn from

Consider only the term in ?^ + n 2 tending to produce the same (i) compression of the body along each radius, i.e.

pa
2 o) a g may be practically taken equal to the mean surface value of gt gravitational acceleration, and we then have the following results = u'/r is everywhere negative, but sr = du'/dr will be a positive 84 stretch at the surface, where it equals s Thus we find n being say. the radial shift at the surface
: ' , :

Now

(a)

Uni-constant isotropy,

if
2

E be the stretch-modulus

,_

<7oP

"
fjL/\

(b)

Incompressible substance, or

"

2gQpa
'

15X'

15X
'

the very roughest attempt to turn (a) into numbers shews that u have quite impossible values, if be given a value not largely exceeding that of any known mineral. As Ohree (Philosophical Magazine, loc. cit. pp. 247-8) has been the first to point out, u becomes a large fraction of the earth's radius and the strain s becomes immense, both suppositions entirely inconsistent with the mathematical theory of perfect On elasticity, which supposes the shifts and strains to be both small. the other hand for a nearly incompressible substance (for which JJL is It finite) both the surface shift and strain will be vanishingly small. is difficult, however, with our knowledge of the materials which form the terrestrial crust to suppose that at any rate at the crust X is immensely greater than p those materials approximate more closely to iron and stone than to india-rubber in their nature. It is clear then that the strains produced by gravitation are such that permanent set and probably variations in density would be produced, if the earth were treated simply as an isotropic substance, compressed under the mutual gravitation of its parts. are therefore compelled to suppose that mutual gravitation has produced nearly its full effect before we proceed to investigate the effect of a tide-producing body in directly altering the ellipticity of the earth, or in indirectly altering it by But it will then be altering the form of its mutually attracting parts. at once noticed, that to treat as homogeneous and isotropic the substance of the earth which has consolidated under the enormous stresses

Now

and

'

We

1723]

THOMS.\ AND

TAIT.

425

resulting from the mutual gravitation of its parts is by no means a It must only be adopted as a very rough first satisfactory hypothesis. approximation, and until our knowledge of the arrangement of density
in Ixxlies consolidating under great stresses has advanced beyond its These points do not seem brought out very clearly in present stage. Thomson and Tait's discussion of this matter. Thus in 834 they 2 2 " i.e. only remark of the term ^pwV that its effect is merely a drawing outwards of the solid from the centre symmetrically all round". But this term may have very considerable influence on the magnitude of the stresses. Indeed, the rotational terms as a whole, as Chree has shewn (Phil. Mag. pp. 245-6), lead on Darwin's hypothesis of the maximum .stress-difference to results, under which it is certainly doubtful whether masses of rock or heterogeneous mineral would remain perIt seems, therefore, desirable that the reader manently in equilibrium. should regard these articles of the Treatise on the distortion of the solid earth as replete with suggestions for future investigation, rather than as expressing the definite analytical results of an irreproachable physical

pv

investigation. So far as the terms (ii)

measuring the ellipticity produced by rotation directly and indirectly through the change in the character of mutual gravitation i.e. the terms in T, are concerned, these do not lead

maximum stretch hypothesis to results necessarily incompatible with the elastic straining of an isotropic solid. They are, however, identical in form with those due to tidal action and thus need not detain us here.
on the
(iii)

We
:

now come
that for r

to the
(1

;tnl

we note

=a

terms due solely to the

2 ),

tidal action

the radial shift u"

u,

+M,

is

then

of the form

"" =
This gives at once for the
or
e is

(&?.- A nellipticity
C
e
:

ft-ft-ft,

negative,

i.e.

the spheroid prolate, and of ellipticity

We easily
c

find

=&/(! -&+/?,). on substituting the values of ft, ft and ft:

=
-

I05XV +
+
4ft)

IQSAji*

36/i?)

r'pa* (5X

*"

+ f)/ 5/i(19A+4/t)(3X +
-J

They are obtained from (ii) of putting in the latter r = and - r'
1
I

Art. 1722,
for
r.

and from

(iii)

of the

name

article

by

IT.

||.

1>S

426
[1724.]
(a)

THOMSON AND

TAIT.

[1724

We
e rt

will consider special cases of this result.

Suppose the indirect gravitational influence to be neglected,

c'

then

if

T>
r

(5A + 4^)
'

If be the the form

:

~>(19A + Up) dilatation-modulus = J (3A + 2/x),

'

this

may be thrown

into

which agrees with the second result of (20) in 834. Next let us suppose A = 00 and fi = 0, or that we are dealing (b) with a perfect incompressible fluid. In this case if c' = eg
g

=~.

819 and 839.)

rigidity

Thus

cr

gravitation,
(c)

and & are respectively the ellipticities due to and to gravitation without rigidity.

without

Generally

we have
'

~
,.

fg

2 (5A

+ 4 M ) (3A +
:

'

2,u)

If

we have

uni-constant isotropy (A = /x)

If

we have an incompressible substance

1

(ft/A

0):

_1
r

1
-I . ff

The last relation is stated by Thomson and Tait in 840 as if it were universally true. This is only approximately the fact, as is indicated by the previous case of uniconstant isotropy. For uniconstant isotropy, cr = j\ rp'a2 //x, and for incompressi(d) Since -^=-2727 and T5 = -2632, we see that r =^W Tpa-/ t bility
ji.

the magnitude of the ratio A//A does not exercise a very large influence on the value of cr ( 837). In 838 Thomson and Tait give the value of e,. for a steel ball of the size of the earth. They calculate it on the 4 supposition that steel is incompressible and find for its value 77 x 10 r. It would, perhaps, be better to suppose the steel mass to possess uniconstant isotropy. In that case a closer value would be 79 x 10 4 .T'. The value of eg is found in 839 to be 162xl0 4 .r'. Thus from we see that the tides have somewhat less effect supposing the earth (c) as rigid as steel indirectly through the changes they make in gravitational action between the parts of the earth, than directly through the gravitational action of sun or moon. Approximately for steel cg = 2^ For e about and e c' =
.

^Cp.

glass

841).

1725]

THOMSON AND TAIL

427

are now able to estimate the influence of the elastic [1725.] strain of a solid earth of uniform density on the superficial water-tides.

We

Disregarding the diurnal rotation the equation to the form of the prolate spheroid that would be assumed by the solid earth is r =a(l -'}'..') This produces a potential at a point outside itself given by :

Thus neglecting the

will

have

for its level surface

self -attraction of the superficial coating of water, it under tidal attraction

:

g
This
is

a l

_ g
*

'

7; _ T

7,'

constant.

clearly a prolate spheroid of ellipticity e" given

by

Hence the

difference of ellipticity
:

between the

solid

earth

and the

superficial fluid is

= "- '=
If

-f' = (-'), by
2

(6)

of Art. 1724.

we

write v for the expression

2 f (10A + ISA/* + of Art. 1724
:

6/x )/(5X

4/x)

(3X +

2/i),

we

find

by

(c)

g For the case of an incompressible

C
-

solid v
-

+ Vf =

1,

and we have

g _r'a 9 9 *g + r which agrees with Thomson and Tait's result in numbers (Art. 1724) for steel tg - 2^ whence

842.

In rough

-4'
Thus,
if

the earth were as rigid as steel, its elastic yielding would reduce the height of the tide to about of its value as calculated from a If tintheory in whidi the earth is supposed to be absolutely rigid. earth had only the rigidity of glass (c - f < P about), then the tide would be decreased by as much as J of its value on the absolutely rigid Thomson and Tait rem:. theory.
in perfect as the comparison between theory and observation as to the actual height <>f tho tides has been hitherto, it is scarcely to believe possible that the height is in reality only two-fifth** of what it would be if, as has been universally assumed in tkbl theories, the earth were perfectly rigid. It seems, than in afforded \i.lcn. rh. therefore, nearly certain. by the tides, the earth must be greater than that of glass
I
i

843).

-2

428
There
is

THOMSON AND

TAIT.

[1720

mind.

a point here which it is important, however, to bear in really deals with the "equilibrium hypothesis", and on that hypothesis there is an admitted lagging of the tides. It is hardly reasonable to suppose that the water and earth tides will lag at the same rate. There is no reason therefore why the major axes of the two prolate spheroids corresponding respectively to water and earth tides should approximately coincide, unless we are dealing with tides of long period, i.e. at least with the fortnightly tides. It is these fortnightly and monthly tides which G. H. Darwin has considered in

The theory

'

detail.

The remaining sections of the Treatise, 844-8, deal with [1726.] evidence deducible from tidal data in favour of earth tides. The evidence is chiefly due to G. H. Darwin, who does not feel, however, that it justifies any very definite statements. He sums up with the remark
:

On the whole we may fairly conclude that, whilst there is some evidence of a tidal yielding of the earth's mass, that yielding is certainly small, and that the effective rigidity is at least as great as that of steel ( 848, Part II., p. 460 of 2nd Edition).
In a
later

paper (Dynamical Theory of the Tides of Long Period :

Vol. 41, pp. 337-42. London, 1886) Society's Proceedings. Darwin raises an objection to Laplace's equilibrium theory, and he concludes from a dynamical theory which neglects friction (p. 342)

Royal

1 That it is not possible to evaluate the effective rigidity of the earth as attempted in the Natural Philosophy from the fortnightly and monthly tides by aid of the equilibrium hypothesis.

2 That the investigation in that work may however be accepted as confirming Sir William Thomson's view of " the great effective rigidity of the whole earth's mass".

That Laplace's theory would hold for the minute tide of nearly 3 nineteen years' period, but that this tide cannot probably be appreciated.
4 That " it does not seem likely that it will ever be possible to evaluate the effective rigidity of the earth's mass by means of tidal observations ".

the text of

With the words cited Thomson and

at the
Tait's

commencement
Treatise closes.

of this article
If occasionally

the analysis adopted does not seem to the present writer free from difficulties, yet the work as a whole made mathematical elasticity

Few works on so much that is have been which elasticity published present to push and in so a desire arouse the reader great suggestive, further the many inquiries which the authors place before him.
a branch of academic instruction in Great Britain.

'27

-172s]
1

sil;

WILLIAM THOMSON.

Gore 's Paper on Electro-torsion. Pliilni.xiv., pp. 560-2. London, 1874. Transaction*, soj, This refers to the twisting observed by Gore, aud previously by \Vi. ik-mann, in an iron wire when magnetised at once longi[1727.]
/,;>-,,?

Note on

Mr

V..1.

-.

An explanation of the twisting is tudinally and circularly. <! rived from the alteration of length in magnetised iron bars The direction of the observed by Joule (see our Art. 688).
resultant magnetisation
critical points
is

inclined to the axis of the wire,

and

so in accordance with Joule's results (for intensities lower than the

found by Shelford Bidwell, Proceedings of the Royal London, 1886 and subsequent L., >ety, pp. 109-133. is a lengthening of the material in this direction there papers) and a contraction in a perpendicular direction. The two strains are equivalent to a torsional strain round the axis. This theory h;i<l been already given by Maxwell though in a less complete form (Electricity and Magnetism, Vol. II., Art. 448. Oxford, 1873).
Vol.
It does not

appear to be accepted by Wiedemann (see Annalen der Physik, Bd. 27, S. 381-2), but it fits in well with a ininilxT of the facts (see Knott Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, Vol.
:

\\xvi, p. 507. Edinburgh, 1892). At the end of the paper it is inferred from the effects of loading observed by Joule (see our Art. 688, (iv)) that with sufficient longitudinal and torsioual
stress the direction of

the twist would be reversed. A reversal been obtained by Shelford Bidwell in high fields London, 1886). (Philosophical Magazine, Vol. XXIL, pp. 251-5.
has in fact

Part VI. Effects [1728.] Electrodynamic Qiuilities of Metals*. on Vol. Stress Phil. ttS, Trans., CLXVI., p] Magnetization. of

An abstract is given pp. 332-53). Vol. Loudon. xxill., Proceedings Royal Society, pp. 445-6. This deals with tin iutlu. 1875 (M. P., Vol. II., pp. 401-3).
in ls77
(.V.
I'..

Vol.

ii.,

in

of longitudinal load on the induced and residual magnetisation Tin- win- was suspended vertically and of steel and iron wins.

magnetised by a current in a -m rounding coil, its magnetic changes being observed by the ballistic method. Tin- earth's vertical magnetic component remained uncompensated during the experiments on r.-Milual magnetisation. Tin- principal n Milts are given
1

owe the following eleven

knowledge of the topics discussed in them is * For the earlier portions of this memoir

articles to the kindnem of Mr C. Chree whose far mure extensive than my o n. see our Arts. 1044-7. :

430
in

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON.

in

[1729

the abstract

Transactions.
(1)

The

Proceedings and on pp. 712-3 of the following are the results given for steel
the
:

The magnetization

is

increased by taking the weights

diminished by hanging on weights, and off, when the magnetizing current is

after the current
is

kept flowing.
(2)
is

The

residual

magnetism remaining

stopped

also diminished by hanging on the weights, them off

and increased by taking

The absolute amount of the difference of magnetization produced (3) by putting on or taking off weights is greater with the mere residual magnetism when the current is stopped, than with the whole magnetism

when

the magnetizing current

is

kept flowing.

of magnetization produced by making the magnet(4) izing current always in one direction and stopping it are greater with the

The changes
off.

weights on than
(5)

and stopped, the effect of making the weights on than off

After the magnetizing current has been made in either direction it in the reverse direction is less with

The difference announced in (5) is a much greater difference (6) than that in the opposite direction between the effects of stopping the current with weights on and weights off, announced in (4).
(7)

less

When the current is suddenly reversed, the magnetic with the weights on than with the weights off.

effect is

These results refer apparently only to a single field, [1729.] C.G.S. units approximately (see p. 696), and to hard steel pianoforte wire under loads from about an eighth to a half of the breaking
123
load.

When

stating

them

Sir

W. Thomson was

not aware of

the

previous observations of Matteucci (see our Art. 705) and Villari (Annalen der Physik, Bd. 126, S. 87-122. Leipzig, 1865). The latter observer had found the induced magnetisation in iron
soft steel to

and some specimens of

be increased or diminished by

Prof. longitudinal pull according as the field was low or high. Ewing has found similar phenomena even in hard pianoforte steel wire (Phil. Trans., Vol. CLXXVI., p. 625. London, 1886). Thus

(1) is true only in fields above the Villari critical field as called, and there is a similar limitation with respect to (2).

it

is

The

critical fields or magnetisations, as Ewing has shewn, depend greatly on the nature of the wire, and are lower the larger the load. The phenomena to which conclusions (3)-(7) refer are also

7:.0

17-S1]

>lu

WILLIAM TIH'MSON.
field

largely
pp.

dependent on the

and the load (see Ewing,

I.e.,

In his experiments on iron Sir W. Thomson 623-630). found what seemed very anomalous results. These find however a satisfactory explanation in the existence of the Villari critical
field,

which he did not recognise

till later.

[1730.]

Effects of Stress on Inductive Magnetism in Soft Iron. R,,,,,,l London, 1875 SocMty, Vol. XXIIL, pp. 473-6.

This records the rediscovery of the P., Vol. ii., pp. 353-7). Villari critical field for soft iron. Observations were made in a of and the are shewn in curves whose results fields, large variety
(M.
abscissae

represent the

fields

magnetisation due

to load, p.

and ordinates 475 (M. P., Vol.

as
to the fields

the
II.,

changes

in

p.

exactness of the information

and the

356). relative

The

magnitudes of the changes in magnetisation in different fields mark a great advance from the somewhat vague data previously
existent.

Part VII. Effects of Electrodynamic Qualities of Metals. Magnetization of Iron, Xirkel, and Cobalt. Phil. Trans., Vol. CLXX., pp. 55-85. London, 1880 (M. P., Vol. n., pp. 358-395). An abstract occurs in Proceedings Royal Society, Vol. xxvii., pp. 439443. London, 1878 (M. P., Vol. n., pp. 403-7). This commences with a reference to Villari's discovery of a critical field. It then describes,
[1731.]
*

on

the

pp. .">6-63 (M. P., Vol. n., pp. 359-69), experiments determining how the The effect of tension on a soft iron wire depends on the temperature.

"" iniii. in diameter, received a small wire, permanent stretch under a load of 18 Ibs. and was then subjected to cycles of load on and off with a load of 14 Ibs. Experiments were made in a series of fields
c.G.s. units. In each field loading and unloading were repeated until the changes of magnetisation became cyclic, and it ithis cyclic change that is dealt with. Observations were taken at the The results are shewn in plate 3 ordinary temperature and at 100C. and on p. 61 (M. P., plates n. and in.). Tin- position of the Villari t was practically the same at both tempt -ratures, but the magnitude of the cyclic change of magnetisation in I'M Ids both ;iU\<- and below the Villan point was greater at the lower temperature. P. 62 and and iv. similar results describe (.17. /'., 367-8, v.) plate pp. plates when the load was 7 Ibs. or 21 Ibs. The statement on p. 62 that ll>*. -a tn- for the Villari field was nun-h 7 Ibs. (ban for accordance with the general coneliisinn of K\vm^ </'/,*/. '/V.IJM.. Vol.

up

to

abut 40

_,'!

CLXXVI.,

pp.

Villari field

tii'1-3. London, was higher t-r Jl

unless perhaps the elastic

however that ihseems anomalous, qualities of the wire were altered by the
ISM;).
Th.n-Milt
11.

II Ibs.

greater weight.

432

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON.

[17321734

Pp. 62-3 and plate 5 (M. P., Vol. n., pp. 368-9, and plates [1732.] and vn.) describe some experiments of the following character. load of 14 Ibs. or 21 Ibs. was applied and removed 10 times, and with it off the magnetising current was made and the throw t v of the ballistic galvanometer observed. Then while the current continued to flow 14 Ibs. or 21 Ibs. was applied and removed 10 times, and with it off the current was broken and the galvanometer throw L2 observed.
vi.

Both j and t, were considerably greater at an ordinary temperature than at 100 C. for all the fields tried.
Pp. 64-7 (J/. P., Vol. 11., pp. 370-4) treat of the effects of [1733.] " transverse stress on the longitudinal magnetisation of iron. The inner surface of a gun barrel of " tolerably soft iron " was subjected to applications and removals of a hydrostatic pressure 1000 Ibs. per sq. inch, and the (cyclic 1) changes of magnetisation were observed by the magnetometric method. The effect was found to be the exact opposite of that of longitudinal pull, i.e. pressure diminished or increased the magnetisation according as the field was below or above a critical field. The data on p. 65, and in curves (2), plate 7 (M. P., Vol. n., p. 371 and plate x.), seem to prove that this Villari field was much lower for the material near the middle of the barrel than for that at the ends. This may be accounted for in part by the probable hypothesis that the It would be intensity of magnetisation was greatest near the middle. desirable, however, to know the distribution of strain in the barrel, as the validity of interpretations of the phenomena may depend largely on this. Pp. 65-7 and plates 8 and 9 (M. P., Vol. IL, pp. 371-4, plates xi. and xii.) deal with the changes in the induced and residual magnetisations of the gun barrel produced in each case by 10 pressure cycles. These changes measure what may be called the non-cyclic effects of In weak fields the pressure cycles caused a marked increase pressure. in induced magnetisation ; and the general effect on tbe residual magnetisation was a marked decrease (see Wiedemami Lehre von der
"
Elektricitat,

Bd.

in., S.

666-7). The phenomena were however complicated

earth's vertical magnetic

by the uncompensated action of the

component.

P. 67 (M. P., Vol. IL, pp. 373-4) propounds the theory of [1734.] the development of an "aeolotropic property of different magnetic inductive susceptibility in different directions" by all systems of stress Thus in a circular other than uniform normal tension or pressure. cylinder under torsion the strain consists of equal stretch and squeeze in lines inclined at 45 to the axis in planes orthogonal to perpendiculars on the axis, and Sir W. Thomson assumes, as the result of his experiments in fields below the Villari point, an increased susceptibility in the direction of the stretch and a diminished susceptibility in the This view had been already propounded by direction of the squeeze. Maxwell, Electricity and Magnetism, Vol. n., Art. 447. Oxford, 1873. Sir William Thomson thence argues that when the torsion of a wire is very small the magnetic susceptibility in the direction of its length is

17:>.">]

MI:

WILLIAM THOMSON.

433

if finite torsions produce a change in susceptibility, it " must ultimately (for very small torsions) vary inversely [? directly] He apparently considers this as the square of the amount of torsion ". explanatory of the results of Matteueci, Wiodemann and Wertheim (see our Arts. 703, 7 an-1 > :> (ii)), vi/. that in the cyclic state magnetisation is diminished by torsion in either direction and increased by detorsion.
1

unaltered, and

_'

the + sign refers to the direction of the first twist, the angles referring to the twisted end of the wire. Readings were taken for every 20 of twist, the magnetizing force being simply the earth's vertical component. The general character of the results was always the same, viz. that with torsion in either direction there was a loss, and with detorsion a recovery of magnetisation. The effect of the torsion varied but little as the longitudinal pull was raised from 10 to 20 Ibs., but as the load was further increased the effect of torsion fell off rapidly. The wire was not in a cyclic state, there being always a fall in the magnetisation as the result of the torsion cycle, but in some of the later experiments the result of a second torsion cycle is given. Attention is drawn, p. 72 (M. P., Vol. n., p. 379), to a "lagging of quality", or what Ewiug has since called Hysteresis. necessity for a more exhaustive enquiry, distinguishing between the cyclic and non-cyclic effects, and varying the magnetic field and the torsion cycle, is abundantly shewn by the experiments ot \Viedemaim (Amtalen der /'/,//>//.," l',.l. L'7, S. 376-403. Leipzig, 1886). With a torsion cycle 0, 210, in soft iron wire he found in the cyclic state that the curve whose abscissae give the twists, and ordinates the changes of induced magnetisation, was nearly By in metrical about a maximum ordinate answering to the mean twist (see also our Art.

0, - 200, 0, where

Pp. 67-7'J and plates 10-12 (M. P., Vol. n., pp. 374-80, [1735.] plates xin. -xix.), describe the effects of torsion on a soft iron wire (22 B. W. G.) exposed to longitudinal pull of various amounts. The wire, whose length was 81 cm., passed through the cycle of twist 0, + 320,
1

Recent experiments by Nagaoka (PkUotOjMdal Magazine, Vol. 117-132. London, 188i)) having shewn that the phenoaccompany the application of twist to loaded magnetised nil k* wires completely alter in character as the load and field are varied, the sign even of the magnetisation -ing sometimes reversed, fresh experiments were undertaken by Bottomley and Tanakadate 138. London, 1889) on a (/'/lilosophical Magazine, Vol. \\vii p. They tried whether piece of the iron wire used l.y Sir \V. Thomson. in a very weak field and with a heavy load the effect of twist would l.ut rli.ii;-. in character as suggested by what happens with m.-k.-l they found no such change, their results being of the same character as Sir W. Thomson's. They do n profess to regard the
\\vii., pp. inc-na which
1

1><

question as finally settled.

1

e the reading

to

have been about

on the torsion + 40.

the toroion

WM

nil

meant in general

434

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON.

[1736

Pp. 73-4 (M. P., Vol. ii., pp. 381-2) refer to the discovery by (see his Lehre von der Elektricitat, Bd. in., S. 680) of the production through torsion of longitudinal magnetisation in a wire magnetised by an axial current. Sir W. Thomson refers to his theory of ** aeolotropic susceptibility", which gives results according with AViedemann's if we assume the magnetisation below the Villari point. He believes, however, that explanation to fail, as he supposed Wiedernauu's currents so strong as to have given a field above the critical, and in a footnote he adds that experiments he had made with very strong currents gave effects the same as Wiedeniann's. possible explanation has been suggested by Ewiug (see his Magnetic Induction in

Wiedemann

Iron and other Metals, pp. 223-4 and footnote.

London, 1891).

Pp. 74-9 (M. P., Vol. n., pp. 382-7) describe experiments [1736.] by the magnetometric method on the etfects ot longitudinal pull on the magnetisation of bars of nickel and cobalt magnetised by the earth's vertical component, and compare the effects with those in a tolerably soft iron bar similarly situated. In the nickel bar the non-cyclic effect of pull was as in iron to increase the magnetisation, the only difference
greater proportional change in the nickel; but when the effect of pull was the exact opposite of that in iron, i.e. in nickel the magnetisation was least when the load was on. In cobalt the same phenomena were observed as in nickel, but the bar broke at an early stage of the proceedings, and no experiments were made in higher fields. Subsequent experiments have confirmed these conclusions for cobalt in weak fields. critical field however ensues, much higher than the Villari field usually is in iron, and in stronger fields the effect of stress is the same as in iron below the Villari field London, (see Chree, Phil. Trans., Vol. CLXXXI., A, pp. 329-387. 1891, and Ewing, Magnetic Induction in Iron... p. 92 and pp. 210-2). Pp. 79-83 (M. P., Vol. ii., pp. 388-93) describe further experiments on nickel with higher fields. YVith cycles of load the residual magnetisation always shewed a distinct minimum when the load was on, and the cyclic change of magnetisation after strong fields shewed no tendency to With the induced diminish but seemed to tend to an asymptotic limit. magnetism there was unuiistakeably the same effect in weak fields, but as the field was raised the cyclic change passed through a maximum

being the

much

cyclic state

was reached the

and then decreased. An attempt was made to reach a Villari critical field with a second smaller nickel bar, and this seems at first to have been thought successful; but a note dated June 4, 1879, says the result had not been confirmed by later experiments. There remains, however, on p. 83 (M. P., Vol. ii., p. 393) an uncontradicted statement that a Villari critical field and a distinct reversal of the effects of pull were obtained by altering the magnetometer, originally opposite an end of the bar, so as If to bring it more nearly opposite the centre (cf. our Art. 1733). But Ewing, who this can be trusted, a Villari field actually exists. has experimented with nickel under both tension and pressure (Phil.

17:;7

I7oS]

MI;

WILLIAM THOMSON.

4-35

Vol. CLXXIX., A, pp. 325-32 and 333-7. >-., London, 1889), while continuing Sir W. Thomson's conclusions as to the opposite viour of nickel and iron iu weak fields, has found no trace of a Villari field in nickel. He appears, it is true, from his p. 331 and footnote to have looked for a Villari point in low fields, so his His results and those of experiment* are perhaps hardly conclusive. For the temporary Sir W. Thomson refer to the total magnetisation. magnetisation i.e. the magnetisation which disappears on the removal of the magnetising force a Villari field has since been found by H. Toiulinsou (Philosophical Magazine, Vol. xxix., pp. 394-400. London, 1890). The reader should also consult the conclusions reached l>\ Slidt'onl Kid well ( Proceedings of the Royal Society, Vol. XLVIL, pp. 7 --9. London, 1890). Pp. 84-5 (M. P., Vol. n., pp. 393-5) describe some experiments by the mague tome trie method on the effects of pull on very soft iron wire. The results are in agreement with those obtained by the ballistic method.
i
1

[1737.]
<

rent in

Note on tfie Direction of the Induced Longitudinal Iron and Xickel Wires by Twist when under Longitudinal

Minjnijti:iinj Force.

London, 1890.
these currents
twist

statement

Philosophical Magazine, Vol. 29, pp. 132-3. is here given of how the direction of
specified

may be

and magnetisation.

A
is

by reference to the directions of specification had been given for iron

In nickel under similar conditions

by Matteucci

(see our Art. 701).

the longitudinal current

The
tion

rule so far as is
;

known

opposite in direction to that in irou. applies for all intensities of magnetisa-

for

when the
I11

though the longitudinal currents diminish in intensity field is sufficiently raised, a reversal in sign has not yet
:

observed (see Nagaoka, Philosojiliixil Magazine, Vol. xxix.. 123-132. London, 1889, or Ewing, M<i /nctic Indu< pp. pp. 225-8). In tracing the complicated relationships between mechanical
strain
ii"ia

and magnetisation the reader

a study of pp. 47-72 of
to

will derive

much
.!/

assistance
.>

Dynamics

Physics and

explanation of SOUK <>i to be taken of possible perm.-un -nt <liti. i.-uces of elastic (and inns, more especially in the case magnetic) quality in ditVrivMt din
-t

of 'lit'mi.stry (London, 1888), but aonij>l. h these relations will probably require account
(

J. J.

Thomson's

of the
strain

is

magnetic pin then frequently much above the

/
]

n>mena accompanying
the Earth.
i

torsi, .n in wires,

as Di-

elasti.

limit.

[17'.s

of

London, 187

1'

Mature, VoL v. ,,,,. J23-4. unly of extract* from the memoir of tin-

436
same
l>lt</:

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON.

title

[1739

1741

published in 1862, and from the Treatise on Natural Philoso-

see our Arts.

1663 and 171925.

A letter to Mr G. Poulett Internal Fluidity of tlie Earth. Nature, Vol. v., pp. 257-9. London, 1872. This letter brings Scrope. arguments against the internal fluidity of the earth see our Art. 1665. Certain arguments introduced into this letter based upon the effects on precession of the elastic yielding of the Earth's surface were withdrawn
Tfie
:

by Sir William Thomson in 1876

Papers, Vol. in.,
p.

see Mathematical

and Physical

321.

T/te Internal Condition of the Earth, as to Temperature, [1739.] Transactions of the Geological Society of Fluidity and fiigidity. This paper Glasgow, Vol. vi. (1876-80), pp. 38-49. Glasgow, 1882. is really a resume without mathematical analysis of work by Sir William Thomson, which so far as it relates to elasticity has been see, especially for the already sufficiently dealt with in our History arguments relating to the rigidity of the earth, to tides, to precession and nutation, our Arts. 1663-5 and 1719-25.
:

On a new method for discovering and measuring Aeolotropy [1740.] of Electric Resistance produced by Aeolotropic Stress in a Solid. 1 paper read before the Physical Society ; Abstract, Nature, Vol. xvni., 180-1. London, 1878. pp. diminution of electric conductivity is produced by stretching metallic wires see our Art. 1647. Now the toision of a wire produces slide, which may by Saint-Venaiit's Theorem (see our Art. 1570*) be resolved into a stretch and a squeeze in the principal axes of the slide, or in directions making angles of very nearly 45 with the axis of the Thus the electricity in a wire would tend to flow in spirals, or wire. have a component of flow round the wire. The external effect of this flow would be sensible near the terminals, or inside the twisted tube. Evidence of its existence was demonstrated by M'Farlane and Bottomley.

This is an article contributed to Vol. vn. Elasticity. of the Ninth Edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. (pp. 796-825) London and Edinburgh, 1878. United to the article on Heat
[1741.]

contributed
off-print

to

the

same work,

it

afterwards appeared as an
it

of Vol.

ill.

was reprinted on pp. 1-112 (Edinburgh, 1880). Finally of the Mathematical and Physical Papers (Cambridge,
article

two important memoirs by Elements namely of a Mathematical Theory of Elasticity. Philosophical Transactions, Vol. CLXVI., pp. 481-98, London, 1856, and On the Elasticity and Viscosity of Metals.
1890).

The

incorporates

the

author

Proceedings of the Royal Society, Vol. xiv., pp. 289-97.

1

London,

The

title

only

is

printed

in Vol. in. of the Society's Proceedings.

17*2]
1865.

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON.

4-37

with

in

These memoirs have accordingly not been separately dealt their proper chronological order. The article forms one
f

elementary accounts of the physics of elasticity in the English tongue. All we can do here is to notice individual points in connection with it, especially where the author's definitions differ
or his conclusions add
Hist'
t<>

of the chit

thosr already adopted or recorded in this

[1742.]
elasticity
(a)

The

first

36 sections deal with the definitions of

and

treat of the limits of elasticity, of viscosity, etc., etc.

definition
is

The following

given of

//< /;/'

//,.////// in

The elasticity is said same force to keep it at

to be perfect,
rest, in

when the body always requires the the same bulk and shape and at the same
it

temperature, through whatever variations of bulk, shape and temperature be brought.

This definition clearly covers the whole range between the usual limits of elasticity", but this need not necessarily mean the proportionality of stress and strain: see our Arts. 929*, 299 and Vol. I., 891-3. Thus this definition of 'perfect elasticity' covers more than what the mathematicians include in their treatises on "the mathematical theory of elastic solids". The 'perfect' in the one refers in the first place to a physical conception, and in the other to a i.e. simplified set of formulae linearity of the stress-strain relations. I! -dgkinson's "defect of elasticity" (see our Vol. I., p. 891) would be covered by Sir William Thomson's definition of 'perfect elasticity'. In 37 we read
pp.
.

I** invoked minutely accurate experimental measurement to how nearly the law of simple proportionality holds through finite ranges Tin- answer happily for mathematicians and of contraction and elon-ation. 'led, a* ac<mrately as any experiments engineers is tl,<i( II hitherto made <" t-H, for .til metaU and hard solids ea.-h through the whole

find

range within

tioitj; and for woods, cork, india-rul>ler, jellies, not more than two <>r three per cent., or the angular more than I few hundredths of the radian (or not more than two or three degrees).
its

1m

i>

In the li^ht of the researches recorded in the volumes of our History^ impossible to identify generally the range between the elastic limits

with proportionality of stress and strain (see our Vol. i., p. 891 \Villi.ini Thomson himself adds that a small deviation from H coke's law has been found by M'Farlane for steel pianoforte win- n The exceptions are wider than e.niibined torsional and tensile strain. \ample might lead the reader to infer and occur e\en for

simple tensile

438

SIR

WILLIAM THOMSON.

[1742

As in Thomson and Tait's Treatise (see our Art. 1709 (d)) the (b) important distinction between elasticity of bulk and elasticity of shape is emphasised. Homogeneous solids such as crystals and glasses are stated i.e. no amount 3) to probably possess elasticity of bulk to perfection ( of comjrression would produce set in them. It is clear of course that the compressive test is practically the only one to which we can readily subject such bodies, but theoretically it must be considered a very doubtful question whether such bodies would exhibit elasticity of bulk to perfection could we submit them to a uniform surface traction of any To assume that it is so, is to reject a priori the arbitrary amount. maximum stretch-limit to safe-loading. Such an assumption leaves us indeed in a very vague position as to what the limit of elasticity really means when we are dealing with diverse types of strain, or how we are to apply the results obtained from a tensile test to more complex Some of the interesting points connected with this systems of strain. 8 and 21 l On the whole the treatment of the subject are noted in
.

modifying in the light of the splendid researches of Bauschinger and others, to bring the statements 2 The paper by James quite up to the present state of knowledge Thomson incorporated in 10-20 and to which we have already referred does not, I think, fully represent the state of our existing knowledge on the alteration of the elastic limits: see our Arts. 1379*81*, 709-10 and 767.
elastic limits in these sections requires
.

(c)

The following

definitions of brittle
(see

and ductile

solids

may be

compared with those of Rankine

our Art. 466):

If the first notable dereliction from perfectness of elasticity is a breakage, the body is called brittle, if a permanent bend [more generally a set?], plastic or malleable or ductile ( 7).

In 23 the elastic limit for slide or change of angle appears to (d) be deduced from the elastic limit for stretch. If a bar be pulled longitudinally till it reaches its elastic limit s, then on the supposition of isotropy there is a slide in planes at 45 to the axis of the bar of magnitude s (1 + 77), but the converse does not hold, namely, that when there is a slide of this magnitude then there will necessarily be a stretch of magnitude s. Indeed a pure slide of this magnitude would have for its components a stretch and squeeze each of magnitude Js (1 + 77), and would not therefore on our theory correspond to the elastic limit. As we have shown in the course of our work, an elastic limit for stretch s corresponds to an elastic limit for slide <r = 2s and not =s(l+ij).
1 The hypothesis of the maximum stretch-limit, supposing the elastic limit to coincide with the limit to linear elasticity, has perfectly definite answers to the 21, and there does not seem to me any a priori reason to questions asked in doubt the physical correctness of the answers it gives. 2 A correction should be made in 9 where by a slip it is stated that in the case of the flexure of a bar of any shape of cross-section by opposite bending couples applied the at the ends one-half the substance is stretched the other half shortened amount of the substance stretched or squeezed depends on the shape of the section.
;

174:}

1744]

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON,

439
limit

Thus

for the numerical case taken to angular distortion would, on the not of a radian.

by Sir William Thomson the

maximum

stretch theory, be

^ and

29-36 are occupied with a discussion on viscosity. have already referred to the sense in which Sir William Thomson uses the word 'viscosity'. In our History a material is termed viscous when a shear, however small, if applied for a On the other hand a sufficiently long period produces set. material is termed plastic if a shear above a certain magnitude The word shear is here used instead is required to produce set. of stress generally, merely to mark that a uniform surface pressure would not give a test of either viscosity or plasticity. The dynamical equations for viscous and plastic materials differ very Further it is difficult considerably: see our Arts. 246, and 250. " after-strain" with anything of the to associate the phenomena of
[1743.]

We

'

',

'

',

nature of either viscous or plastic action in our senses of these words see our Arts. 708* ftn. and 1718, (6). The viscosity of fluids may be represented by a force of resistance directly proportional
:

to the velocity of

change of shape.

Hence the small

effects

can be

This superposition does not seem to be true for elastic after-strain (see our Art. 717*). Weber, Kupffer and Sir William Thomson himself appear to attribute the diminution of the
superposed.
1

amplitude of vibrations to elastic after-strain. Lord Rayleigh in his Theory of Sound introduces a Dissipative Fi't; (lll into his treatment of the vibrations of elastic bodies, which corresponds to true viscous terms (i.e. a resistance proportional to the velocity

Without venturing an opinion as to whether the of the strain). subsidence of vibrations is due to true fluid viscosity or to elastic
after-strain,
it

seems to

me most

important to keep the two

iiotion> distinct

until their real nature

and possible relationship

in elnstic

have been clearly ascertained. after-strain seems to distinguish

friction or viscosity: see

The 'creeping back'

it

fundamentally from molecular

our Art.

[1744.]
1

At the same time

Sir William

Thomson does not

"It was in fact as it would be if the result wer. irfaa .ally due to imperfect elasticity, or 'elastiaohe nachwirkung' elastic after- working as the .ans call it ( 36) ". We may remark that "imperfect elasticity" may mean r an elastic stress-strain relation which is not linear, or a strew accompanied a set strain. In neither case does it correspond to elastic after-strain. by
:

440

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON.

[1745

suppose like Lord Rayleigh that the resistance which he terms viscosity in solids is simply proportional to the velocity of change of shape, he only suggests that this molecular friction is some
function of this velocity of change of shape. After dismissing the thermodynamic dissipation
of energy, cases
(

which occurs with every strain in an

continues
:

elastic solid, as in

many

too small to account for the loss of energy observed

31),

he

The frictioncd resistance against change of shape must in every solid be infinitely small when the change of shape is made at an infinitely slow rate, since if it were finite for an infinitely slow change of shape, there would be infinite rigidity, which we may be sure does not exist in nature. Hence there is in elastic solids a molecular friction which may be properly called viscosity of solids, because, as being an internal resistance to change of shape depending on the rapidity of the change, it must be classed with fluid molecular friction, which by general consent
is

called viscosity offluids

32) \

William Thomson's experiments were made upon the round wires supporting different vibrators and his first conclusion 34 (a) runs
Sir
torsional vibrations of
:

It was found that the loss of energy in a single vibration through one range was greater the greater the velocity (within the limits of the experiments); but the difference between the losses at low and high speeds was much less than it would have been had the resistance been, as Stokes 2 has proved it to be in fluid friction, approximately as the

rapidity of the change of shape.

sufficient to determine law of resistance and strainrelation viscous between any simple
velocity.

The experiments were not however

[1745.]

Sir William Thomson's second series of experiments relate

to the alteration of the torsional viscosity of wires owing to increase in the longitudinal traction. They may be compared with Kupfler's results

cited in our Arts.

Sir

735 (iii) and 751 (d). It is not quite clear how far William Thomson's vibrators were sufficiently heavy to produce by

1 If like Sir William Thomson and others (see our Arts. 928*, 192 (a) and 299) we apply Maclaurin's Theorem to deduce Green's expression for the strain -energy,

there seems precisely as

viscosity.

If

much, or as little, reason for applying it to the problem of we do apply it, however, we only reach Lord Bayleigh's Dissipative

Function, or fluid-viscosity.
2 The reference is, I suppose, to Stokes' memoir of 1845. Poisson in 1831 and Saint- Venant in 1843 had arrived at the like conclusion, the latter by a method which appears to be as satisfactory as Stokes'.

17461748]
used.

sn;

WILLIAM THOMSON.

441

elastic after-strain or set in the wires found that when the weight of the vibrator was increased the viscosity of the vibrator was always at first much increased, but that it diminished day by day and ultimately became as small in amount as it had been with the lighter vibrator ( 34 (6)). Here again no general

mere tension either sensible

He

law was ascertained.

The third series of experiments relate to the subsidence of [1746.] Sir William Thomson found that the vibrations in aluminium wires. number >t' vibrations during the subsidence from a higher to a lower amplitude (say 20 to 10) was less when the vibrator was started at 40, and allowed before counting to sink first to 20, than if it were started at 20 itself ( 34, (c)). The author does not appear to have noticed the effect remarked on by Kupffer that the period of vibration was a function of the amplitude (see our Arts. 735 (iii), 709 and 751 (rf)), nor is it clear whether the drag of the air on the vibrator was allowed for: see our Art. 735 (i). The remark as to the air-resistance on a spring in does not seem to entirely cover this difficulty. Possibly it was tested and found to be negligible. Kupffer, however, endeavoured to measure and then eliminate it.
<

The third series of experiments seemed to indicate that [1747.] viscous action depends on previous molecular condition, namely on whether the wire is started from rest, or has immediately beforehand been subjected to still larger repeated strains. fourth series of experiments was accordingly instituted in which two equal and similar whvs with equal and similar vibrators were dealt with, one being kept in as far as possible a continual state of vibration, the other being vi brainl It was found only for the sake of one daily experiment. in the case of two that the one subsided wires quiescent copper through tin same range of amplitudes only after longer time and more vibrations with a shorter mean period than the frequently vibrated one ( 34 (</)).
' '

Finally series of experiments with much smaller maximum [1748.] distortions were made in order to determine (i) the law of subsidence of range in any single series of undisturbed oscillations, and (ii) the relation
:

between the laws of subsidence

for

two

sets of oscillations with the

same

oscillations of different periods, owing not to a change of weight, but to a change of the moment of inertia in the su- ponded vibrator (8 35). The answer to the first question "so far as
elastic

body performing

the irreguhiritirs dr|M-iidiiig on previous conditions of the elastic substance allowed any simple law to be indicated" was that
:

differences of the logarithminterval* of time ( 36).

1

The

<>f

the ranges were proportional to the

vil

.rations with a

Tims while the amplitude wan reduced a half the quiescent wire made 98 mean period 2*4 sees., while the frequently vibrated one made 69

2*46 neon. vibrations with a mean period the change of amplitude is not referred to.
!

possible redaction in the period with

IT.

II.

442

SIR

WILLIAM THOMSON.

[1749

This held for distortion much smaller than the palpable elastic limit. The result resembles that due to a true fluid viscosity, or that produced by the drag of the air on a vibrator. The only approach found to an answer to the second question was
that:
the proportionate losses of amplitude in the different cases are not such as they would be if the molecular resistance were simply proportional to the velocity of change of shape in the different cases ( 36).

Here again it seems as if Kupffer's experiments and results might have been found suggestive. On the whole the experiments, especially the last three series, appear to suggest the influence of that 'creeping back which is peculiar to after-strain and seems quite masked under the term viscosity. Sir William Thomson speaks of these later results as " " shewing a very remarkable fatigue of elasticity ( 30). It would be to know whether this was interesting fatigue only of kinetic or also of static elasticity, and further whether the distortions being below the elastic limit, the elastic limit and even the absolute strength were affected by it. The term fatigue although appropriate has been used by engineers in such a definite sense, namely the lowering of the absolute strength of a material by repeated strain below the rupture strain, that it is perhaps
'

it a new meaning in reference to elasticity. It is William Thomson's fatigue is a phenomenon differing from that dealt with by Braithwaite or Wohler see our Arts. 970 and 997-1003. Sir William concludes his remarks on viscosity by suggesting an

unadvisable to give

clear that Sir

'

'

elastic vesicular solid, the vesicles being filled with a viscous fluid like oil. Such a model solid would, he holds, suffice to elucidate some, but far

from

all,

of the properties noted in the above series of experiments (36).

37-72 reproduce matter from the author's memoirs or from [1749.] the Treatise on Natural Philosophy which has already been amply dealt with in our Histwy. The arguments in favour of bi-constant isotropy from the action of cork and jellies are again referred to. have already pointed out that they will only become valid when it has been demonstrated experimentally that cork and jelly are true isotropic elastic solids, i.e. can have all relations between stress and strain expressed by aid of two constants see our Art 192 (b). In this matter we must bear in mind what Sir William Thomson himself ( 37) says of such "elastic or semi-elastic 'soft' solids" as cork, india-rubber or jellies:

We

elasticity of all these solids, and the want of definiteness of the substance of many of them, renders accurate experimenting unavailable for obtaining any very definite or consistent numerical results.

The exceedingly imperfect

In fact the elastic action of cork on the one hand and of gelatinous substances on the other would probably be best exemplified theoretically by treating them as porous elastic solids, the pores containing air and 48 for multiconstancy The argument used in liquid respectively.

1750]

SIR WILLIAM

THOMSON.

44-')

based on a jointed bar mechanism we shall deal with in our Arts. 1771-2. The It is really an appeal to the principle of "modified action." 1 articles on Resilience , 52-56, are reproduced from the Treatise. They conclude in the reprint in the Matlieinatical Papers (Vol. III., p. 47) with a table of the elastie resiliences and the slide- and stretchmoduli of a variety of wires. This table is based on experiments carried In 62 (1) we out in the Physical Laboratory of Glasgow University. note that Sir William Thomson adopts the Bresse- Saiut-Venant mode of dealing with the flexure of beams when the stretch-modulus varies from point to point of the cross- section see our Arts. 169 (e) (f)
:

and 5i:.
[1750.]

73-6 deal with the thermo-elastic

:

relations,

and of

course draw largely on the memoir of 1855 Turning to Equation (vi) of our Art. 1633, or
t

see our Art. 1631.

dw

~775'
where t is measured in the absolute scale, let r be the increase of temperature due to the sudden application of a stress S corresponding to a strain s, x tne strain produced by an elevation of temperature of one degree when the body is kept under constant this strain being measured in the opposite sense to that stress,
of the constant stress*, the specific heat of the substance per unit mass under constant stress, p the density, and Joule's

equivalent, then

H = K >r
j

dw
'

'

dt=- S di>

~ds

.ds

whence we deduce

With regard

to this

formula Sir William Thomson remarks:

The constant stress for which K and \ are reckoned ought to be the mean of the stresses which the body experiences with S and without 6'. Mathematically speaking, S is to be intinit. simal. l.m pr.u tidily it may
be of any magnitude moderate enough not to give any sensible difference
1 The historical statement that Lewis Gordon first introduced the word rvrfifou* to denote the work done by a spring or other elastic body returning to the unstrained state from some strained limit is erroneous. He only adopted the word from Young :

see our Vol.

i. t

p. 875.
all

ions, or

ist be an expansion if 8 denotes a pressure uniform in x mn*t be a stretch if S denotes a longitudinal compression, etc.

29-2

444
in the value of either

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON.

[1751

" constant stress " he with or x> whether the two of the mean the with or or without S, 74). (

[1751.]
static

and kinetic elastic moduli. have been pointed out in a clear

75 deals with the important distinction between This distinction appears first to
scientific

manner by

Sir William

Thomson

himself:

When change of temperature, whether in a solid or a fluid is produced by the application of a stress, the corresponding modulus of than elasticity will be greater in virtue of the change of temperature what may be called the static modulus denned as above, on the understanding that the temperature if changed by the stress is brought back
to its primitive degree before the measurement of the strain is performed. The modulus calculated on the supposition that the body, neither losing nor gaining heat during the application of the stress and the measurement of its effect, retains the whole change of temperature due to the

because

be called for want of a better name the kinetic modulus, which must (as in Laplace's celebrated correction of Newton's calculation of the velocity of sound) be used in reckoning the elastic forces concerned in waves and vibrations in almost all practical
stress, will
it is this

cases.

if

static, M' the corresponding kinetic modulus. Clearly, not allowed to either lose or gain heat, then the strain will be, since there is a change of temperature r, equal to

Let

M be a
is

body

but this equals

SjM

f ;

equating the two

we have by

using

(i)

M'

JKp
Further
if

K and K' denote thermal capacities of a given quantity of the

:

substance under constant stress and constant strain respectively then

M'
The values

of the ratios M'fM or KjK' are tabulated in two "Thermo" for a temperature of 15 C, the quantities J p, K, dyuamic Tables and x being the experimental data. Thus Sir William Thomson gives
1
t

for the ratios

1 In the first Table we find " J 42400 centimetres" and the slip is repeated in the reprints. Here is a chance for the foot-pound, that unhappy "no-system" to have its revenge
!

17521753]

Mil

WILLIAM THOMSON.

445

Dilatation. Modulus *

/F

446

MU WILLIAM THOMSON.

[1754

1?55

In 78 and Table VIII. we have results of experiments by (a) M'Farlane on the results of a sei*stretch in wires upon their slidemodulus. The effect of a set-stretch was partly decrease of density with,
as a rule, decrease of the slide-modulus. with those of Kupffer see our Arts. 735
:

The results may be compared and 741, (b).

Results for the change of the stretch- modulus with the tem(b) perature were in the earlier issues of the paper cited from Wertheim's memoir of 1844 (see our Art. 1292*) but they are removed from 79 of the reprint in the Mathematical and Physical Papers (Vol. in., p. 80) as "very far wrong". The sole result cited in the latter work is one for a steel tuning-fork due to Macleod and Clarke *, from which it would ap5 pear that the stretch-modulus for steel diminishes at the rate of 23*2 x 10~ of itself per degree centigrade of elevation of temperature. Results for the influence of temperature on the slide-moduli of iron, 2 copper and brass are cited from F. Kohlrausch and F. E. Loomis There is no reference to the results of Kupffer see our Arts. 754-6.
.
:

An point had been previously noticed by several technical elasticians. iron bar tested to the beginning of stricture, will after being left quiescent for a period suffer striction at a different section and a higher load, and in this manner the ultimate strength may be raised very In some of Bottomley's experiments, the increase of considerably. tensile strength amounted to as much as 15 to 26 p.c. see our Arts. 1503* and 1125.
:

80 records some experiments by J. T. Bottomley on soft[1754.] iron wire, from which it appears that the gradual addition of stress during a long interval increases the ultimate tensile strength. This

81 we have the effect of permanent tort on Finally in [1755.] the elastic nature of wires. Thus it developed seolotropy in the substance of the wire, and altered both the stretch- and slide-moduli. For example, the slide-modulus of copper permanently torted decreased with the increase of tort even to 1/6 of its original value, and then slightly increased again before rupture. Steel pianoforte wire shewed a diminution and then a slight augmentation of the slide-modulus under tort. Thus it first sunk from 751 x 10 6 grammes per sq. centimetre to 414 x 10" and then rose to 430 x 10 8 Iron wire shewed a diminution of 14 p.c. of the original value before rupture. In copper wire the stretch-modulus on the other hand was increased 10 p.c. by a permanent tort. In steel wire no sensible alteration due to tort was noticed in the stretch-modulus. There is no reference to the experiments of G. Wiedemann on the subject of tort see our Arts. 708 and 714.
.
:

Phil. Trans. Vol. CLXXI., Part

i.,

pp. 1-14.

London, 1881.
Leipzig, 1870.

Annalen der Physik, Bd.

CXLI., pp. 481-503.

17.~>6]

MK WILLIAM THOMSON.

447

As an appendix to the article we have the mathe[1756.] matical theory of elasticity to which reference has been made in our Art. 1648. All but the last Chapter, i.e. xvn., appeared in the
Pit
if.

Trans, for 1856.

noticed.
I.

Several important points in this memoir

must be
to

Chapter

Def.

I.

stress is

an equilibrating application of

force This definition of stress appears to identify it rather with load or body-force than with stress in the sense of this History. It
does not readily suggest the idea of " stress across a plane in the material ". The vagueness of this use of the word is, I think,
exemplified by Def.
I.

a bo

of Chapter II.

A stress is said to be homogeneous throughout a body when equal and similar portions of the body, with corresponding lines parallel, experience equal and parallel pressures or tensions on corresponding
elements of their surfaces.
If a cylindrical shell or part of a spherical shell were turned inside out, it could hardly be described in customary language as having in its new state an application of force, but it is very clearly
in a state of stress. It seems better to preserve the primitive use of the word stress, as adopted by Rankine and sanctioned in the Treatise on Natural Philosophy.

C/tapter III. Cor.

3.

Here the following

ellipsoid is introduced

where the axes are the principal axes of the jirim -ijial tractions (see our Art. 603*), and
Tliis represents

stress,
e

T T T9
lt
t,

are the

any

indefinitely small

the stress in the following manner:

any j">mi /' in flu- surface of the ellipsoid draw a line in the tangent tin- point \\lim- thi-* pi. UK- is out t-\\.iy towards by a perpend^ tin- ftnt-meooo&ad line draw a ugh the centre; and from the n-1 line to meet the surface of a sphere of unit radius concent n. with the
i

-t'

cllipx.1,1.

Tin-

ti-iisii.ii
it

at thi> point "f

/';

tin-

>urla-r
it>

.:

in

th-

lin.-

from

to

ami

am. 'tint JUT unit of surface

divided by
e.

ia

t..

the length of that intmiU-ly small

>!i>tni.

lim-,

not seem so simple as that of the usual the direction of any plane, it ia not clear how we should tin-! in >m the above construction except by a tentative process the direction and magnitude of the stress across it.
tion does
_;iven

448
Chapter IV.

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON.

Prop.
3.

[1757

1758
:

An

ellipsoid of the following type is given

where the axes are the principal axes of the strain (or, as is well-known, of the stress see our Art. 614*) and slt s2 ** ar e the principal stretches.
:

>

...the position, on the surface of this ellipsoid, attained by any particular point of the solid, is such that if a line be drawn in the tangent plane, halfway to the point of intersection of this plane with a perpendicular from the centre, a radial line drawn through its extremity cuts the primitive spherical surface in the primitive position of that point.

now reach on the basis of the preceding ellipsoids the [1757.] definition following (Clwpter IV., Prop. 3, Cor. 1 and Def. 2)
:

We

For every stress, there is a certain infinitely small strain, and conversely, for every infinitely small strain, there is a certain stress, so related that if, while the strain is being acquired, the centre and the strain-normals [= principal axes of strain] through it are unmoved, the absolute displacements of particles belonging to a spherical surface of the solid represent, in intensity (according to a definite convention as to units for the representation of force by lines) and in direction, the force (reckoned as to intensity, in amount per unit of area) experienced by the enclosed sphere of the solid, at the different

parts of its surface,

when subjected

to the stress.

Such a

stress

and the

infinitely small strain related to it are

termed

of the same type. This type requires

five quantities to define it, two ratios between principal tractions (or principal stretches) and three angular directions defining the position of the principal axes.

Further definitions of what

is

meant by orthogonal
:

stresses

and

strains are given in CJiapter VI., Def. 1-3

upon nor by the body in virtue of the action

acquiring the strain.

stress is said .... to be orthogonal to a strain if work is neither done of the stress upon it while it is

Two stresses [or strains] are said to be orthogonal when either coincides in direction with a strain [or stress] orthogonal to the other.
[1758.]
Specification of Strains and Chapter VIII. is entitled Components according to chosen Types.
:

Stresses by their

Six stresses or six strains of six distinct arbitrarily chosen types may be fulfil the condition of having a given stress or a given strain for their resultant, provided these six types are so chosen that a strain belonging to any one of them cannot be the resultant of any strains whatever belonging to the others.

determined to

This follows from the fact that six independent parameters are The six arbitrarily required to specify any stress or strain whatever. chosen types of stresses or strains are termed types of reference. An orthogonal system of types of reference is one in Definition.

1759

1760]

Silt

WILLIAM THOMSON.

449

which the six strain or stress components are all six mutually orthoWhen the types of reference expressing the gonal (Cluipter IX.). strain constitute an orthogonal system then the component stresses may be expressed by the differentials of the strain -energy with regard to the
six

component

strains.
is deduced in Chapters XI. and XIII. by a consideradefined as concurrence between stress and strain.

This principle
tion of

what

is

We now turn to the contents of Chapters XIV.[1759.] XVI. which form perhaps the most important portion of the paper
f specify a strain by means of one system f,, ?2 fs, ?4> (*> fe the same strain by Then any strain f, will be a linear function of the f-system and the relation will contain six constants. In general there will be 30 constants connecting the f- and Now the strain -energy is a quadratic function of the ^-systems. strain-components and involves 21 constants. We can accordingly always make use of 15 out of our 30 disposable constants to
?5

under consideration. ket ?i> ?a> &> ?<>

of types of reference, and means of another system.

>

eliminate

the

transformation.

product terms of the strain-energy by a linear Thus in an infinite variety of ways the strain:

energy can be expressed in the form

w = i (A& + A& + Af + A& + Af + A.&).

solid will be

In this case a strain of any one of the f types, if impressed on the accompanied by a stress orthogonal to the five others
rally equal to

of the

same system. The dw/d.

stress will be proportional

but not gene-

[1760.]
\sitli
l.">

investigation of the previous article has left us disposable constants and we can employ these to make

The

the six strain types f mutually orthogonal ; for the condition that two strain types shall be mutually orthogonal involves only one

and there are just 15 pairs in G things. This follows from the algebraic theory of the linear transformation of quadratic in notions, associated with the condition for orthogonality: see
relation

V
'11ms
...a single

Cur.

and

2.
:

we reach the
system of
six

following important proposition

mutually orthogonal types

in

may

be dft<niim<l

my homogeneous

elastic solid, so that ita potential

energy when

homogeneously Htr.iinl

any way,

is

expressed by the

sum

of

the

450

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON.

[1761

1762

products of the squares of the components of the strain, according to those types, respectively multiplied by six determinate coefficients
(Chapter

XV.

Prop.

1).

six strain-types thus determined are called the Six Principal Strain-Types of the body.
Definition.

The

[1761.]
types,

If
S.2
,

,,

?3 ?4 ?5
,

&

and Slt

S3 S4) S S6
,

the corresponding stresses

denote the six principal strain we have

the strain-energy of the form

and generally
of strain
is

S = dw/d% = A f

It follows that the stress required to

maximum-minimum
4).

if it

maintain a given amount be one of the six principal

types (Prop.

can now return to following definitions

:

We

41

of the article

on Elasticity for the

modulus of Elasticity is the number obtained by dividing the number expressing a stress by the number expressing the strain which it produces. modulus is called a principal modulus when the stress is such that it produces a strain of its own type.

An seolotropic solid has in general six principal elasticities, namely, the A-coefficients of the above value for the strain-energy. Sir William Thomson appears in 41, (6) of the article on Elasticity to identify the I am not certain six principal elasticities with six principal moduli. how far this is consistent with the definition that a modulus is the ratio of the number expressing stress to the number expressing the strain which it produces. My point of difficulty is whether a principal stress type' is always capable of being expressed by a single numerical stress, Thus the or whether it will not often consist of a system of stresses. bulk-modulus in Sir William Thomson's sense (see our Art. 1776 and footnote) might be a principal elasticity, but, as it corresponds in some cases to a system of stresses, is it always a principal modulus ?
'

[1762.]

Sir William

Thomson

gives in Chapter
:

XV.

Prop. 2

the following examples of principal elasticities

(a)

For cubical (eolotropy

(see

our Arts. 450, (v) and 1639)

Modulus of compressibility, the rigidity against diagonal distortion in any of the principal planes (three equal elasticities), and the rigidity against rectangular distortions of a cube of symmetry (two equal
In the notation of our Arts. 1203 (d) and 1206 these moduli would be J (a + 2/'), d and J (a -f) respectively.
elasticities).

1763
(b)

17G4]

SIM

WILLIAM THOMSON.

4-M

Yor perfect itotropy:

Modulus of compressibility and the rigidity (five equal elasticities). In our notation these moduli are ^ (3X + 2/n) and p.. Further statements as to principal moduli will be found in 41 of the article on Elasticity, but I do not clearly comprehend their meaning;
tli us it is said that a crystal of the rectangular parallelepiped (or "three, of the "tessera!") class has six distinct principal moduli three (generally unequal) compressibilities along the three axes; and three, of the three rigidities (no doubt generally unequal) relatively to the three simple distortions of the parallelepiped...." I do not follow what is meant by the "three compressibilities along the three axes" they cannot refer to the three stretch- moduli as these are not principal moduli. The whole discussion would have been much clearer if the strainenergy, for a tesseral crystal say, had been written down in terms of the principal moduli and the six principal strain-types, these principal moduli being then given as functions of the usual nine elastic coefficients and the principal strain-types in terms of the usual stretch- and slidecomponents of strain. I have not succeeded in accomplishing this I am indeed in doubt as to how to apply the condition for "orthogo" nor if a dilatation can be a principal strain am I at nality of strains ; all clear what is the corresponding principal stress ; it certainly cannot be like most stresses a directed quantity.
1

[1763.] that:

In diopter XV., Prop.

elastic

6, Sir

William Thomson remarks

homogeneous

solid,

crystalline or non-crystalline, subject

to

magnetic force or free from magnetic force, has neither right-handed nor lefthanded, nor any dipolar properties dependent on elastic forces simply proportional to strains.

Hence he argues mena such as occur

that the elastic forces concerned in optical phenodepend on the magnitude, but can solely depend on the heterogeneousness of the strain in the portion of the medium through which the wave passes. Polar properties of crystals whether crystal lographic, optical or electrical, can have no corresponding characteristic in elastic forces which are simply proportional to the strain.
in quartz or tartaric acid cannot

Plane Waves in a Homogeneous Cltapter XVII. is entitled [1764.] It does not go further than demonstrating that in jEolotropic Solid. in general three pairs of plane waves are possible in such a medium the case of an incompressible solid re.lu, in^ to two pairs in \\hirh the ion is parallel to the wave-front. The three velocities of these three n of waves are determined neither in terms of the 21 elastic con:
1

It ig

easy. Sir
;,-ai

elasticities for

William Thorna crystal of the

vontiRate the principal gtrain-type teraeral class (Chapter XVI., Cor.).

i

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON.

[1765

1766

nor of the direction of the wave-front. The problem had been previously discussed by Blauchet (see our Arts. 1 166* 78*) and has been exhaustively dealt with by Christoffel see Annali di Matematica, T. VIIL, Milauo, 1877, and Love: Treatise on tlw mat/iematical pp. 193-243. Tlieory of Elasticity, Vol. I., pp. 134-40. Cambridge, 1892.
stants,
:

Notes of Lectures on Molecular Dynamics and the Wave [1765.] Theory of Light. Delivered at the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore. Stenographically reported by A. S. Hathaway. Baltimore, This is a shorthand report reproduced by papyrograph of 1884. what Sir William Thomson said in twenty lectures delivered at Baltimore before a distinguished audience of physicists and mathematicians in 1884.

The

preface to Vol.

ill.

of the Mathematical

and Physical Papers announces that Vol. IV. will contain a printed edition of these lectures. That volume not having yet appeared, our references will be to the pages of the papyrograph (pp. 1-328 + The report was not revised by the lecturer, owing to Index).
his departure from America. shall put on one side the large portion of these lectures devoted to molecular theories, treating only of those points which

We

which that theory

[1766.]

relate to the theory of elasticity, and briefly of some problems in is applied to the luminiferous ether.

Lecture

ductory.

The

(pp. 1-20) is chiefly historical and introposition of the lecturer at that time is indicated
I.

in the following

words:

In the first place we must not listen to any suggestion that we must look upon the luminiferous ether as an ideal way of putting the thing. real matter between us and the remotest stars I believe there is, and that light consists of real motions of that matter, motions just such as are described by Fresnel and Young, motions in the way of transverse If I knew what the magnetic theory of light is, I might be vibrations. able to think of it in relation to the fundamental principles of the wave But it seems to me that it is rather a backward step theory of light. from an absolutely definite mechanical motion that is put before us by Fresnel and his followers to take up the so-called electro-magnetic theory In of light in the way it has been taken up by several writers of late. passing, I may say that the one thing about it that seems intelligible to What I mean is, that there should me, I scarcely think is admissible.

be an electric displacement perpendicular to the line of propagation and a magnetic disturbance perpendicular to both. It seems to me that when we have an electro-magnetic theory of light, we shall see electric

displacement as in the direction of propagation

simple vibrations as

1700]

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON.

453

described by Fresnel with lines of vibration perpendicular to the line of I merely say propagation for the motion actually constituting light that in passing, as perhaps some apology is necessary for my insisting upon the plain matter of fact dynamics and the true elastic solid as giving what seems to me the only tenable foundation of the wave theory of tight in the present state of our knowledge. Tli.- luininiferous ether we must imagine to be a substance which so far as luminiferous vibrations are concerned moves as if it were an That it moves as I do not say that it is an elastic solid. elastic solid. if it were an elastic solid in respect to the luminiferous vibrations, is the fundamental assumption of the wave theory of light (pp. 5-6).

In the last eight years Sir William Thomson has without doubt modified his view as to the respective merits of an elastic solid

and an electro-magnetic theory of

referred to in our Arts. 1806-16.

light: see in particular his papers But the emphasis laid on the

"real matter" and "real motion" of the luminiferous ether seems

to the Editor of this Histw*y a grave danger in this method of speaking of the ether. The ideal nature of geometry involves the
"

and ultimately of mechanism, and the only an intellectual mode of briefly summarizing certain wide groups of sensations. The advantage of the electro-magnetic over the elastic solid theory of light appears
ideal nature of kinematics

luminiferous

ether"

is

t> lie in the wider range of phenomena under one conception.

it

enables us to epitomise

ether

passage of the stellar bodies through the explained by aid of the principle first indicated by Sir G. G. Stokes (see our Art. 1266*), i.e. that as in the case of
is

The

difficulty of the

cobblers' wax,

which vibrates to rapidly alternating forces, long continued but very small forces suffice to produce permanent
change of shape
Whether
1
.

intinitesimally small forces produce

;

change of

shajM- or not

we do not know but very small forces suffice to produce change of All we have got with respect to the InminitVrous ether is that shape.
the exceedingly small forces required to be brought into play in the luininiferous vibrations do not, in the times during which they act
suffice to produce any sensibly permanent distortion. The come and go effects taking place in the period of the luminiferous vibrations do not give rise to the consumption of any large amount of energy,
<rlycerine is also suggested as an example illustrating the ether on p. 119, in which the sadden turn of a stick in Canada Balsam gave the medium a doable refractive power, \\liirh rradually disappeared, is referred to on pp. 11920.
'

and Maxwell's experiment

454

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON.

[17671768

not large enough an amount to cause the light to be wholly absorbed in say its propagation from the remotest visible star to the earth (p. 8).
Lecture II. (pp. 20-5) opens with a brief elementary theory [1 767.] of elasticity containing, however, nothing beyond what is given in the Encyclopaedia article on Elasticity: see our Art. 1741. Lecture III. (pp. 31-3) indicates the general solution of the equations of vibration for

a homogeneous isotropic solid. Lecture IV. (pp. 38-48) develops this solution, chiefly in reference to the sound vibrations represented by an equation of the type
:

rjj^ (!+*)'*>
Lecture VI. (pp. 57-66) continues the discussion of these sound vibrations.

Lecture VIII. (pp. 77-91) deals with distortional waves, [1768.] = 0. Consider the function or those for which the dilatation
:

which

satisfies

the equation

*;^
:

r being the distance from the origin,

(a)

and

being constants.

solution of the body-shift equations, subject to

0, is

given

by:

w= At
approximate form

0,

-y

=
dz

w = -jdy

a considerable distance from the origin the solution takes the

:

2ir z

%TT

where q

is

written for

-j-

/-

t\

Further the twists at a considerable distance are given by

1

Thus there are rotations proportional to (sin q)/r round the axis of x and to (sin q) x/r2 round the radius-vector.

If you think out the nature of the thing, you will see that it is this a globe, or a small body at the origin, set to oscillating about Ox as an axis. You will have turning vibrations everywhere ; and the light will be everywhere The vibrations will be everywhere perpendipolarized in planes through Ox. cular to the radial plane through Ox (p. 79).
:

17G9]
(6)

SIR WILLIAM TH<>MS(>\.

455

Thomson

Besides this solution for a torsional vibration, Sir William gives (p. 84) the solution for a small to-and-fro motion in the
4ir*

axis of Xj viz.

w=
<f>

j* s

<P<f> # + tbr jLa

,

v=

dydx

(F<f> 7
'

jT

#6 w ~ T^T dzdx

>

liaving

still

the value

C
At

a considerable distance from the origin we have approximately:

~4ir*a -w=-C

sin

shifts

where 7 has the same value as above, and clearly the resultant of these is perpendicular to the radius- vector. Further at a great distance there is no appreciable shift at points in the axis of x at all. In the plane of yz we have v = w - 0, or the shift is perpendicular to this plane. light would be polarised in this plane (p. 86). Sir William Thomson refers with regard to this solution to Sir

G. G. Stokes' theory of the blue light of the sky. He further deals at considerable length with models of vibrators which would produce vibrations corresponding to either of the above cases. It is clear that the solutions given by Sir William Thomson are special cases of those due to Voigt and afterward dealt with by Kirchhoff: see our Arts. 1309-10.

[1769.]

While Case

(b) of the

preceding article deals with the to-and-

single small body at the origin, Lecture IX. (pp. 92-4) considers the case of a doublet of such motions at the Such a motion might be considered as given by discs attached origin.

fro motion in the axis of

x of a

two ends of a tuning-fork, neglecting the prongs, or by two small by a spring and pulled asunder so as to vibrate in and The expressions for the shifts may be found from those out (p. 94). given in Case (6) alx>ve by simply differentiating them with regard to x and introducing a new constant into <. Thus, at a considerable
to the
balls connected
1

distance

from

the vibrator the

a*

shifts

will

be approximately of

(In-

forms

u = ,,, C
It

- r*
.

cos q,

n,3?y v = C -f cos q,

ta

si,*** cos 7. C

easy to prove that the complete solution represents a distortional and that the radial component of shift at a considerable There is zero shift in the plane of i/z and along" the axis of x. Further treating the motion as that of light, we see that
ration (0 = 0), distance is zero.
\ il.

.c

papyrograph hat a
(p. u:i).

slip at thia point, it

peaks of ,h

,lr,

,i,

</>/

m-.l

as the shifts

456

SIR

WILLIAM THOMSON.

[1770

would be "polarized in the plane through the radius of the point considered and perpendicular to the radial plane through Ox" (p. 93). " This Sir William Thomson holds that is the simplest set of vibrations that we can consider as proceeding from any natural source of
:

94) \ of the remainder of this Lecture, dealing with the simplest conceivable form of elementary vibrator in the case of light, is of great interest, but it would lead us beyond our legitimate subject to discuss the lecturer's suggestions here.

light"

(p.

Much

[1770.]
elastic solids.

Lecture

XI.

(pp.

124-37)

treats

of

seolotropic

The

first

'constant* controversy.

nine pages (pp. 124-32) deal with the After referring to the meaning of the

term wolotropic, and

that
:

"

the somewhat cloud-land molecular be-

ginning" of the theory of elasticity, Sir William

Thomson remarks

is

...we have long passed away from the stage in which Father Boscovich accepted as being the originator of a correct representation of the
in the

nature of matter and force. Still, there is a never-ending definite mathematical problem of the equilibrium or motion of a set of points endowed with inertia and mutually acting upon one another with any given force. We cannot but be conscious of the one grand application of that problem to what used to be called physical astronomy but which is more properly called dynamical astronomy, or the motions of the heavenly bodies. We have cases in which we have these motions instead of the approximate equilibriums or infinitesimal motions which form the subject of the special molecular
ultimate
interest

dynamics that I
It
is

am now

alluding to (pp. 125-6).

then pointed out that those who have treated the theory
:

of elasticity from the standpoint that

and that the

matter consists of particles acting upon one another with mutual forces, elasticity of a solid is the manifestation of the force required to hold the particles displaced infinitesimally from the position in which the mutual forces will balance (p. 126),

have been led to rari-constant equations. This statement should, be modified by the addition to " mutual forces" of the words "which act in the line joining the particles and are functions
I think,
1 This statement is modified in Lecture XII. (p.. 145), where the lecturer points out that the condition for the ceutroid of a molecule remaining stationary while the molecule acts as a vibrator, would be satisfied not only by the double to-and-fro motion of our Art. 17G9 but also by Case (b) of our Art. 1768, if the vibrator were a Thomson "shell-spring" molecule, i.e. one with a massive nucleus carrying an external shell-surface of extremely small mass by means of connecting springs.

1771]

SIR

WILLIAM THOMSON.

457

only of the mutual distances." The statement of the Lectures does not exclude the hypotheses of modified action and of aspect,
either of which being admitted lead to multi-constant equations
:

see our Arts. 276

"

and 302-6.

to

Sir William cites Sir G. G. Stokes as having first called attention the viciousness of this conclusion (i.e. uni-constancy) as a

practical

matter in respect to the

realities

of elastic

solids."

Jelly

and india-rubber, our old friends, are referred to as examples of elastic solids which do not fulfil the uni-constant condition, but
no attempt
is

made

to

complete the validity of the argument by

all,
i.e.

demonstrating that they are true elastic solids at

that

two elastic moduli will suffice to determine absolutely the relations between all types of small stresses and strains in these materials. For example, in the case of these materials are the stretch and squeeze-moduli practically the same, and if the slide-modulus and the dilatation-coefficient (X, see Vol. I., p. 884-5) be determined from torsion and pure traction experiments, are the values of the
dilatation-modulus (\+/u),the spread-modulus [/Lt(3X+2/*)/(\+2/*)] and the plate-modulus [4/A (/* -f X)/(X -I- 2/*)] calculated from these results in agreement with experiment ? These points require very careful consideration before the argument from jelly and indiarubber can be recognised as conclusive: see our Arts. 1636 and
1T49.
[1771.]

Sir William

Thomson now

raises

argument against rari-constancy.

following remark:

He

introduces

a more interesting it with the

think it was in the Stokes also referred to a promise that I made, rear 1856, to the effect that <ut of matter fulfilling Poisson's condition rari-conHtunt matter] a model may be made of an elastic solitl, which [i.e. when the scale of parts is sufficiently reduced will l>e a homogeneous elastic solid not fulfilling Poisson's con<lftion. Stokes refers to that promise n* whi.-li was made very nearly 30 years ago. I propone this mmm-nt to fulfil it never having done so before. It is a very simple affair (p. 127).
I

The
o

following

is

the model suggested.

a geometrical right six-face as our element and suppose 8 particles at its angles. These may be connected by the 1 2 edges, the four internal Each edge will h< long diagonals and the 12 face diagonals. to four such faces, and each face diagonal to two right six-faces ; --nee we are left with only 13 disposable links for each element
i

I.

Suppose these links replu

I

<>f

diiV. i.-nt

elasticities.

1.

IT

II.

458

SIR

WILLIAM THOMSON.

[1772

This gives us 13 arbitrary constants. Two further constants come from the ratios of the three edges, and three from the arbitrary directions which we may take for our coordinate axes of reference. Thus we have at present 18 arbitrary constants. To get three more constants Sir William Thomson places bell-cranks at each corner and connects them by pieces of wire, so that the wire, thought of for the moment as continuous through the bell-cranks, passes twice round the edges of the right six-face. This can be done in a variety of ways. These pieces of wire connecting the bell-cranks can be taken of different elasticities in the directions of the three principal axes, and we thus have three more disjxjsable constants, or 21 in all. Sir William Thomson speaks of this arrangement as "a model of a solid having the 21 independent coefficients of Green's theory." He draws attention to the fact that for the case of an isotropic solid if the bellIn crank wires are inelastic, the right six-face can suffer no dilatation. fact, we might place smooth rings at the corners and take a continuous inextensible string twice round the edges ; for small strains the solid would then be inextensible (if not incompressible)
1 .

Now there seems to me to be grave difficulties about this [1772.] It consists really of a space framework with a considerable model. number of supernumerary bars, besides a binding of wire and bell-cranks. These involve 18 disposable constants. But why stop at 18? cannot, indeed, put in any more straight supernumerary bars, but there is nothing, I think, to hinder us running wire and bell-cranks round the diagonal I see no reason why the disbracing bars in a great variety of ways. posable constants should stop at 1 8. Yet no one will assert that because we can build up a frame with supernumerary bars, bell-cranks and wires which has 24 or perhaps 30 disposable constants, that therefore we can have an elastic solid with 24 or 30 disposable coefficients. Clearly there is a portion of the argument which is very far from completed by the lecturer. Out of material obeying rari-constant conditions, we can build up a frame with 18 (or possibly 80 disposable constants), but it has yet to be proved that the relations between stress and strain for such a frame will contain tlie same number of independent coefficients. The complexity of the supernumerary bars in Sir William Thomson's model framework renders it difficult, if not impossible, to work out the relations between the elasticities of the various members and the elastic coefficients of the Till that is done, however, we have no evicorresponding elastic solid. dence that certain inter-constant relations may not after all hold for this

We

model 2
1

An

inextensible string alone

aeolotropic

medium,

would not answer the purpose in the case of an for if a, b, c be the edges of the right six-face, the condition of

inextensibility gives 5a

+ Sb + 5c = 0, but

that of incompressibility

+
Ct

+ - = 0.
C

further conditions: a = b = c, are necessary and sufficient. have 18 available quantities, Sir William Thomson remarks on p. 131: which will make by solution of linear equations the required 18 moduluses," This

The

"We

17731775]
tin-

SIK

WILLIAM THOMSON.

459

Even the particular case of isotropy is by no means easy of analysis in model, we have of course straight off only one edge elasticity, one face

diagonal elasticity, one internal diagonal elasticity and further one elasSir William Thomson ticity of the binding wire, four constants in all. tells us (p. TJ9) that without the binding wire the three other elasticities " an for isotropy reduce to a single one and that isotropic solid made up

way will have an absolutely definite compressibility; we cannot the compressibility what we please." It would be an interesting, but I fear complicated piece of analysis to ascertain even in this case the relations between the elasticities of the three bars and to determine whether the stretch-modulus is or is not of the slide-modulus.
in this

make

Since Sir William Thomson introduces supernumerary bars [1773.] into his frame, it is clear that the action between any two particles

depends on the action between other pairs, for a strain in one bar produces strain in all the others, which strains of course influence the stress in the first bar. Thus he is really constructing a model which introduces the hypothesis of modified action. This hypothesis is expressly excluded by the assumptions of Navier and Poisson, and we have already recognised that it may lead to multi-constancy. Whether it leads in the case of the model described in this lecture to complete multi-constancy, I do not think we have evidence enough to determine. Clearly the model does not carry us further than, if indeed as far as, the statement, that modified action leads to multi-constancy: see our Arts. 1529* (and ftn.), '276 and 305. The remainder of the Lecture (pp. 132-7) is devoted to a discussion of wave motion in an aeolotropic medium and covers practically the same ground as the Encydajmedia article on '//: see our Art 1764.
Lecture XII. (pp. 1 37-43) discusses the differences between [1774.] It indiaeolotropic and isotropic solids in the matter of wave motion. cates rather by suggestion than analysis what is the probable solution for waves in the former case, and also the nature of the conditions wliirh must hold in order that condensational may be separated from distortionul

waves.
says:

As

to

indications of the

former wave Sir William

Thomson
if

The want of indication <f any Mich actions is sufficient to prove that there are any in nature, they must be exceedingly small. Hut that are uch waves I believe, and I lelieve that the v'rU-ity propagation of electrostatic force is the unknown condensational velocity that we are do not mean that I believe this as a matter of vision* speaking of faith, but rather as a matter of strong scientific probability (p. 143).
!'

but

still

775.] Lector* XIII. (pp. 1 54-62) contains some rather disconnected suggestive remarks on aeolotropy and wave motion in aeolotropic

does not I think mean that the 18 coefficient* are linear fuii.-ti.M-. of the 18 modulate*. They come oat, I think, very complicated functions of the 16 claticitiea and the two length ratio not see <i priori why thene function* mutt be independent.

30-2

460

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON.

[1776
an inconi-

for wave motion in solids. p. 1 56 the form of the equations jyressible isotropic solid is generally indicated, and the method of

On

those for an incompressible aeolotropic solid is suggested. Neumann had dealt previously at some length with these problems: see our Arts. 1215 et seq. The lecturer then turns to Rankine's nomenclature and deals esj^cially with cyboid or cubic aeolotropy see our Arts. 443He points out that Rankine had remarked 52, especially Art. 450 (v). that according to Sir David Brewster this sort of variation from isotropy He then quotes Sir G. G. Stokes to the was to be found in analcime effect that no optical phenomenon observed in cubic crystals gives any evidence in favour of the existence of this sort of aeolotropy, and that not even Brewster's experiment is a true instance. Thus we are thrown back on physical elasticity rather than on optics for examples of cyboi'd aeolotropy, and the lecturer illustrates it from woven material and basket work, where the elasticity may be the same in the direction of the two (or three) principal axes, but the resistance to shear may vary widely with the He refers on p. 159 to the error of Rankine direction of the shear. noticed in our Art. 421.
: 1 .

obtaining Franz and Carl

Starting from cyboi'd aeolotropy, Sir William Thomson, supposing in" difference of rigidities for the princompressibility and annulling the cipal distortions in each of the three principal planes," reaches an elastic For solid with three principal moduli and giving Fresnel's wave surface. a fuller discussion of the details of this investigation, which is only indicated in the briefest manner in the Lectures, we may refer the reader As to the memoirs cited in our Arts. 917*-18*, 148-50 and 1214-15. in Neumann's investigation the shifts lie in the plane of polarization
(pp. 161-2).

Lecture XIV. (pp. 173-78) has some interesting [1776.] remarks and results bearing on various features of aeolotropy.

The first elastic problem is to find the bulk-modulus, i.e. the dila(a) take the bulktation-modulus for an aeolotropic solid (p. 174). modulus 8 to be the elastic-constant by which uniform pressure on the surface of any portion of a homogeneous aeolotropic solid must be divided

We

Art. 1133. Encyclopaedia Metropolitana. London, 1854. William Thomson here defines the bulk-modulus to be the mean normal divided the pressure by compression when the solid is compressed equally in all This, however, directions, i.e. when the strain denotes a pure change of size. does not give the relation between pressure and dilatation for the case which we can actually experiment on, namely: a uniform surface pressure. Further making an aeolotropic body incompressible for the stress which produces pure change of size, does not insure that the body is really incompressible for every form of stress. The bulk-moduli in Sir William Thomson's sense and in our sense of the word coincide only for cubical crystals and isotropic bodies. In other cases it is difficult t ) see how this modulus in Sir William Thomson's sense satisfies his definition of a modulus of elasticity see our Art. 1761. It is the ratio not of an actual, but of an average stress to the dilatation. This bulk-modulus cannot be ascertained by any simple experiment, and no arrangement of load capable of being practically applied would produce such a pure change of size in an aeolotropic body.
.

See Herschel's Light

Sir

1776]

Mi;

WILLIAM TH"MsMV

461

in order to obtain the compression per unit volume of the solid. If this be so, the proper method of procedure seems to be to equate the three tractions in their most general form to the pressure with its sign

From the six changed (p), and further to put the three shears zero. equations so obtained the slides must be eliminated and the three stretches
found. Tin- sum of the three stretches then gives the dilatation (i.e. the compression) in terms of the pressure, and so determines the dilatationmodulus. The answer can be at once written down in the form of rminants, but to expand them for the most general case of an For the case of three planes of aeolotropic solid is very laborious. elastic symmetry, we find for the dilatation-modulus F in the notation of Art. 117:

_
F=\
[\jcxxx\
..

abc + '2(Tef'

-ad*- be 3 - cf*

This agrees with Neumann's result in our Art. 1205 for a special case and also with the value of for isotropy. Sir William Thomson, with the definition of the footnote to our Art. 1776 deduces from the expression for the strain-energy that (p. 168) :

\yyyy\

\zzzz\

(\n*z\

\zzjcx\

for the general case of aeolotropy, the notation being that of our it This result does not involve like the previous one the direct 116, ftn.
.

slide coefficients

nor those of asymmetrical

elastic
1

elasticity.
it

For the case of three planes of

symmetry

becomes

F = J {a + b + c + 2 (d

+/)},

which di tiers from the result given above. It agrees with that result and with the usual value (A + ^/z) in the case of isotropy. This value of F given on pp. 168 and 174 leads me to believe that the, second problem treated by Sir William Thomson, namely the strain-energy for an incompressible aeolotropic elastic >f the valu. 1 solid, is erroneously worked out
.

(b)

The third problem

'I'h is

is

entitled:

To annul

Ox, Oy,

amounts to equating
ii

sketonesses relatively to to zero the coefficients of asym-

metrical elasticity: see our footnote

(c)

p. 77.
,,\d
.

weblike athe skewannulling the weblike aeoloropy "Sir William Thorn-mi understands introducing a condition of the following kind a pUne perpendicular to any one of the axes, say that of Or, and suppose lines in the direction Oy to receive a stretch Jx, and lines in
nesses being annulled (pp.
t
:

The fourth problem

17

>

8),

l'.\

have iwed the word 'erroneous* here although tin- matter in rather one of We are dealing with two balk-moduli (taitinomio and thli|min<But it neeim to me imporaible to oon*intenUy define a nolid. m differently defined. Home system* of loading do produce compression, as incompressible.
1

I..M.

4l)l>

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON.

[1777

the direction Oz a squeeze J, then the work done in this strain is to be equal to the work done in giving a face perpendicular to y a slide parallel to z of magnitude s. Geometrically the slide and the stretch and squeeze are equivalent, and Sir William Thomson introduces an isotropy with regard to slide in the planes perpendicular to each of the

coordinate axes.

Thus the condition

is

to express that there is such a deviation from aeolotropy as would be produced if we were to annul the differences of rigidity relatively to a shear 1 produced

by pulling out one diagonal and shortening the other compared with the shear of sliding one face past the other (p. 177).

The strain-energy < for an aeolotropic solid in which the "skew" nesses are annulled is easily seen to be
:

2<f>

= as/ + bay- +
for
:

csz sz

+ 2d Sy8z +

'2e's^sx

2f'sxs

!/

d<r
:

Hence

sy

= ^s,

&, we have,
2</>

all

the other strains being zero

=J

(b

+ c-2d')s-:

and for

<r

vz

= a, and

all

the other strains zero

2<

ds

2
.

Thus the condition

or
Similarly

for annulling weblike aeolotropy is

d = \(b + c -

2d'),

1.

+ a) =

(2e

e'),

Now these are precisely Saint- Venant's ellipsoidal conditions of the second kind (see our Art. 230), or " weblike aeolotropy" is not consistent with the aeolotropy produced by permanently straining an isotropic elastic solid so as to have three planes of elastic symmetry: see our Art. 231.
another way of looking at the results of the Consider a is not without instructiveness. strain confined to the plane xy, and defined by the three straincomponents sx s,,, and o^. Let r be a line in this plane which makes an angle with the axis of x and let r be a line perpendicular to it. Then we easily find for a solid with the skewnesses annulled
[1777.]

There

is

preceding

article,

which

ov = (sy - sx)
and
See
(vi)
>

sin 26

a-

xy

cos 29,

= 1 {*, (/ - a) +
(viii)

s,,

(b

-/)}

sin 20 +f<rxy cos 20.

and

The second
1

of our Art. 133. result holds in the case of weblike aeolotropy.

is

Now

give

Shear

here used for strain, in the sense of our

slide.

.S

1779]

Mil \VILI.IAM

THOMSON.
*

4-63

any uniplanar strain without

if

there

is

dilatation, or such that to be isotropy of slide, we must have

:

+ *,=

0.

Then,

i.e.

or

same condition as before. This method of obtaining the result out more clearly that absolute isotropy of slide does really exist. brings when weblike aeolotropy is annulled in each principal plane for strains without dilatation in that plane.
tin;

Sir William Thomson uses (pp. 169, 177-8) the results of [1778.] nv vious article to obtain an expression for the strain-energy < of an ' elastic solid without either 'skewnesses', or web-like aeolotropy' and He takes to insure the latter condition strained without dilatation.
tin|

We

then find

Thus wr have the strain-energy expressed in terms of the three slidemoduli alone, and so in a form suitable for discussing waves of
distortion.

[1770.]

In Lecture XV. pp. 182-93 are devoted to the subject of

The elasticity and the elastic theory of light. as to the conditions for iucom possibility seem to
see our
Art.

remarks on pp. 182-3 me doubtful, owing to

:

the use of the fiarticular value of the dilatation-modulus before referred to Art 1776. Sir William thru passes to the thlipsinomtc coefficients. Adopting the notation for these o>' ili< nts suggested in our
i 1

is,

\\.-

have Q|

p.-

tx = (aaa/i)
o-,,

+ (aabb) n + ((MCC)
4-

+ (aabc)

(boon)

(bcbb) TV
tin -n

(kccc)

^ + (aaca) + (bcbc) ^ + (bcca) w

-I-

(aaab) 4^,
(bcttb) 7).

Clearly

we must

write

+ (aabb)

(aabc)
(bbbc)
('

+
(aacc)
1

(W/./.,

+(N
+
(ccoc)

f (ccbb)

4-(occa)

+(ccab)

Die papyrogrftph (p.

169) appears to have the factor 2 inntead of | in the three

last t>riMx.

464
Hence we have the
bility

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON.

[1779

following six conditions for complete incompressi:

under

all

forms of stress
(aabb) +
(66cc)

(aaaa) +
(aacc)

(aacc)
(cccc)

=
=

0,
0,

(aabb)
(aabc)

+
+

(6666)
(bbbc)

+
+

(cc66)
(ccbc)

= =
=

0,
0,
0.

= 0, (ctaca) + (66c) + (ccca) Sir William Thomson remarks

It is startling to

(aaab) +
(p. 1

(bbab)

(ccab)

84)

not really noticed

think of six equations to express incorupressibility, it before, but it is quite right...

have

In thlipsinomic coefficients it is clear that the conditions of incompressibility can only be expressed by the above six relations ; but it is not so clear that in the case of tasinomic coefficients six relations
will be necessary.

For example, we have, in the case of three planes of elastic when the plagiothliptic coefficients, i.e. those of unsymmetry
1
,

symmetrical

pliability,

vanish (see our Art. 448)

(aaaa)=,
/M.WA
(6666)

bc-d'*

d'e'-f'c

(aabb)=
/A/
\

f'd'-e'b
,

(aacc)=

= ca

~e

"'
,

(66cc)

=^^

o'f-d'a
,

(cccc)

&-/' = -.

2
,

where

A = abc + 2d'e'f' - ad' z - be'2 - c/' 2

for incompressibility reduce to

Hence the conditions

z 6c - d' + d'e' -fc +f'd' - e'b

~~

ca- e'

+ e'f - d'a +

~~

d'e'

-f'c _

;
'

Now we can satisfy these by making all three numerators zero, which does not involve any of the tasinomic coefficients being infinite (and certainly not all six, a, 6, c, d', e',f infinite, as seems to be suggested by the lecturer on p. 175), or we can take A=oo without making the numerators infinite. For example, if we take a and d' infinite, or 6 and e' infinite, the conditions of incompressibility will be infinite, or c and To judge from this special case the general rule seems to be satisfied. the following which is not in complete agreement with that stated by Sir William Thomson. For incompressibility it suffices that six relations be satisfied among the tasinomic coefficients, none of them becoming infinite but in special cases the becoming infinite of a number
,

1 The reader must carefully distinguish between the a, &, c of the symbols for the thlipsinomic coefficients which denote merely directions, and the a, 6, c which are the direct stretch coefficients (tasinomic constants) of an elastic solid with three planes of elastic symmetry.

17801781]

MI;

WILLIAM THOMSON.
suffice to

465
ensure inuoinpres-

than six of the tasinomic coefficients will

sihility.

The further condition

tlilipsinomic merely the
coefficients
is

for the vanishing of the

"skewnesses"

in

It is of course discussed on pp. 186-7. Sir vanishing of Raiikine's plagiothliptic coefficients. William Thomson speaks of them here as well as of the plngiotatic coefficients as "side-long coefficients." They are the coefficients such as Ijrjrjwi, ijrxxr!, (abbe), (cuiac) etc., which contain an odd number of any
su script letter.
I

The remainder of Lecture XV.

'>tre

(pp.

187-93) and the

first

part of

XVII. (pp. 209-13) contain a criticism of Green's "extraneous The criticism misses, I venture to think, the real ]x>int of pressures."
pressures," or

what Cauchy, Green and Saint- Venant denote by these "extraneous by what we have by preference in our History termed ><d stresses see our Arts. 616*, 1210* and Vol. I., p. 883. It is of
:

the very essence of such initial stresses that the principle of the superposition of small strains does not apply. Compare our Arts. 129 and H.")-6 with Sir William's remarks on p. 192, noting, however, his '2. The footnote p. 189 together with the addition on p. 213 must, p. I think, be taken as probably marking a withdrawal after further consideration from the standpoint of the lectures see also our Art 1789.
1

_'

The only other part of Lecture XVII. (which is mainly [1780.] occupied with considerations as to the reflection and refraction of light at the interface of two media, and as to the plane of polarisation) relating closely to our subject is the further discussion of aeolotropy on pp. Sir William Thomson refers in particular to * web-like asym213-6. and refers to braced structures having only one set of diagonal metry He bracing bare as representing something analogous in framework. is also to the probability that crystals of the cubic class possess it,
'

annul

and suggests the importance of experiments. Clearly were we to web-like asymmetry in regular crystals, they would become isotropic elastic bodies and they would cease to be crystals from the elastic standpoint. Klang as early as 1881 and Voigt in a series of memoirs have determined the constants a, and d for regular crystals, and shewn that the rari- constant relation a-^d+f is very far from How tar their experiments holding see our Arts. 1203 (d), and 1212.
'
'

inspire full confidence will be discussed later.

/.,,-t,,r>
<>f

[17SL]
ft inn

(pp, light at the interface of

ia

XYIll.

Ifltli

with the reflection and

elastic solid

two media on the

theory.

The method adopted

:

very close to Lord

ment t' \ vi.u heory see the Philosophical pp. The discussion is very suggestive <>n H numl>. 81-970, London, 1^71. points, but they belong rather to the theory of light than to that of
.1

Kayleigb's treat..

1 Thi follows at onoe if we introduce the annulling condition the stress-strain relations of our Art. 120H

ora = *d + f

into

466
elasticity.

Silt

WILLIAM THOMSON.
I have

[1781

The first suggestion, medium loaded with gyrostatic

come

across, of using

an

elastic

molecules, as a

mode

of

the rotation of the plane of polarisation by quartz, pp. 242-5.

etc.

explaining is given on

Lecture XIX. (pp. 256-69) so far as it concerns elasticity deals further with the subject of the reflection and refraction of light at an It discusses chiefly from Lord Rayleigh's standpoint the interface. " condensational wave." The used as to Neumann's

language

(p.

267)

work
to

me

especially if we consider the latest form of his researches both in the present and previous lectures too severe.

seems

It deals (pp. 270-88) concludes the body of the work. the of light, but one or two points are with theory principally sufficiently close to our subject to be noted here.

Lecture

XX.

1 Sir William Thomson refers on p. 270 to Rankine as the " " idea of aeolotropy of density in the medium which originator of the This idea was deduced by Rankine from transfers light in a crystal. his hypothesis of "molecular vortices": see our Arts. 424 and 440.

(a)

Speaking of this hypothesis the lecturer says

I
is

(p.

270):

do not think

would

like to suggest that Rankine's molecular hypothesis

The title is of more importance than anything of very great importance. Rankine was that kind of genius that the names were of else in the work. enormous suggestiveness but we cannot say that always of the substance. cannot find a foundation for a great deal of his mathematical writings, and there is no explanation of his kind of matter. I never satisfy myself until I can make a mechanical model of a thing.
;

We

has been further aeolotropy of density see the Lord Philosophical Magazine, Rayleigh investigated by London, 1871. Vol. XLL, pp. 51928.

The hypothesis

of

"

"

It leads to equations practically identical with those adopted by Sarrau and Boussinesq to explain double refraction see our Arts. 1476, 1480 and 1483. The hypothesis itself is rejected by Sir William on the ground of a paper by Stokes in the Proceedings of tJie Royal Society, Vol. xx., pp. 443-4. London, 1872. Stokes had verified HuyghenV construction as the true law of double refraction for Iceland spar within
:

the limits of errors of observation and had remarked

This result is sufficient absolutely to disprove the law resulting from the theory which makes double refraction depend on a difference of inertia in
different directions (p. 444).

Some further considerations on the difficulty of the motion of (b) molecules through the ether occur on pp. 277-80 see our Art. 1766.
:

Philosophical Magazine, Vol.

i.,

pp. 444-45.

London,

sill

WILLIAM THOMSON.

4(i7

Here we have the particles going with a velocity of half or a quarter <>t a kilometer per second in the kinetic theory of gases, and yet we have the molecules creating waves of light by vihrat ions of a velocity which may not U more than one kilometer per second, and cannot probably be as much a> a thousand kilometers per second (pp. 277-8).
however, falls back on the analogy of glycerine; not the velocity of the vibrations, but the shortness of their period which enables the ether to act as an elastic solid.
Sir

William,
it is

namely that

does a collision between molecules in the kinetic theory of gjises t< velocities of one or two kilometers per second, or change the Answer, because the whole time ity one or two kilometers per second ? of collision is enormously greater than the four hundred million millionth of The a second or than the slowest of vibrations that Langley has found medium's l>eing perfectly elastic for the to-and-fro recoverances of motions in the 20 million millionth of a second is perfectly consistent, it seems to me, with its being like a perfect fluid in respect to forces acting perhaps for one millionth of a second (p. 279).

Why

rise

See our Arts. 930* and 444.

Tlu Lament oftfo 21 Coefficients; a passing reference here as the one occasion in the history of our subject on which a poet (Professor G. Forbes) has -ondescendcd to touch such a serious theme as elasticity.
(c)

On

pp.

288-9

will be found:

this deserves, perhaps,

Certain appendices [1782.J to here. referred briefly

(a)

to

this

volume of lectures may be

pp. 290-3, 320-327 and 328 will be found an Appendix This Appendix not only Improved Gyrotttatic Afolecule. discusses the dynamics of two types of gyros tatic molecule, but applies the theory of an elastic medium in which an infinitely great number of such molecules are imbedded to explain the rotational effect of certain entitled
:

On

m. di;i on
details

t!i-

plane of polarisation of transmitted light.

;

To

discuss the

would lead us beyond our proper sphere the subject has been very fully treated by J. Larmoi in a )>aper entitled: The equations of propagation of /!>/// rlxdK a in </.'//">'" /<''"//'/ It aided medi". /'i-iwedinga of tfie Inn Mathematical Society, Vol. xxin., pp. 127 :*">. London, 1891. The second deals with Metallic Appendix Reflection and (6) It starts with a occupies j.|>. iMM :\\:\. development of the GreenRayleigh theory of the reflection and refraction of waves at the wo elastic media, and endeavours to apply the results to B&etellk p fraction hy making the square of the index of refraction
-

Th- littl.- hromatii- di.sp.Tsion negative. surfaces forms a difficulty in th- theory:

in

reflation

at

metallic

We are thus forced

tli.i

-tallic reflection

help so much d.^inil. Th.it it doe* ind.--d oooUio -art ..;' the essence of the true dynamical theory, can scarcely be doubted after we have considered the next two subject* on which we are
iyiiamieal

prr-i-nt, I'Ut

I?

whirli

is

468
going to try
it:

Sill

WILLIAM THOMSON.

[1783

the translucency of thin metallic films, and the effect of light incident on polished magnetic poles, or travrr^ing thin films of magnetised iron, nickel or cobalt (p. 313).

magnetism on polarised

The third Appendix entitled Translucency of Thin Metallic (c) Films, occupies pp. 3149. Here we require an application of the GreenRayleigh conditions at each of the two faces of the plate or film. Sir William again puts the square of the refractive index negative, and obtains an expression for the intensity of the wave transmitted through the film and for the advance of the phase in the two cases of vibrations in and perpendicular to the plane of the incident and transmitted rays. The results although suggestive are not in accordance with the experiThe theory explains Kerr's results for ments of Quincke (p. 317). the normal reflection of polarised light from magnetic poles, but not Kundt's for the transmission of polarised light through thin magnetised iron sheets. Being unable to abandon a pure imaginary value of the
:

refractive index for metals, Sir

William hopes

that extinctivity on a true dynamical foundation in connection with our molecular theory 1 , which it must be remembered is due originally to Sellmeyer, may serve to solve the numerous difficulties in connection with metallic reflection and transmission, which give us so much anxiety (p. 319).

As a last remark on the elastic theory of light we remaining words of this Appendix
:

may

cite

the

Extinctivity, however, cannot help to solve the great difficulty as to reflection at the interface between two transparent mediums, in the case of Green's attempt to explain this vibrations in the plane of the three rays. difficulty by gradualness in the transition of physical quality from one medium to another seems to me most unpromising if not utterly hopeless. There remains Green's other suggestion of "extraneous force," by which as we have seen he opened a door for explaining how the velocity of light in a crystal can depend on the direction of the line of vibration irrespectively of the line of propagation. If this suggestion becomes realised it must modify the circumstances at the interface which determine the reflection. Is it possible that it can lead to the true law for reflection of waves consisting of vibrations in the plane of the three rays ? (p. 319).

Sir William Thomson's Baltimore Lectures are undoubtedly [1783.] a most suggestive and interesting study such a study as brings the But they reader into the creative workshop of a great scientist. are a study which should be undertaken after rather than before the Green, Neumann, Lord perusal of what other leading physicists have achieved in the same field. Rayleigh, Sarrau, Boussinesq etc. This seems to me the sole method of fairly weighing the strength
of the author's criticisms and of duly appreciating the importance of careful study of this kind would go a long way to his ideas. convince the student that the elastic theory of light cannot in the

form of "the mathematical theory of perfectly

1

elastic solids" (what-

See pp. 246-7 of the Lectures for considerations on the storing of luminiferous energy by the attached molecules, especially in relation to anomalous dispersion.

17841786]

SIR

WILLIAM THOMSON.

469

ever be their degree of aeolotropy) prove serviceable as a dynamical explanation of optical phenomena.
[1784.] Elasticity viewed as possibly a Mode of Motion. Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain, Vol. IX., pp. 520-1. London, 1882. Popular Lectures and Addresses, Vol. I.,
1st Edn., pp. 142-6.

This

is

a brief resume* of a lecture given on

are cited,

March

4,

1881.

Numerous examples
etc., in

spinning-tops,
stiff elastic-like

hoops, bicycles, chains, firmness is produced by motion.

elasticity of every ultimate

motion

where a

The lecturer suggested that the atom of matter might be thus explained.

matter is a dream, and can be nothing can explain chemical affinity, electricity, magnetism, gravitation, and the inertia of masses (that is, crowds) of vortices.

But

this kinetic theory of

it

until

[1785.]
stntic

(a)

Oscillations

and Waves

in an

Adynamic Gyro-

System (1883).

(6)

On

Gyrostatics (1883).
of these papers only are given in Proceedings of the xil., p. 128. Edinburgh, 1884.

The
Their

titles

Royal Society of Edinburgh, Vol.

contents
relate

motion.'

Some

probably to elasticity as a mode of slight account of them will be found in Nature,

'

Vol. xxvn., p. 548.

t/"'

[1786.] British

Steps towards a Kinetic Theory of Matter. Report of Association (Montreal Meeting, 1884), pp. 613-22.

London, 1885.

(Nature, Vol. xxx., pp. 417-21

Vol.
I.,

and Addresses,

1st Edn., pp. 218-52.)

Popular Lect> This paper still

further develops the gyrostatic theory of elasticity, i.e. elasticity as a mode of motion. In particular the author indicates how a model

spring balance might theoretically be constructed from a fur-link frame, each link carrying a gyrostat so that the axis of rotation of tlifly-wheel is in the axis of the link which carries it (pp. 618-9).

He

solids

further extends the conception to the constitution of elastic and to the model of a solid which would present the

magneto-optic rotation of the plane of polarised light (pp. 619-20).

The paper concludes by shewing

1

that perforated solids with fluid

Example
i

On

the general theory of gyronUtica

845""" of Thomaon and

me Art*. 819, : Tail's Natural /Vu'/o-.pty, Part

(G),

l*e,

and ft46 187.

470

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON.

[1787

circulating through them might, if linked together, be replace a system of linked gyrostats.
[1787.]
(hi the Reflection

made

to

and Refraction of

Light.

Philosophical
is

Mtt'/nzine, Vol. xxvi., pp.

414-25.

London, 1888.
isotropic elastic

The expression
by the integral
:

for the

work of an
+

medium

given

W = i/IKM
r- j
(

2 /*

( ***

If T be the resultant twist tins

x+

*,

^
+
4/x T*[

V + O + (V +
/*

****

+ V)} dxdydz.
:

is

easily

thrown into the form

* 4,

Integrating the term in curled brackets by parts

we have

W= J///{(X + 2/1)

2
fl

fefydz
dv\

dv

dw

dio\

du

du

where I, m, n are the direction -cosines of the normal drawn outwards from the element dS of the bounding surfaces. Now if the medium be
there), then the bounding surfaces (i.e. u Further, the medium may change its density surface-integrals vanish. are functions of the at any surface, provided that at this surface u, v, same function of x, y, z and t (Glazebrook Philosophical Magazine, Vol. xxvi., p. 523. London, 1888), and lastly there be equality of /n

rigidly fixed at the

v=w-0
w

on both sides of the surface

fixed

1 .

boundary or boundaries,

W will always reduce to

2/x) 6*

Subject to these conditions,

if

there be a

JF= J///{(X +
Sir

4/xr

dxdydz.

William Thomson now notes that this expression for the work be will be positive if X + 2/x is positive, or even zero, provided Thus the medium as a whole will be stable. According to positive. our Vol. i. p. 885, the dilatation-modulus = J (3A. + 2/x) hence if X = - 2/x, this dilatation-modulus is negative, or the medium would collapse if not
/w,

The

interfaces between

infinity, the surface-integrals

two media being either closed surfaces or extending to may be thrown into the form
:

= 2JS(lu

-6) + mv (s y -6) + nw 4/xJJ{ + mv7v + nw ) dS - 2 + 2/x)

lu
(s x

(s,

0)}dS

(X

jje(lu

+ mv + nw) dS.

Hence for media for which X + 2/x = 0, we must have at an interface l the same for both, if these surface terms are to disappear. Sufficient conditions the same for both media, would be (a) M, v, w, the same and the tractions ZZ, w, or (fe) u, v, w the same, ^ the same and the stretches 8X sv * g the same for both
:

media.

Case

(n)

does not appear to involve the sameness of

/u.

17881790]

SIR

WILLIAM THOMSON.

471

As an example of this kind of medium, Sir ti.vd to rigid boundaries. William Thomson cites "homogeneous air-less foam held from collapse
by adhesion to a containing vessel, which may be infinitely distant all round " (p. 414). Such a medium " exactly fulfils the condition of zero velocity for the condensational-rarefactional wave while it has a definite rigidity and elasticity of form, and a definite velocity of distortional wave, which can easily be calculated with a fair approximation to
;

absolute accuracy" (p. 415).

Unlike Green, who made his ether absolutely incomWilliam Thomson suggests a " contractile ether," for = \ + which 0, fixed to an infinitely distant containing vessel. He, '2fji
[1788.]
pressible,

Sir

then, in a manner very similar to Green's, investigates the intensities of the reflected and refracted rays at the interface of two media, and finds FresnePs sine-law for vibrations perpendicular to the plane of incidence and his tangent-law for vibrations in the plane of incidence (pp. 421 and 4:

In the paper itself the author takes p the same for both media with In a Note added on pp. 500-1 of the a view of simplifying his results. same volume of the Philosophical Magazine, Sir William Thomson states that Glazebrook had pointed out to him that the equality of p. for both sides of the interface of two media for which X + 2/x = 0, is needful for stability. Glazebrook himself extends Sir William Thomson's hyixithesis of a contractile ether to double refraction, dispersion, etc. in a }>aper which will be found in the same volume of the Phtiosojthical Magazine, pp. 521-40.

Doctrine of Extraneous dynamically FresneVs Kinematics of Double Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Refraction. Vol. XV., pp. 21-33. Edinburgh, 1889. This paper was read on
[1789.]
'e
to

On Cauchys and Greens

explain

December
will In- to

M'i'i i:inet Vol.

It is also printed in the Philosophical xxv., pp. 116-28. London, 1888. Our references the pages of the latter journal.
5,

1887.

an important paper in that it gives an expression for the energy of an incompressible elastic medium initially isotropic, but subjected to a finite homogeneous strain, when a small
This
is

given to it in any direction. It then applies this to the elastic theory of light, the ether in crystals being supposed incompressible but subjected to a surface stress which
sli<l<-

uniform
ilt

is

produces a homogeneous strain throughout the interior.

[1700.]

l^t

.V,

1,

.S',- 1,

hon

- 1 be the n princi|*l stretches of 'Met a slid'- r. \\\\<^<- mitt m.i\

,S'
!.

th.

472
lected,
/',

SIR

WILLIAM THOMSON.

[1790

be given to the material, so that the plane with direction-cosines Let the directions of a slide in the direction /, ?/&, n. Then the point, the initial principal stretches be taken as axes of x y, z. after the initial strain whose coordinates are before initial strain x, ?/, and the slide is given by the coordinates #', y', z where
?n',

ri receives

x = xS + apl, y = ySs +
1

<rpm, \

,.
'

where

p = l'xS + myS2 +
l

rizS.^

and

IV

+ mm' + nri =
t

0.

S9

mum

Let the principal stretches after the slide <r be S + BSl 1, + SS9 1, then they are to be found by making x"* + y' z +
or

S2 +8S2 z'
2

1,

minimum

for variations of x, y,

z,

a maxisubject to the condition that

As

typical result

we

find,

neglecting

o-

3
:

Whence:

'"-*- w.(*+fcT~
with similar values for &Si/ 2 and Now let + SE be the strain-energy in the condition Sl + BSlJ Sz -f 8S2 ^3 + ^3. then it must be a function of Sl + 8Slt *S 2 + $S2 S3 + $S3 or, (neglecting cubes of the small quantities 8^, 8$2 8^3) 8^ miist by Taylor's theorem be of the form

-^- ...... (m),

where the quantities A, B, C, a lt 9u 2 S3
A.S
,
.

b lt clt a 2 ,

52 ,

c2

are functions of

Now

since the

medium

is

incompressible

and therefore

Oj

/S<j

A3

$2"^3

^3^1
relations of the type
:

Hence

still

neglecting cubes

we have

which enable us to throw

(iii)

into the form

-4/*5;*+^+
Oj

O2

O8

Oi

where A, E,

(7,

Glt H^

7,

are functions of the initial strains

,,

*%, *%.

17911793]
[1791.]
-e

sn:

WIT.I.IAM

THOMSON.

473

- nV), Noting that (mn' + nmj = \ -/-'-/'-' +2 + nn = 0, /*+ m* + n2 = 1 and I'* + 7^+ w' 2 = 1 ) with similar relations for (nf + In')* and (Im' + ml'y*, we find by transforming (ii), 3 substituting in (iv) and neglecting (r that
IF

mm

(W

my

N- LP- Mm*- Nn*

L = BSf-CSf

*= CS*-AS* ^l

ASJ-3S*
if

This result agrees with Sir William Thomson's on p. 124, - J4, T, - |5, A - JC. 20, i'//. 27 respectively for our 6
1

we put

A physical meaning can be found for the constants A B,C. J2.] The work done per unit volume in producing a change &Slf &S'2 8S3 of
7
(

infinitesimal

magnitude in

Slt

^3,

A^-J

may,

if

Tlt

T.2t

forces per unit area in the directions of $,,

,,

Sst

T3 are the normal be written

:

TAMZ + T&ijs, + r
is

3 .y,52 s.%

= r,

f + T, | O,
>,
1

^
*5 S

siiM-o 8^*83= 1. Hence by (iii) clearly 7*,, 7 ,, 3T, are equal to 4, 5, C, or the latter are the initial principal stresses. Clearly since the material

incompressible

a finite plate of the large area a to be displaced by the shear <r, the medium being initially in a state of strain given by <&>',, Stt 9 The bounding faces of this plate are supposed unmoved and all the solid
[1793.]

Sir William

Thomson now supposes

medium

of thickness

h and very

exterior to the plate undisturbed by a except some slight strain round If a be given as some function of p the distance from one face its edge.
of the plate,

f(p)

say, then clearly

>dp

=Q

(vi).

Kurt her neglecting, since the area of the plate is very great, the work at the edge of the plate as small command with the strain-energy lor the total strain-energy of the plate: duo t<> sli
d-.i.e

+ (A - L ) r + ( R m* + (C - ) ) > r -/,+ /r --2(//

I

^-A

-Li.
i:

M- \C) V|

(**//*.

-'

IT. n.

474

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON.

the problem
rli
I

[1794
/, ??i,

By wave-theory
make

is

now

to find the values of

n which

the coefficient of

crdp a

maximum

or

minimum.

This reduces

Jo

to finding the principal diameters of the section in which the ellipsoid

-L- Mis

tf

n* -

z2

= const.

cut by the plane

I'x

+ m'y + n'z =

0.

These two directions of /, m, n are those for which the force of restitution and the shift coincide in direction. The magnitude of the velocity V of the two simple waves with fronts perpendicular to I', m', n is then given
(viii),

the density of the medium and {J} 1 is the maximum or minimum value of the factor in curled brackets on the right of (vii), such value being obtained from the values of 7, m, n found for the principal axes of the section of the above ellipsoid (p. 125).

where p

is

Taking the case of a wave-front perpendicular to the [1794.] and the factor in curled brackets principal plane yz, we have I in (vii) will then be a maximum or minimum (p. 125) either for

(vibration perpendicular to principal plane)

or, for
I

= 0,

m=

n, n = m'

(vibration in principal plane). In the first case

:

V 2P = (M+N)
and in the second case
:

(-M)m"

+ (C-N)ri* .........

(ix),

F 2p = L + Bm'* +

Cri*

^(^ + 1,- 2L - \B - \C} m'W.

z

(x).

theory V p in (ix) must be a constant, and According to Fresnel's " 2 These the coefficient of m' 2 2 in the value of F p in (x) must vanish. results, taking into account the symmetrical results for the other principal planes, lead to
:

H
since

+I =
l

2L- \A,

/!

G = 2M- \B,
l

A+fi + C = Q.
modulus
for the strain

1 {J} is clearly the elastic restitution are concurrent,

when

the shift and the force of

1795

1796]

sin \viu. IAM

THOMSON.

475

in

If fi be a function of Slt $ 2 Ss we find from these equations in the aimer indicated by Sir William Thomson on p. 126 that:
,

where
in id j5,

1 _ =

.^_

_+
1

_
I

C, Jf,

ff,

HI,

/,,

are given by proper interchanges.

[1795.]

Substitute (xi) in (iv) and

,ltS,

**"H;
f,

we

find

, /(SS,)'

+
To terms

its.

ta,
-

&s,

of the third order the coefficient of n'/S* vanishes owing to the considerations stated in Art. 1790 above. To the same order the coefficient of // is equal to
l
l

or to

Thus we hav-

Thus,

if

/x'

be constant,

we have

(p. 127),

If

in the value (iv) of

since

^ = B = C - 0,
for

and ffl

SE we put = 7j = p! by

= &, = ,=
:

!,

S^j-O, we

find,

(xi)

a pure sliding strain (Sa + &Sa) ( 8 + 8S3 ) = 1, whence it may be that neglecting terms of the cubic order, the slide a is shewn easily given by

Now

or, if //

be considered as a constant, we see that he isotropic material before initial strain.

{./}

it

is

the slide-modulus

have

If the value of [1706.] (p. 128):

in (viii) be calculated

by aid of

(xi)

we

*\

476

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON.

[17971798

Clearly the velocity of a wave for vibrations parallel to any one of three directions of initial principal stretch may be found by dividing th<> velocity of transverse vibrations in the isotropic material by the corresponding ratio of elongation. Sir William Thomson indicates that tinresults are entirely in agreement with Fresnel's Kinematics of Double Refraction, and therefore of course with the view that the vibration is If we take the vibration in perpendicular to the plane of polarisation.

the plane of polarisation, V in (x) must be constant, for this would now be the ordinary ray. But this involves A = B = C = 0, or perfect isotropy without of course double refraction.

The general method indicated in this memoir of cal[1797.] culating the strain-energy when there are initial strains seems of So far as it relates to the ether the assumptions great value.

made

are that in a crystal

(i)

the ether

is

incompressible,

(ii)

is

in a state of

homogeneous initial strain, and (iii) that the quantity of our Arts. 1794-5 is a constant for all values of the initial fi strains. The investigation seems in several important respects superior to that of Green: see our Arts. 917* and 1779 (p. 465).
Molecular Constitution of Matter. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Vol. xvi., pp. 693-724. Edinburgh, M. P., Vol. in., pp. 395-427. This paper although of 1890.
[1798.]

very great interest only explicitly touches on the topic of our History at one or two definite points and then, alas without the
!

" must be deferred for a future mathematical analysis which communication": see the final sentence of the memoir. One of the chief results of the memoir is that Sir William Thomson

theory

withdraws the reproach he had previously cast on Boscovich's see our Art. 924*. He remarks
: :

Without accepting Boscovich's fundamental doctrine that the ultimate atoms of matter are points endowed each with inertia and with mutual attractions or repulsions dependent on mutual distances, and that all the properties of matter are due to equilibrium of these forces, and to motions, or changes of motion, produced by them when they are not balanced; we can learn something towards an understanding of the real molecular structure of matter, and of some of its thermodynamic properties, by consideration of the static and kinetic problems which it Hooke's exhibition of the forms of crystals by piles of globes, suggests. Navier's and Poisson's theory of the elasticity of solids, Maxwell's and Clausing' work in the kinetic theory of gases, and Tait's more recent work on the same subject all developments of Boscovich's theory pure and simple amply justify this statement ( 14).

1799]
Sir William

MK WILLIAM THOMSON.
Thomson's increased respect

477

for Boscovich's theory

may

possibly have arisen from

his discovery that it will suffice to

explain multi-constancy.

We

shall consider

below the conditions

by which he attains this

result, while

avoiding the limitations of

Cauchy and Poisson.

[1799.]

The memoir opens with some introductory remarks

which belong so essentially to our subject that they quoted here

:

may be

Tin- scientific world is practically unanimous in believing that all tangible or palpuMe matter, molar matter as we may call it, consists of 1 This molecular groups of mutually interacting atoms or molecules constitution of matter is essentially a deviation from homogeneousness of .suh>tance, and apparent homogeneousness of molar matter can only be homogeneousness in the aggregate. l>ody is called homogeneous when any two equal and similar parts of it, with corresponding lines parallel and turned towards the same parts, are undistiuguisbable from
.

"A

one another by any difference in quality" [Treatise on Natural Philosophy, Part ii., 675-8]. I now add that unless the "part" of the body referred to consists of an enormously great number of molecules, this statement
is

difficult to

It is, indeed, very essentially the definition of crystalline structure. imagine equilibrium, static or kinetic, in an irregular random

crowd of molecules.
see

Such a crowd might be a liquid, I can scarcely could be a solid. It seems, therefore, that a homogeneous isotropic solid is but an isotropically macled crystal; that is to say, a solid composed of crystalline portions having their crystallineMaxes or lint's of syimii. -try ili>triluted with random equality in all directions. The proved highly perfect optical isotropy of the glass of object-glasses of great refracting telescopes, and of good glass prisms, seems to demonstrate that the ultimate molecular structure is fine-grained enough to let tin-re be homogeneous crystalline portions, which contain very large numbers of molecules while their extent throughout space is very small in comparison with the wave length of light ( 1). William Thomson's remarks as to the " isotropically macled " seem to suggest Saint- Venant's amarphic bodies. crystal Th.-se bodies (see our Arts. 231 and 308) elastic constant* have_ her of the type: 2d+d"-<Jbct or of the type: _'./ 4- d' In both cases isotropic "amorphic bodies" have a J (b + c). single iutercoiiHtttnt relation 2d + il'=n. \\hieh reduces their stressrelations tO the VJM-.S

how

it

>*

Editor

respectful protest. (iu some respects very accurate) of the sequences of the perceptual world of sense-impressions) by aid of a conceptual model of atoms and molecules corpuscles have not necessarily equivalents in the material universe.

tory can hardly DAM this wntenoe without a word of What science seems to him to have achieved is the denarii

which

478
or, to
is

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON.

[18001801

we should

the usual bi-constant types. On the assumption of rari-constancy further have d = d'. On both these hypotheses therefore there no distinction in the elastic constants between an absolutely homo-

geneous isotropic solid and an isotropic amorphic body (i.e. an isotropiThe reason for this apparent paradox seems to cally macled crystal). lie in the fact that the elements, the action between which we consider in our elastic theories, are supposed to contain an enormously great number of the individual crystals, and so are dealt with as if they were essentially homogeneous. If the element does not contain this great number, then, I think, the above stress-strain relations must not be considered as holding for the stress across any individual element but only for the mean of the stresses across a great number of individual elements I think this idea might be used to throw subjected to the like strain. some more light on the question of bi-constant isotropy. Such bi-constant isotropy may be physically due to amorphism, such amorphism not being so fine-grained as to admit practically of the application of that principle of absolutely homogeneous distribution to which the rari-constant elasticians appeal in calculating the stresses from their molecular hypothesis.
[1800.]

3-13 deal with Space- Periodic Partitioning and

homogeneous distributions of assemblages of points. these matters would lead us beyond our limits.
still

To

consider
are

They

further discussed in

45-61, which contain a

Summary

of a Homogeneous Assemblage of Bodies, and deal generally with what Sir William Thomson calls the " molecular tactics" of crystals. Attention may be drawn to the explanation given of H. Baumhauer's discovery of the artificial
of Bravais
Doctrine

twinning of Iceland spar by means of a knife

in

58-61.

The

structure of Iceland spar is here built up as suggested by Huyghens (see our Art. 836 (a)) of oblate ellipsoids of revolution, and the twinning is described on either of two hypotheses by aid of the

turning and sliding of these oblates, accompanied by a shrinkage and an elongation of their figures. The explanation is thus based

on a geometrical change in certain rather artificial elements of which Iceland spar is assumed to be built up, and it presents
to

the old difficulty as to what is the exact physical of these closely packed geometrical globes and ellipsoids. equivalent
[1801].

my mind

On
1

the

14-44 entitled: On Soscovich's Theory, and 62-71, Equilibrium of a Homogeneous Assemblage of mutually Attracting

subject of the artificial twinning of crystals is treated with ample reference memoirs of Baumhauer and others in Th. Liebisch Leipzig, 1891. Krystallographic, S. 104-18.
to the original

The

ADDENDUM
On June
to Boscovich.

TO ARTS. 1801-5.

15, 1893,

Royal Society entitled

I

Lord Kelvin communicated a paper to the On the Elasticity of a Crystal according

:

to the courtesy of the author the sight of a brief abstract of a portion of this paper. Its contents refer to the

owe
(i)

following topics

Demonstration that the simplest Boscovichian

system leads to rari-constancy, (ii) Demonstration that a homogeneous group of double points enables us to give any arbitrarily assigned value to each of the twenty-one coefficients by assigning very simple laws of variation to the forces between points, (iii)
coefficients

Determination of the values to be assigned to the twenty-one so as to render the medium incompressible. The

seems based on action between nearest neighbours. or all of the difficulties felt by the Editor in the paper of 1890, and the reader is accordingly requested to consider our Arts. 1801-5 in conjunction with this new " Models illustrating the " molecular tactics of crystals paper. discussed in our Arts. 1798-1805 were exhibited at the annual
discussion

The paper may remove some

soiree of the

Royal Society, June 7, 1893. A brief account of model of an incompressible elastic crystal with twelve arbitrarily given rigidity moduli) will be found in

them

(as well as of a

Nature, Vol. 48,

p. 159.

London, 1893.

To face p. 479 of Part

11,

1.S02

1803]

SMI

WILLIAM THOMSON.

i-7'

deal more closely with our subject. They begin by describing the construction of various homogeneous assemblages of points. *' homogeneous assemblage of points having been denned as an assemblage which presents the same aspect and the same absolute orientation when such an assemblage vi.-wed from different points of the assemblage" and 45), as the centres of equal globes piled homogeneously Sir William Thomson tells us that he has investigated the moduli of

(21

elasticity produced by a homogeneous strain in such an assemblage. finds that the solid so constituted is not elastically isotropic it deal only with t'oives Iftineen nearest iieiylibours, and suppose, as

He
on

Boscovich's theory, that the forces act in the lines between pairs of points and are functions only of the distances between individual pairs of points (i.e. admit no modified action). The solid possesses in fact the properties of a cubic crystal, i.e. its stress-strain relations may be dilatation-modulus /', slideexpressed in terms of the three moduli mot lulus for a face /i,, and for a diagonal plane /x.,. 1 Extending the investigation to include forces between next nearest neighbours, the moduli still remain unequal, but can be equalised by certain hypotheses as to the forces between points. If they are equalised then we find uni-constancy results
:

...it will no doubt be found that this restriction is valid for any sin^Kequilibrated homogeneous distribution of points, with mutual forces accor< to Boscovich, and sphere of influence not limited to nearest and next-nearest neighbours, but extending to any large, not infinite, number of times the distance between nearest neighbours ( 65).

In 27 Sir William Thomson seems to indicate that [1802.] any single homogeneous assemblage of Boscovichian atoms he finds
relation
:

for
tin-

i.e.

this be so then in 65 the cubical isotropy of which he sjMuks the elasticity of a cubical crystal is not the cubical isotropy of multi-constancy, but as we see from the footnote to the previous artielr. it our involves d=f', or ktuyi = ixiwi the rari -constant condition: * II* nee the 77, ft n. l>. single homogeneous assemblage always lead rari-conxtancy, whether or not we cause it to lead to uni-constancy by taking /*, ^L,. Thus Poisson's restriction is essential to such a system
1
1
--_

apart front the question of isotropy.

[1808J

Sir William
is

Thomson

tells

us

28) that the uni-

coustant relation

not obligatory

\\li.n:

homogeneous assemblage of doul.lMi the multiple IJose >\ i.-h atoms, contrary, any ar chosen values may be given to the bulk-modulus and to the rigidity, by
triple,
.r
< '

the elantic solid consists of a

With the notation

of

our ArU. 1208

(d)

and f-i(a + ty*)

**( -A *!*

480

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON.

[1804

proper adjustment of the law of force, even though we take nothing more complex than the homogeneous assemblage of double Boscovich

atoms above described.

The two-atom system here

homogeneous

referred to consists of two simple

assemblages of points:

reds and blues, as we shall call them for brevity ; so placed that each blue is in the centre of a tetrahedron of reds and each red in the centre of a tetrahedron of blues ( 69).

Such an assemblage "the next-to-the-simplest-possible mode of arranging an assemblage of points" Sir William tells us an elastic solid Green's ideal, and is of course produces realising

much
see

easier to conceive than the

analysis

our Arts. 146 and 1771. is not as yet published, so that

model of the Baltimore Lectures: Unfortunately the mathematical

it is

difficult to realise
:

whether the statement made depends in any manner on (1) a difference between the forces between two blues, two reds and a red and a blue, or on (2) the extent of the sphere of intermolectilar That a very great number of intermolecular actions action.
the stress across any elementary plane in and an elastic that these actions should be distributed practically uniformly in all directions seems essential to our It is certainly notion of a practically isotropic elastic solid. involved in the principles from which Poisson and Cauchy deduced rari-constant elasticity on the basis of Boscovich's theory. When the condition that a very great number of intermolecular actions cross an elementary plane is not satisfied, then it is difficult to
solid

should go to

make up

treat the assemblage of points as situated in a like manner with regard to every elementary plane of section, and we thus lose the

notion of an isotropic medium.

Failing the mathematics of the multi -constant Boscovichian [1804.] system, we are thrown back on a mechanical model, described by Sir William in 67-8, as a means of elucidating the double-atom homo-

geneous assemblage. Suppose six equal and similar bent bows taken and freely jointed Take four equal bars and joint together so as to form a tetrahedron. them to a boss to be placed at the centre of this tetrahedron, and let the bars connect the boss with the angles of the tetrahedron. If the bars are just the distance from the centre to the angles in the unstressed
condition of the tetrahedron the rigidities (i.e. the two slide-moduli as in our Art. 1802) remain unaltered by the insertion of the bars.

1805]

>IK

WILLIAM THOHBOK,

4-81

It the tie-struts are shorter than this, their effect is clearly to augment the rigidities ; if longer, to diminish the rigidities. The mathematical investigation proves that it diminishes the greater of the rigidities more than it diminishes the less, and that before it annuls the less it equalises the greater

to

it (

67).

Looked at from the standpoint of a Boscovichian system it would seem that the forces between the points at ihe tetrahedron angles might thus be of a different sign to the forces between the point at the centre and those at the angles in the case where the two rigidities are The model is evidently a framework with equal or there is isotropy. What would be the nature sujiernunierary bars (see our Arts. 1772-3). of the force between two centre- points in the Boscovichian system is hardly suggested by the mechanical model, nor does the model include
actions other than those of nearest neighbours.

[1805.]

71 concludes the

memoir
to

as follows

Leaving mechanism now, return

attracting

the purely

ideal

mutually

Boscovicli and, as a simple example suppose mutual forces to be zero at all distances exceeding something between

points

of

and

v/2.

Let the group be placed at rest in simple equilateral homogeneous It will be in stable equilibrium, distribution shortest distance constituting a solid with the compressibility, and the two rigidities referred to in 27 above [i.e. those noted in our Art. 1802]. Condense it to a certain degree to be found by measurements made on the and it may become unstable. Let there be some Boscovich curve
: . 1

means of consuming energy, or carrying away energy and it will fall into a stable allotropic condition. The Boscovich curve may be sm-h
;

that this condition

is

the configuration of absolute

minimum energy

and may be such that this configuration is the double homogeneous assemblage of reds and blues described above. Though marked red and 'luc, to avoid circumlocutions, these points are equal and similar in all
I

qualities.

According to the above statement

it

would almost appear as

if

uni-constant isotropy were the normal condition and bi -constant isotropy a special allotropic condition which might be produced

substances by a process of (nxlciisatiuu. At an\ seems marked by inter molecular four U-ing attract between certain molecules and repul>i\i 1>< tween others. Until
in uni-cniistaiit
it

rate

have before us
be impossible to
and which

tin

full\

|.r..mi-rl in;itl..-mati-nl investigation th< realist- ih

!'

it

\\ill

arrangement by
.

curve which connects intermolecular force with intermolecular is marked according to Boscovich by numerous transition* from attru.

to repulsion.

482

SIH WILLIAM THOMSON.

[18061807

which Sir William Thomson has deduced bi-constant isotropy from a Boscovichian system of points, nor till then can we clearly recognise the features in which the homogeneity of this system, and the extent of its sphere of intermolecular action differ from those of the systems from which Poisson and Cauchy start their
investigations.

On a Mechanism for ilie Constitution of Ether. 1'ru[1806.] ceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Vol. xvn., pp. 127-32. Edinburgh, 1890. The author describes a model consisting of
telescopic rods connecting an equilateral homogeneous assemblage of points" and further of rigid frames built up of three mutually rectangular bars each of which carries four "liquid gyrostats" and
rests on a pair of the telescopic rods which go to form a tetrahedron of the equilateral homogeneous assemblage. Such a model
:

"

has

110
;

intrinsic rigidity, that is to say, 110 elastic resistance to

shape

but

it

change of has a gwasi-rigidity, depending on an inherent quasi-

elastic resistance to absolute rotation.

It is absolutely non-resistant against change of volume and against any irrotational change of shape. Or it is absolutely incompressible (p. 131). homogeneous assemblage of points with gyrostatic quasi-rigidity conferred upon it in the manner described... would, if constructed on a sufficiently small scale, transmit vibrations of light exactly as does the And it would be incapable of transmitting condensaether of nature. tional- rarefactional waves, because it is absolutely devoid of resistance to condensation and rarefaction (pp. 131-2).

This paper is reprinted as 7-15 of Article 0, [1807.] Vol. in., pp. 467-72 of the Mathematical and Physical Papers. 1-6 of this Article (pp. 466-7) contain the translation of a

Note from the Comptes Rendus, T. cix., pp. 453-5. Paris, 1889. This Note describes a gyrostatic model of the ether. It is built up by bars terminating in little cups resting on a system of spheres,
these bars carrying gyrostats. Before the gyrostats are "energised" the model represents a perfectly incompressible quasi-liquid. When they are "energised" the model possesses a rigidity not
like that of ordinary elastic media, but which depends directly on the absolute rotations of the bars. This relation between quasielastic forces

and absolute rotation

is

the ether as

it

offers resistance to "irrotational distortion."

akin to what we require for It is not

however such a complete representation of the ether as the model

18081810]

Ml!

\MLLIAM THOMSON.

referred to in the preceding article, for the irrotational distortion of " the structure requires a balancing forcivc" or system of force.

Motion of a Viscous Liquid ; Equilibrium or Motion [1808.] of an Klnxtic Solid; Equilibrium or Motion of an Ideal Substance called for brevity ETHER; Mechanical Representation of Magnetic This paper was published for the first time, May, 1890, in Force. tin- Mtitln'in'ifi'-dl and Physical Papers, Vol. ill., pp. 436-65.

Cambridge, 1890. It compares the analytical expressions in the form of equations, which represent the physical properties of viscous liquid, elastic solid and ether.
[1809.]

stress is proportional to speed of strain (see the stresses are of the following type
:

1-11 are devoted to the viscous liquid. Assuming that our Arts. 1264* and 1744)

du
*

fdw

dv^

a constant termed the viscosity,' p is the mean pressure, and If p u, v, w are the speed-corn poiients of the point #, y, z of the fluid. be the density, and X, Y, Z the body-forces per unit mass, then the type of the equations of motion is

where

/* is

du du (du - dp + w du\ r \~jl + U-J- + V P -} = pV*u + pX dx dzj \dt dy

-

(n),

win -iv
side.

it'

the motion be slow

we need

retain only p -j-

on the left-hand

[1810.]
t

12-13 deal with the equilibrium or motion of an

iso-

!")>!<

elastic solid.

The

stress-equations are

now
k

of the form

3X

du
is

ili-'

dilatation-coefficient,
'

/A

now
'

the rigidity and u, vt

will be

the shifts and not the speeds.

The pressure p

given by
I

where

the dilatation modulus or l.ulk modulus. Finally the shift-equations will be of the type:

Fw

484

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON.

[1811
identical in form with

When
(i),

oc the stresses in bis become A//X (i) and the body-shift-equations are of the type
:

(iv) bis as being true for any elastic This is certainly not the case if the constant in (iii) be the bulk-modulus and p the pressure as he supposes. The constants of the pressure in the stress-relations (i) bis and in the body -shift-equations (iv) are only equal to unity as in the case of a viscous fluid if A.//M = <x> Our author draws attention to the case of = oo ,

Sir

William Thomson speaks of

(

solid

13)

'

'

du
or
i.e.

-j-

dx

+ j-+-j~-^ dz dy

dv

dw

........................

(v),

that of an incompressible elastic solid, spoken of as a jelly, equations of the types (i) and (iv) bis now hold. have then always four equations to find u, v, w and p. solution for the case of equilibrium is easily written down The three equations of type (iv) by aid of (iii) lead to
finite,

/x

being

We

Their

dX
Thus p
density
is

dY

dZ

the potential due to an ideal distribution of matter of

(dX + dY
\dx
:

dZ\

dy

and by aid of (iv) u, v, w are also at once expressible as the potentials due to certain distributions of matter see our Arts. 1653 and 1715-6. Sir William Thomson terms that distribution of body-force on matter continuously occupying space for which
:

dX dY dZ =
-j-

dx

dy

-j-

dz

0,

a circuited forcive, and says that in this case p = and u, potentials due to distributions of matter of densities
:

v,

are the

since

/x

V 2w + pX =

0,

/x

V 2 + p Y = 0,
i;

Thus if the forcive be circuital, the shifts the degree of incompressibility of the infinite body

^'w + pZ = ...... (vi). will be the same whatever

/x

may

be

36-8).

14-20 deal with the Equilibrium or motion of [1811.] substance called for brevity, Ether. This ether is described as follows
:

an

ideal

What I am for the present calling ether, is an ideal substance useful for " extending the Mechanical representation of electric, magnetic and galvanic forces" ...... [see our Art. 1627] ...... For the present I suppose it absolutely

1812]
incompressible.
>h;q>e)
;

Ml!

WILLIAM THOMSON.

485

It has no intrinsic rigidity (elastic resistance to change of has a </?/W-rigidity depending on an inherent MMMMMMtk) This //////.</- ri.'idity may be called simply resistance to absolute rotation. but when it is to be distinguished from the known rigidity for brevity natural rigidity of an elastic solid it will be called gyrostatic rigidity ( 14).

but

it

Sir William Thomson accordingly introduces shears proportional to the twists (see our Vol. I., p. 882), besides which there may be something He thus has the following system of of the nature of fluid pressure.
stresses
:

^ ^ ^
-

-p
du

_
>

'* m

fdw

dv fdv

*\yfdu

dw\

These lead us at once to equations identical with (iv) hi* and (v) above for an incompressible elastic solid. We may then ask what is the difference between this ether and a Sir William Thomson answers jelly 1
:

N" difference whatever in respect to the equilibrium-displacement, or the motion, throughout any portion of homogeneous substance of either kind, if the position and motion of every point in the bounding surface of the portion idered are the same fur the two, l>ut in respect to the traction on the bound ing surface of a detached portion, and therefore also in respect of the rfacial relation Iwtween portions of the substance having different rigidities, there is an essential difference between the two, of vital importance for the inclusion .if magnetic induction in our mechanical representation ( 17).

When
while
tl

there

density, then and ether, and

equality of rigidity on either side of an interface, ::>-"ntiiiuity due to a difference of body- force or of all the interfacial conditions are the same for both jelly
is

may

differential coefficients of u, r, media at th< interface (20).

be best expressed by saying that // and the nine w must have equal values for the two

[1812.]
piker.

$21-8

deal

with

K,,.T,,>I

f stressed

jetty or
is

of

strain-energy per unit volume of the stressed ether

wh-iv

r is

the resultant twist.

i-u'v JM-I-

unit

volume of the

jelly

It'

tli.'

(^ + if + f.) + J/* (cr,, + * 4- crV)boundary of a volmm- I'..t' jelly or ether be

involve.
1

= ft

in

-ni !,'>

in |

tied

strain "f
:

.-itlin-

fioo*l then the substance within

%

volume is the same for both (24) see our Examples of the correspondences between
ether strain-energy are given in on .tgnetism than
.

Ait

787.

jelly strain-energy

and

25-8.

Their bem

486

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON.

[1813

1814

29-45 are entitled: Mechanical representation of the [1813.] magnetic force of an electro-magnet. Imagine a piece of endless cord, in the shape of any closed curve, to be imbedded in a jelly, and a tangential force to be applied to this cord Further let the substance of the cord uniformly all along its length. " be exactly the same as that of the jelly. This " tangential drag on the jelly causes stress and strain throughout the jelly, becoming nil

The twist at any point of the jelly only at infinitely great distances. caused by this circuital force is equal " to half the magnetic force at the corresponding point in the neighbourhood of a conducting wire, taking the place of our tangentially applied force and having an electric " current steadily maintained through it ( 30). " " of This is Sir William Thomson's mechanical representation closed due to a and force what he circuit, electro-magnetic completes Various had reserved for a future paper in 1847 see our Art. 1627. 31-2; equal special cases are illustrated; thus a circular circuit in 33-5. More and opposite currents in straight parallel conductors in 36-40. general cases are referred to in Thus if X, 7, denote components of electric current, and F, G, the components of magnetic force due to the current, the mechanical
:

representation of an electro-magnetic field consisting of any distribution of closed electric currents may be obtained from the jelly as follows Take the components of magnetic force equal to twice the twists,
:

then by means of
_

(v)
- V

we

find
-

Uij dz dx dy dx dz dy whence we see by (vi) that the components X, F, Z of electric current, i.e. dlljdy - dG/dz, dF/dz dH/dx, dG/dx dF/dy divided by 4?r, are proportional to the or body-forces pX, pY, pZ of the previous investigation for the jelly " circuital forcive " see for any unlimited elastic solid in the case of a our Art. 1810. We see further that if an infinite homogeneous elastic solid be acted upon in some parts by circuital forcives, then at points unaffected by force H - dx F-d* G--*
: :
:

---=

fj

-=

~dx

~di

~dz'

The or the twist-components are the differentials of a single function xelectro-magnetic analogue to x is a quantity differing only by a constant factor from the magnetic potential at x, y, z of the electric current system
X,
[1814.]
1

41-3 deal with the

SyntJiesis of

a circuital forcive from

The reduction of the strain- energy to a single term proportional to the square of the twist in the case of a jelly with rigidly fixed boundaries was pointed out by the Editor of this History in a Note on Twists in an infinite elastic solid; Messenger of Mathematics, Vol. xni., pp. 84-5. Cambridge, 1884. A somewhat different elastic analogue to the electro- magnetic field is given in the same paper.

1S1G]

>ll!

WILLIAM TH<>M-

>\.

487

ugle force applied through a space coiu/'rlsnJ irif/iiu <m injiitif>-!i/ small distance from a y 'iujtressible elastic solid (jell;/). Let q denote the tangential force per unit length of the circuit, and /, m, n the direction-cosines of its element ds, distant r from the point of which a, v w are the shifts, then Sir William Thomson deduces from his solution of the elastic equations given in our Art. 1810 that:
t

u=
wtil.

q*-

[I -

d*

4717*

J r

= jq x=

Cm \

4irp J r

ds,

w = -pq

fn j

\-irp.

_,

being the solid angle subtended by the circuit at the point for which ascertained, and the integrations for * extending round the circuit. X The analogue to the magnetic potential is here obvious.
is

In conclusion Sir William Thomson asks why, the anawe cannot be satisfied with the jelly for a hanical representation of electro-magnetism ? The answer lies in the difference of conditions at the interface between two jellies and between two substances of different magnetic permeabilities in a magnetic field.
[1815.]
logies being so complete,

The magnetic
we
see... that
(/*)

rigidity

force being in our analogy the rotation of the jelly, or ether, the proper interfacial condition 1 between substances of different is not fulfilled by the jelly, and is fulfilled by the ether ( 44).

Referring to his 'ether' Sir William Thomson draws attention to

the fact that
it
:

whether extending to infinity in all directions, and having vesicular or tubular hollows, or a finite portion of it given with a boundary of any shape, provided that only normal pressure act on the boundary, takes precisely tinsame motion for anv given motion of the boundary as does a frictionless incoi: liquid in the same space, shewing the same motion of boundary

(46).

The importance of this, e.g. in the length it goes towards explaining Sir G. G. Stokes' theory of aberration, is pointed out ( 46), but at the same time Sir William indicates how very obscure still remains our knowledge of the real relations between ether, electricity and |>onderable matter

(47)

and Physical Papers,

Mathematical Ether, Electricity, and Ponderable Matter. Vol. lii pp. 484-515. Cambridge, 1890. This paper constituted part of th< Tioi. Initial Address to the Institution loctrical Engineers, delivered on .January 10, 1889. Icontains some references to the elastic solid analogies of tin[1816.1
.

Equality of normal components of magnetic force and proper ntial components to the magnetic permeabilities on either tide the interface.

488

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON.

[18171818

ether and a description of a gyrostatically loaded network ( 21-6), which would serve in some respects as a model for the ether The whole is more fully developed in the memoirs referred to in our Arts. 18067. The address concludes with words of hope in future knowledge following on a confession of present ignorance i.e. the inadequacy of existing theories to represent the relation between ether, electricity and ponderable matter.

The third volume of the Mathematical and Physical Papers with two papers (Arts. cm. and civ.), which may be looked upon The first as appendices to the Encyclopaedia article on Elasticity. deals with Tait's experimental results for the compressibilities of water, mercury and glass, and the second gives inter alia (p. 522) the velocity of elastic waves (distortional, pressural in an infinite solid, longitudinal in rod) in iron, copper, brass and glass, as well as the moduli for the same
[1817.]
closes

four materials.

Summary. It is a very difficult task to preserve an [1818.] accurate historical stand-point with regard to a physicist or, as we ought to call him, a naturalist (M. P. Vol. ill., p. 318) so close
both in time and country to ourselves as Sir William Thomson, now Lord Kelvin. We can hardly see him in the same perspective as

we

see Saint- Venant or Franz

Neumann.

At the same time the

function of this History would hardly be fulfilled did its Editor leave this chapter without some slight summary of its contents. To the future must be left any real test of his critical accuracy. distinguished biologist once stated to the Editor of the

to ascertain

present work that he had for many years given up endeavouring what others had done or were doing in his subject.

To

follow the great mass of contemporary work meant to expend his time in historical investigations rather than in original research. When he devoted his energies to the latter, he was fairly certain that fifty per cent, of his published results would be new contribuA man of Sir William Thomson's tions to scientific knowledge.

covering almost every field of physical surprising productivity must perforce be occasionally content with the rediscovery science The reader of our present chapter will have of known laws.

marked instances

of this in the researches on the elasticity of

and more springs, in those on light in the Baltimore Lectures stress and of relations on the in the investigations particularly
electro-magnetic properties.

The

repetitions are, however, small

1818]
as

SIR

WILLIAM THOMSON'

489

compared with the new material, or with the fertile conceptions, which abound even in the treatment of old themes. In two points a further criticism will also probably be raised in the future, a paucity of experimental demonstration, which occasionally accompanies the statement of an important physical law compare for example the elaborate experiments of Wiedemann, Ewing or Bauschinger with Sir William Thomson's in similar fields, and further the absence of mathematical analysis at points where the less gifted are liable to stumble, and may feel to their either reserve or on faith to accept compelled judgment for molecular discussions of Venant Saintexample the compare and the investigations on crystals of Franz Neumann with those of Sir William Thomson's Molecular Constitution of Matte)' or his
M'lthei/Kitir'tl Theory of Elasticity. But this occasional paucity of experiment or analysis is largely due to our author's eagerness to reach the physical law as the all-important goal he rightly recognises
;

experiment and analysis as only means and not ends in themselves. H'- is in this a pleasing contrast to those mathematical elasticians

who

are far
its

ever be

more desirous of obtaining a complete solution, whatphysical value, than reaching any approximation,

however important

Of the
associated

its bearing on natural facts. great advances in our subject which will always be with the name of Sir William Thomson we must

mention especially the accurate foundation of

the

science

of

thermo-elasticity, the suggestion that the principles of elasticity ought to be applied to the earth itself, and the first consideration

following upon this suggestion of tides in the solid earth. Equally if indeed they are largely fruitful of results negative results have been his researches on the elastic theory of light, leading as

they have done to the rejection of the old elastic theories. Here it is that be has suggested with his gyrostat ically loaded nu dium

a new kind of elasticity or quasi-elasticity, which bids fair to open up an entirely new field of investigation, and which may in the end

make elasticity the predominant Not only in the border-land

.t

physical science. of optics, electro-magnetism

and

molecular physics have Sir William Thomson's researches widened tin- possibilities of elastic theory, but in CMMJUMC<ur kimwle.l^e tiuu with P. O. Tait his geometry of strain and his treatment of rods and plates have largely contribute, t. our appreciation of
I
1

K.

IT.

II.

-T2

490

SIR WILLIAM THOMSON.

[1818

pure elastic problems, and further have rendered the discussion of them accessible to British students. In these latter cases, as well
as in his

more recondite researches, there is that fertility of idea, and that mark of genius which have made Sir William Thomson the leader and characteristic representative of physical science in
our

own country

to-day.

INDEX.
The numbers refer
by (') Pralnme.
,

to the articles
(11)

or

p.

of thi* volume and not fo the pages unless preceded where the Roman numerals refer to the parts of this

ii'iuhi

(/</

Addenda

to

Volume

I.

attached

to

Part

ii.

of Volume II.

fin.

footnote.

this index,

The reader is reminded that the Index to Volume I. is not incorporated with and consequently the absence of an author's name or of any special topic from this index, does not preclude its having been dealt with in Volume I.
in strength of materials,

Abaa, use of, 921 and ftn.

After-strain, general
;

Aberration, of light, Boussinesq's theory of, 1449, 1478, 1482; Sir William Thomson on, 1815 Adams, W. A., on railway waggon springs,

remarks on, 748 9 distinguished from frictional action* 750 (a) not a pure frictional resistance

and masked by term

1743;
is

969

(a)

Adnhiria, hardneas of, 836 (d); optic axes of, change with temperature, 1218,
ftn.

viscosity, 1718 (6), not proportional to load, 760 (}>); chief cause in producing subsidence of oscillations according to Seebeok, 474 (r)-c/: in -ilk and spider filaments, 697 (ft); in glass and
silk
in. utally

Aeolotropy, defined by Sir \V. Thomson, 1770; Rankine obtains a 16-constant, wave-motion in aeolotropic solid, -5; dilatation moduli for, ITTti ()] w.-Mike annulled. 17
'.

ffer,

threads, (i) p. 514, ftn.; experidiscovered in metals by Kup 726, his discussion of, by torsional

strain-energy for aeolotropi 'akewneaaea' and weblike aeolotropy are annulled and there ia no dilat discussed by 9 iwn, 1780; conditions f
:

vibrations, 734 ; its effect in subsidence effect of torsional vibrations, ; of working on, 750 (ft); how influenced by change of temperature, 756; neglected by Wertheim in torsion experiments on metals, 803, his erroneous

17448

statement as

to, for
1

metals and glaaa,

;

> :

*8 (g), 1081

in razors,

compressible, 1776
to lered
:

1779 <ify, suggested by Banexplain double refraction,

(a),

.n

caoutchouc springs,

851

by Lord Rayleigh, rejtoUd

of Sir Stokea' experiment* on Iceland spar, 17H1

\V.
'.

Thomson on ground

proportional to load in oaoutIKil; in organic tiHSOet, 898 85; Weber, K. on, for muscle, 828; lUess strain relation for final load, linear, Wundt's form of after-strain curves, 880; Wertheim's hyperbolic form of
;

is

-2

492
stretch-traction

INDEX.
curve
;

confirmed

by

Volkmann,
for muscle,
After-*trtiin

8312;
832

the curve elliptic controversy between

734,
(d)

6; by Basset, 1296 b is; by Boussinesq, 1422, 1574, 1586 by Sir W. Thomson,

;

1635
Arches, flexure of, 514 7 shift of central line, 519 20; terminal conditions for pivoted and built-in arches, reactions, 5213; temperature effect, 523, 525, 1013; theorem as to symmetrically thrust, due to isolated loaded, 524 load, 525, continuous loading, either along central line or horizontal, 525, due to change of temperature, 525; simple formulae and tables for finding
;
;

Wundt and Volkmann, 8335.

Coefficient,
steel,

739;

for

copper and

751

Air, resistance of, to torsional vibrations, 727, 735 (i), 1746 Airy, Sir G. B., on the strains in the interior of beams (1863), 666 Albaret, on economic form of girder, 952 Alloys, hardness of, 845 tensile strength, ductility, hardness, etc. of alloys of copper with zinc or tin, 1063 and ftn.
;

thrust, 526

8;

maximum

stress in,
of,

Alum,

do not coincide, 788, 789 (c) experiments on the stretch-modulus of, 1206 Aluminium, stretch-modulus of, 743; density of, (i) p. 531; hardness of,
its optical

and

elastic axes
;

p. 592, ftn.; absolute strength of, 1162; effect of cold-hammering, 1162 ; may be beaten to leaves, 1163 ; stretch(i)

general discussion of curved rods and arches, 534, 536 ; historical account of theory of, 1009 ; approximate treatment of, by Morin, 880 (c) ; line of pressure in, 1009 ; total stress in cross;

529 531

30

most advantageous form

section,

1010;

stability

of,

1014;

modulus,

elastic-limit

and density

of,

1164; subsidence of torsional oscillation in wire of, 1746

braced, 1022; wooden, experiments on, C. et A. pp. 4 10; wooden arches, 925; cast-iron elliptical, 1011 experimental determination of strain due to
;

Aluminium Bronze, absolute strength when cast and hot-hammered, 1162,

1164

Amagat, his

experiments squeeze ratio, 1201 (e)

on

stretch -

live-load, 1109; comparison with defective theory, 1110; Collet- Meygret and Desplaces on deflection of, 1110

temperature and

Ardant,

Amorphic Bodies,

elastic coefficients for,

308; identified with isotropic bodies by Rankine, 467 of Saint-Venant seem akin to Sir W. Thomson's isotropically macled crystal, 1799: see also Ellipsoidal Distribution Amorphism, or confused crystallisation, 115, 192 (d) Analcine, supposed to possess optical cyboi'd aeolotropy by Brewster, 1775 Angers, Church of, factor of safety for columns, 321 (b)
;

his experiments on wooden his theory of arches, C. et A. p. 4 circular ribs, C. et A. p. 10 Armstrong, Sir W., see Bri-Brachion
;

Arnoux, on axles,

(i) p. 610, ftn. Artery, after-strain in, 830, 832, stretch-

modulus of, 830 Atomic Constitution of bodies, indivisibility of atoms, Berthelot and SaintVenant on, 269 Boscovich and Newton Saint-Venant on, 275 80, on, 269 arguments that they are without ex;
;

Angle, stress at projecting angle zero, but infinite at re-entering, 1711 Angstrom, A. J., on the relationship of the various physical axes of crystals
(1851),

6837

tension, 27780; atoms as liquid spheres, 841 ; vibratory motion of a sphere of ether surrounding, 868; theory of Boussinesq, action between atoms of different molecules neglected, 1447; homogeneous assemblages of

Annealing, effect

of,

879 (/); does not

;

remove aeolotropy, 802

on strength
steel,

may

in itself

produce aeolotropy, 1056; effect on tenacity, 1070; of wires, 1131; effect

and

elasticity

of

cast

1134: see also Working

Anticlastic Surfaces,

Thomson and Tait's,

Boscovichian attracting 5; single assemblage leads to rari-constancy, 1802; double assemblage does not necessarily lead to rari-constancy, 1803; multi-constant Boscovichian system described, 1803 5 see also Intermolecular Action

mutually

atoms,

1801

325, 1671 Apatite, hardness of, 836 (d), 840 Approximation to solution of elastic

and Molecules
Atomic Weight, relation to stretch-moduto hardness, 841 lus, 71721 Atwood G., on the vibrations of watch
;

equations, doubtful method adopted by Cauchy (620*, 661*), 29, 395; by Poisson (466*); by Neumann, 1225

balances (1794), (i) p. 466, ftn. Audi, experiments on earthwork, 1623

IXDKX.
Augutt, E. F., on simple experiments to demonstrate Taylor's law for vibrating strings, (i) p. 573, ftn. Autenheimer, ron, on torsion (1856), 581 Axes, feathered, strength of, 177 (c) Axes, 'optic* and 'optical' distinguished, 1218, ftn. dispersion of optic axes, 12189 and ftn.; optic, 1476, 1483; different sets of rectangular systems exist in crystal for distribution of dif;

493

W. H., attempts to explain beam-paradox' by a theory of lateral adhesion (18557), 9308, 1016 Barnes, cuts steel with rapidly rotating soft-iron disc, 836 (h) Barton, J., on wrought-iron beams, 1016 Basset, A. B., on thin cylindrical and spherical shells, 1296 bis, 1234
Barlow,
'

ferent

physical

121820,

7, properties, 683 1637; Neumann's theory of

distinction between optical and elastic axes, 1216 8, 1220; elastic axes do not coincide with optical for alum,

on vibrations of aeolotropic bodies (1851), 821 Hdiimeister, his experiments on stretchsqueeze ratio referred to, 1201 (e) Baitmgarten, on flexure of solids of equal on stretch-modulus of resistance, 929
linntlrimont, A., researches
;

calcspar. 1210

Baumhauer, on twinning of Iceland spar,

1800
Bauschinger, his results partially anticipated by Wiedemann, 709 10; on elastic limits referred to, 1742 (6)

788; optical, thermal and elastic not

coincident for gypsum, etc., 12189 and ftn. diamagnetic, electrical and other properties distributed about different axes, 1219 Axetof Elasticity, 13"), 137 (iii), 137 (vi), (i) p. 96, ftn., 44351; defined, 444; orthotatic and heterotatic, 445 euthytatic, 446 ; metatatic, 446, 137 (vi)
;
;

Beam,

lines of stress in, Kankine, 468, Kopytowski, 556, Scheffler, 652 uniplanar stress in, 582 (c); slide introduced into theory, Bresse, 535, Jour;

avski,

Axles,

how

affected

by prolonged service

6612,

vibration, 881 (b) and ftn., 970; strength, 905; of railway rolling stock, calculation of dimensions, 957 9;

and

939, Scheflfler, 652, Winkler, 665, Airy, 666; strength of, increased by building-in terminals,

mieH's hollow railway axles, experiments on, 988 9 flexure of railway axles under static load, 990; ranee to impact of cast steel, of ordnance, 996 fatigue under repeated flexure of railway, 998, 10003, under repeated torsion, 999, 1000 3
;
(

5717, strength of, given by graphical tables, 921 and ftn.; for various forms of cross-section, 927; transverse vibrations of, when suddenly loaded, 539; live load on, 5401;
;

9425

'.i

.i.~>.

formulae for statical deflection when

strength of 'split* general treatment of, 1006; Thomson and Tait on, 16u6; of variable cross section, flexure of, 929; small beams relatively stronger than large ones, 936 (iii) central line under transverse load, really of, stretched, 941 ; supports of beam under transverse load really subjected to side pull, 940; cast-iron beam of
loaded,

7602;

beams,

928;

Babbage, C., hardness of diamond varies with <lir. i-tion, 836 (d) Hubi'nft.hi* proof of velocity of pressural, or sound wave, 219 Baden- l'<nc ell, influence of torsion on magnetisation, 811 h, on simple beams and braced
gird.

on the actual lateral pressure of earthwork, 1606 ; his rule for breadth of supporting walls, ir.o; /'., on law of molecular

strongest cross-section, 176, 177 (6), 951, 1023; strength of various forms of cast-iron beams, and Barlow's at-

tempt to ex plain paradox, 930 dox neglected by Morin,881 (a)

8;
;

para-

proper

HMi fore* Bar, heavy tension bar of equal strength, 1886 (a): see .Rod, Beam, Flexure, Impact, etc. on statically indeterminate 'i,
1

proportion of web and flanges in wrought-iron beams, 1016; formulae

for stress-strain relation

when

stretch;

and squeeze- moduli are unequal, 178

rupture
of,

reactions,
/>'///"/

(i)

p.

til. ftn
:,i

deduced from empirical stress-strain formulae of relation, Saint- Venant and Hodgkinson, 178: see
.mt, Itodt,
/.

fr

\ilratilic press,

also

901, 1044

(/.),

1069,

10767;

expert;

mentt on wrought-iron beams, 987 (c) on combined girder- and suspensionbridges,

1

Load, Torsion, Flexure, Impact, etc. Beam- Engine, strew in beam, 868; danger of certain speeds of fly-wheel,

494-

INDEX.
(4),

Beam- Paradox, 920, 929, 930, 971

Bixnuilli,

1038 (b), 104953, 1086; 1043, according to Bell does not exist for large girders, 1117 (iv)
Bt'cki-nkamp,
verifies

effect of compression on its diamagnetic properties, 700 hardness

;

of,

(i)

p. 592, ftn.

Bl-aclier,

F.

Neumann's

expression for stretch-modulus of regular crystal in case of alum, 1206 Becqtterel, E., torsions produce magnetisation, 811 Jii'laniier, J. B., on strength of materials

gives Clapeyron's formulae for springs, 482, 955 lilakely, on the construction of cannon

(1859), 1082 Blanchard, experiments on material under great pressure, 321 (6)
Bltinchet,

(185662), 893
Bell, H'.,

aeolotropic

his researches on waves in medium referred to by

on the laws of strength of iron

(1857),
Belli,

11179
cited,
:

on gravitation and cohesion 1650

see

Kelt, cylindrical

Hoop
to,

Bcltrami, properties of potential due

Boussinesq, 1559 Body-Forces, how removeable from general equations of elasticity, 1653, 1715 removal of, when there is a forcefunction, 1658, 1716 (rf); when they may be used to replace surface-load,
;

1505 Bender, W., experiments on hollow axles, 989 Bendiny-Moment, safe limit of, for non-

1695, ftn.
Boilea-u, P.,

on the elasticity of springs of vulcanised caoutchouc (1856), 851,

1161

symmetrical loading, 14
to total

how

related

shear,
;

319,

534,
;

556,

889,

for beam partly covered by 1361, ftn. a continuous load, 557 synclastic and anticlastic bending stress in 1702 plates, Bent (= flexural set), how affected by application, removal, reversal, etc., of

Boiler, cylindrical, proper dimensions for spherical ends of, 125 ; strength of curved sides, of flat ends, stress due to weight of material and of water, 642 5 ; Joule on mode of testing, 697 (a) French formula for strength of iron plate boiler, 879 (c) ; Prussian, French and Austrian formulae for
;

load,

70910

cylindrical boilers, 1126

old Prussian

Bergen, T., on hardness of gems, 836 (c) Bernard, F., on vibrations of square membranes (1860), 825 (c) Bernoulli, Daniel, first attempted problem of transverse impact, 474 (/) Bernoulli-Eulerian formulae for flexure, 71, 80; theory of beams justified by Phillips for curved arcs under couples,

agrees with Boussinesq's for collapse of belts, 1555; erroneous results for thickness of walls of, 961 effect of unequal

government

formula

6779

Bcrtelli, F., statically

indeterminate

re-

actions, first suggests need of elastic theory (1843) and uses experimental

1060; relative heating, 645, 962, strength of flues and boiler-shell, 985; strength of materials for, 9078; strength of iron and copper stays for, 908 ; rivetted, 904 ; how strength of boiler plates with and across fibre altered by temperature changes, 1115 ; cast steel plates for, 1130, 1134 see
:

method, 598 Berthelot, on atoms, 269 Berthot, on law of intermolecular action, 408 Bertot, II., on total stress on section of arched rib, 1010 Bertrand, reports on Saint-Venant's memoir on transverse impact, 104
Bessemer, preparation of wrought-iron and steel, 891 (b) and (e), 1114 Bidwell, Shelford, cited as to variations
of coefficient of induced magnetisation, 1321 ; on relation of stress to mag-

also Flues.

Bolley, on molecular properties of

zinc,

1058

effect of vibrations in

producing

brittle state, 1185 crystalline Bolts, iron, effect of case hardening,

and

comparative strength of screwed and chased, 1147 Boltzniann, L., on longitudinal impact of Fes t rede on Kirchhoff (ii) bars, 203
;

his theory of stress on elements of dielectric criticised by Kirchhoff, 1317 Borax, optic axes change with temperap. 39,
ftn.
;

netisation, 1727, 1736 Binet, on elastic rods of double-curvature, 155

ture, 1218, ftn. Borchardt, equations of elasticity curvilinear coordinates, 673

in

Biquadratic surface for stretch-modulus of regular crystal, 1206

Bomemann, on flexural strength, 920 on graphical tables for flexural strength

;
,

INhKX.
'.'-'I

495

experiments on wooden and cast-

iron bars of triangular cross-section,

971 Bo*covich his theory of aton 280; deprived atom of extension, 269 ; his theory criticised by Thomson and Tait, 1709 (c),by Sir W. Thomson, 1770, remarks on, 276 does his theory lead to rari-constancy? 423, not necessarily if molecules are groups of atoms, (Cauchy, 1839), 787; his theory used by Sir W. Thomson to reach multiconstancy, 17991805 single homogeneous assemblage of Boscovichian atoms leads to rari-constancy, 1801 2 double or multiple assemblage does net necessarily involve uui-coustancy, 1802 model illustrating double Boscovichian assemblage and multi-constant solid, 1803 4 doubts as to its
y ; ;
;

thin plate problem with Levy, 397 his correction of error (1441, 1522) of Resal's with regard to flexure of
;

prisms, 409 Rfgearche* of: on elastic bodies one or more dimensions of which are small as compared with others (rods,
(plates,

1871, complement, 1879), 141836, 1871, complement, 1879.)

nature,

18035
;

1437 40; controversy with LeVy on contour conditions and local perturbations in thin plates (18778), 1441; theory of periodic liquid waves (with equations of motion of any medium, 1869), 14426; on the molecular constitution of bodies (1873), 1447; on the interaction of two molecules (1867), 1448; on the theory of luminous waves on two simple (1873), 1449; laws of resilience (1874), 14505; on geometrical constructions for stress
strain (1877), 14569 ; on hydrodynamical analogies to the problem of

linttoiitlfi/, effect

of twist on loaded and magnetised iron wire, 1735 on aeolotropy of electric resistance produced by aeolotropic strain, 1740 on increase of tensile strength by gradual increase
;

and

torsion (1880), 1460; on the stretches produced by the deformation of a curved elastic membrane (1878), 1461;

of stress, 17.1
lioucht,
A.,

on the transverse vibrations of an

molecular
1

on

attraction

v.i60), 870
branes (I860), *_
esq, pupil of

Bourgct, on vibrations of square

mem-

indefinitely large plate (1889), 1162 ; Lectures on Mechanics (1889), MU:I; on the physical explanation of fluidity

(1891), 1464

1117;

Saint-Venant, Hi;, Saint- Venant's views on his

Essay on

the

theory

of

Light

theory of light, 265, on his theory of pulverulenee, ir.ll>, general analysis of his researches, 292; accounts of his work, 1117: Khun. t on his solution for tr.iiisverse impact, 414, on his 161011, theory of pulverulence,

(1865), 1465; on vibrations of isotropic media (1867), 1466; on waves in media subjected to initial stress

''>_'">;

and
415

publishes with Flamant a life bibliography of Saint- Venant,

:

74; on vibrations and (1868), 1467 diffraction in isotropic and crystalline media (1868), new theory of ; luminous waves (1868), 147882; extension of this theory (1872),

14757

14834

calculation by means of potentials of the strains in an indefinitely

large isotropic medium (1882), 1485; Treatise on the application of potentials to elastic

On

Ilefcrettcet to
;

proves conditions of
^'iven
i.

:itiliilitv

for

system

of

mvrs .'llipsoidal conditions for amorphic bodies subjected to permanent ft

points out error in Saint- Ven.mt's memoir of 1863, 238 ; on stability of loose earth, 242 ; on solution in finite terms of longitudinal impact of ; his treatment of thick plates, (i) p. 223, 385; on cation of potentials to elasticity, 338, 1715 ; on determination of local stretch produced immediately by small weight striking a bar transversely with great velocity, 871 (iv) (1587 theory of thin plates,
I
>

problems ( 1885), I486

in tin infinite elastic solid bounded by a plane to which stress is applied (1888), 148996; on

strain

4012
.

the collapse of rings and controversy thereon with Levy (1888), 155461 On the application of conjugate
I

a in lions to

on an experimental manner of determining the plastic modulus (1872), 15689; on the integration equation in conjugal*' fmu tinn of a
'

plasticity (1872),

15027;
<

885 (143740); hi* controversy on

nilent mass (1878), 1570; Essay <i the theory of the equilibrium of pulverulent masses (1876), 1571 1604; on the nniplanar distribution

496

INDEX.
his Teinometer adopted by Wertheim, 794, 797 (e) ; on production of crystalline structure by stress (1853), 864 on
;

of stress for isotropic bodies in a state of limiting equilibrium (1874), 1605;

on the lateral pressure of a pulverulent mass with horizontal talus (1881), 1606 7; on horizontal thrust of pulverulent masses against vertical walls,
etc.

(18825,

diverse memoirs), 1608

20

Summary
1626 Bracing
Jinrn,

of

Boussinesq's

work,
of,

analcine, 1775 Hri-Brachion (? Sir W. Armstrong) on the cause and prevention of the deterioration of wrought-iron ( 1860) ,1189 Brick, strength of, 880 (b), 1173, 1182 Bridges, deflection of railway viaduct at Tarascon, 520 (6) transverse vibra;

on distorted form
of,

multi-bracing, 1017, 1026, 1028;

periments on buckling
also Girder*
Braithiraite, F.,

1019

in exsee

tions

of,

539,

10345;

effects

pro-

on fatigue of metals
;

rolling load, 37282, Bresse corrects error of Phillips', 540 ; repeated loading of, 1035 ; deflections of Flemish bridges, 1020 ; treatises

duced

by a

(18534), 970
Brame, Ch., on planes of cleavage, 849 experiments on iron-plate, 1106
Brass,
elastic

and text-books on bridge-construction,

883,

88590,
",

915,
(b)

account of

(1857),

950; 890;

historical

"Bitter's

flexures

increase
(i)
;

more

method
on,

915

minor memoirs

rapidly than loads, 709

flexural

100436

sets or bents, how influenced by alterations of load, etc. 709 effect of rolling and hammering on stretchmodulus, 741 (a); thermo-elastic properties of, 752, 754, 756; after-strain and temperature, 756; relation of stretch-modulus to density, 759 (e), (i) p. 531, 824, 836 (ft); ratio of kinetic and static stretch-moduli, 824, of kinetic and static dilatation-moduli, 1751; slide-, stretch-, and dilatation;

Special Bridges: Tarascon, 520 (b), 1109 ; St Louis, U. S., (i) p. 358, ftn.; Britannia and Conway, 560, 603, 607 Hungerford, 579; Manchester, 1007; Newark Dyke, 1012; Coin, 1019; Flemish, 1020 Niagara, 1025 de la Roche-Bernard, 1033 over the canal Saint-Denis, 1034 Bridges, Suspension, form of chains, 579 oscillations of, 612, 883; impact on, 883; iron -wire for, 904; when, where
;

moduli of, 1817 ; thermal effect on slidethermo-electric modulus, 1753 (b) renproperties under strain, 1646 dered brittle by sudden atmospheric
; ;

and by
1025
Brill,

whom first introduced, (i) p. 622, ftn.; girder suspension bridges,

points out an error in Venant's memoir of 1863, 239
Saint-

changes, 1188; nature of rupture, 1667 Bravais, on homogeneous assemblages of bodies, 1800
Breguet, on velocity of sound in iron,

Brillouin, on the elasticity, fluidity and rigidity of bodies, 1464 Briot, Saint-Venant's views on his theory of light, 265
Brittle,

785

attempts to introduce a new scale of hardness, 835 (d) Bresse, Researches of: memoir on the flexure of arches (1854), 51430;
Breithaupt,
treatise
65),

defined, 466 (vii), 1742 metals not rendered, by cold, 697 state, 1185, 1188
;

(c);
(c)
;

on applied mechanics (1859 53242 on elliptic flues, 537

;

on solution for long train continuously crossing a bridge, 382, 541 References to : on elastic rods of double-curvature, 291; his treatment of elastic rods commended by SaintVenant, 153 his formula for beams of varying stretch-modulus, 169 (e), 515 ; on approximate treatment of
;

Brix, on strength of railway-rails, C. et A. p. 11 on fail-points of uniformly loaded beams, C. et A. p. 12 erroneous theory of resistance of cylinder to inon ternal pressure, (i) p. 712, ftn. strength of stone, 1181; on set in cast-iron due to heating, 1186 Bronze, gun-metal, effect of head on casting, 1038 (/), 1050 ; rupture of rings of, 1044; guns of, 1045; physical properties of, 1063 and ftn. ; stress strain diagrams for, 1084; torsional
;
;

slide

due to

flexure,

183

(a),

535

on

the core, C. et A. p. 3, 515 ; corrects error of Phillips', 540 Brewster, on double-refraction artificially produced, 792 3; the principle of

strength of, 1039 (c), 1113, 1166; tensile strength of, 1113, 1166 Brooks, C. H., erroneous theory of resistance of hollow cylinders, 1080 Brown, Captain, introduces iron cables

INDEX.
(1811), 904; experiments on wroughtiron cables, 879 (e) limicn, Sdinnel, builds first suspension-

497

bridge in Great Britain (1819),

.

|i)

p.

ftn.

Kroicnimj, c. 7.., on the tensile stretch and set of wrought-iron, 1125, Hue kit tuj Load, of struts, under dead-

HM

load, 11, under impact, 407 (2), 1552, error as to in Vol. i. corrected, C. et A. p. 2; of columns, 477 80; on bracing bars, 1019; theory of, modified form of Scheffler's theory, 64950, Sc-hwarz, Ritter, etc., on 889, 914, 956;

Caoutchouc, divergency between Wertkeim's and Clapeyron's experiments on, 192; experiments of Clapeyron on ratio X//t for, 610 ; to be excluded from mathematically elastic substances ? 1326, 1749; slide-modulus of, (i) p. 420, ftn.; on springs with alternate discs of iron and vulcanised caoutchouc, 851 experiments on elastic fore- and after- strain of, 1161 c iirl>< m, influence of, on strength of castiron, 1047 (c); how amount varies with repeated meltings of cast-iron, 1100; is not sole cause of difference
;

Rankine on Tredgold-Gordon formula, 469: see also Column* ainl Strut*

7<M//Vrx,

between
steel,
(i)

elastic properties of iron p. 736, ftn.

and

railway, formulae for resilience

Hurt),

%9: see Spring A. mn, on Kohn's experiments as to repeated torsions, 991; on the strength of cast-steel, 1 130 on strength of aluminium, 1162 Rurxtinri, of glass cylinders and globes under pressure, 857 60 of wroughtiron tubes, 983 ; of cannon, 1038, 1055, loTl; of musket-barrels, 1038 (c); of gntta percha tubes, 1160; of earthenof, 595,
; ;

Cuttings, stronger at the periphery than the core, 974 (c) ; influence of size on relative strength, 1045 effect of dead
;

head, 1038 (/), 1050, 1060 Catenaries: see Strings

Citnctuj,

References to: reports on Saint-

Venant's torsion memoir, 1; reports on Wertheim's memoirs, noticing that

hi- value of the stretch-squeeze ratio

ware pipes, 1171

CabU: see dm in Cadmium, hardness

hardness
to

of, (i) p.

592, ftn.;

thermo-electric properties under strain,

Calcsptir,
of, 836 (d) and (n change of temperature, experiments on stretch-modulus
;

strain

due

1197
(

of, 121i

inconsistent with rari-constancy, notices that if molecules are ; built-up of atoms, the Boscovichiau atomic theory does not necessarily lead to rari-constancy, 787, 192 (d) a slip of, corrected by Wertheim and SaintVenant, 809; his theory of elasticity discussed, 1193, 1195; his ellipsoids, 226, 1194 ; suggests variation of angle of torsion across cross-section of prism, 20 ; on torsion of prisms of rectangular cross -section, 25, 29; his torsion
is

787

'ullnn,

Calvert, F.

erroneous theory of boilers, 961 C., on hardness of metals and alloys (1860), 845; on chemical analysis of cast-iron after repeated iiH-kin;/-, IKK); influence of prepara-

tion on elasticity, set cast-iron (1853), 1102

and strength of

formula wrongly applied by Wertheim, 805 6 his erroneous method of dealing with flexure, 75, 316, and with torsion, 191, on his erroneous method of approximation in general, 12256; error in his theory of impact of bare, Jo l; on contour conditions for thin
;

Canada
produced
1766, ftn.
in,

Doubly refractive power by sudden turn of stick.

plate, tor stress

3956;
in

his general equations terms of strain, when

Cannon, researches on strength of materials for, 103792, 1113; solid and hollow cast, 1038 (g) ; oast-iron, 1048 nee of various metals for, 1062 built-up by shrinking on coils, 1069, 107682, 1078, 1082; tables of al constanta for material 1071 n; Lur-ting of, 1088,1065,1074; experiment* on gups built-up by coils of wire round cylinder, 1078; on extreme proof of, 1047 (6), 1092
; ;
i

there is initial stress, 129; criticism of his deduction of stress-strain relations, 192 ("i:

on his theory of
refraction,

light,

Sumt-Venant's viewa 265 on double

;

195, 1214; his theory of dispersion, 1221, criticised, 549; his researches on waves in an aeolotropic medium referred to by Boussinesq,

urn
Cur, tin,
./., on the resistance of solid* subjected to impulses like the firing of cannon (I860), 108802; on the strength of stone (1861),
1
1

equality
straight

of

strength

and curved, 926

498
880
(6),

INDEX.
Villari
critical
field

before and after immersion, 1168; tensile, compressive and transverse strengths of Portland aud Roman, 1169; strength of, ascertained
etc.,

in

cobalt,

1736
Christoffel,

on

waves

in

aeolotropic

by

flexure,

1170
to

CVrnifi,

on application of potential

theory of elasticity, 338, 1489, 1626 ; his researches on the equilibrium of elastic solids, particularly certain problems in the stress and strain of a
solid

(1877), 1764 Cinnabar, molecular condition of, 861 Circular Arc, expression for normal shift see also Arches of, 585 Clapeyron, his formula for springs, 482;
:

medium

bounded by an

infinite

plane

(1882), 1489

theorem of the three moments (1857), 603; his theorem of elastic work (1858), Clapeyroji's Theorem : see Moments, Theohis

60811

Chalcedony, attacked by rotating irondisc,

836

(h)

rem of three, and Continuous Beams Clarinval, on hardness of metals (1860),

846
Clark, on iron rivets, 903; on iron plate, 902, 1121 Clausen, on form of pillars (1851), 476 80 Clausius, discussion by Saint- Venant of his views as to elastic constants, 193 ; criticism of them by Wertheim, 819
;

Cluiin Cables, first introduced by Captain

Brown, 904
Chains,

Links of, general theory of, 21; link symmetrical about two axes, 622; circular link (or anchor5; circular link with stud, ring), 623 626 7 ; comparison of links with and without studs, 628; rule as to welding, 629 ; oval link with flat sides, ; elliptic link with and without stud, 633 8, 640 comparison of strengths, weights and extensions of circular, oval and elliptic links, 639; absolute strength of chains, 641 strength of wroughtiron chains depends on shearing stress, 879 (<?); absolute strength of links of iron and steel, 1132; break later at
618

6302

011 after-strain, etc.,

197

Clay becomes as hard and dense as rock by great compressive stresses, 1155 Cleavage, Planes of, taken by Raukine
perpendicular to euthytatic axes a doubtful hypothesis 451; how related to hardness in crystals, 839 40; position of, 84950; doubtful if they determine planes of elastic symmetry, 1637 ; produced by continuous shearing? 1667 Cleaving, defined, 466 (a)
Clebsch, References to: his wrong limit of safety, 5 (c), 1327, 1348 (<j)(h), criticised by Saint- Venant, 320; combines Saint-Venant's flexure and torsion problems under one analysis, 17, 1332, Saint- Veuant on, 198 (/); his treatment of elastic constants discussed by Saint - Venant, 193; his treatise on elasticity translated by Flamant and Saint- Venant, annotated by latter, 298, 1325 his treatment of Kirchhoff's Principle, 1253 ; on thick
;

less

than proof load, 1136

effect of

red heat on absolute strength, 1136 ; testing of, 1154 Chappe", T. F., experiments on cast-iron
elliptic arches, 1011 Chemical Composition,
its

influence on

791; how affected by repeated meltings, 1100; its bearing on physical structure, 1047 (c), 1081 Chery, graphical tables for strength of
elasticity,

beams, 921,

ftn.

Chladni, his values for notes of circular

plates tested by Kirchhoffs calculations,

12423

Chladni-Figures, mode of forming, 613; uninfluenced when vibrating plate is

plates,

85;

13507, on thin plates, 1375 how his treatment of plates

to

is

placed in electromagnetic

field,

699

related

that

of

Kirchhoff

and

see Nodal Lines, Plates, Membranes Chree, C., on velocity of sound in rods, 437_8; on elasticity of solid earth, 567, 570; on longitudinal vibrations of rods, 821 ; on some applications of

Gehring,
of
it

12923, 13759,

criticism

physics and mathematics to geology, 1721 ; on the equations of an isotropic elastic solid in polar and cylindrical
coordinates, their solution and application, 1722; analysis of Sir W. Thomson's papers on the relations of stress and magnetisation, 1727, ftn.; on

by Saint- Venant, 383; on thin rods, 1358 74; how his treatment differs from Kirchhoff's, 1257, 1258, 1265, 1270, 1282, 13589, from that of Thomson and Tait, 1691, 1695 Researches of: on the equilibrium on of flexible strings (1860), 1322 3
;

the theory of circularly polarised media (1860), 1324 his Treatise on the Elasticity of Solid Bodies (1862), 132590 (criticised, 1325, 1390); his posthura;

INDEX.
ous Principles of Mathematical Optics, 1391 ; on reflection at a spherical surface, 13921410; accounts of his life and work, 1390, (ii) p. 107,
ftn.

40!)

zoineter referred to by F.

Neumann,
169

1201

(c)

Collet-Meynret,
(1854), 1109 p. 368, ftn.

on
12;

bridge-structure
cited,
(e) t
(i)

Cobalt, effect of longitudinal stress on magnetisation, Villari critical field,

1736
Coefficient of Optical or Photo-elasticity,
Coefficient of Plasticity (K), or plastic-

Columns, of, discussed by Clausen, 47680; strength of wooden, 880 (a) ; cast-iron, tables and curves for strength of, 880 (c), do not obey ordinary elastic theory, 1117 (v), Hodgkinbest
son's later formulae for strength of, 973 (cf. 469, 64950, 956), relative strength of those with rounded and with bedded ends, 974 (a), loss of relative strength due to removal of external crust, 974 strength of square, triangular (c); and circular cross-sections, 974 (d) ; on strength of long columns, 978;

form

modulus, 247, 249, 259; does

it

vary?

15689,
tic it
i/

1586, 1593:

see also Plas-

Coefficient

elasticity, 209, 217,

of Restitution, or dynamic 847 ; really varies with masses, sizes and shapes of col-

liding bodies,
ry,
(i)

16823

Coefficients, Elastic,

names

for in

this

Tables, 445, 448 ; Ilnmnfntlc, 136, 446; of Pliability arc of coefficients of lligidity, reciprocals of Estt-ntiliility (longitudinal and lateral, or direct and cross) and Compressibility, 425; Taalnoinic (eup. 77, ftn.,
ttitic),

empirical formulae for steel columns, rounded and bedded ends, 978 ; ditto, for wrought-iron columns, 978 : see also Strut*

Combes, report on Phillips' memoir on springs, 482 Combination of Strains: see Strain, Combined Compatibility, of given system of strains, conditions for, 112, 190 (c); proved by Boussinesq, 112, 1420, by Kirchhoff,

thytatic, platytatic, goniotatic, plagio440 Thlipsinomic (euthythliptic, platythliptic, goniothliptic, plagioth;

448; transformation of, Kankme's use of surface of fourth order, 432 in any direction expressed symliptic),
;

1279

bolically,

133;

for

various crystals,

Compression, difficulty of experiments to determine squeeze-modulus, influence

in long and friction in short specimens, 793 Condenser, spherical glass, strain produced 1318 by charge, ( 'umliii'tirity, electric, of iron and copper, how altered by strain, 1647 rendered

numerical values, 1212; for a material with three planes of elastic symmetry, 307; for amorphic bodies, 282 (8), 308; for equal transverse of wood do not adelasticity, 308 (a) mit of ellipsoidal conditions, 308 (a)
; ;

12035;

of buckling

for bodies possessing various types of elastic symmetry, 281 2 ; experimental

methods of determining, 283, 1205

1 1
;

expressions for, in terms of stress, 240; effect of initial stress on stretch-modulus, 241; effect of set on cross-stretch coefficients, 194 ; Lament of, 1781 (c) : see also Constants
initial

aeolotropic by aeolotropic stress, 1740 Cone, very sharp, vibrations, notes and fail-point of, 13067; truncated, impiirt longitudinal on, 223, duration of
4 blow, strain, etc., 1542 CnnjiHiiitf l-'iuK-tions, in torsion problem, un. used to solve 285, 1460, 1710;

maximum

and

M,.,i

Cohesion, Herschel, Segntn and Sir W. Thomson endeavour to explain it by molecules of infinitely great density and infinitely small volume attracting according to Newtonian law, 866, (i) p. 600, ftn., 1650; supposed by Zaborowski to depend on absolute continuity of matter, 867 : see Molecules,
Strength, etc.

planar equations of plasticity, 1562 7, to solve those of pulvcrulence, 1566,

Connecting /;.-/, stress produced by vibrations in, 583, by variations of pressure,

6812

Conservative systems of Force, 1709

(a),

1716

(d)

Constant*, stretch
fltant

and

Elastic, equality of crossdirect-slide on rari-con-

OoUuden nmi Dorfar, cut steel, chalcedony and quartz by iron disc in rapid ition, 836 (A), 153*.
:

hypothesis, 78; controversy about, 68, 192, 198, 196, 197, 276, 801 ; hi -constancy of iron and brass wire,
bi- constancy investigated by stretching hollow prisms, 80S, 1901

727;

500
(6);

INDEX.
thermal effect on stretch-modulus, 752, on slide-modulus, 690, 754, 1753 (b) effect of tort on slide- and stretchmoduli, 1755; no magnetic influence on strain of wire observed, 688; effect of electric current on absolute strength
;

Wertheim's views on uni-constancy, 819 ; multi- or rari-constancy of crystals, 1212, 1636; methods of investigating bi-constancy, 1201 (a) no crucial test of bi-constancy (e) from tones and nodal lines of circular
;

3, nor from plates, 1242 on wires, 1271, 1273, nor

experiments from action of cork, india-rubber and jelly, 192 (6), Kirchhoff 's experi610, 1326, 1749 ments on steel and brass, 1271 3 reference to other experiments, 1201 the 21-constant model, 1636, (f); 1771_3 Sir William Thomson on constant controversy, 16367, 1709
;
;

of wire, 1187 ; effect of strain on thermo-electric properties, 1642 6 electric conductivity altered by stretch,
;

1647 ; slide- stretch- and dilatationmoduli of, 1817 stretch-modulus of,

,

1749, 1770; 21-constant model (e), as argument for multi-constancy, 1771 2, leads no further than hypothesis of modified action, 1773; remarks on constants of amorphic bodies and on bi-constant isotropy, 1799; single assemblage of Boscovichian atoms leads
to rari-constancy, 1802 ; double assemblage to either uni- or bi-constancy,

743, by transverse vibrations, 771, how related to density, (i) p. 531 tensile strength of, 1166, (i) p. 707, ftn. ; hardness of, (i) p. 592, ftn., (i) p. 707, ftn., 836 (6) ; ductility, etc., (i) p. 707, ftu. ; nature of rupture, 1667 rotating wheel of, used to cut glass, 1538, ftn. stays
;
;

for boilers, strength of, 908 Cord : see String

Core, introduced by Bresse, 515, 533; discussed by Eankine and applied to structures, 465 (e) ('oriolis, on longitudinal impact of bars,

1803

5,

but certain

difficulties
;

remain

204
Cork, 1749 Cornelius, C. S., on the constitution of

to be cleared up, 1803, 1805

and Boussinesq, 36-constant Neumann's

Brillouin
1202,

views of 1464; F.

medium,

matter (1856), 868

Cormi, his experiments on the stretchsqueeze ratio and the value of elastic constants referred to, 235, 269, 282, 284, 1201 (e) Coromilas, experiments on stretch-moduli of gypsum and mica, 1210 Corundrum, cut by quartz sand, 1538, ftn. Coulomb, comparison of Saint- Venant's and his torsion results, 19 cited, 800 on his theory of the thrust of a pulverulent mass, 1609, 1620, 1623 his Cox, Homersham, on impact, 165 method of dealing with impact considered by Saint- Venant, 201 ; his hypothesis for the transverse impact of bars, 344, 366, 368371; his hypothesis demonstrated generally by Bous5; on the mass-coeffisinesq, 1450
;

1216, 1218; relations between constants required for elastic theory 5 (but see of double refraction, 1214 Refraction, Double); the Lament of the 21-coefficients, 1781 (c) see also Intermolecular Action, Streteh-Squeeze Ra:

tio,

Rari-constancy,

Muni-constancy,

Coefficients, Elastic.

Continuous Beams, Bresse's work on, increase of strength by 532, 535

;

building-in terminals,

5747; Dorna

supposes beam rigid and only supports elastic, 599602; Clapeyron's Theo-

Three Moments, 603, 607, 893; Schemer's treatment, 653; special cases of, 890 general case and special two treatment of five spans, 946 spans, mid- support not on same level as terminals, 947; three spans, comfour plete numerical treatment, 948 spans, complete numerical treatment, 949 general theory of, 949 ; Clebsch's treatment, uniformly loaded, equispanned, 1386 (c) ; Thomson and Tait's treatment, 1696
of the
;

rem

of resilience, 1550, ftn.; on trussed cast-iron girders, 1015 Craig, W. G., on india-rubber railway
cient

Contractile Etlier, theory

of,

17878

Copper, thermal effect of stretching, 689, 692; thermal effect of compression, 695 thermo-elastic properties of, 752,
;

756 ; after-strain and temperature, 756; ratio of kinetic and static dilatation- and stretch-moduli, 1751
754,
;

springs, 969 (b) Crane, wrought-iron tubular, 909, 960 Crank, stress in, 681 Cresy, on punching, 1104 Cross-sections of bars remain plane, difficulty of supposition, in problems of impact, 414, in treatment of rods, 1687, 1691 Crushing, defined, 466 (a) ; of cast-iron, 1100 see Strength, Crushing, Iron,
:

Stone, etc.

INDEX.
Crystalline Axes, differ for each physical property see Axfs Crystalline Form, how related to elas:

501
axes with temperature and pressure, 1220; Sir W. Thomson on axes of
crystals,

ticity.

T'.'l.

1637, on regular crystals. 1639, 1780, on principal elasticities of,

Crystalline State, of iron, 861, 970, 1185; produced by vibrations, 1189 ; hin-

1762;
ftn.

artificial

twinning

of,

1800 and

dered by imparities, 1189 Crystalline Structure, produced in powders and soft solids by stress, 864; produced according to Mallet by passage of heat through body, 1056; is the cause of difference between iron

Cnbitt, J., experiments Warren girders, 1012

on

deflection of

and steel, how changed by tempering and annealing, (i) p. 736, ftn. probably that of most isotropic bodies,
;

Curvature, geometrical, of rods discussed, 1669, of surfaces, anticlastic and synclastic, 1671 Citrri linear Coordinate*, expression for 2 Laplacian V in terms of, (i)p. 374, ftn. uni-constant equations of elasticity in
;

but macled, 1799

Crystallisation, Confuted, 115, 192 (d);

Cauchy's hypothesis as to, 192 (d) Sir W. Thomson on, 1799 Crystals, problem of their classification by elastic constants, 451, of monoclino;

terms of, 673 Cybold aeolotropy, Rankiue on, 450 (v) ; Sir W. Thomson on, 1775 Cylinder, sttlid, under combined torsion and flexure, 1280
Cylinder, hollow, subjected to surface pressures, when its material has cylindrical elastic distribution, 120 ; conditions for longitudinal or lateral failure, 122 when elastic distribution
;

hedric system, relationship of their various physical axes, optic, acoustic, thermal, diamagnetic, electric and of

gypsum and felspar), 6837, 12189 and ftns. directions of various physi;

hardness (Angstrom's experiments on

do not coincide with those of elasticity, or with each other, 684,

cal axes

686 ; Angstrom holds that elastic axes of this system of crystals are not rectangular, 687 optical axes do not in regular crystal coincide with elastic but change with pressure, 788, with temperature, 1218, ftn., 1229 (d)
;

122 subjected to internal pressure rupture first on inside, 1055, 1082 ; bursting of, under external and internal pressure, 858 60 of steam-engines, formulae for strength when of, 900 unequally heated, 962, 645 ; resistance to hydrostatic pressure, experiments on, 1038 (c) ruptnn- of cylindrical belts, 1044 ; five erroneous formulae for resistance of, to internal pressure, 1069, a sixth, 1080 Cylindrical Coordinate*, equations of
is

ellipsoidal,

Effectof pressure in alteringdoublepower of rocksalt, fluorspar and alum, 789 why they exhibit no
refractive
;

elasticity in

terms

Cylindrical Shell.

of, (i) p. 79, ftn. I.<>\- and Basset on,

1*96

tfc

rotatory power in magnetic field, 698 hardness of, how related to planes of cleavage, how shape of, ; I'd by change of temperature 11 '.'7. TJll; stress-strain relations for various types of, 1203, 1639 effect of uniform pressure on regular and rhonibohedral crystals, 120.1; stn tch-modulus of regular, in any <lin rti<>n. rjot) 'ze ratio of regular, 7 ; ri 1206 ; alteration of angles )> faces of regular, due to traction, -'<

/.,

83940

on strength of wire ropes

and

cables, 1136

I>alilm<tnn,

It., on absolute strength of certain kinds of iron and steel, 1189

statically indeterminate 411, ftn. 1 hilt on, elastic properties of iron and
I>\llfinbert,

on

reactions,

(i) p.

steel
(i)

due to nature of crystallisation,

>'.'

stretch-modulus
crystals, 1210
;

for

rhomboli-

<lr.il

change of facial of rhombohedral, due to surfn sure, l-'ll. nUtioM to tin mal
i

iin-.'l.-

on rotating iron disc attacking steel, chalcedony and quartz, 836 (h), 153H, ftn Darwin, Q. II., on rliis-tinty ,,f solid
earth, 567, 670, 171926; on stresses in the interior of the earth niMKfil l>v tin- w.-u'ht of n.ntin.-nts tmd mountain n the dynamical theory <>f tides of long
!

p. 736, ftn. and Coll<i<ln,

effect,

1-1

mts
i

of rocksalt.

in bi fluorspar, etc. tween crystallographic, elastic and optical crystals, 1*212. ftn uwnn's theory of change of optical

period (1886), 1726 ; on the horuonul thrust of sand (1883), 1609; BOUMI-

502
nesq on his experiments, 1609 1623
;

INDEX.
11,

Doolittle, /.,

on Barnes' discovery as to iron cutting steel, 836 (h)

Davies, on beam of strongest crosson wrought and section, 951, 1023

cast-iron beams, 1023 De Clercq, on the distorted form of the bracing bars of lattice girders, 1026 Decomble, experiments on the rupture of cast-iron beams, 1024 Dehargnc, on galvanisation of iron-wire

Dorna, A., on statically indeterminate

reactions,

599602

Delanges,

for suspension bridges, 1096 on statically indeterminate

Double -Re fraction : see Refraction, Double criticises Doyne, Hodgkinson's beam of strongest cross-section, 1016, 1119 Drum-head, irregularly stretched, equation for vibrations of, 1300 (c) Ductile, defined, 466 (vi), 1742 (c)
after-strain ductility see also Plasticity coefficient, 739 Dufoitr, L., on changes in absolute strength of wires produced by longcontinued transit of electric currents,
:

coefficient

of

reactions,

(i)

p. 411, ftn.

Deloy, confirms experimentally Phillips' theory of springs, 596 Jh'iixity, how related to elasticity, 791 ; to stretch-modulus, 741 (a), 759 (e), 772 ; to hardness, 1043 to tenacity, 891 (a), 1039 (a), 1047 (a), 1050 how it influences ratio of transverse to absolute strength in cast-iron, 1086 decreased by wire-drawing,cold-rolling,
; ; ;

1187
as to thermo1196 Duleau, his experiments on bars of circular and square cross- section, 31, 191 Dunn, T., on chain cable and timber testing machines (1857), 1154

Duhamcl, his

priority

elastic equations,

1149 indicates quality of iron but not of steel, 1149; how affected by head and bulk of casting, (i) p. 707, ftn. produced in bodies by enormous compressive forces, 1155 12 Desplaces, on bridge-structure, 1109 cited, 169 (e), (i) p. 368, ftn. D'Estocquois, on molecular attraction in liquids, 863 Dia magnetism see Magnetism Diamond, and graphite, relation of densities and elasticities, 791 and ftn.; squeeze-modulus of, 797 (/) hardness of varies with direction, 836 (d) and (e)
etc.,
; ; ;

'

'

Duportail, A. C. Benoit-, theory of railway-axles (1856), Dupuit, on thrust on points of support of beam under flexure, 940

9579

Earth, Figure

of,

Lamp's and Resal's

70; elastic equiinvestigations, 561 librium of spherical crust of a planet

spinning about a diameter, under action of mutual gravitation of parts and with external and internal pressures (ResaVs Problem), 562; shifts

Dielectric

Polarization, strain due to, considered by Kirchhoff, 131321, especially,

1318

Diwger, his contribution to theory of elasticity (1854), 549 vulcanised Dietzel, on elasticity of
caoutchouc,
etc.,

and stresses due to pressures and gravity, application to case of earth, 5637; shifts due to spin, 56870; times of oscillation of gravitating liquid sphere of density and size of earth and of steel globe of size of
earth under ellipsoidal deformation,

1161

Diffraction, Boussinesq on, 1477 Discontinuity, remarks on, in mathe-

matical and physical problems, 1511 Dispersion, Cauchy's theory of, rejected by Dienger, 549; is not sensible in artificial double-refraction, 796 ; of the optic axes, 1218 and ftn., 1229 (d); in uncrystalline media, references to theory of F. Neumann, of Cauchy and of O'Brien, 1221; Boussinesq on, 1465, 1481; in metallic reflection,

1659 Earth, Rigidity of, solid elastic, 1663, value of ellipticity, 1664 earth cannot be thin shell enclosing liquid mass,
;

1664,

17389
of

effect of elastic yielding

;

on precession and nutation, 1665

regularity

ir-

1665 1738

time-keeper, does it yield to solid tides? 1719, forcedue to mutual function 9;

earth as

1782

(b)

Dissipative Function, 1743 4 and ftn. Donkin, his equation for transverse vibrations of rods more general than mis-cites Seebeck, Seebeck's, 471
;

gravitation, centrifugal acceleration, and attractions of sun and moon, 1721 ; shifts due to mutual gravitation, 1722; shifts due to spin and
tide raising influences, 1722; unless earth be incompressible, strain at surface would be immense, 1723 ; of inoompressibility of difficulties

472

INDEX.
earth, 1723, of its isotropy, 1723 (i), of Thomson's and Darwin's investigation, 1723 (i); elliptieity due to tidal action, 1723 (iii); parts due to
rigidity
(c)
;

.503

lamina, 1694; for rods of see Rod*, curvature, 291 H'/Yo, Jieama, etc. l-'.lmtif Mtululi : see Moduli
straight

double

and to gravitation, 1724 (a) numerical values for steel and glass globes of size of earth, 1724 (d)
;

l-'.loxtic

effect of

solid earth tide

on super-

ficial water-tide, 1725; attempt to determine effect by tidal observations, 1725 t>; improbability of evaluating effective rigidity of earth from tidal

Solid, probable molecular structure of, 1799 ; when subject to special types of surface-load or of body-force see Solid, Elastic ]:Iu.*ticity, as a mode of motion, gyro:

static theory,
of,

data, 1726(4) Earth, Stability of loote, Levy, SaintVenant, Boussinesq and Rankiue on,
_MJ;

Rankiue's
:

treatment

of.

Holt/.mann's, 582 (6); Boussinesq's, see for full references 1570 lfi'25 Pulri nil K a r th, Talu*, slope of natural, tables for various kinds of, 1588
]-:,irtln'inciii-t'

17846 ; modern theory originated according to F. Neumann and others in the inability of hydrodynamical equations to explain Fresnel's new theory of light, 1193; Rankine's distinction between fluid and solid elasticity, invalid as deduced by him, 4234, *1448; short history of, by Saint- Venant, 162; how influenced by working, 732 ; of cast, rolled and forged bodies, effects of
working on elastic homogeneity, 115; its dependence on density, chemical constitution and crystalline form, 791 little influenced by set, 1084
;

pipes,

strength

of,

1171;

empirical formula for, 1172 Kate, State o/,4(>),5 (a), 164, 70910, 749, 767; for cast-iron, 896, 1084: see also A7/.s-fi"r Limit*.

Easton and Amox, their experiment referred to, 164 **agf, defined, 169 (b) Edge, of elastic solid, if re-entering ought to be rounded off to prevent weakness, 1711 re of Bernoulli, forms of, traced by Thomson and Tait and by Saalschiitz, 1694 and ftn. Eli ft ic Enuiral-nce of statically equipollent loads: see Loads Life of materials, Kupflfer's scheme for investigating, 731; under slowly increasing load, 1144 di-tinction between
ical

Elasticity, perfect, definition of, 1709(6), 1742 (a) ; linear as distinguished from perfect, (i) p. 9, ftn.; limit of linear, 164 ; relation to temperature, 170!) (b), 1742 (a) ; is not identical with range

Ela*tirity,

of Hooke's Law, 1742 (a) Axes of: see Axe*

l-'.liaticity,

Character of, (distribution of homogeneity) symmetrical about three planes, 117 (a); isotropic in tangent plane to surface of distribution, 117 (b); for amorphic body, 117 (c); for rari-constant amorphic body, 117 (</); ellipsoidal distribution, 117 (c): see
also Ellipsoidal Dintrilmtiim
Itistrilnititni
i\

Kltinticiti/.

round any

and mathematical, 1742

(</);

affected by application and reversal of load, 709-10, 7I'.. 767;

hew

point of a solid. rj>, 127 et *eq., 135; symbolical method of treating, 198 (f); ll.mkine on, 443 52
it ii,

(iViii-r.i/

l-:<iuntiont of,

have

Morin's erroneous views on, *". in steel, cast-iron, 8956, 1084; 11, 1; in wood, 1157; Clebuch on. ussion of, by Thomson and loubtful assumption that a solid

unique solution,
f

6, 10,

19H

for crystal?) 11
stahl.
,.f,

'.'..

(if

equilibrium
-2;
f,,rin

1198, 1210, 1265, 1278, 1881,

(//),

n. '11

deduced,

from

rtowBorruptureawh.ii
reach
171'J

.hi-th
I

limit

i-

.-...IMS....

on,

niohrultir coiiHiderations, 228, on rari-constant lines from molecular potential, 66772, 1195, by Navier's

<tniin dis'

'itiun.

linearity
17-J;

>:.

method, 1195, by Poimon'a and Cauchy's methods, 1195, deduced from strain-energy by piiiuiple of virtual momenta, 1285, ducuaaed by Thomson
Tait, 1709; in curvilinear ooordinates, 118, 678; in cylindrical coordinates, (i) p. 79. ftn.; in spherical coordinate!*, (ii )> 7 >. tin.; expreeaed M.licallv. 1MI; *,,l,,ti<m of, by

n flexure
in.-

is

not

and

elementary proof of equ

to
I'.mcelet, 188; at built-in

ends of beam or cantilever ban al>i uj.t change of slope. 188; for initially

504

INDEX.
or rolled materials, 142 proof of this on rari-constant lines, 143; identical
;

Bankine, 442, by Popoff in cylindrical coordinates, 5112, in uniplanar polar coordinates, 1711, 1717 (ii), by
tential

Tait, 17156, in poforms, 1628 30, method of removing body-forces from, 1653,

Thomson and
1716

Elasticity,

Generalised Equations of, with initial stress, with large shifts, 190 (a) (c) involving initial state of strain, 237; on rari-constant lines, retaining shift-fluxions of high orders, 234, of fourth order, 549 ; when strain is not small, C. Neumann, 670, 1249 Sir W. Thomson, 671, 1661, 1249
; ; ;

when

depends on speed of straining motion, 1709 (a) when shift is large, obscure treatment of Kirchhoff, 12448; when squares and products of shift-fluxions are not neglistrain
;

with Canchy-Saint-Venant conditions for double-refraction, 149 applied to wood, 152, but do not hold, 308 (6) ; strain-energy under, 163 Ellipsoidal Harmonics, properties of proved by Painvin, 544 8, Ellipsoidal Shell, vibrations of, 544 cannot be entirely dilatational, 548; bursting of glass globes in form of, 857 Ellis, Jr. M., experiments on strength of various metals (1860), 1166 Emerson's Paradox, 174 Energy, Conservation of, assumptions made in usual proofs of, 303 intrinsic
; ;

of body, defined, 1631 potential, of strained solid see Strain-Energy

;
:

gible, 234,

14436
;

Elasticity,

General Theory of, SaintVenant, 4, 72, 190, 224 F. Neumann, 1194; Kirchhoff, 12779; Clebsch, 1326 Sir W. Thomson, 1661, 1709, 175665, 1767 Elasticity, Principal, denned, 1761 six values for aeolotropic solid, 1761
;

Enervation, defined, 169 (6) ; 175 Equations of Elasticity : see Elasticity, General Equations of Erdmann, 0. L., on molecular state of tin as affected by vibrations, 862
Ether, Luminiferous, number of its elastic constants, 1459, 452, 1214; elastic jelly theory of, 121321; Cauchy, F. and C. Neumann, Lam6 and others on, 12146, 1274; under
pressure, 1215; fixed at an infinite distance, 1215 initial stresses in ether of crystal, 12167; MacCullagh's
;

values for cubical aeolotropy, isotropy,

etc.,

1762 Analogy,
(c),

Elastico-kinetic

1267,

1270,

1364, 1694 Electric Current, influence if long continued on absolute strength of wires. 1187; how affected by torsion of conducting wire or tube, 1740 Electricity, distribution of, on disc, etc.,

1283

(b)

and

views

on, 1274; Kirchhoff 's views Clebsch really makes on, 1274, 1301 rariconstant, 1391; fixed at surface of totally reflecting body by Clebsch, 1393; treated as an initially-stressed
;

1510
Sir

(c);

elastic

analogue

to,

1630;

relation to ether and ponderable matter, 1815 6 Ellipsoid, of optical elasticity, 1218 and ftn., 1483; Cauchy's, 226, 1194 Lame's, 1194, in tangential coordinates, 1326; Clebsch's treatment of,

W. Thomson on

isotropic solid by Boussinesq, 1467 74; Sir W. Thomson's views on (1884), 1766, illustrated by cobbler's

1348

(g)
;

Ellipsoidal Conditions, 198 (e) in terms of thlipsinomic coefficients, 311 sup;

glycerine, 1766 and ftn., 1781 (6); difficulty as to transit of molecules through, 1781 (b); hypothesis of aeolotropy of density of, in contractile, used by crystals, 1781 Sir W. Thomson and Glazebrook to

wax and

explain reflection, refraction, doublerefraction, dispersion, etc., 17878; gyrostatic models of, 18067, 1816; equations of motion of ideal, 1811, compared with those of stressed jelly, 180912; relation to electricity and ponderable matter, 1815 6 Enter, on problem of plate, 167; on
p. 411, ftn.

posed by Rankine to hold

for

all

homogeneous substances, 430; hold

for initially stressed isotropic bodies,

1470, 1474; vibrations in medium obeying, 1559; annul weblike aeolotropy, 1776 (c) ; adopted for drawn or rolled metals, stone, etc., 282 (8); for amorphic bodies, 117 (c), 230; application of potential of second kind to elastic equations when these conditions hold, 140, 235; reduce tasinomic quartic to ellipsoid, 139; hold
for

statically indeterminate reactions, (i) his formula for transverse ;

vibrations of loaded bar, 759 (a) his formula for buckling load of struts,
;

amorphic

solids, for forged,

drawn

974 (b) and (d), 977, 979 Euthytatic Axes, 446, taken

by Ran-

INDKX.
kine as basis for classifying crystals, 451 his experiments on stituh squeeze ratio referred to, 1201 (e) /.//;//, on coefficient of induced magition cited, 1314; on relation of strain and magnetisation cited, 1321,
,

505

on solidification of 1155; bodies under pressure (1854), 1156; on strength of mixtures of cast-iron and nickel (1858), 1165 ; on strength, rupture-surface, etc. of stone (1856),
(1854),

1729, 1731,

17357
of,

1182; on punching resistance, 1104 his experiments on strength of

plates rejected

by Mallet, 1066, dealt

ibility, Coefficient for brass, 730, 823

by

heat,

F.xtinctivity, 1782

Extraneous Forces: see Stress, Initial

Fabian, C., on extensibility of aluminium, 1163 concludes from experiment tbat central line of a beam under flexure is really stretched, 941 /// Cliimnfyg, stability of, 463 erroneous treatment of Faamtli, Q. problem of body resting on more than three points, 509 Fail- Limit : see also Fail-Point, general equation for, 5 (</) (e) experimental determination of relation between in case shearing and tractive, 185 of combined strain, 183 modified formula for, 321 (c)
%

with by Morin, 879 (d), by Love, 902 on effect of repeated meltings on cast-iron by Hawkes, 1101 Fatigue of Metals, 169 (g), 970; Sir W. Thomson's sense of term, 1748 Felspar, axes of, optic, acoustic, thermal, diamagnetic and electric, 686 hardness of, 686, 840 Film*, translucency of thin metallic. Sir W. Thomson's discussion of, 1782 (c) Fink, on increased resistance of wooden
;

beams

to flexure

when

traction, 918; on formulae flexure of bridges, 1036

subjected to for the

Finlnj, J., builds first suspension-bridge (1796), (i) p. 622, ftn.

!>ox,

strength

of,

908

>int= (Poncelet's point dangereux), in case of torsion it lies near; est to axis of prism, 23 ; relation to
(e)

Flaiiumt, pupil of Saint-Venant, 416; translates Clebsch with Saint-Venant, 298 ; writes memoir on longitudinal

impact with Saint-Venant, 401

absolute strength, sues posthumous
(i)

on
;

p. 117, ftn.

is-

169(0); for flexure, 173, 177 (a), not necessary at point of greatest stress, C. et A. p. 9 (b) and (c) of feathered axis, 177 (c) for torsion, 181 (e) ; for a cantilever, 321 (d) ; of uniformly loaded beam, C. et A. p. 12 Failure, to be measured by strain rather than 1327/1348 (</) (h),
\'i.'ld-rn,nt.
; ;
.

memoir

of

Saint-

//);

difficulties of

maximum stress
Thomson
safety,

difference adopted as limit by

and Tait and by Darwin, 1720; on

maximum
I (b)

stretch

limit

to

Fiiirbn

and

..on collapse of globes cylinders, and strength of glass (1859), 85360; on useful metals (1857), 891; his 'Useful Information for Engineers' (185560), 90610;

Venant, 410 4; publishes with Boussinesq a notice of Saint-Venant, 415 ; gives an account of Phillips on springs, 508; throws Rankine's researches on loose earth into geometrical form, 1571 ; his discussion of pulverulence, 1571; his application of Boussinesq's theory of pulverulence, 1606, his approximate formulae for that theory, 1611 ; his numerical tables for thrust of pulverulent masses, 1625; his r(sum6 of Boussinesq's theory, 1610 Flaws, Bitter's error as to, 916 (b) ; Larmor on, 1348 ( /") case of rotten core
;

/'/,./(//-.

on tubular cranes, 960 ; on application of iron to hull-link' purposes (1854), '.HI (n); on iron ship building (1865), HI >n collapse of tubes and flues

in torsion, 1348 (/), 1430 list of authors dealing with subject before Saint-Venant, 70; history of problem, 815 Saint- Venant's treatment: some results for, given in Torsion Memoir,
I-',

on repeated loadings (1868), of a plate girder (1860), 1085 ; on effect of repeated u 1100; on tensile strength (1862), 1097 D at various temperaof v.
;

9805;

inertial
i

when load plane is not one of symmetry of cross-sections of 14, for prisms of rectangular and
,

elliptic cross-sections,

1) on

.1.

M-;nes pro-

14; distortion oHs-sections, 15; of prisms, SaintVenant's chief memoir on, published, trength of beams under skew, 66,

duced by enormous oompressive forces

. .

171

(<i)

Bernoulli

Kuhrian formulae

IT.

II

506

INDEX.
girders, 1035; stress-strain diagrams for flexural loading, 1084 Flexural Rigidity, C. et A. p. 8, 1687 and ftn. ; determined for plate of

for, 71, 80; Poisson and Cauchy, erroneous theory of, 75 general equations of, Saint- Venant's assumptions, 7779, 190 (d) integration of general equations, 82 4 ; errors of BernoulliEulerian theory, 80, 170, 1349; limited nature of load-system admitted by
; ;

form of disSaint- Venant, ; torted cross-sections, 84, 92 and

total deflecfrontispiece to Part (i) treatment of special cases, tion, 84 85 ; cross- section an ellipse, 87, 90 (i) a circle, 87, 90 (ii) a false ellipse, 60, deflection 88 a rectangle, 62, ; when slide is taken into account, 96 ; distortion of cross-section, 97; of prism
; ; :
:

8081

isotropic material, 1713 Flexural Set: see 1',,-nt Florimond, on brittleness produced in

brass by sudden changes of atmospheric temperature, 1188 see Flow, of ductile solid, 233, 1667 Plan tic it i/
:

936
;

with any cross-section, 98 comparison of Saint-Venant's and the ordinary theory of flexure, 91 elementary proof of formulae, 99 load not in plane of
;
;

symmetry of cross- section, 171; position of neutral line and deviainertial

tion,'
'

Flue, elliptic dealt with by Bresse, 537, 538, by Macalpine, by Winkler, 642 5 formulae for collapse of boiler5 formulae based 980 flue, empirical on Fairbairn's experiments and due to Grashof and Love, 9867 strength 5 see of, deduced from ring, 1554 also Tubes Fluid, nature of stress in, 582 (a) ; elastic analogue to the stretching of,
; ; ;
:

1709, ftn.

171

elastic line,
;

when

flexure

not small, 172 rupture by, and failpoint in case of, 173 of beam of greatest strength, 177 (b); when stretch- and squeeze-moduli are unequal, theory of elementary discussion rupture, 178 of, 179; combined with torsion, 180,
; ;

Fluid Action, as factor of intermolecular force, 424, 429, 431, 1448 Fluidity, hypotheses as to, 1464 coefficient of, with Rankine =X-/x, 424 ; with Kupffer = after-strain or vis;

cosity constant, 734,

7389, 7489

183,

for

circular

section,

1280,

for

section, 1283; approximate methods for flexural slide, 183 (a) ;

elliptic

producing plasticity, 256 Clebsch's treatment 133247, he

:

Bernoulli-Eulerian theory, 1349; Morin's superficial treatment, 881 (a) (6); Eoffiaen's treatment of,
criticises

Spar, double refractive power under compression, 789 (b) ; hardness of, 836 (d), 839 ; elastic constants for, 1212 Fly-wJieel, danger of certain speeds for, 359 and ftn. stress due to spin in, 646; influence of spokes, 647; full

Fluor

925, 1090;

unpublished memoir
;

on,

by Wertheim, 820 Kupffer's first memoir on, 747, his doubtful formulae

theory, Forbes, G., on rupture of glaciers, 1667 ; as poet, 1781 (c) Force, analysis of, as applied to elasticmedium, isorrhopic and rhopimetric

5848

and

in case of loaded rod, 759 (e), criticised corrected, 'Circular' flexure, dealt with by

axes
.

7602

force

455 7; removal of bodyfrom elastic equations, 1653, 1716; Saint-Venant on, 294; Bousfor,
;

Saint-Venant, 11, 170, by Thomson Tait, 1712; flexure of rods or ribs with curved but plane central line by couples, 677 9; initial form

and

sinesq on, 1463 Forcive, circuital, defined, 1810 sion of, in jellies, 1813 4

discus-

bar, which will become straight under flexure, 919; resilience of, 611;
of

rupture under Saint-Venant's theory rup(178) applied to cast-iron, 1053 ture of cast-iron girders, 1031 flexure of girders under not accurately transverse loading, 1036; experimental determination of stretch-modulus by,
;

large than Forcings, original iron, 1128 Fourier, on waves of transverse vibration in infinite plate, 1462, in infinite bar,

much weaker when

1534

Fowke,

and

F., experiments on strength, set elasticity of various woods (1856

67),

11589
;

Fracture, nature
kine, 466 (a)

of, classified

by Ran-

bars under flexure have increased strength if subjected to traction, 918; effect of re;

7289, 128990 wooden

of hard

and
;

soft bodies

peated flexural loading on bars, 992, on railway axles, 998, 1000-3, on

of cannon by Torsion, 810, 1667 under internal pressure, 810, 1055 in brittle and in viscous solids, 1667, 1720 general remarks on, 1720 of
;

1NDKX.
cast-iron, copper, zinc, tin and alloys, (i) p. 707, ftn., 1099, 1100; whether 'crystalline' or 'fibrous' and how

507
steel,
(i)

kinds of iron and

ftn.

p.

736,

be produced, 1143 effect of concentration and distribution of stress in determining nature of see also Rupture, fracture, 1143: Iron Cast, etc. Framework, Menabr^a's principle of

such

may

Funinieri, on statically indeterminate reactions, (i) p. 411, ftn. Fun ion its influence on hardness, 1042
t

minimum work

of

elastic

stresses,

Galopin, on double refraction, 154 Gnlrtini*ation, its influence on strength and ductility of iron wire, 1096 ; does not increase strength of certain ironplates, 1145 (iii) Gaudet, on steel, 897 Gauss, his theorem as to inextensible surface proved by Bonssinesq, 1461 Giiii-I.ussac, on magnetisation produced by vibration, 811 Gehring, on aeolo tropic plates (1860), 1411 5 comparison of his researches with Kirchhoff's, 12923 cited by
; ;

method, 915 (b)\ supernumerary bars, single node loaded and attached to any number of fixed points, 1387 ; case of nodes in bars themselves, 1388 isosceles truss with vt-rtical strut, 1388; experiments of Morin to test stresses in, given by theory, 881 (c) wooden, C. et A. p. 5, 925, 1022: see also Girders, lattice,
Ritter's
;

6046;

etc.

Frankenheim, among first to give valuable results for hardness (1829), 836
(0)

Franz,

/?., on the hardness of minerals and a new process of measuring it

(1850), Fresnel, on artificial double refraction, 793 (iii) ; his researches on light considered by F. Neumann to be starting point of modern elastic theory, 1193 ; Cauchy- Saint- Venant conditions for his wave-surface, 148 9; his laws of double refraction deduced by F. and C. Neumann and by Lame* from io jelly theory of the ether, 1214 6 ; his laws deduced by Boussinesq,

83740

Clebsch, 1375, 14123 Gems, tested by hardness, 836 (c) (it-m-ral Equations of Elasticity: see Elasticity, General Equations of Gi'iii-ralim-il Hooke's Law: see Hooke's Law and Stress-strain Relations of Problems, application Geological
elastic

16645

theory

to,

1577 with 1583,

;

Germain, Sophie, on plate problem, 167 criticised by Kirchhoff, 1234

develop magnetisation. 811
Girders, stress in bars of braced.

Gilbert, vibrations, regular or irregular,

r..~>l,

10046, 1027;

wrought-iron plate,
<

953; economic form

;

:.

:t.vj

ivlutive

theory) 14724, (2nd theory) (3rd theory) 1481, 1483 ; by Sir \V Thomson from cyboid aeolotropy, hi- laws do not follow from 177" hypothesis of aeolotropy of density,
(1st
.

strength of cast- and wrought iron, 954, 1008 Warren, 1012 ; deflections

due to impact, temperature,

etc.,

1013

deduced by Sir W. Thomson (a) from theory of initial stresses, 1789 "/</< 96 see also 11 (nations for, given by
1781
: ;

repeated loading of plate-; theory of braced girders, 1022 form assumed by bracing bars under strain, 1017, 1026, 1028 l<ttt>,-,\ o.inpjirrl with plate, 1017, 1019. _:. 1028 30: see also Bridges, /taint*, Arches, etc.
;
1

Poisaon (1831), Saint- Venant (1843), 17 II Stokes (18 internal of pulverulent matt, 1587, slope of natural talus for various sands and earths, 1588; in sand, 1609: see also n of solids, 1744: see also VIMi

Giiilio.

his

results

for helical

springs

-I.-, i.

cosily
n, rolling,

explained on theory of

elasticity,
.

156

his views as to rays referred to by Kirchhoff, 1311 Frost, influence on absolute strength of

reached by Thomson and Tait, 1698 ', nature of rupture, 1667 Gladstni, l. M. oa -uperiority of malleable to east-iron girders, 1008 Glass, thermal effect of compression, 695; thermoplastic properties of, 752 effect of compression on electroiiHiK'iirtir r.'tut.'i v j... \\i-r of crown and 698; double-refraotiYe power und.r n.iii|.i.-^i.Mi. 7*', uftrr-train
;
;

thrrmU ..f. in p. .Ml. ftn.; .-rushing and tennile strengths of flint, green
in
>it

1148
illinc

id

crown, 855
;

forms of

dii

of cubes of, 856

6; crushing strength ratio of tensile and

-2

508

INDEX.
refraction
criticised,

compressive strengths, etc., in bars and plates of, 850 compressibility of, 1817; slide-, stretch- and dilatationmoduli of, 1817 ratio of kinetic and
;

147,

193,

229,

265, 1473

on

initial

stresses

('extraneous

and stretch-moduli, 1751; resistance of cylinders and globes of, to external and internal
static dilatation-

pressures'), 130, 147; criticised by Sir W. Thomson, 1779, 1782; used by Sir W. Thomson to explain double

pressures, 857 Saint -Venant's Glazebrook, criticises views on light, 147, 150; his Report on Optical Theories, referred to, 1221, 1229, 1274, 1301 ; explains doublerefraction, dispersion, etc., by contractile ether,

97 refraction, 1789 his form of strain-energy,

demon-

1788

Globes

see Spherical Shells

on pulverulent Gobin, experiments masses, 161011, 1623 Gold, thermo- elastic properties of, 752
;

strated by Sir W. Thomson, 1632 ; his strain-energy function deduced by rari-constant theory and Lagrange's on a possible modifiprocess, 229 cation of its form, (i) p. 202, ftn. ; Saint-Venaiit accepts his reduction of 36 to 21 constants, 116 criticism of his deduction of stress-strain relation,
; ;

192

(a)

after-strain

and temperature

in,

756

stretch-modulus of, 772, (i) p. 531, 824 hardness of, (i) p. 592, ftn., 836
;

(&)

Gore, on electro-torsion (1874), 1727 Gough, his results for india-rubber con-

Green's Theorem, (in analysis) used by Kirchhoff, 1312 Greenhill, on elastico-kinetic analogue referred to, 1267 Gun : see Cannon Gun-metal : see Bronze

firmed by Joule, 693 Gough-Effect, in india-rubber, 693, 1638

(iv)

Gouin
(d),

et Cie,

experiments on

rivets,

879

903, 1108; on steel, 897; on iron-plate, parallel and perpendicular to direction of rolling, 1108, 1121,
cited,

1104

Grailich, J., his sklerometer and determination of hardness of Iceland

spar (1854), Granite : see Stone

8424

Gutta Percha, thermal effect in, 689, 692 bursting of tubes of, 1160 Gypsum, optical axes of, (i) p. 472, ftn., change with temperature, 685, 12189 and ftn., 1229 dispersion of its optic axes, 1218 ftn., 1229 acoustical and thermal axes of, 685 hardness of, 685, 836 (d) and (i), 839 behaviour as to and magnetism, 685 electricity stretch-modulus of, 1210 Gyrostatic Medium, used to explain
;
; ; ;
;

Graphical Tables, for strength of materials, 921 and ftn.

Graphite, relation of its elasticity and density to those of diamond, 791 and
ftn.

Gyrostatic Models of Ether, 18067 Gyrostatic Molecule, 1782 (a) Gyrostats, 1785 (b) and ftn. ; in motion

optical phenomena of quartz, 1781, 1782, 1786 ; equations of propagation of disturbances in, 1782 (a), 1785 (a)

used to form an elastic medium, 1784

6

Grashof, criticises Scheffler on struts,

653; on combined strains, 924; on increase of strength of beams due to building-in terminals, 943 4 criticises Scheffler's treatment of this on strength of thread of topic, 944 his empirical formulae screws, 966 for Fairbairn's results for tubes, 986 value to be measured by Gravitation,
etc.,
;
; ;

H., memoirs on continuous beams with

numerical tables (185860), 9468 Hagen, his experiments on stretchmodulus of wood, 152, 198 (e), 308 (a) Haldat, De, sound vibrations have less effect than irregular vibrations on
magnetisation, 811

transverse vibrations of a vertical and

loaded

rod,

742

(b)

attempt

to

explain cohesion by aid of law of, 865, 1650 Gray, F., on Tredgold's formula for castiron cylinders, 962 Green, his theory of light, referred to or criticised, (ii) p. 26, ftn., 1274; his conditions for propagation of 146; his theory of double light,

Hamburger, on longitudinal impact of bars, 203, 210, 214 Hamiltonian Principle, used by Kirchhoff, 1256,

1277
effect

Hammering,
of brass

on stretch-modulus
see also

and

iron, 741 (a):

Working
steel in water reduces, in increases strength, 1145 (i) Hardness, of materials, early history of

Hardening, of
oil

1NDKX.
scales of, for subject, 836 (a) (A-); metals, 830 (b), for minerals, 836 (d); varies with direction, 83(5 (a) and (e) ;

509

Venant rejects kinetic theory of gases, 273; passage of, produces crystalline structure in metals, 1056: see also
i

use of metal and diamond scribers, 836 (/) and (#); varies with speed of scratching or tearing substance (rotating soft-iron discs cut hardened steel, chalcedony, and quartz) 836 (/i); first scientific sklerometer used by Seebeck, 836 (t) problems to be conin sidered testing hardness, 836 (j) definition and analysis of, 837 8; ray-curves for hardness in various 839 laws harddirections, connecting
;

union,

('<h'jii<-i,')it <>/

Heat, Mi'chdiiicnl i-ijiiirnli'nt of, obscure treatment by Besal, 716, by Vogel, 717, by Kupffer, 7245, 7456, 823 Heat, ]l,-l(ition to Elasticity : see Ther-

mal
7/<//.c:

I\tr'>'ct,

M<liilnx, etc.
In'licnl
;

sec

S/irinf/.-i,

principal
/;/<, ';v//V.

helices of win-,
cited,

ir.'.rj

Helm, G., Die Lehre ron der

(i)

ness with planes of cleavage in crystals, 839 40; relation to atomic and molecular properties, 841 ; use of sklerometer, 843 scale of hardness of metals and alloys, 845, 846, (i) p. 707, ftn.; Wade's method of testing by indenta;

on Knpffer's HelmhnJt:, treatment of mechanical equivalent of

heat, (i) p. 501, ftn. generalises Huyyhens' Principle, 1312; on change of density and on stress due to magneti;

p. 501, ftn. von, remarks

2; experiments on casttion, 1040 iron, wrought- iron and bronze, 1042 3 ; relation to density in cast-iron, 1042 3 ; for hardness of various metals and minerals see under their titles
:

Hart, erroneous theory of shrunk-on coils for guns, 1071 (6) Ilniujlittiit. discovers tasinomic quartic, dis136, orthotatic ellipsoid, 137 cussion on his views as to elastic Saint193 his constants by Venant, experiments on impact referred to,
;
;

JIT; cited by Rankiue (as to

Jliittpt.

^ = ^),

//., on resistance of vertical plates in tubular bridges, 1015

iniinjer,

on longitudinal impact

of bars,
//<//"/.
/.'.

J
/.,

scale of hardness (1801),

836

I'/i
-,

1313, 1315, 1316 on strength of stone, 1180 Heppel, J.M.,on Three Moments Theorem with isolated loads (1859), 607; erroneous treatment of web and flanges of iron girders, 1018 Her mite, reports on Saint- Venant' s memoir on transverse impact, 104 llfi-ifcfiel, his explanation of cohesion by gravitating molecules adopted by Seguin and Sir W. Thomson, 865, (i) p. 600, ftn., 1650 on the impact of two solid elastic spheres (1882), 15157, importance of this investigation, 1140, 1684 Hess, on elastico-kinetic analogy, cited, 1267 Heterotatic Axes, 445 Heterotatic Surface, 445, 137 (v) ; has no existence for rari-constancy, U7 <v) Hotliikinaoii. account of his life, 975; GK II. Love on his work, 895; resation',

Jli-nry,

W., on repeated meltings of

searches on strength of cast-iron

lars (1857),

cast-iron, 1101 Hawkshaw, J. t on absolute strength and deflection of cast-iron girders, 1007 .tt.inpted explanation by trauslational vibrations of molecules, 68 ; explanation of its effect in dilating bodies, and the nature of coefficient stretch due to ulatation, thermal vibration. ^;H; thermal effect <! -nvatives of second order on depends

9725

pil-

2H

of
of
I)h.

function

giving

intennolecular
.

Researches' 1095; on the elasticity of stone and crystalline bodies (1853), 1177; his experiments on stretch-modulus referred to, 169 (<); on Emerson' dox, 174 his experiments on beam -srction criticised by ofsti nt 17',. rejected by Moll :ni'i Keauleaux, 875; exp Inwain of strongest cross- s>
;
I

his Experimental translated into French,

;

'

action, 268;

diagram of possible law

179;
for

-am

referred to.

<

i.

Mi.;.

intennolecular a no men a of, accounted

i

experiments on compresHi
liin

by

oritteiMd

by Werthdm,
(jur

TWi

ular translations! vibratioi

tin -01

formula for cast-iron

Bell.
u

accordance

with

npectral
<>f

]>|H-MOIMI-IIU.

T
t

by
(a)

Ill-

Oil

rxp, i:m,-nto

cast-iron

beam
-

(lurtK'n

preHHiire

on Miin>un<lMiK
:

OH 087 graphical and

w,
losults

Saint-

numerical pre*

510
for

INDEX.
compression of wrought- and castliquid

his results for cast-iron pillars, 880 (c) ; on cast-iron pillars, 972 5; on elasticity of stone, 1177; his mass-coefficient of resilience, 1550, ftn.; his empirical formula for longitudinal impact confirmed by Saint- Venant's
iron,

and

H)(4

mass enclosed in thin slu-11, his views on the rupture of

glaciers, 1667 Hoppe, R., on flexure of rods (1857), 593 Houbotte, on deflection, set and rupture

theory, 406
p. 39, ftn.

(1)
(ii)

of plate girders (1856), 1021; testing machine (1855, first hydraulic?), 1153 Hughes, S. on beams and girders (1857
t

Hofmann, necrologue on Kirchhoff,

:

Hollow Prisms, torsion of see Torsion Holtzmann, C., on distribution of stress (1856), 582 Homogeneity, defined by Cauchy, 4 (77)
;

semi-polar distribution of, 4 (77) ; different distributions of, defined, 114 spherical, cylindrical, n-ic distribu;

950 Hugoniot, on impact of elastic bar, 341 Hugneny, F., experimental researches on hardness of bodies (1865), 836; criticises Franz, (i) p. 587, ftu. Hunt, T., on railway springs, 969 (d) Jin liter, J. B., his specimens of Liiders'
8),

tions,

1145

curves, (i)p. 761, ftn., to Part (ii)

and

frontispiece

Huyghens, on grouping

of molecules in

Homotatic Coefficients, 136, 446 Hooke's Laic, Kupffer confirms Hodgkinson that it does not hold for castiron, 729, 759 (d), 767; does not hold for stone and cast iron, 1177; nor for caoutchouc springs, 851, 1161; nor
for elastic fore-strain in organic tissues, 831 2; controversy between Wundt and Volkmann as to form of stress-strain relation for organic tissues,

Iceland spar, 836 (), 1800; on hardness of Iceland spar, 836 (a)

Huyghens Principle, generalised by Helmholtz and demonstrated by Kirchhoff, 1312; form of it used by Clebsch,
1400, 1406 Hydraulic Presses, formulae for strength
of, 9001, 10768 and ftn. Hydrodynamic Analogues to torsion pro-

833

show

5 Hodgkinson's experiments that it holds for stretch-traction

;

in wrought-iron, 793 (i) ; for stretchtraction in cast-iron, the stretch increases more rapidly than the traction, 793 (ii) ; for squeeze-pressure in cast-

blem, 1419 (c), 1430, 1460, 1710 Hydrostatic Arch, 468 Hypothesis of modified action, 276, (i) p. 185, 305, 1773 accepted by Boussinesq, 1447; leads to bi-constant for3448 mulae, Hysteresis, 1735
;

iron, Hodgkinson's experiments not conclusive, 793 (iii) ; is not satisfied for small stretches or squeezes according to Wertheim, 796; receives no support according to Wertheirn from isochronism of sound vibrations, 809 see also Stress-strain relations
:

Ice, strength of,

852

melting

of,

under

pressure, motion of, as a plastic solid,

Hooke's Law, generalised, 4 (f), 169 (d) Morin's experireasons for, 192 (a) ments on, 198 (a) Saint-Venant appeals for proof to rari-constancy, 227 deduction of, 299 ; is reached through a non-seqnitur in case of Cauchy, Maxwell, Lam6 and Neumann, 1194,
; ; ;

1649; rupture of, 1667 Iceland Spar, hardness of, varies with direction, 836 (a), 839, 844; as to whether it obeys relation between constants required by Neumann, 1214, ftn. artificial twinning of, discovered by Baumhauer, theory of, by Sir W.
;

Thomson, 1800
Impact, history of theory of, 165; Poinsot's memoirs on, 591; coefficient of
restitution

Sir W. Thomson, 16356; its relation to elastic-limits, 1742 (a) Hoop, distortion and stress in a heavy circular hoop resting vertically on a

on Newtonian theory, 209,

;

horizontal plane,
lapse
of,

(i)

p. 448, ftn.

col-

when subject

to external pres-

sure, 1554

6; stress in,

when

rotated

round central line, etc., 1697 (6) Hopkins, his formulae for shear proved by Potier, Kleitz, L6vy and SaintVenant, 270, by Boussinesq, 1458, 1604; holds that earth cannot be

847; unsatisfactorily treated in textbooks, 1682 4 calculation of maximum shift and principal vibration due to, in case of any elastic body, 1450 5 Impact of Solid Elastic Spheres, Hertz's theory, area of contact and duration of impact, etc., 1515 7 Impact, Transverse of Plate, 1068; maximum velocity of shot, 1068 maximum velocity of impact, 1538 ; shift of plate, 1545 ; on circular, 1550 (b)
;

INDEX.
t, LnniiHintimil of Cone, by second cone, 223; by massive particle, 15-t-J maximum velocity of impact, 1542 and ftn. duration of impact, 1542; maxil
:

511
of
resilience,
(a)
(b)

coefficient

maximum

strain, etc.,
,

1550

mum

Iinpnrt,
ligible

strain, Lonijitinlinnl on Xtrut, of neg-

mass, which buckles,

407(2),
;

1552 Impact, Lnnfiitndinal of Bar, 202, 203 history of problem, 204 ; Thomson and Tail's, Rankine's proofs of special problems, 205, 1683 ; of bars of same section and material, 207 8 ; comparison of Saint- Venant's results with
on's for spheres, 209; diagrams of compression, etc., pp. 141 2; Voigt ami Hamburger's results disagree with Saint- Venant's 214; 210, theory, Voi^t's "elastic couch, "214; of bars of different cross-section and material,

TruntveneofBar, 63, 104, 200, _>U. :;}_'. 861; first attempt by D. Bernoulli (1770), 474 (/) ; report on Saint- Venant's memoir on, 104 relation of Saint- Venant's researches to those of Cox and Hodgkinson, 1045, 107 ; analytical solutions for vibrations of bar with load attached, when a blow is given, 343354; Cox's hypothesis for transverse impact, 344; transverse beam, struck horizontally, 346 348 ; functions required when beam is not
;

prismatic, 349 ; beam doubly-built-in, 350; cantilever receiving blow at free terminal, 351; non-central blow on doubly beam, 352; case of

duration and termination loss of kinetic energy, 217 Haughton's experiments, 217; elementary proof of results, 218; of two bars, one very short or very of two bars in the form of stiff, 221 of bars of cone or pyramid, 223 different matter, one free and the other with one terminal fixed, 295; solution for case of impelling bar being very short or rigid, 296 solution in series corresponding to that of Navier and Poncelet, 296 ; solution in finite terms, 297; of elastic bar, by

211

213

of impact, 216
;

-supported impulse at both ends, with 353; impulse at one end, 355; a load at its mid-point and carrying load receiving blow, 355 6 ; numerical solutions for, case of doubly supported bar centrally struck, 362 representation by plaster model, 361; nature of deflection-curves, 362; deflections tabulated, 363; maximum stretch, 363 Young's theorem nearly satisfied, 363 (cf. Vol. i. p. 895); Saint-Venant's remarks on the directions required in future experimental research, 364; vertical impulse on horizontal beam, 365; hypothesis of
free bar with
; ;

Cox

compared

with

theory

which

rigid
;

history of body, 339341 problem, 340 1; Young's Theorems, 340 contributions of Navier, Poncelet,
;

includes

Saint- Venant, Sebert, Hugoniot

and

Boussinesq to problem, 341; graphical

representation of, by Saint-Veuant jui'l miant, 401 407; Boussinesq's solution of the problem, tnl, ir,i7_50; duration of blow, in:'. shifts at various retches at various joint- ut'i points of bar, 405; maximum shifts and squeezes, 406; repeated impact, 407(1); tendency of impelled bar to lo, 407 (2); curves giving laws of, 4113; comparison of graphical and analytical results, 412; Young's theo1
1
:

true for vibrations, 366; deflections, not for curvature, 366, 371 (iii) mass-coefficient of resilience y determined for a variety of impulses to bar, 367 8; general value of -y, 368; general value of deflection in terms of 7, 368 approximate value of period of impulsive vibration, 369 ; beam projecting over points of support mi. I struck at centre, 370(6); "solid of equal resistance" for central impact on beam, 370 (); maximum stretch
; ;

as deduced by Cox's method ii its true value for several cases, 371
stretch due to impact of smiili with great velocity,
k-iving

(iii)

rem for, 1068; F. Neumann's investigation of longitudinal impact of two bars, priority of publication belongs to Saint- Venant, 12245; Thomson and Tait on, 16H3 ; infinitely long in one direction, 1641; Boussinenq'n
>e,

laws

of,

measurement

41011, 4184; graof maximum

of bar, 418 ; Bouttineaq on Saint- Venant's solution, 1646; Flanmnt on Bousoinesq's solution, 414; .oftded, 1689-40; wife

stretch,

maximum
tic

strain,

energy,

1549: non-impelled end

fixed,

num.

1546; maximum vel<>< impact, 1537 ; duration of impact needful to ensure injury, 1091; obscure treatment of problem by Lcmoyne, 966

512
,

INDEX.
Tranxrerte on Xntpension Hridae,
Iron
/>'<>//*,

effects

of case-hardening,

883
Impulse, (rradnnl: see Impact and Resilience

Impulsive Deflection, formula for, e.g. in case of carriage springs, 371 (ii) ; in case of circular plate, 1550 (c) see in general Impact Impulsive Loading, of bars and axles,
:

cooling, etc., 1145 (iii) Iron Cables, strength of links of, 879 (f), 1132; attempt to take account of traction of manufacture, 897 Iron, Cast, thermal effect of stress, 689, 692, 695, 752, 756; coefficient of ther-

mal expansion. 1111;

hardness
(i)

set

produced by
after-strain

9911003
Incompressible Elastic Solid, equations for, 1215, 1652; withcyboid aeolotropy, 1775; conditions for in terms of thlipsinomic coefficients, 1779, of tasinomic
coefficients,

repeated heating, 1186; and temperature, 756

of,

p. 707, ftn.,

10423

(i)

p.

592, ftn., 846,

1779

stretch-modulus and density of, (i) p. 531; variation of stretch -modulus with specimen and manner of its load-

India, iron made in, tensile, transverse and crushing strengths of, 1120 India Itubber, vulcanised, heated by loading, 689; therrno-elastic properties of, 693, 1638 (iv) see also Caoutchouc
:

modulus

ing, 1110; difference between stretchat core and periphery of bar, experimental values, 1111 ; inequality of stretch- and squeeze-moduli, 971

Hooke's
759 895
(d),

Law does not hold for, 729, 767; stress-strain relation for,
Bell's

Inertia,

Moments

of,

for

trapezia

and

triangles, 103 Initial Stress: see Stress, Initial

Intcnnolecular Action, as function of intermolecular distance, 169 (a) ; diagram of possible law of, (i) p. 179 Newton treated it as central, 269 sums of,
;

proposed law of stressstress-strain curves for traction in, 879 (a), for flexure, 1084 5; elastic limits for in tension and compression, 875, 951 ; state of ease 6 torsional set of, 1039 (c) for, 895 relation of chemical to physical
6
;

strain, 1118;

difficulty in dealing with, Poisson and Navier's errors, 228 ; hypothesis of modified action and influence of aspect

on, 276; Boscovichian theory does not admit of aspect, but does of modified action, (i) p. 185 change of sign in, 276 ; modified action leads to multi-constancy, (i) p. 185 Newton and Clausius consider it a function influence of only of distance, 300 aspect on, 302-306; argument against modified action from small influence of astral on terrestrial molecules, 305 forms for law of, suggested by Berthot and Saint-Venant, 408, Weyrauch on law of, C. et A. p. 1 law of force for liquid molecules, 863; molecular theory of Seguin, 865; molecular law of Bancalari, 866 molecular theory of molecular law of Cornelius, 868; on 870 1 ; Bouch6, Boussinesq action between molecules, 14478, 1463: see also Molecules, Atomic Con; ;

constitution, 1045, 1047 (c) molecular constitution peculiar to shape of casting, planes of weakness, 1057 strength of, ratio of tensile and
;

compressive strengths, 176; absolute

or tensile strength, 899, (i) p. 707, 1039 (a), 1105, 1122, 1166, not increased by mixture of nickel, 1165 ; difference between values at periphery and core of specimen, 1111, crushing or compressive strength,
ftn.;

1039 (e), 1100; rupture by compression. 169 (c) ; transverse strength of, agrees with tensile strength for large but not for small specimens, 1117 (iv), value of, 1039 (6), 1105; torsional strength of, 1039 (c), when skin change of elasticity is included, 186; of bars of
different cross- section, circular, hollow, etc., 1039 (d) relation of crushing and tensile strengths, 1039 (e), of tensile,

stitution of Bodies, Constants, etc. Iron, difference between various kinds due to nature of crystallisation, (i) p. 736, ftn. ratio of kinetic and static dilatation- and stretch-moduli (? wire),
,

transverse, crushing and torsional strengths, 1043, 1049, 10513, 1086; influence of casting, mode of preparation, etc. on strength, effect of hot and cold blasts, remeltings, maintaining in fusion, casting under a head, etc. on
tenacity, 891 (a), 1038 (a)
(a),
(c),

1039

thermal effect on slide-modulus use of for (? wire), 1753 (b); general floors, girders, roofs, ships, etc., 891 (/),
1751
;

1049,

10589;

transverse

and

907911

tensile strengths, how affected by slow or rapid cooling, 1038 (b), by pressure during casting, 1038 (d), influence of

INDEX.
mode of casting and head on strength, 104950, 1060, (i) p. 707, ftn. effect
;

513
ed by
tort,

810; influence of torsion

on magnetisation, 812
Iron Stays, strength of, 908 Iron Wire, thermal effect of stress, 689 ; effect of annealing, 1131 ; not rendered brittle by cold, 697 (c) thermo-electric
;

of remeltings on transverse strength ultimate deflections, 1097 99, 1101 strength of 'toughened 'cast- iron girders, 1105; comparative strength of various kinds of cast-iron (sets, loads and deflections), 10'.3 nature of fracture of, (i) p. 707, ftn., 103'.) (), of

and

small blocks, 321

(/

properties in relation to strain, It.j-j 6; conductivity under strain, 1647; stretch-squeeze ratio (17) for, 1201 (a) ; effect of tort on moduli of, 1755;

arches, elliptic of, loll

stretch-modulus
velocity of
ture, 897

of,

(i)

comparative strength of various cross-sectious, 927, 936; experiments on, 937 of strongest cross of,
;

beams

sound

in,

p. 531, 824; 7*5; attempt to

take account of traction of manufac-

section, 176, 875, 927, 951, 101(5, liu:i, 1031 ; Barlow's attempt to explain ' ' paradox as to inequality of tensile and transverse strengths, 930 8 ; of circular cross-section relatively stron-

ger than square, 1038 (/>) experiments on beams of triangular cross-section, '.'Tl experiments on rupture of, 1024 columns of, 973 4 girders of, comparative strength of cast- and wrought-iron, 954, of j_ and sections 10078, 1031 of toughen.-t-iron, 1105: see also (;inl<r*
;
:

strength of, 902, 1033, (i) p. 753, of galvanisation on, 1096, effect of annealing on, 1131, effect of long-continued electric current on, 1187, effect of long-continued stress, 1754 magnetisation, effect of in producing strain, 688; effect of stretching on magnetic properties, 705; effect of pull
ftn., effect
,

on magnetisation

of, 1727 8; Villari critical field for soft iron-wire, 1730 1, 1736; effect of temperature on Villari

and Beam*
ordnance, 891
pipes
of,
(d),

1037, etc.:

see
for-

Morin and Love's

1731 effect of torsion on loaded jiml magnetised iron wire, 1735;relation of magnetisation and torsional elastic strain and set, 708, 714, specification of direction of induced current by twist when wire is under
field,
;

8126;

mulae

for strength of, 900; rings of,

bursting by wedging, 1044 Iron, Meteoric, very ductile, 1165

of,

Iron.

longitudinal magnetising force, 1737 \\'mn ilit, thermal effect of stress,

:

wretch-modulus and density with and across fibre, (i) p. 531;

strength of, 87l (c) <rf), 902, 1066; resistance to punching, traction, shearing, crushing, 1104; experiments on strength of, 1106; parallel and perpendicular to rolling, 879 (<*), 902, 11267; absolute strength and ton with and across direction of

thernao-elastic properties of, 752, 756 after-strain and temperature, 756 ; effect of annealing, 879 (/) ; effect of frost, 1148; effect of heat and working in determining elastic axes,
i><_'. i.'.<>
;

1065 hardness of, (i) p. 592, ftn., 836 (&), 846 stretch-modulus of, how influenced

by hammering and
value
of

rolling, 7
.1,

ng, 1141; strength when impulsively wedged asunder. 11' 1127. of riveted iron-plates, II 21,
:

681; generally obeys elastic theory, 1117; Liiders' stress curves for, 11;0 and
p.
(ii); stress-strain stress-strain relafor, 793, 896; elastic limit of, 951 ; safe tractions for, 176 molecular state of, how affected by
.

when

roll.

r.i

effect

wrought,

of temperature on un1097, 11J7; how affected

frontispiece to Part
for,

879

(a),

to rolling parallel and perpendicular by change of temperature, ill. 1196 7 pipes and water reuervoirs of, 904
;

ti ..ii

nlere of, 958: * strength of, 879

. l
1 i

(d),

1100

changed by temperature, 1116; proper thickness for, Imn .svr.i/i. vagueneHH of term, 1141 Iron Sheet, anomalous action under tor*
.'.107

repeated loads, 864, 8, by repeated gradual or impulsive torsions, 994 4, 1186 ; in state of confused crystallisa:f forged in large masses, 1066;
lil.n.tis
itii.l

i-rvstiilliiir

st.-itr* -I.

st.l.

.'67;
.

fracture whether

1!

hl>ruir or 'crystalline' depends on 1148; effect of sodden load. Ill-

514
it

INDEX.
Joule, J. P., effects of magnetism on dimensions of iron and steel bars (1846), 688, cited 1321, 1727; on the thermo-electricity of ferruginous metals and on thermal effects of stretching bodies (1857), 689; on thermal effects of longitudinal compression
(1857), 690; on thermo-dynamic proon perties of solids (1859), testing steam boilers (1861), 697 (a) ; after-strain and thermal effects in silk

less liable to 'crystallise,' 1189; molecular constitution of, 1065, (i) molecular arrangement p. 736, ftn. rather than metallurgical constitution affects strength and elasticity, 1129 how weakened when converted into massive forgings, 1128; nature of fracture, (i) p. 707, ftn., 902, 1140, 1143 strength of, tensile, 902, 966, 1105, 1113, 1133, 113940, of bar, angle and plate with and across fibre,' 1150, increased by straining up to rupture, 1125, effect of processes of preparation and working on tenacity, 891 (&) and strength when prepared by Besse(d) mer process, 1114 influence of size,
; ;
'

6916;

and spider filaments (1869), 697 action of cold in rendering iron

steel brittle (1871),

(6)

and

697

(c)

Jouravski, his approximate method of

skin,

forging

on absolute strength,

1141;
tensile,
(c),

compressive strength equal to

1118; torsional strength, 1039 1113; transverse strength, 1105

due to flexure of beams (1856), 939, 183 (a) ; on vibrations in and plate girders, 1034 Journals, strength of, for railway axles,
treating slide
lattice

959
Jnnye, on strength of "split" beams
(1855), 928

stricture of, 902,

113940, when

prepared by Bessemer process, 1114; magnetisation, longitudinal how effected by transverse force, 1733 Axles of, under repeated loading, 10003 see Axles Beams of, P. Barlow's experiments see Beams on, 937 (c) Columns of, formulae for, 978
: :
:

Kant, Saint- Venant's criticism of his antimony, (i) p. 187, ftii.

see

Columns

Girders of, tubular, 1007, proper proportions of web and flanges, 1016, 1018, 1023: see Girders
Pipes, bursting of, 983 Iron Commissioners' Report, 344, 371 (i), translated into French, 1094 Isochronism, of spiral watch-springs, theory and experiment, 676 Isostatic Cylinders (= conjugate functions), 1562 Isotropy, defined, 4 (77) ; its rarity, 4 (i),

115; very doubtful, wires, 1271, 1273

if

it

exists

in

Jackson, on

steel,

897

Jee, A. S., on deflection and set of cast-iron girders, 1007 Jelly, 1749; equations of motion and equilibrium of, and their solution,

1810; strain-energy for, 1812; comparison of equations with those of viscous fluid and ideal ether, 180912 Johnson, R. t on hardness of metals and
alloys (1860), 845 Johnson, W. R., on strength, etc., of stone (1851), 1175 Joint, equable elastic rotating, 1697 (a) Jones, J., table of pressures necessary for punching plate-iron (1853), 1103; empirical formulae for his results, 1104

Karmarsch, on absolute strength of metal wires (1859), 1131 Kaumann, experiments on flexure of railway axles under static load, 990 Kelvin, Lord: see Thomson, Sir W. Kendall, T., on Barnes' discovery that steel may be cut by rotating disc, 836 (h) Kennedy, A. B. W., experiments on rupture by pressure, (i) p. 215, ftn. Kenngott, A., on relation between atomic weight and hardness (1852), 841 Kerr, his results for normal reflection of polarised light from magnetic pole deduced from Sir W. Thomson's theory, 1782 (c) Ketteler, adopts F. Neumann's view of dispersion, 1221 Kinematics, elastic deformations treated kinematically, 294 Kinetic Energy, loss of by impact, 209, 217, 1517, 1684 Kinks, in twisted and bent wire, 1670 KirchhoJ}', his memoirs on elasticity, 1231 accounts of his life, (ii) p. 39, ftn.; on the equilibrium and motion of thin
;

elastic

plates

(184850), 123243;

elastic equations when the shifts are not indefinitely small (1852),

on the
1244

motion

on the equilibrium and an indefinitely thin rod on the stretch(1858), 125170; squeeze ratio of rods of hard steel (1859), 12713; on the reflection and
50;
of

refraction of light at the surface of

1NDKX.
dline media, 1274; Lectures on Mechanics Physics, (18740), 12751300, Optics (1891), l.'ii 1; ou the transverse vibrations of a rod of variable cross-section (1879), 13027; on the theory of the luminous point (1881), 130810; on the theory of rays of light (1882), 1311 2; on the strain of an elastic solid

.-,

fundamental equations of
(1857), 5

ela>ticitv

mathematical

Kopytotrgki, on the internal stresses in

when magnetised

(1884),

1313

8;

applications of the results of preceding paper (1884), 131921 Refere tic eg to: adopts a suggestion of Saint-Venant's, 11; on problem of plate, 167 ; on contour conditions for thin plate, 394 ; as to flexure of rods, 198; his assumptions in dealing with flexure, 316; comparison of his researches on rods and plates with those of Thomson and Tait, 1691, with those of Clebsch: see h ; his method of combined torsion and flexure to determine the
stretch-squeeze ratio, 1201 (<), 1272; discussion on his views as to elastic

constants by Saint-Venant, 193, 196 KirrhhnjT'* Principle, for elastic bodies of which one or more dimensions are indefinitely small, Kirchhoff's proof,
-

a freely supported beam under rolling load (1865), 55560; follows Rankine, 465 (6) Korteweg, on strain in a spherical condenser of glass, 1318 Krnt't. on the strength of earthenware pipes (1859), 1172 Kramf, on plate iron (1859), 1127 Krupp, strength of his cast steel (1855), 1113 Kriitarh, uses metal needles to test hardness (1820), 836 (/) Kundt, his results for transmission of polarised light through thin magnetised iron-sheets not explained by Sir W. Thomson's theory of translucent metallic films, 1782 (c) Kupffer, A. T. his annual report of the St Petersburg physical observatory (185064), 72344 on the mechanical equivalent of heat (1852), 7456; investigations on the flexure of metallic rods (1854), 747 ; on the influence of heat on the elasticity of metals (1854), 747, (1857), 74857; his 'Experimental Researches on the Elasti,

proof and general remarks, -9; not noted by Thomson

:

city of Metals,' Vol. i. (1860), 75872; raum6 of his various memoirs, 773;

and

Tait.

A'/rAvi /////, I)., his

experiments on comparative strength of steel and wroughtiron

death (1865), 722; his theoretical treatment of transverse vibrations criticised by Zoppritz, 77484 ; obscurity of his terminology, 723 (<i) his theory corrected and his results in part recalculated by Zoppritz, 77484; referred to, 1746, 1748, 1753 Kur:, A., edits Clebsch's posthumous
;

(1860), 113751; his experiments on fracture, 1667 KlntKi, elastic constants of fluor-spar,
1-jii',

1780

Klosf, comparison of straight and circular cantilevers, 926 ; strength of castimn beams of different cross-sections,
Kiiiuht, on strength of stone, Knntl, on theory of latt
KiKitt,

pamphlet on

optics, 1391

1183
<

on torsion and

s 1027 magnetisation,

L7S7
for

mek, /'.. his formulae and results thermal effect on elastic moduli

Laboratory, importance of national physical, 759 (&), 1137 and ftn. Lnyrumji', on elastic rods of doublecurvature, 155; his method of passing from isolated particles to continuous bodies adopted by Menabrea, 660 Laitnle, /'. on bridge- construction (1867,
,

compared with those of Kupff< 4; on thermal effect on slide-modulus of iron, copper, brass, 1763 (6); his experiments on stretch-squeeze red to, 12o
i

1870),

8879

/..i!,mnf t on graphical tables, 921, ftn. I^amarle, A'., note on increase of 8t resulting from buililiiiK'-in ti-rniin.-iU of simple and continuous beams (1866),

i,

It.,

strain in silk
p. 514,
ftn.

on afterand glans threads, (i)

experiments

6717

Lamb, H., on boundary conditions

holm, experiments on impulsive and

repeated

tomional
//..

loadings
trrnti:

(1861),

of thin sheik. 1234; on time of o tion of a solid steel globe of HIM of earth, undergoing ellipsoidal deformation,

1669

Koo$fn.

./.

..Wiirr

reports on Saint- Venant's torsion

516
;

IXDKX.
theory, 1613 ; establishes general bodystress equations of plasticity, 243, 245, 250; his general equations of plasticity corrected by Saint- Venant, 263 4, his method of finding deflection of circular plate anyhow loaded, 336 his assumptions in theory of thin
;

memoir, 1 gives expression for slide in uses doubtful any direction, 4 (5) limit of safety, 5 (c) reports on SaintTenant's memoir on transverse impact, 104; Saint- Venant on his results
;

on propagation of
;

for cylindrical boiler, 125; his views light cited, 146,

121620, 1274 Saint- Venant's views on his theory of light, 265 criticism of his deduction of stress-strain rehis definition of lations, 192 (a); -t icss, 225; his contributions to curvilinear coordinates, 544 his views as to vibrations, 546 ; his contributions to figure of earth, 562 8; his error as to 'direct' potential, 1487 (a) Lame's Problem, investigated by Sir W.
; ;

thin plates (1877) and controversy with Boussinesq as to 'local perturbations and contour conditions,' 394, 1441; his views on thin plates criticised by Saint- Venant and Boussinesq, 394, 397 his treatment of local perturbations discussed, 1522 4; his controversy with Boussinesq as to collapse of belts subjected to external pressure,
;

plates, 385

his

memoir on

Thomson, 1651

Lame and

Clapeyron, their condition for rupture, 166; insufficiency of their

1556 L6vy-Lambert, abac for Phillips' spring

formulae, 921, ftn. Liebisch, Th., his treatise on physical crystallography cited, 1800, ftn. Light, relation to elasticity, 101 propagation of, when ether has initial stresses, 1456; theory of, Saint- Venant's discussion of views of Cauchy, Green,
;

solution of infinite elastic solid, bounded by plane subjected to load, 1487; their solution for infinite plane plate

reached by Sir W. Thomson, 1660 Lan<i, }'. con, determination of constants which occur in solution of equation
for transverse vibrations of rods (1858
9),

Briot, Sarrau,

614, 616
</.,

265;
lattice

Lam6 and Boussinesq, Rankine's theory of molecular

Lunger,

on wooden and iron

girders, 1022

Larmor, J., on flaws in torsion bars, 1348 ( f ) ; on gyrostatically loaded media, '1782
Latticed Girders : see Girders Lauyel, A., on the cleavage of rocks,

850
Lavalley, on steel, 897; on iron plate,
" " Laves, introduces split der (1859), 928

vortices applied to polarised light, 440, his oscillatory theory of, 441 ; luminiferons ether requires for its refractive action fewer constants than those of crystalline elastic medium, 452; Fresnel's equations deduced by Menabrea, 551 (b) ; reflection and refraction for in crystalline media, 594, 1274; historical treatment of elastic
jelly

902

beam
and

or gir-

F.

Laws of Motion, how

p. 185, ftn.,

far legitimately
ftn.,
(i)

applicable to atoms, 276

305
;

theory, 1213; Cauchy 's views, Neumann's views (Fresnel's laws with different plane of polarisation), 1214; C. Neumann's incompressible ether, 1215 F. Neumann's researches, 1229 (a)(e) Kirchhoff, F. Neumann,
; ;

Lead, thermal effect of stretching, 692, 695 thermo-elastic properties of, 752 hardness of, (i) p. 592, ftn., 846, 836 (6); thermo-electric properties under strain, 1645 6; ratio of kinetic and static stretch-moduli, 1751 ; rupture surface bursting of pipes of, 983 of, 1667 Lefort, report by Saint- Venant, Tresca and Besal upon a memoir by, 266 Lemoytie, obscure theory of transverse impact, 965 Le Roux, on thermal phenomena accompanying vibrations (1860), 827 Irfvy, M., pupil of Saint- Venant, 416 on stability of loose earth, 242 form of equilibrium of pulverulent mass studied by him, 1590; defect of his
;

and MacCullagh on
;

reflection

and

re-

Kirchhoff' s elastic 1274 fraction, theory of, 1301; source of, in elastic ether, 130810; Clebsch on circularly-polarising media, 1324; Clebsch starts really from a rari-constant basis, 1391 Boussinesq's theory of luminiferous waves, 1449; he retains second shift-fluxions, 1465 he supposes aeolotropy produced by initial stresses in isotropic medium, 1467 discussion of wave-motion, quasi -trans verse and quasi-longitudinal waves, FresnePs wave surface, etc., 1468 71; assumptions made in Boussinesq's final elastic theory, 1478 80 general remarks on, 1484 Boussinesq and Sarrau's equa;
;

INDEX.
for
\\ii\r-

517
on
statically indeterminate re(i)

in

double-refractivo

medium, obtained for deformed isotropic medium, 1559; on waves in aeolotropic medium, 1764, 1773, when
incompressible,
Sir

1774

5,

W. Thomson on

luminous waves, 1765

see
etc.
Liiitextmii:

1776 (a), theory of 83, passim:

J-.ther,

p. 411, ftn. Lonrel, graphic tables of resistance of iron bars, 921, ftn. Lore, G. //., his Treatise on strength of Iron and Steel and their use in Construction (1859), H94 905; reduces

actions,

also Refraction,

Double,

elasticity

lintnt'wn of

Plane of pnlnri*ed
5

liaht,

894

st-t>

Limits,

pulverulent and plastic, nature of, 15689, 15857, 15935, 1720: see also A7*/xfiV Limit*. Failure.
elastic-,
'

to an empirical science, on strength of pillars of steel (1861), 978; his account of Hodgkinson, 975; his empirical formulae for Fairbairn's experiments on flues, 987

Love, A. E.
(i)

II.,
;

his treatment of flexure,

p. ix., ftn.

on boundary conditions

Fail -Point. Strength, etc. Pressure, in arches, 518, 1009 Link-Poly.ion, defined, (i) p. 354, ftn.; used in theory of arches, 518 Link.*: see Chains, Links of erroneous theory of vibrations t, of light loaded rod, 774 lit, J., on transverse vibrations of bars (1858), 825 (rf) on the optical study of vibrations (1857), 826 Littmnnn, his experiments on stretchsqueeze ratio referred to, 1201 (e)
!

for thin shells, 1234

shells,

1296
;

bis-,

on thin elastic on Kirchhoff's as;

sumptions in theory of plates, (ii) p. 86, ftn. his Treatise on Mathematical Theory of Elasticity referred to, 1764 LHtlri-x, jr., first drew attention to network of curved lines on surface of LUder.^ bar-iron, cast-steel and tin,
curves
in wrought-iron I-sectional beams, 1190; in round holes punched

Load :

"L/oydV
and

see Rolling-Load experiments on iron plates

11:',:.

in steel plates, etc., (i) p. 761, ftn. and (ii), frontispiece Litminouti Point, in elastic ether, theory of, 130810 types of motion started
;

rivettin^'.

by,

17689

Load, equivalent statical systems of, produce same elastic strains, 8, 9, 21, 100 ;
this "principle of elastic equivalence of statically re pi ip<> 11 ent loads "applied to plates, 1354, 1440, 1522-4, 1714; principle stated and demonstrated for body-forces, effect of equal and opposite forces and of couple, 1521 effect of local load in producing stress in
;

I.inule, J. G.,

experiments on cast-iron girders of Hodgkinson's section, 1031

MacConnell, on hollow railway axles

(1853),
to,
.Vi

9889

M,i<-( 'nil, i<ih,

his theory of light referred

1274
ne.

extended elastic
effect

solid,

1487

(c);

sudden,
:

on iron and fro/en

iron, 1148;

repeated, how affecting materials, 364 see also Fatiiim-. dirdfr,Axle, Torsion, distribution of, over base of a prism not adhering to a surface, 516; measured by a scale of
colours, 794 Loadpoint, 515 6 Load- System*, classified, ..f th. bracing Lotue, on the bucklin bars of latticed gird.-, 1019 Lommel, adopts F. Neumann's view of
l

on aeolotropic electric reproduced by aeolotropic strain, 1740; experiments on steel pianoforte wire under combined tractive and torsional stress, 17 as to effect of permanent molecular change on elastic moduli, 1753
/ -',11-1,1

sistance

Mnelit itrin's Theorem, doubtful use of in elastic theory, 16368, 1744, ftn.: see
VSjfSMffell

Macleod and Clarke, on alteration of

stretch-modulus of tuning-foil temperature, 1753 (b) Atacvicar, J. G., metaphysical views on atomic theory (1860), 872
purity of iron, 1189

dispersion, r_''Jl Lonffridge, J. A., on the construction of 81 Inry (1860), 1076 Loomis, his experiments on li squeeze ratio referred to, 1201 experiment* on influence of temperature on xlide- modulus, 1768 (6) Lorbrr red to,
i

Magnetisation,

Reltit

-rut

on

historical notices, impulsive stress and magnetisation,

:<>!,

ftn..
p.

Sooresby, bonding
:.r,l. ftn.'.

and

tw.HtiiiK'.

H,,l,-n. I'.mvll

DoHaldnt, Beoquerel,
Mattered,
etc..

518

INDEX.
ment
of aeolotropic inductive susceptby stresses other than pure

fluence of torsional elastic and set strain

on temporary and

nuinent magnetisation, 814 6; \\Vrthrim does not recognise 'critical twist,' 818; he falls back on a theory of ether vibrations to explain magnetic phenomena, 817 no sensible results in case of torsion applied to diamagnetic bodies, 814
jn'i
;

ibility

compression, 1734; diamagnetic power of bismuth increased by compression, 700 magnetic rotation of plane of
polarisation in flint and crown glass affected by compression, no sensible rotation in slightly compressed crown glass, 698 rotatory effect on plane of polarisation is influenced and can be
;

(xii); effect

of long repeated torsions

on magnetic properties of wrought-iron axles, 994; influence of torsion on electro-magnetism, 7014, on magnetisation, 703; Matteucci's "bundle of
fibres" theory to account for magnetic effect of torsion, 701, 704; influence

annulled by mechanical

H Kirchhoff's

stress,

797

theory of strain pro-

of torsion on magnetisation of steel bars, 712; influence of magnetisation on torsion of iron and steel wires, 713 4 comparison of magnetic and torsional phenomena, 714 (13) (16); effect of temperature on magnetisa;

duced by magnetisation, 1313 21; he assumes the coefficient of induced magnetisation constant and neglects square of strain, doubtful character of his results, 1314, 1321 ; strain in isotropic iron sphere due to uniform
magnetisation,

131920;

neglect of

714 (17) -(19); Wiedemann's mechanical theory of magnetisation, 715 twisting of iron-wire, when magnetised in a direction inclined to axis, explanation of Maxwell, reversal observed by Bidwell, 1727; soft-iron wire subjected to longitudinal traction and then twisted under earth's vertical
tion,
;

terms connecting intensity of magnetisation with strain, 1321 Magnetism, elastic analogue to magnetic force, 1627, 1630, 18135; analogues
to

electro-magnetic

force

and

to

magnetic component,
netisation,
;

effect

on mag-

1735; effect of twist on loaded and magnetised nickel wires, 1735 production by torsion of longitudinal magnetisation in wire magnetised by axial current, 1735; on induced longitudinal direction of current in iron and nickel wires by
twist
force,

under
1737

longitudinal

magnetic
to
effects

Joule's experiments as

magnetic potential in strained jelly, 1813 4 ; failure of analogue in the conditions at interface of two jellies and of two substances of different magnetic permeabilities, 1815 Magnus, on thermo-electric currents produced by strain, 1645 (iv) Mahistre, on stress produced by rotation of wheels (1857), 590; erroneous theory of stress produced by rapidly moving load (1857), 963 Mainardi, on equilibrium of strings (1856), 580 Malfatti, on statically indeterminate reactions, (i) p. 411, ftn. Malleable, denned, 466 (vi) Mallet, on deflection of girders due to rapidly moving load, 964 ; on physical conditions involved in the construction of artillery (1855), 105472; on resilience and influence of size of

of magnetisation on dimensions of iron and steel bars, free and under tension, 688; no magnetic influence on copper wires, 688; influence of tension on magnetisation, 705; influ-

ence of longitudinal load on induced and residual magnetisation of iron and steel wires, 1728; statement of
Sir

casting, 1128
ties of ftn.

9; reports

on proper(i)

W. Thomson's

results

for

steel

metals (183843),

p. 707,

pianoforte wire and consideration of how they must be limited in light of

Villari critical field, 17289; Villari critical field for soft-iron, 17301;

Mallock, his experiments on stretchsqueeze ratio referred to, 1201 (e) Manger, J., on strength of cements
(1859), 1170 Manometer, tested by teinometer, 797

influence

of

temperature, 1731

effect of longitudinal pull

on magnet-

isation of cobalt and nickel, Villari critical field for cobalt, 1736, as to this field for nickel (?), 1736; effects of transverse stress on longitudinal magnetisation of iron, 1733; develop-

Mantion, theoretical study of a canal bridge (1860), 1034 Marble : see Stone Marcoux, on axles, (i) p. 610, ftn.

INMKX.
Mit raj, experiments on strength, elastic limit and stretch-modulus of wood
(1855), 1157 his history of
,

519

M ft ids,

on theory of arches, 1009 generally amorphic and thus have ellipsoidal elasticity, 144 drawn
;

mathematics, 162
safety,

and
5
(c)

ftn.

Mariotte,
V,

on stretch limit of

or rolled, elastic constants for, 282; stress formulae and elastic constants for, 314; tables of their elastic constants, 469, 752, 754, 756, 773, 17512;

apparatus for recording deflec-

M of bridges (1859), 1032 Masson, on correlation of physical pro4 perties of bodies (1858), 823 Mat hi a. pupil of Saint- Venant's, 416; his discussion of potential of second kind, 235 Matter, cannot be continuous, 278 Mtittein-<-i. on rotation of plane of polarised light under magnetic influence, and on diamagnetic phenomena (1850), 6989; on the influence of heat and compression on diamagnetic phenoI-

hardness of, Musschenbrock's order, 836 (c), Calvert and Johnson's, (i) p. 592, ftn., Clarinval's, 846; how thermoelectric properties are influenced by

16427: for general discussion of their elastic, thermo-elastic and other physical properties, see Iron,
strain,

Copper, Brass, etc.

by Rankinc and Saint-Venant, 137 (vi), 446 Meyer, O. E. edits F. Neumann's Lectures on Elasticity, 1192; on modern researches upon the elasticity of crysMi'tntntic Axes, treatment
,

mena

(1853),

700;

on the
;

electro-

torsion (1858), 7015 letter to Arago on relation of torsion to magnetisation (1847), 812 cited on relation of torsion
;

magnetic

phenomena developed by

tals, 1212 Mica, stretch-modulus of, 1210 Mir helot, on strength of stone, 1179

Milit:er,

repeated

to magnetisation, 1729, 1734, 1737 discussion by Saint- Venant of /, his views as to elastic constants, 193, 196; his statements as to bi-constant isotropy objected to by Wertheim, 797 (c) ; his views on stress-strain relations referred to, 227; cited as to lines of flow, 1564 ; as to relation of stress and

of long-continued and loading on electrical and magnetic properties of wrought- iron

effect
If. J., edits Rankine's papers, 418; Kankine's Manual of Applied Mechanics, 464 it'in u, on cast- and wrought-iron gird-

Millar,

magnetisation, 1727, 1734 toil Equiral-nt of Heat:

Mi-rlinnicdl Representation of
/.,

ers, 954 Mitsi-herlich, on strain in calcspar to change of temperature, 1197;

due on

see

Magnetic

change of optic axes in bi-axal crystal with change of temperature, 1218 Models, in relief for torsion, (i) p. 2, 60 for transverse impact of bars, 105, 361
;
;

on absolute strength of

and steel (1858). lliM Membrane, equation for transverse shift K); F. Neumann's treatment of,
iron

for vibrating string, 111; of elastic structures, law of relation between shifts and strains for large and small, 1718 (a); B omson's, of ft 21-

KirchhofTs treatment of, 1292, membrane terms in plateequations, 1296 9 ; stretch in curved extensible membrane, 1461; Gauss'

constant solid,

1300

(a);

18067,

17713, of the ether, illustrating a double-assem-

theorem
1461,

for inextensible

membrane,

of flexible, composed >f two pi,-r s of different material, 551 (6) ; nodal lines of square

1671;

vibrations

membranes, 825 M, 1223; transverse vibrations of regularly and irregularly

of circular, 1885; effect of stiffness on note, 1489 Mnabrfa, on theory of vibrations (1855), 550 1 ; on general laws of vibrations (1855), 578; on the minimum property of work done by elastic system (185H),
(<),

blage of Boscovichian atoms and a multi-constant elastic solid, 18045 ./ .1. //,,/,. hypothesis of , 276, 805, 1447-8, 1770, 1773; seems involved in Sir W. Thomson's multi-constant Boscovichian system, 18085: see also IntermoUcular Action and Con.
stain
M,,,!,,:,,*

stretched, 1300

,md I r.ncipal Modultu, denned .union, 1761; value of, by Sir v. depends on working and is peculiar to
1

"y

oompreftibilityoi

each test specimen. 1752; difference U-twron kim-tir and Htat:c moduli attributed by Seebeek to after-strain, 474 (d); Wertheim's views, 809; Bias. ton's numbers, N-J i KuplTer's results,
;

520
728
;

INDEX.
continuous round a point, 312 4; expressions for values in stone and wood,
314; of regular crystal in any direc1206; directions of maximum and minimum values, 1207; to be experimentally determined by transverse vibrations of rods cut in various
tion,

Sir W. Thomson's thermo-elastic investigation of relation between ki1 tables netic and static moduli, 1750 of ratio of two moduli for various materials, 1751; on Werthoim's re;

sults,

1751
(or

Moduli^ Dilatation

Bulk, 1709
;

(d)),

investigated by Kirchhoff, 1279

how
;

directions, 821

affected by temperature, 1638 and ftn. table of, for variety of materials, 1752 ; for an aeolotropic solid, Sir W. Thomson distinguishes two kinds, tasinomic and thlipsinomic, their values,

methods of determining,

Kirch -

hoff's theory, by means of deflections of stretched bar, 1289 ; from transverse vibrations of loaded rods, 774 84 ; in case of glass from double-refractive

1776 Modulus, Plate, denned, 323, 385 Modulus, Slide (or Rigidity, 1709

power, 786
(</)),

effect on torsional resistance of its varia-

tables of values for metals, 752, for wires, 1749, for various materials, 1752; value for alum, 1206, for calcspar, gypsum and mica, 1210 Mohn, on strength, etc., of stone, 1176

tion across section, 186 ; howinfluenced by tort, 1755 ; how influenced by set-

1753 (a) thermal effect on, 754, 756, for iron, copper and brass, 1753 (6); tables of, for wires, 1749, for variety of materials, 1752 Modulus, Stretch (or Young's Modulus,
stretch,
;

Mohs, modifies Haiiy's scale of hardness, 836 (d) Moigno, Saint-Venantcontributeschapter on elasticity to his treatise on statics, 224
Molecules,
translational vibrations
of,

or Longitudinal Rigidity, 1709 (d)); influenced by working strain, annealing, etc., 727, 1753, by set, 194, by tort, 1755, by initial stress, 241 varies with manufacture, size, method of

how

used to explain heat, 68; size of, according to Ampere, Becquerel, Babinet and Sir W. Thomson, (i) p. 184 ; molecular state of bodies affected by
stress, 861, by vibrations, 862; Macvicar on molecular phenomena, 872;

placing and loading

1110, 1112; supposed
ficient of

of piece tested, relation to coef-

thermal expansion, 717, 823,

21
;

difference between static and kinetic stretchmoduli (from flexural experiments of Kupffer) in case of steel, platinum, brass and iron, too great to be accounted for by specific heats, 728 like result from Masson's experiments, 824; how affected by temperature, 1753 (/;), 756 ; relation to density, 741 (a), 759 () stretch- and squeeze-moduli not equal for small loads, 796, 809, nor for cast; ;

to atomic weight, 719

cule,

shell-spring moledistinction 1769, ftn.; between velocity of molecule and of

Sir

W. Thomson on
1765,

particle,

14634;
of

Sir

W. Thomson

on molecular constitution of matter, 1798 1805; on probable molecular

structure

molecular
rari-

and

isotropic solid, 1799; their bearing on multi-constancy, 1800 5:

tactics,

see in particular Intermolecular Action

and Atomic Constitution of Bodies

Molinos,

iron, 971 (2), empirical formulae for stress-strain relations in case of this

on bridge - construction L., (1857), 890 Moll, C. TJ., text-book on strength of

materials (1853), 875

inequality, 178 variation of value across crosssection of prism or bar, 169 (e) method of treatment, 518, 1425, 1749 ; formulae for, due to Bresse and Saint-Venant, 169 (e) influence of this variation on flexure, 169 (/); example, in case of trunk of tree, 169 (/); skin-change in
; ;

Moments of Inertia, values of, for triangles and trapezia, 103 Moments, Theorem of the three, for continuous loads and uniform cross-secfor isolated loads, values of reactions, 607 ; for continuous loads, unequal heights of supports, and unequal flexural rigidities, 893 Montigny, mode of counting vibrations (1852), 822; his results contradict
tion, 603;

value

of,

169

(/),

974

(c),

1111
;

in case of aeolotropy, in terms of for bodies 36 elastic constants, 7 possessing various types of elastic symmetry, 282; its distribution by 10 analysis of its values quartic, 309 when its variations are gradual and
;

Baudrimont's, 822 Mon'n, Lecons de mecanique pratique

(Resistance
des
;

1856)), 876-- 82

matriaux (1853, his erroneous views

on elastic limit, 878; on aluminium, 1H>1 Mortar, strength of, 880 (6)
/,

elasticity

<>f

equations, 1198
crystals,

120312,

9; his discussion of 1219; first deter-

graphical construction for line of pressure, 1009 Multi-eotutancyt remarks on, 4 (f), 192,
193, 196, 197, results from hypothesis of modified action, (i) p. 185 ; model

mines stretch-modulus quartic, 151, remarks on this quartic, 309, error in Vol. i. about this quartic corrected, p.
209, ftn., C. et A. p. 3; his treatment of waves and elastic theory of light, 12138, 12201, 1229; his theory of impact of l>ars, 203, 1224 5;' his definition of the plane of polarisation
of light, 1214; gives among the first a true theory of dispersion, 1221 ; erroneous method of approximation,

illustrating, 17713; may be deduced according to Sir W. Thomson from Boscovichian system of atoms, 1798 1805: see for further references, Con*tnnt*, Elastic, Constant Contr<
.

1225-6
after-strain
>

in,

828,
of,

829-

30,

830 A-, his method of measuring scale of hardness, 836 (b) MUttrich, his experiments on nodal lines of square plates, C. et A. p. 4
stretch-modulus
.Vi///iixA-<i,

erroneous identification of crystalline axes (788* 795*), 684; his theory of influence of traction on torsionaJ vibrations, 735 (iii); his method of
finding stretch- squeeze ratio by distortion of cross-sections under flexure, notices that, up to a 736 and ftn. certain limit, volume of wire increases under traction, 736; his theory of photo-elasticity referred to, 792, 793 list of his pupils, 1192 and ftn. (iii) Xt'iitnil J.n'x, distinguished from neutral for flexure under line, (i) p. 114, ftn. asymmetrical loading, 171 ; relation to ellipse of inertia and stress-centre, 515 ; applied to elastic bodies resting
;

on

current

in

nickel

wire

under longitudinal magnetizing force, produced by t\vi>t, 1735, 1737 gives formula for value of stretch any direction, 4 (6) his lectures edited and annotated by Saint-Venant,
.

11

160; on summing intermolecular action, 228; on impact of elastic bar, 341; his memoir on rectangular thin
plates, 399; on statically iiuletenninate reactions, (i) p. 411, ftn. ; first applies theory of elasticity to arches,

on rigid surfaces, 515 6, 602; attempted extension to curved surfaces, 602; does not pass through centroid,
if there be any thrust, 922; existence or not of strain at, 1016 in cast-iron beams does not pass through centroid (?), 971, 1091, 1117 (iii); erroneously placed by Thomson and Tait, 1689 Xcutrnl Line, distinguished from neutral
;

1009 F.
;

Neumann adopts his methods,

of,

ir.'.;.

1196 after-strain
of,

830;

stretch-

modulus

830
ral

theory of elasticity L196; introduces idea '< impressible ether, 1215 and ftn.; neralised equations of elasticity, 1250; discussion of his views as
to elastic constants by Saint-Venant, his method of finding strainen*

axis,

(i)

p. 114, ftn.
if

-..incides closely

with central line

load be transverse,

930 Newton, his experiments on impact, 209; his theory of impact criticised, 1682; his proof of velocity of sound, 219;
treated intermolecular force as central,

Neumann,
d,
1

/'.,

hi-*

"Lectures
pul.lished,

on

the
(de-

theory of the elasticity of solids

"

269
to reduce

1857-71,
ic
;

1885),

!'-'

-1228; on the optical properties

crystals
(183;'.

admixture with cast-iron tends strength of latter, 1165;

of her

and
light

ftn.

on the double-refraction of

effect of torsion

1229, (1841), 12J and refraction of light (1886), 1229; on Fresnel's formulae
ilHiU,,

^flection
>tal

reflection (1887) " Lecture* on theoretical optic* ( 1885) , his formula for torsion, 1280
;

prevents crystallisation of h n. llv. on loaded and magnetised nickel wire, 1785; effect of nidiiml pull u magnetisati as to existence of a Villari du. .il \~:\c>, tirld.
:

duood

I.

.ii.-Uu.iin.il

.tin. nt

hy twist
force,

Imal

magnetic

features of his researches: 6 7; no-elastic equ. general proof of uniqueness of elastic

.-f

ixlnoes
iron, 1067

change in tough

T.

i:

PT

ii.

522

INDEX.
p. 413, ftn. ; on ratio of transverse to absolute strength of cast-iron, (i) p. 719, ftn. ; on flexure of heavy
(i)

Nodal Lines, of square membranes, 825

1223; of plates, (i) p. 575, ftn., 123343, 1300 (6) Nodes, of vibrating bars, 825 (a)(<l), 1228 Note, pitch of fundamental, asserted by
(e),

to depend on intensity of disturbance, 809; of circular plates, 1242, 1243; of membranes, 1223, 1439; of rods of uniform cross-section, 1228, 1291 (b), of varying cross - section, 13027; of stretched string, 1291

Wertheim

ftn., 1427; on intermolecular action, 1447; on condition for replacing surface-load by body- force, 1695, ftn. ; on the generalised equations of elasticity, 1709 (a); on the strain energy of a jelly with rigidly fixed boundaries, 1813, ftn. ; on torsion in axles

beams, 387,

and

shafting,

(i)

p.

668, ftn.

and

(i)

p. 673, ftn.

(c)-(d)

Pekdrek, F., his sklerometer, 842

Noyon, on the suspension bridge of Roche Bernard, 1033

Nutation, earth on, 1665,
effect

Pendulum, conical, 589

stress in its support,

of elastic yielding of

17389

Perreaux, L. G., testing apparatus for yarn, thread, wire, etc. (1853), 1152 Persy, on skew loading of beams, 70;
C. et A. p. 9
Petin, on steel, 897 Petzval, J., on the vibrations of stretched
strings, 617 Phear, J. B., on Lame's stress-ellipsoid, 513

O'Brien, his theory of dispersion (1842),

1221
Oersted, his theory of

the piezometer discussed by Neumann, 1201 (c) Okatow, his mode of finding stretch-

squeeze ratio referred to, 1201 (e) Optic Axes, dispersion of, 1218, ftn.; Neumann's theory of change of position due to pressure or temperature,

Phillips, E., on the springs of railway errors rolling stock (1852), ; in results for rolling load on beam

482508

1220
Optical Axes, defined, 1218, ftn. Optical Coefficient of Elasticity, defined,

corrected by Saint- Venant and Bresse, 377, 540; on rolling load on bridges
(1855), 165,

3723, 5524;

on

resili;

795 Ordnance : see Cannon

On-'* "Circle of the Industrial Arts (On the useful metals and their alloys,
(1857)),

"

891

Orthotatic Axes, 137 (iii), 445; Green's condition for, in case of ether, (i)
p. 96, ftn.

Orthotatic

discovered Ellipsoid, by Haughton, named by Eankine, 137,

445 Ortmann, theory of resistance of materials (1843, 1855), 922 Owen, on strength of toughened castiron girders, 1105
'
'

Pagani, on statically indeterminate

actions,
(i)

re-

p. 411, ftn.

ence of railway buffers (1857), 595 on springs (1858), 597; on the spiral springs of watches and chronometers (1860), 6749; on the longitudinal and transverse vibrations of rods subjected to terminal conditions varying with the time (1864), 6802; writes notice of Saint- Venant (1886), 415 Photo-elasticity, relation of contributions of Fresnel, Brewster, F. Neumann, Maxwell and Wertheim, 792, 793 (iii) Wertheim's theory corrected by Neumann's, 795 Pianoforte Wires, strength of, 1124 Piezometer, elasticity of, 115, 119, 121; in form of spherical shell, 124; experiments on copper and brass, discussed, 192 (b); theory of, 1201 (c)
;

Painvin, on

ellipsoidal shells (1854), and diamond uses metal Pansner, L., needles to test hardness (1813), 836 (/)

vibrations

of

5448

Paoli, on actions,

statically indeterminate
(i)

re-

p. 411, ftn.

Pape, on axes of atmospheric disintegration in crystals, 1219 Paradisi, G., on nodal lines of plates
(1806),
(i)

p. 575, ftn.

and Struts on Saint-Venant's torsion memoir, 1 Pipes, cast-iron, formulae for strength of, 900; when unequally heated, %2; bursting of wrought-iron and leaden pipes from internal pressure, 983; earthenware, bursting strength, dry and after soaking, 1171; formulae for strength of earthenware, 1172: see
Pillars: see Columns
Piobert, reports

Pearson, K., note on Clapeyron's Theo-

rem of three momen ts (elastic su pports)

also Tubes Pird, translates Hodgkinson's Experi-

i\m:\.
mental
Researches
into

529
Bfcutfe, history of problem. 1',7.
r_>:H.

French.

r>M. 1140;
29;
11.-,

torsion

of

thin
if

Piston Rod, stress in, 681 Plum- Xurr'tice, of infinite elastic solid subjected to Riven stress or strain,

plate,
rolleil,

is

generally amorphic.

Pint,-,

thick,

Clebsch's

'-98
Plnm't, application of theory of elasticity to figure of: see Earth Plastic Limit, 1568, 1586, 15935
/'/,/>
itii.

135053, 13567;

indefinitely small special case of circular plate, stretched by any system of loads parallel to the

treatment of, small but not thickness, 1354;

ice,

1667
:

169

(6);

flow of plastic solid

through circular orifice, 2:w c<>cfiicionts of resistance to plastic slide and stretch equal, '2'M\: name used in this work for plant ico-di/ndiinc*, 243; transition from elasticity to, is there a middle state? 244,257; general equations of, 245, 246, 250; Tresca's experimental laws of, 247 Saint-Venant deals with uniplanar equations of, 248, J -6; difficulty of solving equations 249; equations for cylindrical of, plastic flow, 252; equations of uniplanar plastic flow reduce to discovery of an auxiliary function, 253, 1562 6; surface conditions of, 254, 1594 due
; ;

mid-plane, i:r,f>; when infinitely extended, Boussinesq's suggestion for solution, 1519 (d); annotated Clebsch, Saint-Venant and Boussinesq's researches, 322337 ; rectangular plates, simple cylindrical flexure, 323; double 325; subcylindrical flexure, 324 jected laterally to shearing load, circular plates, 326; symmetrical loading, 328, 335; subject to lateral shearing load, 329; circular annulus, 328330; complete plate resting on rim of a disc, 331, 333; criticism of Saint- Venant's solution, 331 ; circular
etc.,

plate centrally supported, deflection, 332 deflections for complete

;

to torsion of right-circular cylinder, to equal flexure of prism of rectangular section, 256; plastic pressure is transmitted as in fluids, 260; of a right-circular cylindrical shell subjected to internal and ex-

plate variously loaded, 334; complete plate, deflection of, for any system of 6 ; Levy's principle, 336 ; loading, 335 assumptions of theory, 337 Plate, thin, Kirchhoff's first treatment of problem, 1236 40, doubtful assump
tions, 1236, expressions for energy of bent plate, 1237, tl boundary conditions. 1238 9, uniqueness of solution, 1240; Kirchhoff's second treatment, 1292 1300, finite

ternal pressure, 261; same shell with outer surface rigidly fixed, Saint-Venant obtains results differing from Saint- Venant corrects a Tresca's, t of Levy's for the general equaneed of new tions of, 252, riments on, and method of making these, 267; insufficiency of Tresca's mode of dealing with theory of, 267

2W

shifts of infinitely thin

plane plate,

2634;

1293, obscure step in Kirchhoff's reasoning, 1294, Love's views, (ii) p. 86, ftn.. further assumption as to stresses, 1295. strain-energy of plane
plat<
-h.
11

uniplanar equations of, solved by isostatic' curves Bonssinesq, 1562 6 obtained graphically, 1564 ; nature of surface conditions, 159 1 uniplanar i"!i- in polar coordinates, 1601; belts of plastic material subjected to >t pressure, 1602 (a) action of cir. -ul.ir (c) (of. 2612); wedge of plastic punch, 1602 (d) material squeezed between two planes d together, 1608 uniplanar body.
'
; ;

contribute nothint: to strain-energy of plane pl.i:

-li
l

:htl,.-n.liii/.lL".H

'.i.(

lobsch's

treats
8,

tinit.^hitt

mid-plane approximately a deve-

lopable surface, 1376, small shifts, general equation* when no surface load,
137'.).

.finite shifts

of

isotropic

plate,

1418

4,

errors,

stress equation,

when

force-f

s 1605 (&)(<); how denned by Thomson and Tait, 1718 (6)

./,/.

14 14, transverse and longitudinal shifts of aeolotropic plate, errors of treat111.',; comparison of methods of Kirchhoff, Clebsch and G.
Tail's treatment.

Coefflci*** "/ (A'), 244, 247,

12928,1876.1111 16961704,
critu-iMii

utrain-

1686, 1608;

method of determining.
planes of elastic symmetry. 1698-9,
try
.-(

a^umptions

ni i,l..

!->

842

524
Thomson and
Tait,

INDEX.

17001,

1703,

1705, comparison of their

method with

those of Boussinesq and Saint-Venant, and with Kirchhoff's first treatment, 1701, analysis of bending couples for plate, 1702, syuclastic and anticlastic bending stress, 1702, stress-couple equation for plate, 1703, Thomson and Tait's reconciliation of thePoisson and Kirchhoff boundary conditions, 1704, 1714, transverse shift of a thin plate strained symmetrically round a point, 1705, general solution for a plate of any form under transverse load, thrown back on the solution of an equation free of that load, 1707,
'

load and isolated central load, supported edge, 399 (a) and (b), subjected to transverse loads P, - P, P, at the four corners takes anticlastic curvature identical with torsional strain, 1708. Infinite, subjected to given surface loads or shifts, 1660 Plate, thin, motion of, general equations, 1383. Infinite, trans verse vibrations of,

-P

1462,
shift

when
when

subjected to an arbitrary
subjected
to

varying with time at a point,

arbitrary ve-

1535,

normal impulses, 1536, limiting

locity of

impact for

safety, 1538, im-

pact by mass striking normally, 1545 Transverse vibrations, 1300 (&),

1384, when aeolotropic, 1415 special case of circular plate, nodal lines, (i)
;

flexural

rigidities

of

isotropic

plate

determined, 1713 ; Boussinesq's treatment, 1438 40, assumption of stressrelations, 1438, 1440, doubtful treatment of curved plate, 1437, on contour conditions (1238 9), 1438, 1441, Levy's investigations and controversy with
Boussinesq, local' perturbations, 1441, 15224; Saint- Venant's treatment, 383399, his criticism of Clebsch's treatment, 383; deduction of general equations, 384; assumptions necessary, 385; arguments in favour of assumptions, 386; criticism of these arguments, 387 ; further expression of the assumptions, 388; advantage of this method of dealing with problem over that which assumes form of potential energy, 388 criticism of Lord Bayleigh's, and Thomson and Tait's mode of dealing with problem, 388; equation for transverse shift, 385 ;
;
'

p. 575, ftn.,

symmetrical and asymcircular

metrical vibrations of free

plate, 1241, calculation and comparison with results of Chladni for notes

on two hypotheses
1242
(a)

(\ = M and \ = 2fj.), and 1243, calculation and

comparison with results of Strehlke and Savart for nodal circles on same two hypotheses, 1242 (b) and 1243, expression for fundamental note, 1243, nodal lines dealt with by Clebsch,
1384 special case of square plate, nodal lines determined by Miittrich, C. et A. p. 4. Longitudinal vibrations, of aeolotropic plate, 1415 Platinum, thermo-elastic properties of, 752 ; after-strain and temperature, 756 stretch-modulus and density of, (i) p. 531, 824; absolute strength of ratio of kinetic and static wire, 1131 hardness of, (i) stretch-moduli, 1751
;

equations for longitudinal shifts, 389

contour-conditions, 391

394; Saint-

Venant adopts Thomson and Tait's reconciliation of Poisson and Kirchhoff, 394; his views on Levy's objections, 394, 397; remarks on his views, 394
Plate, thin, equilibrium of, special cases Circular, contour (i) rests on a ring or is built-in, uniform surface load, (ii) 398 (i) and (ii) ; shifts in its own plane and transverse shifts, 1380; built-in
:

thermo-electric properties 1645 6 Pliability, denned, 466 (ix), as thlipsip. 592, ftn.
;

under

strain,

nomic coefficient, 448 Pliicker, his results for crystals cited,

683, 6856, 1219 Poinsot, his memoirs on impact, 591 Poiree, J., on deflection of arched ribs due to temperature, live load and impact, 1013 ; cited, Poisson, erroneous
(i)

p. 368, ftn.

and loaded on any point, 1381 builtand uniformly loaded, deflection and stress, 657 thickness required to carry a given uniform pressure, 659 supported or built-in and subjected to
;

method
;

of

dealing

in

central impact, mass-coefficient of resilience, deflection, etc., 1550 (c). Circular annulus, subjected to bending couples and shearing forces on its edges, 1706. Rectangular, uniform

with flexure, 75, 316, 12267; on problem of plate, 167 criticism of his deduction of stress-strain relation, 192 error in his theory of impact of (a) bars, 204; on summing intermolecular on contour conditions actions, 228 for thin plate, 394 6 his treatment of plates criticised by Kirchhoff, 1234; on statically indeterminate reactions,
; ; ;

INDEX.
p. 411, ftn.; his theory ofelu referred to, 1 !'.:*, HJio; his views on uni-constancy tested by the vibrations of circular plates, /" R<it i, it io: see Stretch- S<j /,-,; Polar Coordinates, general solution of uniplanar strain in terms of, 1711, 1717 (ii); form of plastic equations in
(i)

525

12423

>

terms of, 1601 Polir I'l-i'i'i'i-tit-it

kinds of, inverse, direct and logarithmic, 1488, 1518 ; infinite solid bounded by plane surface, subjected to given vivi-n strain or partly one and 98; solutions by partly other, 1489 potentials of special cases of pressure on or depression of surface of elastic solid, 14991517; solutions of special cases of body-force in infinite elastic
.

of Crystal*, icnce in elastic forces proportional simply to strain, 1763

have no

151921; "spherical" potential used to integrate equations of vibrasolid,

tions of

infinite

isotropic

medium,

Polnri.nitiini,
iiiti.m. 121

Plane
I.

of,

Neumann's

defi-

1215, 1217, accepted by KirchhoiY, 1301; in Boussinesq's theo172: reached by Sir W. Thomson from incompressible cyboid aeolotropy by annulling difference of rigidi-

1526 Pot i<-r, proves Hopkins' theorem in shear anew, 270

Precession, effect of elastic yielding of earth on, 1665 Prinacp, first noticed that heating produces set in cast-iron, 1186 Prixm, torsion of: see Torsion; flexure of see Flexure: see also Strain, Com:

W. Thomson
ttioii,
;

on, 1780

/ui^/forj/.Boussinesq's theoin gyrostatically loaded ry of, 1481

media, 1782
Pnhirixiiin

(a),

1786
circularly, Clebsch's

bined
Pronnier,
.,

.l/.-r///i,

on bridge-structure

(1857),

1324 't, reports on Saint- Venant's Torsion-Memoir, 1 ; reports on Saint:it's memoir on transverse impact, 104; on rupture, 164, 169 (c ) ; on elastic line, 1*8; on impact of elastic bar, 311: his M<'i-<nii<jiit' IinliiJtrirllc, C. et A. p. 10; reports on Phillips' memoir on springs, 482 on theory of arches, 1009 his results as to resilitheory
of,
;

890
Pulrt-rnl,
in-e, remarks on Le*vy, SaintVenant, Boussinesq and Rankine's treatments, 242; Kankine on, 453; Uoltzmann, 582 (b) uniplanar equations of, solved by conjugate functions, 1566, 1570; memoirs dealing with, from
;

elastic standpoint, 1571 ; Boussinesq's theory, elastic constants of stress-

by Mill let,
I.,

10612
of elastic equa.",l<i;

int. ^.-ration

for vibrations
.

|1>">.',|,

inte-

general elastic equations in 2 cylindrical coordinates (1855), 511 of strained solid : see
ni of
i
(,i-

/'.-/. ntiiil,

history

of origin of terms, 198 (c) ; general property of attraction potential, 1487

(<);

strain relations for, 1574 5; uniplanar stress equations, 1576 analysis of and strain for pulverulent mass, solution of equations of equilibrium for mass bounded by sloping 2 ; introduction of boundtalus, 1580 ary wall at any slope, rough or smooth, 1584; mass in state of collapse, discussion of pulverulent limit, 1585 6; angle of internal friction, 1587 natural slopes of talus for various materials,
;
:

prO|M
;

.muni,
1

1588;
1

thrust
-1
;

on

supporting

walls,

of

tiicitv

on

elliptic discs,

physically incorrect assump-

tion in these solutions,

1592

bit;

most

lomson nrstusedb.N for elastic problems, 162730, 171.",: ><>d of freeing elastic equations body-force* by aid of potentials, of second kind, use in solution of elastic equations, 140, 286 ; vibra<!' mi infinite elastic medium discussed by means of, 1486 ; applied to discus* influence of local stress or in on the sirens or strain at
i

forms of equilibrium, 1692; equations for pulverulent mass on

stable

point of
of

collapse, 1598; Bar relation, 1596; constancy of velocity

stress,

puheiul<nt mass under varying 1696 ; conditions at a revetment wall, 1597 8; upper and lower limits to thrust on a revetment wall obtained, 1699 uniplanar equation in polar coordinate, 1601 ; uniplanar body-stress
;

I.H

of

an extended

solid,

1486;

general remarks on potential solutions comparison with those in terms

.urier's series,

equations, if equilibrium b. lumtmr and there be a force-function, 1606 Maker on breadth of (6)retaining walls, comparison with Bous-

1487; on different

526
sinesq's theory,

INDKX.
chimneys (1860), 463; Manual of Applied Mechanics (1858), 46470;
competes for Grand
Miscellaneous Scientific Papers, 418; I'ri.i, 454; Life: see Millar's edition of Papers Remarks on his work his termin:

1606-7; G. H. Darwin on horizontal thrust of sand, comparison with Boussinesq's theory,

Gobin's experiments, 161011, 1623 approximate formulae for thrust, 1611; Boussinesq's final theory for horizontal talus and vertical wall, 1612 8; modified method

1609

11, 1623;
;

ology for elastic conceptions, 466, for

elastic coefficients,
f tu.
;

44352,
;

(i)

p. 77,

of finding superior limit for thrust, 1621 2; numerical tables for thrust as given by Boussinesq's theory, 1625 ; further approximations to thrust, not

on aeolotropy, 429

on axes

of

elasticity and classification of constants, 44351, Saint- Venant on, 135 ;

rapid enough, 1624 remarks on Coulomb's theory of pulverulence, 1609, 1620, 1623 Punching, 905; pressures needful for, in case of plate-iron, 1103; empirical formulae, 1104; graphical representation of stress due to, by aid of Liiders'
;

curves, 1190 and (ii) frontispiece; Boussinesq's remarks on the action of a punch, 1511 action of flat punches, 1510 (c) ; of punches with curved faces, 1512 action of punch on plastic material, 1602 (d)
; ;

quartic, 136, 446; on orthotatic ellipsoid, 137, 445; on nu tatatic axes, 137 (vi), 446; S;iintVenant adopts his symbolic method, 198; his erroneous theory as to coefficient of rigidity, 421; on longitudinal impact of bars, 205 ; on stability of loose earth, 242, 1590, defect of his theory, 1613 his hypothesis of atomic centres, 423, of molecular vortices, 424, 440, 1781, of coefficient of fluidity, 4234, 42930, 1448 ; his hypothesis of "aeolotropy of density" to explain
1

on tasinomic

double-refraction, 1781

Quartz, electro-magnetic

produces compressed be cut by of, (iv); may rotating iron disc, 836 (/*); hardness used to cut corundum of, 840, 836 (d) in sand-blast, 1538, ftn.; Boussinesq on optical theory of, 1481; remarks on elastic forces concerned in optical

field

Rari-constancy, 68; a property of bodies of confused crystallisation, 72; equality

no

(?

little)

effect

on

laminae

698
;

and direct slide coon hypothesis of, 73 SaintVeiiant's arguments in favour of, 306 Eankine's attempt to elucidate by
of cross-stretch,
efficients
; ;

means

phenomena of, 1763

1786

; optical properties explicable by gyrostatic medium, 1781,

Quincke, his experiments not in accordance with Sir W. Thomson's theory

of metallic films, 1783
(c)

423 Boscovich's theory, if molecules be groups of atoms, 787 (cf. 192 (d), 276) hollow investigated by stretching prisms, 802, by wires, 1271 3; is not negatived by experiments on cork, jelly or india-rubber, 192 (b), 610, 1636, 1770, unless it is shown that
;

of the 'coefficient of fluidity' 4, 444; does not follow from

bi-constancy really suffices, 1770, 610,

Raihvay,

torsion of, 49 (c), 182; transverse strength of, C. et A. p. 11: see also Axle, Spring, Continuous
rail,

Beam,

etc.

nor by experiments on wires, 1201, 1212, 12713, 1636 Thomson and Tait on, 1709 (e), 1749; Sir W. Thomson's argument against, based on 21-constau t
;

liankine, centrifugal theory of elasticity (1851), 417; laws of elasticity of solid bodies (1850), 41826; sequel to laws of elasticity (1852), 42732; on the velocity of sound in liquid and solid on the vibrabodies (1851), tions of plane-polarised light (1851),

model, 1771, criticism of this model, non-fulfilment of rari-con1772 3

;

stant conditions in case of crystals, 1780 rari-constancy follows from single assemblage of Boscovichian atoms,
;

4339;

1801

2: see Constants, Elastic, etc.

440;

on light (1853), 441; general integrals of elastic equations (1856), 441 2; on axes of elasticity and
crystalline forms (1856), 443-52; on earthwork (1857), 453 general solution of equations of elastic equilibrium and decomposition of external force (1860,
;

Ray, defined by Kirchhoff, 1274, theory of, 13112; Boussinesq on, 1477;
in aeolotropic medium obeying ellipsoidal conditions, etc., 1560 Rayleiyh, Lord, on thin plate problem, 388; on normal functions of bar, 349; overlooks Seebeck's results for stiffness of strings, 472; on dissipative function, 1743; works out llankine's

1872),

45462;

stability

of factory

INDIA.
hypothesis of aeolotropy of iU.Mi.Mt> t<> his explain double-refraction, 1781 "Theory of Sound" cited, 821, 1238,
:

527

toj % deusity, to optical and elastic properties obscure, 797 (a) ; no relation according to \V -theim between natural and artificial double-refraci

'<-.

of

body on more than tlm-r

points of support, 609 ; history of the before the days of elastic i-t, theory, (i) p. 411, ftn.; memoirs of
Bertelli, 598, of

Dorna, 599602, of Clapeyron, 603, of Menabrea, 604 of 6, Heppel, 607: see also Continuous

Beams
effect of

Reaumur,
ii.

hammering on magftn.

tion, 797 (b) ; produced by torsion, 802; produced in powders and soft bodies by stress, 864 as to pressural wave, 101, 150; Green's theory, 147, 193, 229, 1779, 1789; Saint- Venant on conditions 148-9, 154; criticised, 150; for, Green, Cauchy and Saint- Venant's views, 193 5; elastic jelly- theories

tisation,

811 and

of

Rebhann, G., theory of wood and iron

construction (1^56), 885; increase of strength in beams due to building- in
tt-rminals (1853),
r,

Cauchy, F. and Lam6, 12137, 1229

C.
(a);
1'.

Neumann,

Neumann

'.142

formula for strength of hydraulic press, 901 imaun's elastic theory Reflect of. 1-J-JU di) and (c); Bonssinesq on, 1481 Kirchhoff' s elastic theory of, in .illine Clebsch's media, 1274 elastic theory of, for wave impinging on spherical surface, 1392 1410, solution in solid spherical harmonics,
;
;

-9, any number of centres of disturbance, 1400 2, single centre, 1403, longitudinal wave always produces longitudinal and transverse reflected waves, 1405, application of

>u sinesq's uses initial stresses, 121 1>; first theory, 146774, second theory, 1476, third theory, 1481; his equations obtained for an aeolotropic medium satisfying ellipsoidal and other conditions, 1559; reached by Sir \V. Thomson from cyboid aeolotropy (Fresnel's wave-surface, but Neumann's plane of polarisation), 1775 ; Rankine'n hypothesis of 'aeolotropy of density* discussed, 1781 (a); deduced from contractile ether, 1788; Sir W. Thomson's investigation by aid of 'initial

stresses,'

178997

Refractive Index, supposed by Sir W. Thomson negative for metals, 1783

, explanation of anomalies in his piezometer experiments, 115, 119, 121, 192 (b) his experiments on wooden /,'//"//, arches, C. et A., p. 6 licilly, Calcott, on longitudinal stress in wrotight-iron plate girder, 953 n> ii'in.l.'t. on impact, 165; contributions to problem of rolling load, 372; deals \\itli problem of continuous rolling load, 381; his problem discussed by

Huyghens'

Principle,

140'>,

wave

length large as compared with radius of reflecting sphere, 1407 9, absence of shadow, 1409 (iii) Sir W. Thomson
;

on, 17801, theory of, for contractile ether, 1787 8; metallic, discussed by

W. Thomson,
theory
i;i,

1,

of,

in

crystalline

Stefan,

594;

F.

Neumann.
1274;

(b)

and
F.
1

(c);

Kirchhoff,
;

views of

Neumann, MacCullagh
1274
MIof,

and Green
theory
of,

cited,

Boussinesq on
on, for contractile
'

Kopytowski,

5589

W. Thomson

Rendel, J. M. t on strength of cements,

<,

17801;
Refrac

theory
,

on Emerson'* Paradox, 174

.

due to

initial stress* ?

influence of gradual

tin 786, 789, 146774. case of compressed glass (crown, plate or flint) depends only on squeeze, 786; gives a means of finding stretchmodulus, 786, 789; of rock-salt and

and sudden repeated torsion al and flexural loads on molecular stm

9918;
on
axles,
//..

torsion

Wohler's early experim. -nts and flexure of railway

9971003

fluor-spar

under compression, 789; produced by streat used to investigate

the stress-strain relation and 1-1 of stretch- and squeeze-moduli, 792 7; relation of stress to difference of equivalent air paths of two rays, 795 ; double-refractive power,' its relation

pupil of Suint Venant, 416; application of elastic equation* to a planetary crust (Itetal't Problem)

by

stress produced connecting rods (1856), 588 ; on stress in the shrunk.res of wheels (1859), 584i,

661-70; on

vibrations

528
flexure in
effect

INDEX.
lamina supporting a conical (1860), 589; on mechanical of heat (I860), 716; on supposed
theory of Fonts meRfuk'(iu.r,
1 i il>*
:

pendulum

/'"., his text-book on strength of materials (1853), 875

see

A relies

error in Saint-Venaut's flexure (1886), 409; his

Rigidity, Coefficient

tallique* (1885) cited, 978; on elastic curve for rods of double curvature, 291 ; his insufficient theory of impulsive flexural load, <Mr Rfail fence, history of theory of, 165; defined, 466 (viii); of springs, 493; of proportioned framework, 609 of torsioual, flexural and tensional springs, 611; of spiral watch-springs, 675; of railway buffers, 595; treated by Hitter, 916 (a) ; for transverse impact, 3634 modulus of, 340 (ii), 108 J, 1091 values of, for bronze and cast-iron, 1089 ductile and elastic elements of, 1085; as limit to impulsive loading, 1087 ; of hard and soft iron, 879 (#); of cast-steel, 1134; tables of cohesive resilience, 1062; of elastic resilience, for metal wires, 1749; mass-coefficient of, in a variety of problems of impact, 367 70; a
; ;
(

of, term introduced by Bankine, erroneous theory of, 421 Rigidity, Flexural, of beam, C. et A. p. 8 (a), 1709 (d); principal torsion-

flexure rigidities, 1692 ; of plate, 1713 Rigidity, use of term for slide-modulus, 1709 (d)', confusing multiplicity of

uses, 1709 (d)

Rigidity, Quasi-, resulting from gyrostatic structure, 1784, 18067, 1811,

1816 Ring: see Chain, Link of; heavy: see

Hoop
Ritter,
A.,

his

text-book of technical

mechanics (1863), 912 7; his elementary theory of carriage springs, 913 ; his treatise on iron and roof his erroneous structures, 915 (b) theory of rotating disc, 915 (e) Ritter's Method, for determining stresses in framework, 915 (b)
;

Rivets,

general expression for

its value,

368 ;

due to Hodgkinson and Homersham

Cox, 1550,
lation of
ftn.
;

correctness of calcu-

ratio of shearing to tensile strength in iron, 1145 (ii) shearing rivet holes strength of iron, 1108 tested by wedging to rupture, 1107;
; ;

maximum shift and principal vibration by Homersham Cox's hypothesis

how
ture,

affected

by change of tempera-

1116

how they
1135,
;

demonstrated by Boussinesq,
;

of

plate,

11267;
;

alter strength rivetted

'

5 special cases of mass-coefficient, for longitudinal impact of rod, 1550 (), for carriage springs, 371 (ii), for thin circular plate with either built-in or supported edge, 1550 (c): see also Spring, Strain-Energy, Impact and Appendix E. to Vol. i.

1450

joints,

Eankine on, 468

'

Lloyds'

Resilience, Transverse, of Bar. (Gradual Vertical bar carrying a Impulse.) weight at its mid-point and acted on by constant force, 357 (a) ; force some function of time, 357 (6) ; same bar subjected to sudden small shift of mid-

point, 357 (c) small shift a function of time, 357 (d) beam of beam-engine
; ;

on danger

subjected to periodic impulse, 358; of certain speeds for flywheels of such engines, 359

Resilience, Longitudinal, of Bar (Gradual 2: see for resilience of Impulse), 681

bars,

Impact

hardening in oil rivetted steel plates more than counterbalances loss of strength due to rivetting, 1145 (i) Rocksalt, elastic constants of, 1212 ; double-refractive power under comhardness of, 836 (/) pression, 789 (b) Rodman, his reports on ordnance (1860 70), 1037; his theory of initial stress, 1038 (g) Rods, general theory of, resume of researches on, 1228 ; history of theory Kirchhoff's treatment, of, 1252, 1418 finite shifts, 1251 66, obscure step, 1258, assumes Saint- Venant's stressconditions, 1262, 1359; body-shift strain and kinetic equations, 1261 energies, 1261, 1263, 1268; relations between total stresses or loads and comstrain, 1265, 1266, 1283 (b)
;

experiments, 1135

effect of

Resistance, Electric, how affected by strain, 1647, 1740 Resistance, Solid of Equal, defined, 5 (e) for cantilever, 56, case (4) for beam
;

under impact, 370 (c) ; Eankine on, 468; Zetzsche, for heavy stretched Decomble on, 1024; prism, 656; Clebsch's treatment of, 3386 (d)

parison of Kirchhoff and Clebsch's treatment of the problem, 1257, 1258, 1263, 1270, 1282, 13589; Boussinesq attempts to demonstrate SaintVenant's stress-conditions, 1421 4, supposes rod aeolotropic and with
cavities in cross-section, 1420, stretch-

modulus varying across

cross-section,

INDEX.
his treatment compared with -'">, Saint-Venant's, 1427 8, analysis of general solution. 1 i'_".t Thomson and tiv.itmrnt, compared with of Kirchhoff and Clebsch, K,s7, 1691, 1695; dith'eulties as to their iv]ihii.vment of body-force by surface load,
1 l

529
;

loaded at the other, 551 () determination of constants in solution, when the terminal con614, 616 ditions vary with the time, 680 2;
;

loade.l

and

vibrating, Kupffer's for-

etc.,

and

their neglect to investigate

form of distorted cross-section, 16.15 6 Rod*, initially curcl, uxis of double

curvature, views of Saint- Venaut, Poisson, Wantzel, Binet, Lagrange and Bresse, 153, 155 ; general equations, 1264, 1368, 1425, 1435; equations for total shears, 1435 6 solution for case of small shifts, 13701 ; validity of Saint-Venant's stress -conditions for, 1422. 1435 vibrations of, Bresse's equations, 534 axis of single curvature, on stability of rods of uiu-qual flexibility in form of hoops and circular arcs, rotation round central line, etc., 1697; when bent Additional solely by couples, 1369. material for the theory of plane curved rods will be found in the memoirs of Bresse on arches, 514 31, of Winkler .inks of chains, 61841 and of
;
;

Phillips
HO|,|H:.

on
.v.i.5

initially

spirals, straight,

6779

mula, 751, 759 (c), examined and corrected, 763 6; with and without loads, 769; heavy loaded rod, 775, 780, 1431, solution when weight is neglected, 776 7, approximate solution, 778, when unloaded, 779, further approximations, 781, application to Kupffer's results, 782 4 when crosssection varies, 1302 7, thin wedge, 1304, safe amplitude of vibration, 1305 very sharp cone, 1306, safe amplitude, 1307 ; according to Baudrimont transverse vibrations do not obey the usual (Bernoulli-Eulerian) theory, 821, difference not to be accounted for by rotatory inertia or distortion of cross-section, 821 Montigny, however, confirms usual theory, 822 transverse and longitudinal vibrations of same tone, 825 case of rod infinitely long in one direction, when constraint or load at one end varies with the time, 1527 33, when initial shift and speed of each point
;
;

is

flexure

of,

Kupffer's doubtful for-

given, 1534, bearing mass subjected to a force varying with time, 1539; tranxverxe impact, limiting safe velo-

mula

for flexure of loaded, 747,

;

759

(c),

corrected, 760 2 experiments on statical flexure of, 767 ; general equations of, deduced by Kirchhoff, 1251 66; indefinitely thin, and extremely small shifts, 128490; torsion and flexure equations, 1287 ; thrust taken into consideration, 1288 ; Clebsch's discussion, 135874, his assump1359, doubtful neglect of terms, equations of motion, Thomson -4 ; stresses in, 137 I and Tail's treatment, 168797 ;
;
.

city of striking mass, 1537, bar carrying a mass, which is subjected to transverse impact, 1540 : see /;/<;/. r

longitudinal,

F.

Neumann's

de-

heavy and stretched, 1290; doubtful formula for flexure of crystalline rod, 1227 ; rod whose length shall be unaffected by heat, how to be found,
1 l

'7

see also Flexure, T>

<n* of,
;

duction of general equations for rightcircular cross-section, 1224, his doubtful solution, 1225; Kirchhoff. I'J.'l (a), Clebsch, 1373 (6), Boussinesq, 1431 ; nodes determined by Seebeck with sand, 475 ; when terminal conditions are functions of the time as in piston rods and cranks, 680 2 ; longitudinal and transverse vibrations of same tone, 825; longitudinal hnnon-impelled end fixed, 4017, 4104; non-impelled end fixed or free, maximum strain, duration of blow, kinetic-energy, etc., 154760:
eee Impact tonional, 191, 1291 (a), 137 1874, 1481 tUulicn-kinttic 1267, analogue, 1270, 1283 (6) and (c), 1864 his on stretch'i, experiments squeese ratio referred to, 1901 on strength of materials RoffUten, /;., 1868), 892, 986; hi* treatment of (1868),
i

etc.

Rod*, initially * general equations of motion,

13724
1

Kirchhoff, 12'.' 1874, Boaaiinesq, 1431 ; loops and nodes calculated by f formulae Seebeck, 471, ;,MIHMM, 1228, experiments on, 826; when clamped at one end and
.-h,

12267,

1373

(a),

Ill-Mil.-.

10'HI

INDKX.
Rohrs, on oscillations of suspension chains (1856), 612 Rolling, effect on stretch-modulus of brass and iron, 741 (a) see also
:

Working
Rolling Load, on beam, girder or bridge, 372, ; history of problem, 372, 377 isolated on bridge with doublybuilt-in terminals, Phillips, 552, solution corrected by Bresse, 540; isolated on bridge with doubly supported terminals, Phillips, 553, solution corrected by Saint- Venant, 3736; bend-

5401

moment, 375, deflection, 376, Saint- Venant takes account of periodic terms, 378 80 ; the same problem (in Ui ,^ Problem) solved by Boussinesq, 1553, extension to case of continuous load by Kenaudot, 381, 372 Bresse, on very long train crossing very short bridge, 382, 541, his theory repeated
ing
;

855, 856; of cast-iron, of cement, 169 (c) condition for, with skin-change of elasticity, 169 (/) for wooden prism with variation in stretch -modulus, 169 (/); behaviour of a material up to, 169 (n) by flexure, 173; relations between constants of instantaneous and ultimate, 175 for flexure of beam with loading in plane of inertial asymmetry of cross- section, 177 (a); experiments by Blanchard, Kennedy and others on rupture by compression, 321 (b) and ftn. ratio of coefficients of, by pressure and tension, 321 (b) 6; of arches, Ardant's formulae for, C. et A. p. 7; Wertheim considers that of hard
stretch,
;
; ; ;

bodies takes place by slide and that of soft bodies by stretch, the strain being
torsional, 810,
cf.

Sir

W. Thomson's
;

due to, 10134 on strength of wooden Rondelet, on strength of columns, 880 (a) stone, 880 (b) Roof-Trusses, 881 (c), history of, C. et A.
flection
;

Kopytowski, 558, by Winkler, 664; investigation of whole problem by Kopytowski, errors in treatments, 555 60; Homersham Cox's erroneous theory, reproduced by Winkler, 663, by Morin, 881 (b), by Mahistre, 963, by Mallet, 964 ; experiments on de-

by

1667; rupture stress not a proper guide in construction, 875 rupture surfaces of cylinders and rupture planes of spheres, 880 (b) massive slopes of rock, 1583 rupture surfaces of stone, 909, 1182 rupture is not to be determined from elastic
views,
; ;

of maximum difficulty difference limit, general discussion of conditions of failure, 1720; failure better measured by stretch than by stress limit, 1327, 1348 (f))(h),

equations,
stress

1386
(i)

(b)

see also Framework Rotating Disc, Hitter's erroneous theory

p.

Russian, measures of length and weight,

p. 520, ftn.

916 () Rotation of plane of polarised light, produced by magnetic force, how affected by compression in flint and crown glass, 698 the more feeble in greater the mechanical glass, the strain, 786, 797 (d); theory of circularly polarising media, 1324; theory of optical, 1481 theory of magnetic, 1482
of,
;

on forms taken by a loaded rod or flat spring (1880), 1694, ftn. Safety, Factors of, 1/10 in France, 1/6 in England, 321 (b) Eankiue's table
Saalschiitz,
;

466 (x). Safety, Limit

of,

of,

properly measured by

Roy, C. S. t on after-strain, stretchtraction curve, hyperbolic (1880 8), (i) p. 579, ftn. Riihlinann, his History of Technical Mechanics cited, 884; his Elements
of Mechanics (1860), 917; on strength of thread of screws, 966 Rupture : see also Failure, Fracture,

stretch and not traction, 5 (c); relations between safe tensile and compressive stresses for wood, cast-iron, wrought-iron, 176; Clebsch's assumption of stress limit, 320; comparison of stress and stretch limits, the latter generally on the side of safety, 321 (a),

321
(b)
:

(d),

1720, 1327, 1348 (g)(h), 1386

see Failure

Strength, Absolute; and Safety, Limit of ; conditions for, 4 (/), 5 (a); general conditions for, 5 (d), 32; history of theory of, 164; Poncelet on, 164, 169 (c), 321 (b); conditions for, used

Lamd and Clapeyron, 166; by compression, 169 (c), due to lateral

by

Saint-Guilhem, on slope of natural talus of earth, sand, etc., 1588, 1623 Sat nt- Venant, Memoirs and Notes: Chief memoir on Torsion of prisms (1855), 1 61 ; note on flexure of prisms (1854), 62; notes on transverse impact of bars (1854), 63, (1857) 1047, (1865) 200; chief memoir on flexure of prisms (1856), 69100; notes on

INDEX.
theory of li-ht
(1873)
1856), 101, (1863) 154, on velocity of UM, 1867) 202; note of inertia (1856), 103 ;
(

531
Flamaut,

and

in

.\\ifmv

and

the

2M

notes

sound (is-,., en moments notes on torsion

.

(1858),

109,

110,

(1879) -J'.U; note on vibrating cord (1860), 111; note on conditions of compatibility (1861), 112; note on number of unequal elastic
I.-.7.

415; character of, 416; summary of his work, 416; of his works analysis by himself up to 1858, and up to 1864, (i) p. 2 References to : his theory of torsion misinterpreted by Wertheim, 805 ; his results for prisms on rectangular base
Ttiblett,-* bi<><irnjthi<inffi,

coefficients

homogeneity .in l-j.'i memoir on distribution of elasticity round a point l-jr.l.vj; notes on elastic
;

(1861). 11:*; kinds of elastic

memoir on

line of rods of
l~>5;

double curvature (1863),

rolling friction

memoir on
;

note on strain-energy due

to torsion (1864), 157; notes on kinematics of strain (1864), 159, (1680)

loss of energy

294; annotated edition of Navier's Lemons (185764), 160199; note on by impact (1866), 201, Ju'j; memoir on longitudinal impact of bars (1867), 203219; notes on longitudinal impact (1868), 2212, 297; 223, (1882) 2956, (1868) utions to Moigno's .s'Mf /'/ -229; memoir on amorphic bodies (1868), 230232; papers on plasticity (1868), 233, (1870* 248, -.Ml. -J to -257, (187S) 258264, (1875) 267 ; note on stresses for large strains (1869), 234; note on application of potential of second kind nu> to elastic equations moir on initial stress, strain and distribution of elasticity (1871), 237 _M1 papers on loose earth (1870),
i
:

confirmed by Wertheim's experiments, his suggestion of method of 807 approximation in theory of pulveruience, 1599, 1612; his report on Boussinesq's theory of pulverulence, 1619; his theorem as to maximum slide, 4 (5), 1604 his stress-strain relations, assumed by Kirchhoff, 1262, 12857, cf. 135960, attempt to demonstrate by Boussinesq, 1421 i ; his results for helical springs given by Thomson and his problems of torsion Tait, 1693 and circular flexure dealt with by Thomson and Tait, 1710, 1712; application of his theory of rupture to torsion and flexure of cast-iron, 1053 Sniiit-Venant's Problem, so called by Clebsch, 2; treatment of by Clebsch, 1280, 133245, by Kirchhoff, 1280; = ^=^=0, arguthe assumptions ments in favour of, 316 Boussinesq
; ;

'

'

on, 317, 14214; case of buckling,

Poisson and rods, 316

S<in<i,

objections to in 318; Kirchhoff, Cauchy on flexure of

slope of natural talus of, 1588; experiments of (i. H. Darwin and theory of Boussinesq as to thrust of, 160911, 1623

reports

and analysis of

others'

work, on I-.vv (18701),

Lefort

2423: on on Boussinesq

Sandblast, its method of action a bable theoretical explanation, 1538, ftn.

: see Stone I///. /:. free vibrations of linear systems of elastic bodies, 615 Sapphire, hardness of, 840, 836 (</) pupil of Saint- Yi-nant's, 416; Saint-Venant's views on his theory of li^-lit, 265; his equations for doublerefractive medium, 1476, 1559 his experiments on torsion, 31, ', his results for nodal lines of circular plates tested by KirchhofTs theory, 1242 (6) his views on vibrations of rods

S<i>i<ktone
N.I
,

', (1884), 1619: on Tresca notes on thermal vibrations

268,

271274
(1H78)

papers on atoms
(1884)

'.

275280,

408; note on shear (1878), 270; memoir on elastic coefficients (1878), 281 284; memoir on torsion of prisms on banes in form of circular sectors (1878), '285290; annotated edit..... of Clebsch's Treatise 298 (1883), 1325, 400 memoir
;
<

graphical representation of longitudi <i), 4017; posthumous memoir on the graphical representation of the laws of the lonr nal and transverse impact of ban
(edited dear

IT.'.

Schejfler, 7/.,on strength of struts, beams, etc. (1858), 648-50; on stren

tubes (1859), 654of .Lull.

I.

Mipp.MtmH8,

\\.ilN iiu.l

ii,.

11

work

by Flamant 1889), 410-4 uc* of life and by Phillips. Boussinesq and

(1857),

reas*d

strength of beams due to their terminals (1858),

9445

INDEX,
0., on form of chains for suspension bridges, 579 Schneebeli, his experiments on stretchsqueeze ratio, 1201 () Sch ni re h, F. .experiments on the strength of wrought-iron and stone (1860), 1133

remarks on nature and relation of stretch and squeeze sets, (i) p. 547,
ftn.
;

torsional, increases elastic resist;

Sch'oneiminn, C., effect of temperature and of rivet-holes in reducing strength of plates (1858), 1127
Schrntter, A., on crystalline texture of iron and effect of repeated torsion
(1857), 992
Schiibler,

ance of soft-iron, 810 its relation to load in flexure of bronze, cast-iron and cast-steel, 1084 at first set-strain curve is linear, afterwards regular but not linear, 1084 5 due to flexure,
;
;

exhibited by drawing lines on

lead,
;

beam

of

1119; produced by repeated heating of cast-iron, 1186 effect on

thermo-elastic properties of the metals,

1645 (B), 1646

Ad.,

(1857, 1870), XflncarZy obscure theory of struts, 956 Schwedler, on braced and latticed girders (1851), Scoffen, J., on useful metals and their

8879

on bridge-construction

10045

alloys (1857), 891 Scoresby, Jr., effect of hammering, bending and twisting on magnetisation, (i) p. 564, ftn. Screwing, old dies weaken bolts less

than new, 1147

Screws, strength
of,

966 7 ing, 967

of,

wooden

905, 1147, of thread give way by shearof,

Sealing-wax, 1667

rupture surface

810,

Sbert, on impact of elastic bar, 341 Seebeck, on transverse vibrations

;

s'Gravesande, his method of finding stretch-modulus, 1289 Shadow, absence of when wave length of incident ray is great compared with size of reflecting object, 1409 (iii) Shear, appropriated by Eankine to stress, 465 (a) used by Thomson and Tait for strain, 1674 elastic constants in its expression in case of plane of elastic symmetry reduced by rotation of axes, 4 (0) ; elementary discussion of, 179 ; inadmissible theory due to Bitter, 915 (a) ; fail-limit for, 185 Hopkins' theorem as to maximum shear, 270, 1458, 1604 ; total in terms of bending moment, 319, 534, 556, 889, 1361, ftn., 1435 (a), in beam partly covered by continuous load,
; ; ;

of stretched elastic rods (i.e. stiff strings) 3 on vibrations (in Pro(1849), 471 firamm 1846), 474 ; contributions to Dove's Eepertorium (1842), 475; died 1849, 475 upon testing hardness of crystals, 836 (i) and (j) his error as to hardness of Iceland spar corrected,
; ;

557
of, Kankine on, 442 by Lam< and Kesal, 567 (6) Shearing Stress, Kankine, 468

Shear, Cone

used

Sheppard,
lines

Ii.,

uses
to

beam

of

lead with
set,

on faces

measure flexural

1119
Shift, definition of, 4 (a) ; large, with small strain, equations of elasticity for, 190 (b) ; large, elastic equations
for,

839
Segnitz, erroneous treatment of torsion
(1852), 481 Seguin (the elder), builds first suspension bridge in France (1821), (i) p. 622, ftn. St'guin, endeavours to explain cohesion by molecules attracting according to law of gravitation (1855), 865 Sellmeyer, adopts F. Neumann's view of dispersion, 1221 Semi-inverse Method, 3, 6, 11 applied to flexure, 9, 71 history of, 162 its
; ; ;

124450

strain-energy

for,

1256

integral tangential shift for strained and unstrained curve in solid, 1679

81
Shift-Function,

when

twist
of,

vanishes,

1681
Side-long Coefficients ( = plagiothliptic and plagiotatic coefficients), 1779 Silhcrmann, J. T., on elongation of scales of measurement (1854), 848 Silicum, influence on strength of castShot, work done by impact

916

(d)

justification, 189;

applied to plastic

problems, 264 Senarmont, his results for crystals referred to, 683, 686, 1219 and ftn. effect on stretch-modulus Set, 169 (b) and cross-stretch coefficients, 194 tiexural, 709 see also Bent; torsional,
;

1047 (c) amount of, after repeated meltings of cast-iron, 1100 Silk, after-strain in threads of, effect of
iron,
;

change of temperature on torsional

elasticity of, (i) p. 514, ftn. Silver, thermo-elastic properties, 752, 756 ; after-strain and temperature,

702, 709, 714: see also Tort; unaccompanied by change of volume, 736

INDEX.
stretch-modulus and density of, 824; ratio of kinetic* and hardness static stretch-moduli, 1751

533
;

756

of,

(i

.11.,

836

(b)

Similar ladies, similarly strained, how shifts and strains related, 1718 (a) Skewnesses, defined, 1776 (6); strainenergy, if they be annulled, 1778 ; hi UK of, in thlipsinomic coeffiSkin-t'liange, of elasticity, 169 (/); in iron columns, 974 (<) tenacity and h-modulus of cast-iron bar different at core and periphery, 169 (c)
;

effect of, on (/), 1111 strength of glass, 856, on ngth, 859

;

crushing
its tensile

element of bounding surface, 1506 nature of load that depression may be proportional to pressure. 1507 stresses and strains produced by pressing a rigid solid against the plane surface, 1508 13 when the rigid solid is one of revolution, 1510 (a), any rigid solid 1510 (b), rigid flat disc, elliptic disc, 1510 (c), discontinuity at edge, 1511 rigid surface pressing with a point of synclastic curvature on plane sur3 face of indefinite elastic solid, 1512 Solid, Elastic, heart/ and bounded In/ xlopht'i plane, stresses in, 1577 ; strains in, application to geological problem of massive slope of rock, 1583, 1589,
; ; ;

ftn.

(or

measurer of hardness),

Seebeck's, 836 (i ), Franz's, 838, Grailich

deflection of, 1174 Sli<l,; di-finition of, 4 (/3); Saint- Venant from changes cotangent to cosine of
slide angle,
; analysis of, (i) principal axes and ratio, 1674 ; value 4 in any direction, (5); Saint(ay/) of, Venant's theorem as to maximum of, in terms of stretch and 4 (5), !'( t squeeze, 4 (8) ; condition for failure by ); elementary discussion of, 17 ., \r.t\, 1459 ; flexural slide, 183 (a) ; slide and stretch in any direction first given
;

Solid, Elastic, of any shape, pressed by smooth elastic solid of any shape at

and Pekirek, 842 Slat,; >tivn-:th and

point of synclastic curvature, 1514 case of two elastic spheres, 1515 6

p. 160, ftn.

Solid, Elastic, infinite, subjected to bodyforce, 1519 ; general solution, 1519 (a), 1715 (6) ; single force on element,

1519 (6) body- force on spherical ment, 1715 (a)

;

ele-

Solid, Elastic aeolotropie, its equations reduced to those for an isotropic solid, if the ellipsoidal conditions hold and the cross-stretch and direct slide coefficients have a constant ratio, 1557 8 ; vibrations in such a solid,

by Lame, 226 for large shifts, 228 see Torsion slide due to torsion due to flexure see J tea in* and
; ; : ;
:

1559
Solid,

are; slide
isotropic

initial,

strain-energy of

body subjected to, /, Rankine on,

1

178795
_'

Slidi'-I.imit, in

terms of stretch-limit of
see

safety, 5

vibrations of various sources in oscillating partypes in, ticlep and doublets, 1767 9; equations of motion for case of incompressihilit y (= jelly) and their solution, 1810 Solids, Elastic of special forms: see
solution

Elastic, for

isotropic

and

inflnitf,

under Modulus

under name of form

lin.li-r,

i.e.

Sphert, Cy-

Snai'jiiii'i,

velocity of, 219 oVtincil, H)6 (a)

.././/

etc.

Sound,
\\

effect of

Resistance: see Rt*i*t<

h v it is

on magnetisation. Ml: checked by pulverulent mass

I.V.W. ftn.
/. (is.
;

once. Solid* of
Solid,
,

like
s,,nnd.

sand or sawdu>t.
r,-l,:-itii

10-j.

i,,,,md,',l

l>!/

f
t<>

",
to

stresses

value for bar, 202

bodies, 483
;

in liquid

219; proof of an
.

and

strains due

simpl*- pressure

on

l.-iiM-nt (if suri.-i

nrfacc

deflection
i-e

anv di*tn tuition of pressure, 1408; approximate due

;

solution, 1498

surface deflections for

resflureunit
i

round

uniformly loaded circular areas, 1501 2 ; circular areas with load tl along radius, l.'.oi uniformly deareas, proHned circular an 1604 ; effect of shear applied to Kinall
; 1

comparison of magnitudes iii.l. liiMtrly great and in a limited 6 in rods and elastic solid, 435 to Hank inc. 487 8; prisms according - value determined for in ir< longitudinal vibrations of metal rods increases with length of rod, 888; numerical Tallies for metals, 694 rods and string, Sound 471-5 torsional, 808 ; according to Wertheim in tomional. pitch depends
;

534

INDEX.
Phillips' formulae, 921, ftn.
;

tensile and crushing Spermaceti, strengths increased by solidification

Ritter's

under pressure, 1156 Sphere, of gravitating liquid, period of free oscillations, 1659; comparison with period of ellipsoidal deformation of solid globe of steel of size of earth,
1659
Sphere, Solid Elastic, or spherical cavity in infinite elastic solid with given surface shifts, 1659 Sphere, Solid Elastic, radial vibrations of,

elementary theory, 913 Blacher on, 955 general formula for deflection of carriage springs, 371 (ii)
;

Springs, of Railway Stock <ind Jinjferx, resilience of, 595 7 deflection, set
;

1327 surrounded by shell of different material subjected to surface pressure, 1201 (d) Sphere, Solid Inelastic, \vH\\ non-slipping oscillations of rotation and translation
;

and bearing springs), 969 (a) ; india-rubber springs, 969 (b); 'grooved' plate spring, 969 springs formed of alternate discs (c) of iron and vulcanised caoutchouc, 851 ; deflection and set of various types of railway springs, 969 (c) (d) and strength
(buffing
;

Sprinfis, of single fiat

Lamina, forms taken by when variously loaded, 1694

and

ftn.

medium, 1308 10 reflecting waves in an infinite elastic medium, 13921410; special solution for case when wave length is great as compared with radius of
in infinite elastic
;

an

Springs, Spiral, of watches, their isochronism, 676

6749;

Springs, Helical, Kirchhoff s treatment,

sphere, 14079 Spheres, Solid Elastic, impact of, area of contact, duration, etc., 15157, 1684 Spherical Coordinates, equations of elasticity in terms of, (i) p. 79, ftn.

Clebsch 's, 1365; 1693; results of Wantzel, Giulio, Saint- Venant, Hooke, Binet, J. Thomson and Kirchhoff referred to, 153, 155, 1693 Squeeze-Modulus : see Stretch-Modulus
(c)
;

12689, 1283 Thomson and

Tait's,

Spherical Harmonics, Solid, introduced independently by Clebsch and Sir W.

Thomson, 1395, 1397, 1651 Spherical Shell, conditions for expansion without distortion, the distribution of
elastic
;

Stability, criterion of, applied to prove uniqueness of solution of elastic equations, 1278 ; of small relative motions of parts of elastic solid, 132830; problems in stability of wires, 1697 Stability, of loose earth: see Earth, loose

and Pulverulence
Standards of Length, elongation of, 848 Steel, thermo- elastic properties of, 752, 754, 756; W. Thomson's thermoelastic theory verified by Joule for, after-strain and temperature, 696 756; effect of temperature on slidemodulus, 690, on stretch-modulus, 1753 (b) not rendered brittle by cold, 697 (c) ; hardness of, (i) p. 592, ftn. ; cut and cleaned by sandblast, 1538, ftn. may be cut by rotating iron disc, 836 (/i) ; stretch-modulus and density of (rolled, cast, wrought), (i) p. 531 stretch-modulus of English and Russian, 742 (a), 743; stretch-modulus determined by transverse vibrations, 771; stress applicable without producing set, 597 absolute strength and strength of stricture, 902, '1123, 1142 German, 1122 French experiments
;
;

homogeneity being spherical, 123 as a form of piezometer, 124 general problem solved by Sir W. Thomson in terms of solid spherical harmonics, 1051 8, 1717 (i), removal
;

of body-force, 1653, solution of general

equations, 1654, given surface shifts, 1655, given surface stresses, 1656, force-function a solid harmonic, 1658 under internal and external pressures considered by F. Neumann, 1201 (c), Kirchhoff, 1281, Clebsch, 1327; Love, Basset, etc. on general problem, 1296 of bis ; radial vibrations of, 551 (b) glass, strength of under external and under internal pressure, 857 9
; ;

Sprain, defined, 466, ftn. Springs, built-up of Laminae, Phillips'

fundamental memoir, 482 508 rolling-stock springs, matrix lamina, 485; curvature, strain and deflection, 485 action between laminae, 492 ; 90 resilience, 493; best form for, 494; shape of laps, 495 ; calculation of reserve 496 500 dimensions, spring, 502 4 ; experimental data, 507 experiments confirming Phillips' 596; theory, graphic tables for
;
; '
'

on, 897; rupture surfaces, 1143; effect of hardening in oil and in water, 1145; fracture of hardened, 1667; effect of magnetisation in producing effect of longitudinal strain in, 688
;

pull

on magnetisation,

field,

17289

effect

Villari critical of torsion on

magnetisation

of,

812

INDKX.
.SVv/,

535

BiMMMT,

strength of exaggerated

by shape of
1
1 '

test piece, 111*>

and

stress-strain diagrams for, dors' carves for , 1 190 ; tensile torsional strengths, stricture of
;

Iceland spar cited against Rankine's hypothesis of aeolotropy of den-ity in ether, 1781 his solution of equa;

Krupp's, lli:i; >tn-n^th ami ela when prepared by Uchatius' process, 1114 crushing strength of, 1039 (e) ; axles of, resistance to impact, 995, 1000; processes of manufacture, 891 (e) ; plat ex of, strength of, parallel and perpendicular to direction of rolling, 1130; elastic limit and structure of, 1130 annealing only slightly reduces strength. 11:50; effect of tempering, annealing, etc. on absolute strength, stretch, stretch-modulus, rupture
; ; ,

tions for vibrations of infinite elastic 1 ">_>; extension of his results for diffraction, etc., to aeolotropic medium of simple kind,
iiu-ilium reai-hed.
;

1560
Stolftow, on coefficient of induced magnetisation for soft-iron, 1314 Html,-, stress formulae and elastic constants for, 314; rupture of, 321 (ft), 1 ; empirical law for crushing strength of, 1175 ; strength in frozen condition, 1176; defect of Hooke's law in, 1177; important influence of manner in which faces of cube of stone are

elastic limit, resilience, Steel, Plates

Steel,
(

1134

see also

periments and formulae

for strength of,

I'ln t en,

978

absolute strength and stricture greater in direction of rolling, if puddled, converse if cast, 1142; if tod and hardened in oil, as strong as unri vetted plates, 1145 ; Liiders' curves in steel plates of dredger
buckets, 1190, ftn. and
(i)

frontispiece

Steel, Pmlilli'il. for links of cables, absolute strength of, 1132 Steel Wire, thermo-electric properties

during test, 1175, 1180; strength of, 880 (b), 1133, 1153, 1176, 1179; strength and deflection, 1174; crushing strengths and rupture surfaces of granite, limestone and sandstone, 1182 ; strength and density of sandstone, marble and granite, 1178, 1180 ; cracking and crushing loads of German stones, 1181 crushing and transverse strength of colonial stones, 1183; crushing strength of Iri^h Basalt, 909, of American stones, 1175, of colonial stones, 1183, of Italian
;

bedded

under

and working, 1646; stretch-modulus and density of, (i) p. effect of tort on moduli, 17V,
strain
;

rftumt, of English and French experiments, 1175 Stn?ij, }:. />'., on strength of long on lattice pillars (1864), 977
;
;

stones, 1184

Kirchhoff's determination of stretch*

absolute squeeze ratio, 12713; strength of, (i) p. 7 ":*. ftn. pianoforte, i absolute strength of, 1 general equations of a vibrating elastic medium (1857'. insverse vibrations of rods (1859),
; 1 _'

(1H62), Storer, II.

102930
R.,

on bursting of gutta-

616
-on, U., on neutral axis, 1016; experiments on cast-iron. Sttfnett, denned, 466 (v) how it affects note of musical string, 472 3, .;7 I. h<>w it affects note of membrane, 1439 J. D. M /, iiRvene and tensile strength of oast- and wrought;
l
1
:

percha tubes (1856), 1160 Strain, pure, definition of, 1677; appropriated by Rankine to relative iliplacement (1850), 419; homogeneous, Thomson and Tait on, 167280, Kiivhhoff's treatmcn resolution

of

stretch,

slide

homogeneous strain into and dilatation, 1675,

;

combinations of pure strains, 1678

general analysis of, Saint- Veuant, 4, Boussinesq, by simple geometry, 1466 9, in terms of |>iiu<i|>:il stretches, 1575 ; components of, might be taken
us the stivtrhi'* Hi the >|\
r.U'.-s

of

;i

1:,

Stoke*,

f Sir O. (J. his views to elastic constants by HaintVenant, 198; first calls attent; difficulties of nm-constaucy, 17 V his doctrine of continuity, !!'

..son's tetrahedron, 1640; s. general analysis of stress and strain, types of reference, orthogonal systems, 17668, principal strain types,

load, 372, solnt,

results for bridges subjected to rolling ; comparison of his

8789

generalised expressions for comof, when shifts or strains are large, 4 (), 1*4850, 1446, 1661 ;
1
;

ponents

|M-|I||JUJ.-Mt.

tT.Vt.'M l.o.llr

|.||liill!\. !\

with Bonn-

laotropic,

deduction

of

ellipsoidal

sinesqX 1658; his ex peri menu on

slant linen.

536

INDEX.
from
rari-constancy

230 1; initial state of, in general of error Saint237 equations, Venant's method of dealing with on multi-constant lines, 2389, 1469 apparatus for recording automati1032; directions of cally, 9989, maxima and minima rendered visible by applying acid to a planed section, 1143, ftn., 1190; graphically analysed by aid of Liiders' curves, 1190 and ftn.
;

by

Lagrauge's

spherical condenser, 1318; in isotropic iron-sphere due to magnetic force, 1319 21; effect of strain on thermo-electric properties of metals, 1642 6; thermal effect produced by sudden strain, 68996, 1638, 17502 Strain, Combined, slide, flexure and torsion, 50; of prism of elliptic crosssection, 52 ; case of two equal stretches, two slides equal and third zero, 53 case of two slides vanishing at failin
;

process, 229, 667; when products of shift-fluxions are not negligible, or shifts are large, 1250, 14446; when thermal terms are included, 1200; is of two kinds, elastic and ductile, the sum expressing total resilience of body, 1085, 1088 ; ductile strain-energy erroneously calculated by Mallet, 1128 of rod, 1261, 1266, 1268, 1283 (b) of plate, 1237,1296, 1699, 1703; of wire (or thin rod), 1690, 1692; for infinite elastic medium, with zero shifts at
;

infinity,

1787,

1812

3, ftn.,

form
1789 1812

initial

when incompressible, when subjected to unislide and incompressible,

and
for ideal ether,

97

for jelly

point, elasticity asymmetrical, general solution for prism under flexure, traction and torsion, 54 case of non-distorted section subjected to slide and torsion, 55 ; case of cantilever, 56, Case influence of length of short rect(iv) angular prisms on resistance to flexure and slide, 56, Case (i); prism of circular cross-section subjected to flexure, torsion and traction, 56, Case (iii), of elliptic cross-section, 1283; flexure and torsion in shaft, 56, Case (v); torsion and flexure for prism of rectangular
; ;

his experimental values of nodal circles of circular plates tested by Kirchhoff's theory, 1242 3; his views on nodal lines of square plates criticised by Muttrich, C. et A. p. 4 Strength, ultimate ( = absolute), 466 (i), Proof, 466 (ii) limit to, a stretch rather than a stress, 5 (c), 321 (a), 321 (d), 1327, 1348 (g)(h), 1386 (b), 1720; in hard solids, 1667 in plastic solids a shear (? a slide), 236, 247, 1586, 1667 tensile, how related to density, 891 (), 1039 (a), 1086; increased by repeated stress, 1754; increased by straining up to rupture, 1125; measured by ought to be measured resilience, 1128
Strehlke,
;

cross-section, 57, Case (vi) special cases of skew loading, 58; flexure and torsion of prism of elliptic cross;

section, 59; numerical examples of combined strain, 60 flexure, traction and slide, 180; torsion and flexure, 183 traction and flexure, 1289 traction and shearing in case of axles,
;

by breaking stress per unit-area of section of stricture, 1150; tensile and cornpressive increased by solidification under pressure, 1156; crushing, of stone increased by lateral support, 1153, 1180;
of
;

for iron

and

steel

tensile,

1000
Strain-Ellipsoids, 159, 1194, 1673, 1677; inverse strain ellipsoid, 1676; Sir W. Thomson's strain ellipsoid, 1756 Strain- Energy, first legitimate proof that it depends only on strain and not on manner in which strain is reached, 1641; function only of initial and final configurations if equilibrium of

wrought-iron cables, 879 (e) tensile and crushing of glass in various conditions and forms, 8546, 85960;
ratio of tensile to shearing for iron, 879 (d), 903, 966, for steel, 1145 (ii); transverse or flexural, 920 ; of beams under flexure produced by skew-loading, 65; graphical tables in case of beams, 921 and ftn. ; strength of

materials used in construction, views and theories of Ortmann, With, Gras-

temperature maintained, 1463; as quadratic function of strain-components, 1254, 12778, 1709 (c) ; in terms of orthogonal strain-components, 1759; in terms of principal strain 1 in terms of principal types, 1760 stretches, 1235; in terms of stresses,
;

hof and

Bomaen, 922 5 (see on transverse strength, Beams, paradox in theonj of, Iron, Cast, Iron, Wrought, etc. ) torsional, with empirical stressstrain relation, prisms of circular and
;

when elasticity is ellipsoidal, 163; expressed symbolically, 134; deduced

(b) and mutual relations of tensile, transverse, torsional and crushing strengths

rectangular cross-section, 184

(c)
;

in cast-iron, 1043, theory of,

10512,

INDEX.
application of Saint- Venant's theory to Woolwich experiments, 1053: see also Rupture

537

Hooke'sLaw, generalised; practically assumed to be linear by Cauchy and Maxwell, 227, by Kirchhoff, 1235, by

appropriated by Bankine to dy-

namic aspect

of elasticity. iifrallv ailojitfil in this sense in how defined by Sir 1855, 1632, ftn.
J

W. Thomson, 1756;
Venant, 4
cU-tinitioi!.
4, 11
'.i

(c),

itimi of,

defined by Saintby F. Neumann, 1193 importance of molecular

;

.-nil

analysis of,

why linear, 192 (a); Moriu's experiments on its linearity, 198 (a); how deduced (Green, Clebsch, W. Thomson, Stokes), 299 ; appeal to Taylor's or Maclaurin's Theorem and to law of intermolecular action, 300, 1635 Saint- Venant considers it from Green's stand-point, 301 his omitted
Clebsch, 1326;
; ;

8,

by simple geometry, 1 r>> in terms of principal tractions, in any direction in terms of

I,
:

Saint- Venant rejects modifying action, 303 4; for wood,

terms,

3023;

stone

and metals with empirical

for;

stress in three non-rectilinear direc-

mulae

for the elastic constants, 314

symbolical representation of, 132; generalised components of, 1 -.'I'). 11156; value of, on rariconstant hypothesis, when squares of shift-fluxions are not neglected, 234; may depend on speed as well as magnitude of strain, 1709
(e);

.4

non-linear for cast-iron, 729,935, 1109, 1118, 1177, for wood, 1159, for stone,
1177, for combined tensile and torsional strain in steel pianoforte wire, 171'2 (n), for elastic fore-strain in

Stress, Accumulation of, due to vibrations, 970 and ftn.,' 992 and ftn.,

caoutchouc, 1161, for elastic forestrain in organic tissues, 828 35; application of Saint- Venant's nonlinear relations to flexure of cast-iron, 1053
(a),

and torsion

1001, 1143
Stress-Centres, used by Rankine, 465 by Bresse, 515
Stress-Ellipsoids, 513;
(6),

Neumann,
by Sir

1194,

discussed by F. by Clebsch, 1326,

1756; Stressdirector Quadric, in tangential coordinates, 1326 Strest-l-'.<innt'mn*, obtained, when there is a force-function, for elastic, plastic and pulverulent masses, lf>n solved in case of limiting equilibrium, 160
Stress, Initial, general elastic equations l:u introduced into general for, 1'J.t
;

W. Thomson,

expressed by curves, for iron, 879 for bronze, cast-iron and castform of relations for elassteel, 1084 7 tic, fluid and pulverulent masses, for various types of elastic symmetry, 117, 314, 420; for crystals: see Crys; 1
~>

tals

unification,
anti-barytic

and abarytic, 458; horaalotatic, 459 homalocamptic, homalostrephic, and euthygrammic, 461 and ftn.
;

Stress, r:ii/'l>ni'ir, general

formulae

for,

elastic equations to

second order, 549 can only be found on rari -constant

;

465 (&) (c), 1563, 1578; combination of stresses in one plane, 465
Stress,

hypothesis.
r

130

131;

ffiVct

of.
1

in
l~>

on propagation of

light,

Kopytowski on, 556 II <///,./, defined, 466 (x) ix stn-ti-i.. r ) in any direction, 4
(c)
;

use of by F. Neumann to explain double- refraction, 1216 7; made use of by Boussinesq for ether. 1467 74 ; use criticised by Sir W. Thomson, 1779, but afterwards used by

made

(ft), 5 (6), 1575; stretch and tli any direction given by Lame, 226 ;

for

felgt Shift*, 228,1445 .v ;</,// I. hint of Safety, 66,

3201:
.

see Limit

him

to explain double-refraction, 1789 97 ; considerable strain produced by,

of
h

-Mod nl H*

see Moduln*

effect

on

elastic formulae, 190; Saint-

h-Moduln,
/'>

151,1206

Venant'a erroneous determination of equations for, 198 (rf) ; introduced into equations of elasticity, 282; effect on elastic constant*, 240; on stretch* modulus, 241; in large castings doe to differential cooling, 1068
Stret*,

Ratio,

(- Poisson's value of, 169 (</) ; for wood, 169 (d) ; Clebsch, and at one time Saint- Venant, held it most be < 4,
}),

808
of

(b)

determinate from distortion

in
ftn.,

cross-section

flexure

experi-

Principal, in beams,
see also

ments, 786 and

determined by

468, 1190
Stress-Strain Relation*. 4 (f):
I,

Wertheim by stretching hollow prisms, 802; Wertheim on his value for it,

IT.

II.

80

538

INDEX.
Boussinesq's work, 1626; of Sir \V.

819; erroneous treatment of by F. Neumann on its Wohler, 1003 value and on methods of ascertaining it, 1201 (a), (b) and (e), he found it variable for wires, 786 ; its value for of r<'sttin<' regular crystals, 1208; experiments to find this ratio, 1201 (e), 1636; Kirchhoff's determination 3 its value for steel and brass, 1271 may vary between wide limits and yet
; ;

Thomson's, 1818
Uri'ltjes:

see

B //<///<*,

Sus-

hardness

of,
,

840

used to express stress symbolically, 132, 443 Symbolic E.r]>ressions for stresses, strainenergy, elastic constants and equations,

1324, 4438
;

give nearly identical results for notes and nodal circles of circular plates, 1242 3 ; its value for set at section of stricture in case of cast-steel, 1151 see also Constanta, Elastic Stricture, of cast-steel. 1113, 1134, 1151 of wrought-iron and steel, 1137, 50 ; may occur at one, two or three sections, 1144 ; effect of working and hardening, etc., on, 1145 influence
: ; ;

Symmetry, Elastic, types of, orthotatic and cybotatic, 447 rhombic, 450 hexagonal, 450; orthorhombic, 450; orthogonal, 450; cyboid, 450, 1775; see non-axial, 450 isotropic, 450
; ;
:

also Crystal, Aeolotropy Szabo, J., influence of stress on the molecular condition of bodies (1851),

861
Tacke, on strength of earthenware pipes, 1171 Tait, G. P., Treatise on Natural Philosophy: see Thomson and Tait; experimental results on compressibility of water, mercury and glass, 1817 Talc, hardness of, 839

on

plastic

experiments, 1569

when

repeated, occurs at different sections

and higher loads, 1754 Strings, obscure treatment by Mainardi, 580 ; inextensible and flexible, heavy,
1322, under centrifugal force, solution in elliptic functions, 1322, on a given surface, 1322 ; elastic and perfectly
flexible, 1323; flexible and inextensible (Thomson and Tait), 1686 ; vi-

brations of, 551

(a),

when

stretched
of,

and of variable density, 617; point

1222

Tanakadate, effect of twist on magnetised and loaded iron wire (1889), 1735 Tangential Coordinates, used for stresssurfaces, 1326 Tasinomic, Coefficients, table of, 445
conditions
for

subjected to transverse motion, 681 ; F. Neumann's deduction of equations

wave-motion in, (a) (b) and refraction of wave at join of two diverse pieces, 1222 (c)
for,
;

reflection

transverse

vibrations

stretched, 1291 (c), tightly stretched, 1291 note of, how affected

when slightly 1374 when very

;

incompressibility in terms of, 1779; Surface or Qnartic, expressed symbolically by Bankine, 446, 136; first given by Haughton, 136 cases of, 138 ; reduces to ellipsoid, if there be ellipsoidal elasticity, 139; discussion of, 198 (e) ; Bulk-modulus,
;

(d)

musical
stiffness,

1776
Tate, J., on collapse of globes and cylinders and on strength of glass (1859), 85360; assists Fairbairn in experiments on collapse of tubes, 984

by

4723,
Struts,

1374, 1432

Bankine on Gordon's formula, Scheffler's theory of, based on eccentric loading, 649, modified form of this theory leading to the GordonKankine formula, 650 obscure treatment by Schwarz, 889, 956, by
469
;

Bitter, 914 ; thrust taken into account in rod problem, 1288 ; Clebsch's treat-

Tearing, defined, 466 (a) Technical Elasticity, Saint- Venant's researches in, (i) p. 105 et seq. ; Clebsch's work in relation to, 1325, 1390 Technical Researches, of decade 1850
60,

8731190
of,

ment, 13667, 1386 (e) buckling or not, under longitudinal impact, 407 cast-iron do not obey Eu(2), 1552 lerian theory, 1117 (v) see also Columns Sturm, his theory of piezometer referred to by F. Neumann, 1201 (c) Summary, of Saint- Venant's work, 416 of the decade 185060, 1191 of the older German Elasticians, 1416; of
; ;

Teinometer, Chromatic, principle

used

by

Wertheim,

794,

(Dynamometre

Chromatique) 797 (e) Tellkampf, his treatise on suspensionbridges (1856), 883

Temperature and Elasticity: see Thermal

Effect

and Heat
effect

Tempering,

on

elasticity

and

strength of cast-steel, 1134 Tcnbrinck, on steel, 897 ; on iron bar, 902

INDEX.
Tension 7?ar, heavy and of eqnal strength, 1386 (a)

Venant considers

all thermal effect would disappear if on the rari-oonstant

1

on longitudinal vibrations of rods (18589), 825 (a) (c); on the coexistence of torsional and transverse vibrations in rectangular rods, 825 (/) /, his account of abacs, 921. ftn. /, shape of specimen (gr<
,

hypotheses stresses only include linear terms in shift-fluxions -J7 thermal terms introduced into strain-energy, 1 !;:<. 1200, U',38; thermal effect on optic axes of crystals, 12189 and
;

etc.)

may

exaggerate strength, 1146;

ion;.

11~>1, 1086, 1189, 1154, 1158, 1180 Tests, for metals give very different refor different kinds of same metal,
ll.vj. 1153,

on strain in crystals, 1196, F. Neumann's theory of alteration of crystalline axes with temperature, 1216, 1220: see also Thermoftns.,

1211

elasticity

Thermal Expansion,

1014

(i),

1752

"A-x,

on technical

elasticity

and

Coefficient of, for brass, 730, for iron, 1111; supposed relation to stretch-modulus, 717 9

strength of materials, 873917 Thermal Axes, do not coincide with elastic and other physical axes, 12189 and
ftns.

FfciTMO-dlyiMMiat, Socoml Law of, general theory of elasticity deduced from,

1631
Thrrmn-i'Inntifiti/,

general

equations,

"rod need by stretching metal (iron-wire, cast-iron, copper, lead), 689; difference between cases of gutta-percha and vulcanised indiarubber, 689; by compressing metals and vulcanised india-rubber, 690; by torsion of steel and copper wires, 690 influence of change of temperature on length of silk and spider threads under '7 (b); on torsion of silk
;

deduced by F. Neumann, 1196, for crystalline bodies, 1197; fundamental formulae, 1633, 1638; formulae connecting sudden application of stress with increase of temperature, 1750: see also Thermal F./ect Thermo-electric f;/fecf, of strain, 1642 7 of stretching part of iron, copper
;

and other wires and heating junction of stretched and unstretched parts,
1642
electric scale

threads,

(i)

p. 514, ftn.

714 (17)_(19);

on torted wires, on strained bodies,

;

spiral springs, twisted wires, indiarubber, etc., 1638; on elasticity gene57, of a permanent nature, rally, 748 737, 7556, 771, of a transitory nature, 737, 7524, 770; on dilatation-modulus, 1638 and ftn.; on slidemodulus, 723 (a), 740, numerical values for copper, steel and brass, 754, for iron, copper, brass, 1753 (6); on stretch-modulus, 723 (a\. numerical values for glass and metals, 752, 756, 770, for steel, 1753 (6), comparison of Kupffer's and Kohlrausch's formulae, 752 4 ; influence of work-

changes produced in thermoby elastic and set strains, 1645; effect of working (hammering,
3
;

annealing, etc.), and of tort, It', n, Thi'rmnmeter, how affected by change of pressure from vertical to horizontal
position, 1201 (c) Thli]>*inomic Coefficient*, Rankine defines and uses. 425, 448; deteniiin.-d for brass and crystal glass, 425 ; table of, 448; used by Saint- Venant, 807, :u dilatation in terms of, 1779;
1
;

conditions
1
.

for

incompressibil

770 on after-strain, 740, tables metals, 766 7 produced by dami'liuing,

;

terms of, om as to helical Thomson. J spring rit.-l. l-J;u. 1693 Thomson, J. J., cited as to magnetisation unil.-r stress, 818, 1787; on Kirchhoff's theory of strain due to mu
Thom*<
malysis of
tli.-ir

vibrating rods at points oth< nodes, 827; on tensile strength of riv. >n plates and 1.-,-6, 1126-7; of a red heat on chains and wire ropes, 1186; from
i

p ay (1867),

16681726; twist and curvature, 166971; treatment of strain. 1672i

lu-Ilting

1111,1

sl,,wly

lua'i^tnw.-ulvrll

teel,

1145
<

ieated

wires

and

pact. rods,

16824 on catenaries, 168697 on plates,

; ;

heating on cast-iron is to produce set, 1186; MM Y.lluri ntical field for soft-

manner

in

which temperature

af-

fects elastic constants,

274; Saint-

the general eqr of elasticity and on elastic constants, on Saint- Venant's Problem and on stress at angles, 1710 8; on boundary conditions for plate, 171 1
.

16981708; on

362

540
on general solution by potentials,
elastic equations, elastic spheres, 1717 ;

INDEX,
etc.,

of

1715

on

on the

rigidity

of the earth

and

solid

earth tides,

171926
Cited:
bars,

on longitudinal impact of

and the wave theory of light (1884), 1765 83 on elasticity as a mode of motion (1882), 1784; on gyrostats and gyrostatic media (18834), 17856; on the reflection and refraction of light (1888), 17878; on initial stress to
;

(1683); apply conjugate functions to torsion of prism whose base is sector of circle, 285, 287 (1710); on kinematics of strain, 294

205

on anticlastic curvature, 325 (1671); on tbin plate problem,

(167281)

explain Fresnel's kinematics of doublerefraction (1887), 178997; on molecular constitution of matter (1890), 17981805 on a mechanism for constitution of the ether (1890), 18067; viscous fluid, elastic solid and ether
;

388; their solution for infinite plate with straight contour, 1522 3 on contour conditions for thin plate, 394,
;

(1890), 180815; on ether, electricity and ponderable matter (1890), 1816;

(1704); on elasticokinetic analogue, 1267, 1270 Thomson, Sir W. (Lord Kelvin), on mechanical representation of electric, magnetic and galvanic forces (1847

14401, 15224

of researches, 1818 refers to experiments on copper, etc., which Saint-Venant finds discordant, 282 (4); discussion of his views as to elastic constants by Saint-

summary

Cited:

and

1890), 162730, 180813; on integration of elastic equations (1847),

1627, 162930; on the thermo- elastic, thermo-magnetic and pyro-electric properties of matter (1857 1878), 1631 41 on thermo-electricity in metals in a state of strain (1856), 1642 3 on effects of mechanical strain and of magnetisation on thermo;
;

Venant, 193, 196 makes strain-energy a function only of strain, (i) p. 202, ftn. (see, however, 1709); criticises Eanon elasticity kine, 423, 426, 1781 (a) of solid Earth, 567, 570; on general equation of elasticity of any strain, 671; his thermo-elastic theory confirmed by Joule, 68993, 696; on
;

electric qualities of

1875),

16447;

metals (1856 7, elements of a mathe-

matical theory of elasticity (1856), 1648, 175664; on the stratification

of vesicular ice by pressure (1859), 1649; note on gravity and cohesion (1862), 1650; on elastic spheroidal
shells (1864), 165162; ity of the Earth (1863),

static and kinetic moduli, 728; his views on elastic constants for large strain cited, 1247; his generalised equations of elasticity involved in those of Kirchhoff, 1250 ; that strainenergy is a function of six-strains by reason of mechanical theory of heat, is due to, 1254 his contractile ether,
;

on the

16635

rigid;

on

the elasticity and viscosity of metals (1865), 1666, 1741; Treatise on Natural Philosophy (with Tait, 1867), 1668 1726; on electro-torsion (1874), 1727; effects of stress on magnetisation (18757), 17289; effects of stress on inductive magnetisation in soft-iron (1875), 1730; effects of stress on magnetisation of iron, nickel and cobalt (1878), 17316; on the direction of induced longitudinal current in iron and nickel wires by twist

1393, ftn. on elastic theory of light, 1484, ftn. ; first potential solution due to, 1628, anticipates Boussinesq in a certain potential solution, 1519
;
' '

(6);

introduces with Clebsch 'solid'

spherical harmonics, 1651 Thrust, of arches, Ardant's values for, C. et A. pp. 6 and 10 (d), Bresse's values, 5257: see Arches, Wall,

Pulverulence
Tides, in solid earth, force-function as solid harmonic, 1658 ; in polar coor-

produced 1723 (iii)

dinates, 1721; ellipticity of spheroid in earth by tidal action,

;

when under

longitudinal magnetising force (1890), 1737; on rigidity of Earth (1872), 1738; on internal fluidity of Earth (1872), 1738; on internal condition of Earth (1882), 1739; on aeolotropy of electrical resistance pro-

its discussion, 1724 ; effect of elastic yielding of earth on water tides, 1725; failure of attempt to evaluate effective rigidity from observation of fortnightly and monthly

water

tides,

17256

duced

by aeolotropic

stress

(1878),

Tin, stretch-modulus of, 743, and density, (i) p. 531 ; ratio of kinetic and static stretch-moduli, 1751
;

1740; Elasticity (article in 'Encyclopaedia Britannica,' 1878), 174164, 1817 Lectures on molecular dynamics
;

tensile strength,

ductility, (i) p. 707, ftn.; increase of tensile strength and density if solidified

INDEX.
underpressure, 1156; hardness of, (i) '->, ftn., 836 (6), sir,, (i) p. 707, i. molecular state of, influenced by vibrations, 862; thermo-electric
fti
;

.Ml

of torsion, 51, 581, 800, ftn.; that resistance of, is due to slide first stated

by Young, 51; combined with other

strains, 50; for circular cross-section, 1280: for elliptic cross- section, 52, ->3 for rectangular cross-section,
:

properties
is'

under

strain,

16456;

curves for bars of pure tin,

ll.M,

57, Case

(vi):

circular

section,

56,

Tinning, effect on strength of iron-plates,

1 1

r> (hi)

Cases (iii) and (v); elementary proof of formulae for, 109; of prisms with
in form of doubly symmetrical quartic curves, 110; eccentric axis about which bar is torted, does not affect amount, 110, 181 (d), 1434 (e): of right circular cylinder, 182 (a); strain-energy due to, 157; deduction of general equation of, from

see Wheel*
Ti**ot, on distortion of spherical surface in elastic solid into ellipsoid, 'J'.i i
tiu-ir rhistic

cross-sections

fore-

and

strain, 82"
Tiimlint'in,
//., on Villari critical field temporary magnetisation of nickel 0), 1736 hardness of, 840, 836 (d) history of problem, 315, 800; publication of Saint- Venant's chief

for

principle of work, 157; general equations of, elementary proofs for, 181; maximum slide and position of the
fail-points, 181

iiu-moir on, 1; report on memoir on, 1; general equation of, 4 (/c), 17; definition of, 16; in case of large shifts

and examples, 182;

182

and small

strains, 17, 22 ; of prism of elliptic cross- section, 18, 1283; com-

general formulae of railway rail, (b) ; of prisms with cross-sections bounded by curves of fourth degree, 182 (d)\ when cross-section nearly
(e)
;

an isosceles

triangle,

182

(d)

with

parison with Coulomb's theory, 19, criticised by Clebsch, 1349, afterwards used by him, 1389; variation of angle across prism's cross-section n quires lateral load, 20; fail-points solutions of equations of, '.; of prisms of rectangular crosssection, 25, 29; cross-section remains perpendicular to sides of prism under, 25 case of plate, 29 ; of square crosssection, 30; of any rectangle, general tn and empirical formula. iHsion of Duleau's and Savart's of prisms with crossexpt-i section in form of star, square with acute angles, square with round. *d
;
:

variation of slide-modulus across crosssection, cases of wooden and iron

186; numerical examples general equations of, 190 (d) ; of prism with only one plane of elastic symmetry, case of elliptic cross-section, 190 (</); comparison of \\Vrthrim, iMilrau ami Savart's experiments on, with theory, 191; producing pla>t >f prisms whose base is the sector of a -290: expression for
cylinders,
of,

187

<

>hitt,286: numerical table of torsioual

moment, 288: annular sectors, 288, 1710: on slide and fail-points, 289
90 formula giving very approximately
;

ilue

of

moment
by

of,

for great

angles, 37, sections, 39; uselessneas of proj angles in resistance to, 37; example of erroneous results obtained from old theory of, 38; of prisms of triangular cross-section, 40 42, 67; of prism of any cross-section, 43; when there are

and

fail-points for

toss-sections, 291;

tions

made

Saint- Venant

assumpand

reasons for them,

31618

theim's researches, angles of torsion not proportional to loads, even for elastic strain, 803 (c), not to length 803 torsion decreases

unequal

slide- in

oss-seotion,

ont-ral

equations
foi

of, in this case,

olution
-'83
;

loss-section,

for rectangular cross-section,

How prism formulae for diminution in case of uvular rvlindris without theoretical basis, 808 (<), also in case of rectof cavity in case of sheet-iron, 808; iuvordin- to \\.Tth. mi )u* ,\p,timentff for hollow and solid circular cylinders give better results for than ij = J. H04 ; of cylinders on of Saint-

(r/j;

47; other cross-sections, 48; table of of slide for point* of crosssection of prism with unequal slide<

moduli
US,

in

of
(a)

hollow-

49

(6);

cross section
of

*i

bound.-d by rmifornl

Hip*.'*, liil*;

railway rai nal stretch produced by, varies as cube

Tenant's

theory,

806;

experiments

542
on

INDKX.
Torsional Set: see Tort Torsional Vibrations, 191; how affected by resistance of air, temperature, weight of vibrator, 735 ; how influenced by traction, 735 (iii), 741 (b); how affected by after-strain, 7389, 751 in silk threads, how influenced (d)
;

hollow and solid rectangular prisms, use of Cauchy's erroneous formulae, 806, they confirm SaintVenant's theory, 807; of aeolotropic bodies (sheet-iron and wood), obscurely dealt with by Wertheim, 808; Wertheim's views of rupture by torsion in case of hard and soft bodies, 810 Clebsch's treatment of SaintVenant's Problem (combined torsion and flexure), 133246; symmetrical cross-section, 1347; solution by conjugate functions, 1348 (c) special case of torsion of prism with cross;

by

rise of

temperature,
;

(i)

p. 514, ftn.

subsidence of torsional oscillations in wires, viscous action, how influenced by longitudinal

traction, different vibrators, etc., etc.,

Wertheim on, 809

1743-8
Tort (=torsioual set), develops aeolotropy in wires and alters stretch- and slide-moduli, 1755; laws of torsional set, 714, 803 () (b) ; influence of temperature on, 714 (17) (19); its effect on thermo-electric properties of metals, 1646; electro-magnetic effect
of,

section
ellipses,

bounded
1348
1280,
(d)

by

two

confocal

(e);

Kirchhoffs

treatment of special cases, for circular

section,
for
elliptic

1283;
(a)

Boussinesq's

(6);

Thomson and

section, analysis, 1434 Tait's treat-

ment, 1710, conjugate functions and torsion of prisms with cross-sections like annular sectors, 1710; F. Neu-

702, 714, 709, 790

comparison of

and magnetic phenomena, 714; correlation of tort and magnetisation,

tort

mann's erroneous theory

crystalline
'

of torsion of

rods, 1230; Eankine on, 469; untenable theories of, Segnitz, 481, Bitter, 916 (c), bundle of fibres,' 481 (581, 800, ftn.), criticised by

Clebsch, 1349 Torsion, Experiments on, Duleau and Savart, 31, 191; Wertheirn, 191, 80310; Kupffer, 73541; on castiron shafting, 882 ; on impulsive and repeated loading on bars and axles, 9914, 999 1003; on cast-iron beams of various cross-sections, 1039 (d) ; application of Saint- Veiiant's (c) non-linear stress-strain relation to experimental results for torsion of cast-iron, 1053: see also Tort
Torsion, influence of flaws on, 1348 (/) ; Boussinesq on cavities in cross-section,

714 (12) (16), 8156; remarks on, 1734, 1737 Tortuosity, of curves discussed, 1669 71 Toughness, defined, 466 (iv) Traction, of prism with three planes of
elastic

symmetry, 6; of heavy prism, fail-limit for, 185 ; combined with flexure and slide, 180; its effect on
74
;

Tractions, traction

torsional vibrations, 735, 741 (b) Principal, expressions for and shear in any direction in

terms

of,

1277

Treadwell, D., on the strength of castiron pillars (1860), 976; on the construction of cannon by shrinking on

hoops (1857), 1075

Tredgold, erroneous theory for strength of cast-iron cylinders, 962 his modulus of resilience, 340 (ii), 1089, 1091 Tresca, Saint-Venant's report on Tresca's communications to Academy, 233; Saint-Venant's proof of his experi;

1430
Torsion, hydrodynamical analogues to, 1419 (c), 1430, 1460, 1710 Torsion and Magnetisation, torsion due to non-axial magnetisation of iron wire, 1727 ;' effect on magnetisation of loaded wires of torsion, 1734 5;

mental result as to coefficients of his principle that plasticity, 236;

plastic pressure is transmitted as in 60 his results do not agree fluids, 259
;

Wertheim's researches, 811 7; influence of torsion on temporary and permanent magnetisation, 814; influence of torsional elastic strain and set on magnetisation, 815 6; effect of impulsive and repeated loading by torsion on magnetic properties of axles, 994; Wiedemann on relations
of torsion to magnetisation, 714 (12) see also Trt (16) Torsional Resilience, 611
:

with Saint-Venant's, 262; recognises importance of plastic experiments suggested by Saint-Venant, 267 Saint;

Venant on the
is

theoretical
;

aim of his

researches, 293 considers that there a mid-state between elasticity and demonstrates the 244; plasticity, constant value of maximum shear
for plastic stress, 247; in plasticity, 1602 (c)

on problems on the (</);

INDEX.
action of a punch,
1511,
lf><'

poff's solution, 510,

' '

Boussinesq's so-

on

tii.'

(;

plat.

>,

iMi.-ity and strength of steel on the elasticity of 11:51:

11'>1
of,

aluminium.
history

C. et A. p. 5
of

(i)

see

lution by aid of potentials, 1485, by aid of spherical potentials, 1525 ; form of, when started by various types of elementary vibrators, 1767 9;

tmework
strength igthened by belts, t>~ collapse of tubes, used as boiler flues, experiments and empirical formulae, 982 4; bursting of, by internal pressure, 983; empirical formulae for collapse of, 986 7; bursting of gutta::i, 1160, of earthenware, 1171
i

about a fixed and rigid spherical sursimple tubes

and

face,

when

aeolotropic, 1764, there are three planes of elastic of medium obtained 594 a symmetry, by deformation of an isotropic me;

13921410;

dium, 1557
Vibrations, Stability of, in case of elastic
solids,

132830

eg,

Tubular 1015

H ridges und

Pipes
Girders,

1007,

Vibrations of Special Bodies: of <////>suitlnl shell. ~>14 8; of sphere, radial, _'7; of plates, 613, 12414,

1296 &w, 1300

tropic, 1415,

(6),

1383

4,

when aeolo-

geometrical discussed, hodograph 71 ; components of strain, for, 1669 expression of integral tangential shift in terms of, 1681
:

1462; of membranes, 551 (h), 1223, 1300 (c), 1385, when stiff, 1439; of rods, deduced from systems of particles, 550 1, transinfinite,

when

"'/.

defined, 466(</)
steel

verse,
i:i7-'

6146,8212,825. l.'x r_".H. -3, 1431, when loaded, 751 (c),

prepared by his process,

iin
t'nditlatory Theory: see Light and Ether t'ni-eonxtancy: see Constant*. StretchSijui'f'iHiiti'i,
lliiri-i-oiistaiu'i/,

etc.

I'nitjueness, of solution of

equations of
1240,

uy.
1-J7-

ll:,s,

1199,

Unicin,

II". C'., assists Fairbairn in exnents on collapse of tubes (1858),

759 (), 769, 77484, 1431, when cross-section varies, 1302 7, longitudinal, 823-4, 825, 1224, 1291 1431, torsional (for prism, rod or 191, 751 (d), 13731. 909, I'J'.'l. 1 l.U. subsidence of, 734, 739, 17448; of curved rods, Bresse's equation. of strings, 617. ,1. deduced from those of systems of particles,

550-1
\'ii-'it.

his experiments
Saint-'.

on rupture

cited

ttrnrtnm (1888), 1046

liy

880 on cohesive power of cements,

:u,

.nt

of,

use of in elastic
(i)

1168
I'iitnnl,-*,

problem
>n,

-9
defined,
p. 3.'1, ftn.;

used in theory of arches, 518

/,

on adaptation of suspensionbridges to railway traffic (1857), 1025 Villareeaujr, Y., on hydrostatic arch,
i. on relation of stress to magnetisation (lb-

of pressural

and

slide
*J

waves
di-

proved in elementary manner, elastic waves of various types in

vcrw? mati-riiils, Isl7

nilnn
1,

//. for

soft-iron
:

Vine, on statically indeterminate reactions, IP p.

ill/ft...

1733, for cobalt, 1736, for

L7M
and criticism of
\'n-tii.:

Iniiliography

memoir,
,

criticised

by Saint-

node of counting, 82:

sajoas' mode oi of compounding, 826;
u'ing
>le

and

thermal

effect

elasticity, Vticoti
ftn.,

427-9,

applied to theory of 667, 1195 /., equations for, 1744,

1809

constitution of metal, 1185,

1

tcncc of
verse,
H-J:,

il

and transverse

of torsional and transintluenoe of on msgnetisa,

-11; general laws of, 678

isotropic,
4.

lUukine'a form of solution,

</, 784, 748, 750; in conSir W. Thomson's fense, 1666; fosion of afu-r Htrain with frictional reaistance. 750, 1718 (fc). 174:i related to plactieity, 1748; according homson no simple law to Kir \\ between visooos resistance and strainvelocity, 1744 ; experiments on subai.

r>44

INDEX.
,

dence of torsional vibrations, 1744; effect of longitudinal traction, 1745; subsidence of vibrations in aluminium wires, 1746; influence of repeated vibrations on rapidity of subsidence, 1747; law of subsidence of range for undisturbed oscillations and for those
of different period, 1748; 'creeping back' influence, 1748; model elastic vesicular solid, vesicles filled with oil,

ratio of kinetic

and
;

static dilata-

tion-moduli for, 1751 compressibility 1817; resistance to stretching, of,

1709, ftn.

Wave, in rari-constant medium, 1213 4, in incompressible medium, 1215, in

crystals,

1216

8,

medium, 146974, 178997,

tropic elastic solid, 1764,

in initially stressed in aeolo-

17735,

if

1748 VMckers, on strength of iron-plates and boilers, 1126 Vogel, H., on dependence of stretchmodulus on atomic weight (1860), 717 Vogler, on graphic tables, 921 Voigt, TV., his experiments on and theory of impact of bars, 203, 210, 214; his memoir on multi-constancy, (i) p. 286, his experiments on stretchftn. squeeze ratio referred to, 1201 (e) first publishes F. Neumann's formulae for stretch-modulus in any direction
;
;

incompressible, 1775; presmral, how dealt with by F. Neumann, 1215 6,

by Boussinesq, 14713, by Sir W. Thomson, 17745, 1781: see also

Light, Refraction Double, Vibration* Wave-Front, possible forms of, 1475 Wave-Surface, 1472, 1483: see Fresnel

Wave- Velocity, of elastic, distortional and pressural, waves in infinite solid,

longitudinal in rod, 1817 Weber, E., on after-strain in muscle
(1846), 828

of regular crystal and for torsional resistance, 1206, 1230; his values of the elastic constants of rock-salt and
fluorspar, 1212 adopts F. Neumann's view of dispersion, 1221; his theory of luminous point simplified by Kirch hoff, 1308 10; his views on rays of light referred to by Kirchhoff, 1311; on non-fulfilment of rari-constant relation for regular crystals, 1780 Volkmann, A. W., on elasticity of organic tissues, experiments and controversy with Wundt (1859), 8315
;

Weber, G., on tensile and torsional strength of Krupp's cast steel (1855), 1113 Weber, W., effect of temperature in his experiments on kinetic moduli considered by Seebeck, 474 Weblike Aeolotropy, defined, 1776 (b); annulled, 17768; inconsistent with ellipsoidal conditions, 1776 (b) exists in regular crystals and certain braced systems, 1780 Wedge, very thin, transverse vibrations, notes, fail-point of, 1305 6 Weisbach, J., his Ingenieur-Mechanik (1846, 1877), 884
;

Volpicelli,

on

coefficient of restitution

(1852), 847

Wade, reports on strength of metals for cannon (1856), 103746; on hardness of metals, 1040
3
;

experiments

on cast-iron

cited,

937

(b)

Walls, thrust of pulverulent supporting, 1590 1 ; upper limits for thrust, 15989,
;

mass on and lower

16068;

approximate formulae for, 1611, numerical tables for, 1625 vertical walls with mass having horizontal talus, 16128, 1621 Wantzel, suggests form of solution of torsion equations in case of rectangular prism, 26; on elastic rods of double curvature, 155 ; his theorem of straight rod bent to helix by terminal couples proved by Thomson and Tait, 1693
(a)

Welding, best position for weld in links of chains, 629 difficulty of, in steel links, 1132, 1147; results of experiments on in iron, not conclusive, 1147 Werner, A. G., gave first scale of hardness (1774), 836 (d) Wertheim, bibliography of his papers and criticism of his work by Verdet, 820; report by Cauchy and others on his memoirs (1851), 787; (and Breguet) on velocity of sound in iron (1851), 785
;
;

on polarisation produced by compression of glass (1851), refraction artificially

786; doubleproduced in

crystals (1851), 788; second memoir (1852), 789 ; notes on currents induced by torsion in iron (1852), 790 ; memoir on the relation of elastic to chemical properties (1854), 791; on double-refraction temporarily produced in iso-

Warr, G.

F., his text-book of materials (1851), 874 Watch springs,

on strength

tropic

media,

etc.

(1854),

7927;

memoir on
on

6745

torsion (1855), 798 818; the compressibility of solids (1860),

INDEX.
819; memoir on flexure, 820; commits suicide (1861), 820
References to: on torsion, his ex-

545

subsidence of vibrations in, due to 'viscous' action, 1744 8

U'irr-ltope,

how weakened by
1136

heating,

periments and errors, 191 on caoutchouc, 192 (&) (e); (and Chevandier), experiments on wood, 169 (/), 198 (e), 284; Rankine on his hypothesis of X = 2/i, 424, tested by Kirchhoff's theory of thin circular plates, 1242- -3 his hollow prism method of finding stretch-squeeze ratio considered by F. Neumann, 1201 (6); his views as to
; ;

splicing, etc.,

// o/, with central line of double-curvature, Kirchhoff on helical, 1268 9 1 Thomson and Tait on helical, 1693 ; kinks in twisted and bent,

1670;

Thomson and

Tait's general

his values of kinetic moduli by Seebeck, 474 ; his experiments on influence of temperature on moduli referred to by Kupffer, 723; his value for stretch-modulus of gold, 772; his results for the stress-strain relation in organic tissues confirmed
set

and

theory, 1687 97; disregard distortion of cross-section and yet require it to reach torsional rigidity, 1687, 1691, really fall back on Bernoulli Eulerian theory, 1691; strain-energy for, 1690; torsion-flexure principal rigidities, 1692 ; principal helices, 1692 ; wire of equal flexibility as equable rotating joint, 1697 (a); wire with circular central line and plane of greatest flexibility inclined to plane of central line, bending of, 1697 (b) ; special cases of bending and rotating wires in form of hoops, etc., 1697 (i) (iii) ; see also

criticised

by Volkmann,

8312

Wi-i/much, his contribution to law of intermolecular action, C. et A. p. 1

Wheek,

tires of, flexure

and

when shrunk
t

on, 584

stress in, 8; Mahistre's

Rod,

SpriiKjn, etc.

obscure treatment of, 590 Wiebe, H. on strength of rivetted iron plates, 1121 Wiedeniann, G., on torsion, flexure and magnetism (1860), 706 15; on axes of electrical conduction in crystals, 1219; his treatise on electricity and magnetism cited, 818; on relation of stress to magnetisation, 1727, 1735 JH///V Problem, of rolling loads on bridges, 344, 372, solved byBoussinesq, inimot. 1.
I...

With, on strength of materials, 923 on strength of screws, Wittstein,

966
Wi'ihicr, A., initial

form of central

line,

that a bar

when loaded may become

straight (1853), 919; early experiments on repeated flexure and torsion of railway axles (185860). 9971003 ;

on

plate- web
;

and

lattice girders (1855),

report

on cast-iron ord-

nance
'

(1858),

104851

Wilson, J.,
(<*)

on 'grooved' plate springs,

on lattice girders and the form of bracing bars (1859),
.

/,

C'.,

distorted
.

on the strain and strength of links of chains (1858), 61841 ; on strength of flues, boilers, and flywheels (1860),

6427;

general equa-

tions of stress and application to special case of flexure (1860), 660 >n continuous beams (1862),

Wire, stretch-modulus and density of metals, 773, of brass, iron, steel and p. 531 ; tables of slide- and vant of isostretch-in
i
<

1017 cited as to effect of alternating load on strength, 407 (1) on hardness of diamond, IVollaiston, 836 (e) Wolten, G. on deflection of Flemish railway bridges (1856), 1020 )('<"/, thermo-elastic properties of< 694; variation of stretch-modulus of, across trunk of tree, 169 (/) elastic constants of, 198 (<), 282 (9), 308, 3123 stress formulae and elastic constants for, safe tractions for, 176; stretchmoduli of various kinds, 1157; strength 879 (<); tensile and crushing of, strengths, with and across fibre, deflections of 80 specimens, 1158, of 8000 specimens (including set and elastic strain), 1159 flexure of various
t ; ; ;

awing, tropy in, 12713, 16'.' decreases density, 1149, influence of, on strength, 1131; strength absolute, depends partly on first power and partly on square of diameter, 1131;

kinds, limit of elasticity (oak, beech), large beams have less stretch-modulus than small, 1157 ; rupture of, :< 2; torsion of wooden prism, 186; ban of, under flexure have increased subjected to traction, 918 ; d of cutting beams from tree, 1167; advantageous forms of wooden trusses, 1167 ; arches of, exi

546
;

INDEX.
sional resistance is due to slide, 51 ; his theorems on impact of elastic bar, his theorem in resilience, 340, 363 proved for flat springs, 493 (c), for his theorem for spiral springs, 675 maximum velocity of longitudinal impact, 1068, generalised for transverse impact on rod, 1537, for transverse
; ;

periments on, C. et A. p. 7 columns 880 Work-Function, Clapeyron's Theorem for work done by elastic forces, 608 deof,
;

duction
flexural

of

resilience

of

torsional,
;

springs, 609 in 11 ; expressed symbolically, 134 terms of stresses, 163 : see also StniinI-'.m'rtjy

and tensional

Working,
effect

effect

on

elasticity, 732,

1129

of rolling and hammering on stretch- modulus of brass and iron,

impact on plate, 1538, for longitudinal impact of truncated spindles and solids of resolution, 1542 Young's Modulus : see Modulus, Stretch
Zaboroicski, 3,, on cohesion (1856), 867 Zehfnss, G., deflection and stress for uniformly loaded, built-in circular plate
(1860),

741
(b)
;

(a)

effect of,
of,
of,

effect
;

on after-strain, 750 on modulus of gold,

;

probably accounts for effect of irregularity in set, 803 (b) in water and oil, suddenly hardening

772

nature

6579

cooling, cold-rolling, galvanising, etc. on steel and iron, 1145, its influence on density of iron and steel, 1149; its effect on thermo-electric properties of
,

Zetzsche, F., proper form for heavy column treated as 'solid of equal resistance' (1859), 656 Zinc, thermo-elastic properties of, 752,
after-strain and temperature, stretch-modulus and density of, 531 ratio of kinetic and static (i) p. stretch-moduli, 1751 fracture, tensile

metals, 1646 Wrenching, defined, 466 (a) Wring, defined, 466 (a), ftn. W. R. .R., on beams of strongest crosssection (1858), 951 Wundt, W., on elasticity and after-strain in moist organic tissues (1857), 829 30 ; controversy with Volkmann, 831 5

756 756

;
;

strength,

etc.,

of,

(i)

p.

707,

ftn.

Yellow Metal, strength of, 1166 Yield-Point, 169 (b); relation to FailPoint, 169 (g); is identical with Cavalli's limit of stability,' 1084 Young, first stated longitudinal stretch of prism under torsion varies as cube of torsion, 51; first stated that tor'

hardness of, (i) p. 592, ftn., (i) p. 707, ftn. ; rendered crystalline by transmission of heat, 1056 molecular properties of, 1058 ; thermo-electric properties under strain, 1646 Zoppritz, K., theory of transverse vibrations of a clamped-free elastic rod, loaded at free end (1865), 7749; theory of transverse vibrations of heavy rod (1866), 7801 recalculation of Kupffer's experimental results (1866), 7824 and (i) p. 531
; ;

CORRIGENDA AND ADDENDA

TO VOLUME
I.

CORRIGENDA.
Art. 922.

have used an expression in this article with regard to Weyrauch's contribution to the problem of rari-constancy which is undoubtedly liable to misinterpretation. It might be supposed from what I have written that Weyrauch had obtained rariI

constant equations on the assumption that the intermolecular action although central was any function whatever, e.g. a function of What he really 'aspect' or involving 'modified action terms.'
action

does (Theorie elastischer Korper, 1884, p. 132) is to take a central between two elements of masses and m, at distance

r of the form

R = mm
when-,
in his
>"'i

(F(r)

- 1) ........................
<1

own words

ganz allgenicin
(nurse
is

cine

Function

-rj

nigen

Grossen

bedeutet, welche neben der Entfrrnnng r auf

Einfluss nclnm-n."

Tin-

..r

something different from taking

'(/',

of

tin-

/) .............

Further,
,,
t

and
/,

tnr

it iu represents the value of t before strain or at tinnthe value at tiim /. Weyrauch assumes (p. l.U) that ili; material in the neighbourhood of the element may

CORRIGENDA.

be treated as constant and brought outside the sign of summation for elementary actions. This would be impossible, if i i were

due

to 'modified action/ because

the

modifying

elements (or

molecules) would be themselves in the immediate neighbourhood of ?H, and the modifying action would probably be a function of their distances which are themselves commensurable with the " linear dimensions of the neighbourhood of the element m." By taking R of the form (i) and not (ii) Weyrauch much limits i a constant for the generality of his results, and by choosing i the neighbourhood of an element, he practically reduces his (i i ) But even this may to little more than the temperature-effect.
serve to indicate that wider laws of intermolecular action than

that in which it is central and a function of the distance only be found to lead to rari-constant equations.
Art. 959.

may

buckling load on struts were taken from notes of mine in which 21 and not I was the length of the strut.
for the

The formulae

This, however, does not apply to the point of maximum traction or other results of this same Article. have with this correction

We

the following results for a strut of length

Buckling force

for

doubly built-in strut

Buckling force

for built-in pivoted strut

^
Eco
1

2-047

2-047
"-f-

Buckling force

for

doubly pivoted strut

CORRIGENDA.
I

much

regret that this error should have escaped

my attention,
the above

and

trust all possessors of the first changes in the text.

volume

will

make

Arts.

7956.

I have reproduced an error of Neumann's which I ought to have seen and corrected. The wrong signs are given to all the P in Art. 796. If these are corrected a quantities M,

negative sign before all the l/F's.

accurate.

must be

inserted in the second table of Art.

795
then

The

value of

l/E

in Art.

799

is

Arts.
' '

13923.
'

The word copper should be

replaced throughout by

brass.'

Art. 1467.

The form
the type.

of the

beam

section,

which

is

has dropped out of

Index,

p.

899,

Column

(ii)

and Arts.

81316.

The title Bresse has been inserted between Sevan and 7> when it ought to follow Brawn on p. 900, Column (i). There should
also

be a reference under Bresse to Arts. 813

16.

I find that

the

lithographed course of lectures there referred to is due to this scientist, to whom we thus probably owe the first theory of the
'

core/

ADDENDA.
Arts. 352, 353,

3545, 7456.

paper by A. Muttrich on Chladni's figures for squareplates appeared in 1837 in the Geschichte des altstddtischen
It is entitled: Gymnasiums. Dreizehntes Stuck, Kbnigsberg. Beitrag zur Lehre von den Schwingungen der Fldchen, and contains 8 pages and a plate of figures. Pp. 1 5 suggest practical

methods of supporting the plates, of setting them vibrating, and of keeping their surfaces dry and clean. Pp. 6 8 give Miittrich's conclusions and the grounds on which he bases them.

Two

of

them
I.,

in our Vol.
(i.)

Art. 354,

are opposed to Strehlke's views of 1825 as given namely Muttrich holds

:

Straight lines are possible forms for the nodal lines of

plates with free edges.

(ii.)

Nodal

lines can intersect

one another.
lies in

The experimental proof

another,

of these results

the demonstra-

tion of a gradual transition from one system of nodal lines to

when intermediate

stages
is

are

necessarily intersecting

straight lines. Miittrich's third conclusion

that the nodal lines themselves

are in a state of vibration and that only their nodal points are true nodes for the plate. It seems to me possible that this
oscillation of the nodal lines results from longitudinal vibrations in the plate which again are due to its sensible thickness, or to the mode of support and excitation.

Art. 937.

copy of Ardant's work which was printed as a separate publication by "order of the minister of war" has reached me since

ADDENDA.
tl
it-

.">

printing of Vol.

I.

The

title

is:

Ktude*

PS et exptri-

inentales sur tetulHssement des charpentes 1840. It contains .1 v pp. i

;

in

our

Vol.

I.,

Art. 937,

pp. vi

xvii

portee, Metz, the report referred to the text of the work

a grand*

pp. 1 liM
i

122, and concludes with five pages lJ7i of contents and twenty-nine plates of figures. It is

94; Appendice pp. 95

that the

work is one of considerable size, and as some possesses importance, I give here a resume' of its contents.
"l>vious

it

Chapter I. (pp. 1 11) briefly describes the origin and history of wooden trusses designed to cross considerable spans, more especially roof-trusses. These range from the 4th century
[i.]

roof of the

of Saint-Paul's, through the frame a la Palladio,' the arched truss of Philibert de rOrme, and the Gothic
Basilica

'

roof to the English truss with iron tie-bars, and to the arched forms common in France in 1840. Ardant gives at the end of the

chapter a

summary

of the conclusions he has formed

upon

tin-

comparative merits of arched timber trusses and trusses built up He believes the former to be very of straight pieces of timber.
interior to the latter in

latter

He

both economy and strength while the can be easily made to present as pleasing an artistic effect. holds the adoption of the former to have arisen partly from
;

the mistaken notion that a semi-circular arch produced little or no tin ust on the abutments, partly from an unreasoning extension
of the theory of stone arches to

wood and

iron

Dans

la

premiere de oes constructions, on utilise la pesanteur, la

relatives des pierres ; dans les seconder, c'est rigidite et I'inflexibilitl I'elasticite* et la cohesion ties parties qui sont les qualites essentielles
(p.

10).
it.

gives an account of the fifteen arches and frames .V H so large as 12*12 metres and rise so large as (with spans as \\hi.-h as well the were made, rx|-rinn-nt8 metres), upon
r

II.

apparatus
[ii]

\\ith

which they were made.

I

Chapters III,
t'-r
tli

and V.

cite the

theoretical results of

the Appni'lix il.u- arches and of a simple roof-truss of straight timber*

t

thrust

the load in the cases of

'I

G
thrust for the latter
former.
is

ADDENDA.
not materially greater than that for the is obtained by combining the two, which
:

Hence no gain
tirera

appears to have been frequently done in practice

de cette comparaison une conclusion assez opposed a de la Popinion plupart des constructs urs, savoir Que dans les cas ordinaires de la pratique, un cintre demi-circulaire
;

On

le re"unit

exerce autant de pousse"e que la ferme droite sans tirant, a laquelle on pour composer une charpente en arc ; et que, par consequent,

on pourrait, en augmentant 1'equarrissage de cette ferme, supprimer le cintre sans qu'il en resultat sur les appuis, une action horizontale plus
considerable (p. 25).

These chapters then compare the experimental measure of the thrust with that given by theory. The comparison gives an
accordance fairly within the limits of experimental error. Unfortunately Ardant did not make a sufficiently wide range of He cites an observations for the results to be quite conclusive.

experiment of Emy which led the latter to believe that circular arches had no thrust. He then considers experiments made by
Reibell at Lorient. These appear to be the only other important experiments which had been made on large circular wooden arches. An account of them was published in the Annales maritime* et
coloniales

22 e ann^e, 2 e

se'rie,

T. XL, p. 1009.

Reibell did not get

rid of the friction at the terminals of the arch,

but allowing

for

this

finds the corrected values of the thrusts agree well with his formulae (pp. 32 33). From this double set of experi-

Ardant

ments he draws the following conclusions

(a)

The

thrust of a semi-circular arch due to an isolated

central load never exceeds i of the load.

(6)

Whatever be the manner

in

which a continuous load

is

distributed along the arch, the thrust for a semi-circular arch never exceeds J to of the total load.
(e)

That

flatter arches

produce thrusts which are to those

which

arise in the case of a semi-circular arch in the ratio of the

rise.
is

half span to the

(/)

That the thrust

construction of the arch, when distribution are the same.

independent of the particular mode of its figure, dimensions and the load-

ADDENDA.

Chapter V. shews that the thrust-formula obtained in the Appendix for the truss with straight timbers, and without a tie, is
confirmed by experiment.

Chapter VI. begins with some general discussion on elasticity, the elastic constants and the coefficients of rupture. Ardant then cites a formula of the following kind for the deflec[iii.]

tion, /, of

a circular arch at the summit, the terminals being both

pivoted

P]
'
'

.V
'

J5W

where

2X is

moment

the span, the rise, the stretch-modulus, o>** the of inertia of the cross-section, the total load and a

constant depending on the distribution of the load etc. Here the arch is supposed to be of continuous homogeneous material and of

uniform cross-section.
deflections

Ardant now applies this formula to the he has found by experiment for his arches built up of

curved pieces or planks pinned or bound together. The results given in Chapter VII. he holds to satisfy this formula, provided

be given values depending on the nature of the structure, from J to f$ of its value for a continuous arch or beam of the same material.

The experiments even on the same arch seem to me to give such divergent values for E, that I think this method of exhibiting the
deflection

can only be looked upon as an expression of experi-

mental Ardant
without

With certain assumptions results for practical purposes. also obtains an expression for the deflection of a roof truss
tie,

built

up

consider this expression

justified.
fil

Ardant

I do not of straight beams (pp. 48 40). to be theoretically or experimentally proceeds at the end of Chapter VII. (pp.

68)

to determine the resistance to rupture of his arches.

to rupture a formula deduced from the theory of continuous arches on the hypothesis that linear elasticity holds up At best the theory c<ml<l only apply to the fail-point to rupture.

Here he applies

(i.e.

failure of linear elasticity) of

<>t

continuous arches.

like treat-

rupture leads to absurd it can har.lly be expected to give better results in the An. 1491 and Vol. II. Art 17^ case of arches: see our \.
of beams, so
1

ment

results in the case of the flexure

as

we might
r.

naturally rx|MTt

his "coeffiY

'varies
.'Hi

K.

IT. n.

ADDENDA.

from arch to arch, and its ratio in each case to the " coefficient of " rupture for a continuous arch is equally variable. The results however, of his experiments resumed on (pp. 67 8) are suggestive for the practical design of such arches and roof-trusses as he has

experimented on.
[iv.]

In Chapter VIII.,

it is

sufficient to notice here Ardant's

conclusion that the truss built

amount
II

of straight beams is for the of material stronger than the built-up wooden arch

up

same

semble d'apres cela que si les charpentes en arc conservent quelque avantage sur les fermes droites, c'est uniquement celui d'avoir une

forme plus graciense,

et de
1'

et que sous les rapports importants de la soliditS Economic, les premieres sont tres-inferieures aux autres (p. 75).

Chapter IX. gives methods of calculating suitable crosssections for the various parts of arches of the types on which Ardant has experimented. It also gives some attention (pp. 77
80) to the thickness and height of the masonry which will stand the thrust of a given roof-truss. It concludes with two numerical examples of the application of the formulae of the appendix to the
calculation of the dimensions of metal arches.

We now reach the Appendice, which is entitled Theorie [v.] de la flexion des corps prismatiques dont I'axe moyen est une droite This contains the first theory ou une courbe plane (pp. 95 122).
:

of circular arches

which attains to anything like completeness (see our Vol. I. Arts. 100, 278, 914), and it anticipates Bresse's later work on this subject see our Vol. I. Arts. 1457 8, and Vol. II. Chapter XI. for an account of the book referred to in these Articles.
:

We

note a few points with regard to this Appendix.

100 give the ordinary Bernoulli-Eulerian theory (a) Pp. 95 of flexure. On p. 98 Ardant speaks of the product of the stretchmodulus and moment of inertia of the cross-section (namely EO>K*
in our notation) as improperly termed the moment d'dasticit^. It is the moment de roideur of Euler (Ek* in his notation see our Vol. I.
:

'

This moment of stiffness,' Art. 65) or the moment of stiffness.' E<)K*, occurs so frequently that we have ventured to term it the rigidity of a beam. It follows from this definition that the product
' '

'

MHKNI>.\.
of
tin-

rigidity

and curvature

is

equal to the bending-moment.

Tims

for the

ries of

same value of the bending-moment the curvatures of beams vary inversely as their rigidities.
103 deal with rupture on the old
lines,
i.e.

(6)

Pp. 100

as if

linear elasticity lasted

up to rupture. thus only of value when we treat the 'coefficient of rupture' which occurs in them as the fail-limit.' Accordingly the Tables
'

The

results obtained are

on

for rupture-stresses are meaningless when applied to the On pp. 99 and 101 we have the formulae. flexure previous and fail-moment (here called moment de rupture) calcurigidity
p.

103

lated for

skew-loading or for the case when the load-plane does not pass through a principal axis of inertia of each cross-section To judge see our Vol. I. Arts. 811, 1581, Vol. II. Arts. 14, 171.
'

'

by Ardant's reference to Persy's lithographed Cours, the latter possibly did more for the theory of skew-loading than I judged from an examination of only one edition of that Cours see Vol. i. Art. 811. The value given by Ardant on p. 101 for the fail-moment of a beam of rectangular cross-section under skew-loading is incor:

rect, it applies

only to the case of square cross- section.

II.

The

true

value

is

given in our Vol.

Pp. 104

Art. 14.

elastic line

115 are occupied with a consideration of the under various systems of loading in the case of straight beams, besides a discussion of combined strain. The results
(c)

obtained are afterwards applied to various types of simple roof or Ige trusses, in which the members are supposed mortised and

not merely pinned at the joints. Ardant's treatment of these sea seems to me from the theoretical standpoint extremely
doubtful, and I should hesitate before applying his results even The remark in ::(-. to the practical calculation of dimensions.
107, on the sign to be given to a certain quantity is, I think, erroTh- ail -|..,iiit ..f a 1). -.-.in is not necessarily where the stress neous.
p.
t

is greatest,
!

ill

as Ardant like WeUbach (see Vol. I. Art 1378) holds. be at the point of maximum stretch, and this will be at the of the cross-section in tension or compression according as
:

load-point is outside or inside the whorl of the cross-section see Vol. i. p. 879.

10
(d)

ADDENDA.
Pp. 115

121 contain the theory of flexure of circular Ardant's work here was up to his date the most complete treatment of the subject, and his Table on p. 45 for thrust and deflection based upon this theory may even now be of
ribs or arches.

ribs with

He obtains the thrust and deflection for circular practical service. an isolated load, or with uniform loading distributed
rib,

along either the span or

when the terminals

of the rib are

He finds also for a complete semi-circle, that the points pivoted. of maximum horizontal shift are about 63 from the vertical. He
throws
all his results

he holds accurate enough

into very simple approximate forms, which for practice. I refrain from quoting these

theoretical results, because they have been worked out with greater generality and accuracy by Bresse in a work with which I shall deal
fully in

Chapter XI.

At the same time Ardant's

researches

must

be remembered

as an important historical link between those of Navier and Bresse. That the latter had studied them may be
I.

seen from our Vol.

Art. 1459.

will probably be importance. Experiments on such large wooden arches and frames have I believe not been repeated and I

What

have noted in Ardant's memoir

sufficient to

mark

its

it

will therefore

seems improbable that they ever remain of value, so

will be.
far

The

results obtained

as roof-structures of the

types with which Ardant dealt are concerned. In addition to the experimental data of the memoir I may mark Ardant's conclusion, that the same theoretical formulae hold for an arch of continuous
material and one built-up of bent pieces of wood or planks bolted or bound together, provided we reduce the stretch-modulus in a
certain proportion. Finally I have already noted the historical value of the memoir as a step in the theory of circular arches

or ribs. Art. 974.

Poncelet.
et

Cours de me'canique
les

ouvriers messins, pendant

I

industrielle, fait hivers de 1827 d

aux

artistes
et

1828,

de

1828 d 1829.
Metz, 1829.

Premiere partie. Pre'liminaires et applications. have procured a copy of this work since the
pages of prefatory matter, and 8 pages of contents at the end. The first
I.

publication of Vol. 240 pages of text,

It contains xvi

Ai>m:.M>A.

11

preliminary

14") sections agree with those in the third rditin by Kretz (1870). In the ApitUrtiux the Metz edition agrees fairly with Kretz's up to -< ction 197; after this it deals with the resistance and motion of fluids, thus containing nothing concerning

the resistance of solids to which the Deuxieme Partie of the 3rd

edition
/>s,

is

devoted.

The few paragraphs on the

Elasticity des

20, are thus all it contributes to our subject: see pp. 17 our Vol. I. Art. 975. The chief interest of the work is the place it takes in the origin of modern technical instruction.

Art. 1249.

A
may

further

memoir by Brix which had escaped my

:

attention

Ueber die Tragfdhigkeit aus Eisenbahnschienen ziisamniengesetzter horizontaler Trdger. This is an

be referred to here

offprint

from the Verhandlungen des Vereins zur Beforderung des

Gewerbfleisses in Preiissen, Berlin, 1848, 16 pages and a plate. Owing to some peculiar local conditions at a Berlin mill it

necessary to build bridges, of

rails

very small, over the mill-races. with flat bases (' sogenannte Vignolsche ') were placed base to base and used as girders. The bases were riveted together at short

was which the girder-depth had to be For this purpose pairs of railway

Experiments were made on the flexure and ultimate strength of two such girders in the one the bases were riveted close together, in the other there were placed at the rivets small
intervals.
;

The first part of the paper cast-iron. with an account of the experiments made 6) occupied (pp. for the details of which too individual to two these girders, upon to Th. I must refer the paper itself. much of be gen
rvening blocks
1
is

of

rupture, by shearing of the rivets, only seems to shew that the area of th< ri\. ting was very insufficient, as the load required to failure in a bar under flexure by longitudinal shearing is

produce

immensely greater than that required to produce

in the 'fibres,' the order of the ratio
..i

failure

by stretch

these loads being practically

that of

th.

length to

tin

diameter of the bar.

that specially due to Brix part of the paper of a beam (a) with both the flexure of the with deals theory with our t-nnin:il terminals supported, (6) supported and one

The second

12
built-in, (c)

ADDENDA.

with both terminals built-in the load in all cases being uniform and continuous and partially isolated and central. partially The treatment of these problems by the Bernoulli-Eulerian theory
presents no difficulties, but
absolute strength of
is
it

has long been

known

that the

beams under

flexure calculated

Art.

very far from according with experiment Hence there does not seem much 178).

by this theory (see our Vol. II.

value
in

the

numerical results given on pp. 12

experiments. assumes the
stretch

16 and based on the preceding

Two points in Brix's work may be noticed. He maximum curvature (which gives the maximum
fail-point) to

and so the

be either at the built-in end or

the centre of the

it

beam

in case (6),

but this

is

by no means obvious,

requires an investigation similar to that given by Grashof in Arts. 58 9 of his Theorie der Elasticitdt, 1878. Secondly, he shews,

I believe for the first time, that the fail-point for a uniformly loaded beam, either doubly-built-in or built-in and supported, is at the built-in end in the former case the bending-moment at the
;

centre

is

only half

its

value at the built-in ends.

Arts.

1180 and 1402,

ftn.

copy of Seebeck's paper in the Programm of the Dresden Technical School (1846) has reached me. It contains a good deal
of valuable matter, to
it

and I have taken the opportunity of referring with other papers of Seebeck's in the course of Vol. II.

Art. 474.

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