AED 316

INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL EXTENSION

A. E. ADEKOYA AND O. T. YEKINNI DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

AED 316 INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL EXTENSION General Introduction and Course Objective The lecture on AED 316 is designed to facilitate understanding of the environment as it concerns sustainable living. Sustainable living implies the need for people to live with the realisation to ensure enduring environment for people in future. It examined the components of human environment; the interaction of biotic and abiotic factors. It also examined the natural processes involving the components, equilibrium and relationships among other specific components. It also looked at the dependence on the environment for food, energy, water and oxygen. Also considered are significant activities that influenced the environment especially the components and nutrient cycles. Thereafter, there was the assessment of the direct implications of some of the interactions with the environment as manifested in local issues like degradation, desertification, pollution, erosion; and global issues like global warming, green house gases, ozone layer depletion, climate change and acid rain. The course specifically examined the implication inherent in agricultural activities and the environment. It also looked at the environmental reclamation and protection activities such as agroforestry practices and the international initiatives on sustainability and biodiversity conservation i.e. carbon footprint, carbon banking and carbon tax.

Contents LECTURE 1. LECTURE 2. LECTURE 3. LECTURE 4. LECTURE 5. LECTURE 6. LECTURE 7. The environment Components of the environment Interaction of biotic and abiotic factors on environment Natural processes involving the components, equilibrium and relationships among the specific components. Natural processes involving the components, equilibrium and relationships among the specific components (2). Dependence on the environment for food, energy, water and oxygen. Significant activities as they influence the environment especially the components and nutrient cycles (Monocropping and Agricultural Chemical Use). Significant activities as they influence the environment especially the components and nutrient cycles (species depletion in wildlife and fisheries), Significant activities as they influence the environment especially the components and nutrient cycles (Fossil fuels use and anthropogenic wastes disposal).

LECTURE 8.

LECTURE 9.

LECTURE 10. Local issues like degradation, desertification, pollution, erosion. LECTURE 11. Global issues (I): global warming, green house gases, ozone layer depletion. LECTURE 12. Global issues (II): climate change and acid rain, LECTURE 13. Agriculture and the environment LECTURE 14. Environmental reclamation and protection through agroforestry practices. LECTURE 15. International initiatives on sustainability and biodiversity conservation (carbon footprint, carbon banking, carbon tax).

LECTURE 1. Introduction

The environment

The environment has a simple and very general meaning and it is often loosely used in the context of this meaning. It is taken as the general surrounding of an individual, object or structure although most definitions refer to humans as the central occupier of the environment. In this case it just implies things that are within the vicinity of man. Many of us are familiar with our so-called environment and can give vivid descriptions of the structures both natural and artificial which make up the environment. In fact some locations are named with reference to some of the things existing in the vicinity for example Odoona, Ogunpa, Osun State. Many of the things in our environment are often taken for granted and the usual posture is that we are not directly, if ever, linked to this components and that they are just there on their own to the extent that whatever we do can not affect them. Even our idea about what should compose the environment is not complete and we easily do not include some due to lack of knowledge about the concept. It is therefore necessary to have a change of perception and knowledge in this matter. The environment is very vital to our day-to-day activities, often linked with means of livelihood, impacting our health and generally shaping our lives. How we interact with, exploit and manage the environment will somehow directly or indirectly impact our lives one way or the other. It is necessary to have a complete understanding about the environment, far and near, local and global, as well as how best to act to ensure that the environment will always be there to serve us. Objectives At the end of the lecture, you should be able to: 1. have a wholesome understanding of what the environment is. 2. identify some of the components of the environment.
3. explain how the environment influences man and his livelihood.

Pre-Test 1. Mention 5 living components of the environment. 2. Which environmental components can serve as sources of income for man? 3. Which of the components is often used to describe or name a place? Content The environment The environment can be generally defined as the surrounding of an object and therefore described with respect to that particular object. For instance, my own environment will include all things, living and non-living with which I usually interact directly or indirectly. This implies that everything has a corresponding environment which can be as dynamic as the activities and
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changes occurring therein. A dictionary definition has it as a complex of external factors that acts on a system and determines its course and form of existence. An environment may be thought of as a superset, of which the given system is a subset. An environment may have one or more parameters, physical or otherwise. The environment of a given system must necessarily interact with that system. In some other literal situations, the environment can be described with respect to its major constituents. Hence there can be the forest environment which will describe the predominance of forest species. However, what results from the assemblage of the components is always taken as important and not just the mere existence. This means that the interaction between the components as they generate the characteristics of the forest system is crucial to the system. This interaction is what determines how the environment will serve its guests (man) as the latter ekes out survival within the former. In a sense, organisms become adapted to their environment in all aspects of life be it feeding, movement and other activities that may be important as aspects of life. This underscores the importance of the environment in the life of every creature. In fact the environment has been responsible for certain physical differences observed in same species existing in different places. Hence, the free dictionary explains the environment as the totality of circumstances surrounding an organism or group of organisms, especially: a. The combination of external physical conditions that affect and influence the growth, development, and survival of organisms. The complex of social and cultural conditions affecting the nature of an individual or community. The implication of this is that the environment directly interacts with individuals and communities and a right understanding of it must require considering it as a living entity and thus entitled to high level concern because on the long run we only thereby show concern for our survival.
b.

The environment is also seen as an entity that can be subjected to modification either through the interaction ensuing or directly as an activity towards an end. This definition is more germane to interventionary sciences like medicine where the environment is known to impact the well being of people depending on how it is treated or managed. Included environmental factors are the modifiable parts (or impacts) of: pollution of air, water, or soil with chemical or biological agents; UV and ionizing radiation noise, electromagnetic fields; occupational risks built environments, including housing, land use patterns, roads; agricultural methods, irrigation schemes; man-made climate change, ecosystem change; behaviour related to the availability of safe water and sanitation facilities, such as washing hands, and contaminating food with unsafe water or unclean hands. It therefore goes without saying that the environment is the bedrock on which every life form survives. It provides support for whatever is carried out by the subject like feeding, energy
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generation, production activities and many more. However, the dependence on the environment has consequences which may inhibit it from providing the usual benefits after sometime unless sufficient concern is shown to ensure that the environment is not impoverished.

Summary The surrounding of man, animal or other objects constitute the respective environment. The environment may comprise of living and non-living things. Some of the constituents are used to describe the environment by referring to them in the identification. The concept of environment is explained according to predilection; therefore a farmer sees the environment differently from a medical practitioner. While the environment forms a vital part of the life of the dweller, it is affected by the life of the dweller and the relationship needs to be managed in a symbiotic manner. Post test 1. List three human activities that influence the environment.
2. What 2 conditions determine the state of the environment and how does man influence

these. 3. Can the environment shape the nature and activity of man? Explain. References http://www.wordiq.com/definition/Environment http://www.thefreedictionary.com/environment

LECTURE 2. Introduction

Components of the environment

The significance of the environment in sustenance of life can not be over-emphasised and so the components of the environment which enable it to perform this onerous task become very important. The environment is everything that creates natural conditions for the existence of organisms including Man, and it is a precondition of their further development. Its components are mainly the air, water, minerals, soil, and living organisms. The environment comprises of living and non-living components which give it specific characteristics and facilitate the functions it performs. Depending on what services or benefits are provided by the environment, each component has a big role to play and may even become used up while performing the role. Knowledge of the components and the specific role each plays will be an interesting experience and probably bring forth an appreciation of the components. It will also inform about what becomes of the component as it renders services to man as well as what has to be done to ensure sustainability of the components. Objectives At the end of the lecture, you should be able to: 1. create awareness of what the environment is composed of.
2. identify predominant components of the environment.

3. describe the various functions of the components in the environment. 4. classify the components of the environment.

Pre-Test 1. Identify the components of your immediate environment. 2. Classify the environmental components into living and non-living things. 3. Name the roles of any 3 components of the environment. Content Components of the environment People have many different ideas as to what comprises The Environment. Its physical components can be divided into Land (landscapes), Sea and the Air, in other words everything around us. Animals and plants live within the environment, not forgetting that human beings are themselves animals and part of the environment. The environment, the entire surrounding of man, is composed of several things. These range from gases in the air to liquids like precipitation and soil water, and also solids like soil. There are at the same time the living components like microbes, plants and animals. These components are present in varying proportions and the
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proportions define the environment. So, the aquatic environment will be different from terrestrial ones and will therefore impact on the organisms existing there differently too.
a. Gases in the environment: Regardless of the type of environment, gases are always

present although the proportion will vary. In the atmosphere, the most common gases are nitrogen, oxygen, carbon IV oxide, halogens and so on. These gases are important for certain nutrient cycles and various life forms. For instance, animals breathe in oxygen and exhale carbon IV oxide, while the reverse is the case when plants photosynthesise. The gases are also found in soils as they penetrate soil pores to impact on life in these places. Some of the gases have the ability to dissolve in liquids especially water in seas and oceans. The greater functions of gases are to: support life especially respiration, be available for certain cellular reactions towards tissue building, primary production by producers and environmental temperature regulation.
b. Solids in the environment. These will include the soil together with rocks/stones which

span the entire crust of the earth. These solids serve as bases on which other things including living forms exist. So it can be said that solid fill the spaces in the entire creation where gases and liquids are not found. All animals walk and live on solids while plants also grow there too. The solids also serve as store of materials that can be useful to living forms. For example, the soil is a pack of nutrients (minerals) which plants depend on. Other solids still serve various uses to man in the form of minerals and ornaments. However, there is a level of stability expected in the solids to enable them serve expected roles in the environment and yet they are subject to degradation when not well managed. Degradation makes them loose firmness and they slowly wear off setting in motion a set of reactions that eventually render the environment unstable and even affect some other components. For instance, soil degradation eventually leads to silting and sea level rising which may cause flooding. Degradation also prevents the soil from being able to support plant growth.
c. Water in the environment: Water exists in different forms in the environment, as natural

water, fluid in living things or solvent to some other substances, the reason why it is regarded as a universal solvent. There is the need to move a lot of substances from one place to another either and water assists in this matter by providing a medium where substances can dissolve and thus transported. As a liquid, water can be found in the soil as soil water which contains other substances mostly solids. In the air, water exists as vapour in the pure form. Ordinarily water comes in the form of precipitations which eventually collect in streams, ponds, rivers, seas and oceans. In the solid form, water exists as ice especially in the Polar Regions or where temperature is considerably low. The form in which water exists and the substances dissolved in it go a long way to determine the usefulness of water. This is because the role expected of water also varies and when, for example, if it is needed in the plain form, another form will not suffice. Water management is a serious issue and often determines the survival of populations; it is even responsible for wars among nations.

d. Other organisms. Apart from the specific organism of concern in the environment, there

are usually other life forms which usually engage in interactions with other components of the environment and by and large contribute to the functioning of the environment. Such organisms act on the air, liquid or solid and facilitate their usefulness. Some of them are involved in the conversion or decomposition cycles which help ensure that the components are available in the form they are required. For instance, primary producers that is, plants, convert carbon in the air to carbohydrate for animals to consume. Without plants, animals can not have access to carbon. This kind of role is clearly explained in food chains. Also, there are microorganisms which help in conversion and combination of substances to produce forms of certain components that can be used by man.
e. Finally, there are the earth forces of wind and temperature (solar) which come into play

to shape the environment in a particular fashion. These forces, also called the elements, act upon the components of the environment, causing certain chemical reactions which tend to change the nature and structure of the components. For instance, when there is precipitation, water becomes available for components of the environment but the same water can, under substantial velocity, cause dislocation of some of the components thus affecting the stability of the environment. Subsequent action of temperature or wind can then act on the components in such a way that results in degradation. The described action can cover large expanses and eventually defining the plant and animal species that will cope in the adjusted environment. Understanding the environment involves studying the complex relationships between people and the typical physical and social settings in which they conduct their daily lives. As the demands from the environment increases much impact on the components results which in turn weakens the environment and the resulting vicious cycle has man at the receiving end. Experiences gathered by man however become useful in guiding future interactions which put the environment on the pedestal it rightfully belongs, engendering respect and concern for it. Summary Components of the environment are essential in enabling it to perform expected roles and services. These components are of different types like gases, liquids and solids. The components are found in varying proportions depending on the particular environment and the facilitate survival of life forms. For instance, organisms are enabled to respire, grow and move. It is important to note that the components form the basis of the environment and when they are misused, they lose the ability to function and the environment eventually becomes irritable if not even harmful to life. Post-Test 1. List three components of an aquatic environment and classify them according to their nature. 2. Which of the elements is of important consideration in the aquatic environment? 3. What is the role of producers in the environment?

References Environment Society of Oman: http://www.environment.org.om/index/list.php?categoryId=310 http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IIT-Delhi/Environment%20and %20Ecology/mod1/2.htm

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LECTURE 3.

Interaction of biotic and abiotic factors on environment

Introduction Components of the environment are never left alone as the community, groups and individuals continue to impact them with demands through exploitation of the components in other to realise livelihoods. The exploitation takes various forms and dimensions. Abiotic factors will refer to non-living things and forces that impact the environment including rainfall, sunshine, time and chemicals. While the biotic factors will imply plants and animals in terms of their dependence on the environment and the consequence of their actions as these influence the ability of the environment in its roles. The unregulated actions of biotic factors boomerang on them in the long run as the environment may become rendered unsustainable. And the existence of life forms depends on forces of nature, that is, sun, wind, temperature and precipitation and all these have a strong relationship with vegetation.

Objectives At the end of the lecture, you should be able to: 1. recognise and understand the biotic and abiotic components of the environment.
2. know the relationship between vegetation and the components of the environment.

3. understand the significance of environment on the living populations of a place.

Pre-Test 1. How does the environment give rise to vegetations?

2. What relationship exists between environment and climate?

3. How does environment influence population settlements?

Content Interaction of biotic and abiotic factors on environment Climate encompasses the statistics of temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, rainfall, atmospheric particle count and other meteorological elemental measurements in a given region over long periods. This ordinarily suggests that these elements are not constant and even vary across locations on the globe. The climate of a location is affected by its latitude, terrain, and altitude, as well as nearby water bodies and their currents. Climates can be classified according to the average and the typical ranges of different variables, most commonly temperature and precipitation. The major difference between climate and weather is time span as the latter covers a shorter period while the former may be for over twenty years. The difference
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between climate and weather is usefully summarized by the popular phrase: Climate is what you expect, weather is what you get. Vegetation can be explained as the sum total of all plant life in a place. This will present a picture of the components of the environment and the extent to which plant life is supported. Primary among the components responsible for vegetation pattern are the solids in the form of soil, water in the form of precipitation and ending as soil water and temperature as dictated by sunlight intensity thus determining the humidity. It should also be clear that vegetation has important roles in most food chains and nutrient cycles. Vegetation plays an important part as a biotic component of the environment and in its dependence on the latter for sustenance; it has so much impact in ensuring that the balance among the components is not impaired. Biotic factors like vegetation live on abiotic factors that is, the chemicals in the form of nutrients and the forces which predetermine what type of vegetation can survive in the area. On the other hand, vegetation is involved in several nutrient cycles and also helps to stabilise the condition under which the abiotic factors operate. The ensuing nexus is vital in sustainability of the environment. When the environment is completely understood in terms of the abiotic and biotic components, it is possible to determine the vegetation that will predominate there. This relationship is always very specific to a location of the earth surface and as translocation ensues, the vegetation also changes. This is summarised as: morphological characteristics represent behavioural strategies of plants to cope with environmental pressures. Abiotic components: they are the raw materials of ecosystems (such as minerals) and the forces affecting the ecosystems (such as geological processes). They create pre-existing and changing conditions for a ecosystem. Therefore, they are the foundation of eco-equilibrium. By their power (such as a volcanic eruption, flood, hurricane), they can change the equilibrium dramatically. Biotic components: if abiotic is the foundation, then biotic is the actual building. By the biotic interactions in the form of an ecological network the biota affects each other but can also affect abiotic elements by manipulating them (such as the recycling of elements). Their existence will not be possible if abiotic is too hostile to their existence, but once after they establish existence they can manipulate abiotic. They affect equilibrium mainly by biological processes such as reproduction, technology and aggressive production activities which over-exploit nature. Depending on the soil structure and composition, vegetation of varying species can be supported. The vegetation in an area describes the extent of adaptation that has been developed by the species occurring there. And actually, it is the species which really describes the vegetation. Similarly, as the abiotic forces influence the environment, much is on shaping the nature of the environment and thus determining the condition under which life forms can thrive. To this end, the vegetation type is defined by the temperature, wind, humidity and precipitation, all weather and climatic elements. Plants and animal population, including human, are found in different populations to the extent to which the place is conducive or adaptable. The populations depend on the vegetation while
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coping with the environment. In the act of living, components of the environment are consumed or used up thereby impacting on the environment. The nature and extent of the impact will determine the harm inflicted on the environment and its ability to continue rendering necessary services. However, when the environment is carelessly impacted to a level described as abuse of the environment, then a chain of events ensues. The environmental components either become depleted or unavailable and the balance among the resources breaks down. The natural tolerance of the forces of wind, temperature etc weakens and the environment becomes unprotected from the forces, leading to devastating effects like flooding, erosion, desertification etc. This then affects the vegetation which loses its support from the environment and loses its population. Finally, the animal population gets affected as the vegetation can not support them. Together, abiotic and biotic components create and change equilibrium by a combination of static and dynamic, active and passive, living and nonliving, processes. In several cases, animals especially man, is implicated in the mismanagement of the environment. Unbridled exploitation of the environment, overpopulation and technological advancement place much pressure on the environment. The environment has inbuilt capability to recover from impacts suffered and this is because there are cycles that ensure replacement of exploited resources as well as still putting the environment in good stead to cope with abiotic forces, but this has a limit. When the carrying capacity of the environment is exceeded, the inbuilt processes for recovery cannot cope and the described trail of woes result with the whole weight crashing on man who initiated the abuse ab initio. Summary The complexity of the relationship between all the components of the environment clearly establishes the importance of each. This relationship is a significant determinant of the environment because the various interactions among the biotic and abiotic components influence the vegetation and vice versa, and eventually determine the nature of the environment and what flora and fauna can be sustained therewith. A cycle of interaction which is unending is developed becomes a perpetual factor for defining the environment. Each component is supported, maintained and also supported to a level where its presence is beneficial to the environment and when this limit is exceeded, events are set in motion to correct the anomaly. The overall interplay among the components gives rise to weather and climate which also have impact on the interactions and even determines the vegetation, thus joining the train of events that dictate the final biotic and abiotic components. Similarly, when a change occurs to the weather and climate, the components are directly affected and if the effect is to a large extent and sustained, it will in turn affect the weather and climate on the long run. Post-Test 1. Design a cycle linking components of the environment. 2. Which of the components will you consider most important and why?
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3. Describe the vegetation pattern of Nigeria and link this with intensity of the sun.

References Zavala-Hurtado JA, Valverde PL, Daz-Sols A, Vite F, Portilla E. Vegetation-environment relationships based on a life-forms classification in a semiarid region of tropical Mexico. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9246368 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate

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LECTURE 4. Natural processes involving the components, equilibrium and relationships

among the specific components. Introduction The general components of the environment comprise specific substances, elements or compounds, which make up the liquids, solids and gases. Abiotic components are nonliving and consist of soil, minerals, air, water, and sunlight. Biotic components are living organisms of the ecosystem. Ecosystem is a community of organisms interacting with one another and within their environment. There are a vast number of species living in any ecosystem and these organisms depend on one another and their environment for sources of food and energy. Matter and energy is recycled through ecosystems, and the amount of life any environment can support is limited by the available energy, oxygen, water, and minerals. Interactions between biotic and abiotic factors cause the ecosystem to constantly shift and adjust to maintain balance in the system. Objectives At the end of the lecture, you should be able to: 1. know the essential substances making the components of the environment function. 2. understand the relationships among the substances.
3. know the type of reactions or processes that maintains the substances.

Pre-Test 1. Name 3 cycles and substances involved in them.

2. How does oxygen get replenished in the environment? 3. In what cycle does the ocean play a role and which substance is involved?

Content Natural processes involving the components, equilibrium and relationships among the specific components All of life on earth revolves around a few key nutrients and in combination with energy from the sun it is these nutrients which are required by all of earths producers. These nutrients are essentially contained within a closed system on earth, which means no nutrients enter or leave the biosphere in large quantities. For this reason there is a limited amount of the essential nutrients available to the producers, so the available nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus must be recycled and reused by organisms. The recycling of these nutrients involves interactions between both the living organisms and the physical environment, so they are called biogeochemical cycles. These cycles are often considered to be leaky since nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus may be carried away in rain water to the deep ocean where it is removed from the cycle, other sources of nutrient loss include harvesting and burning of organic material. The nutrient and water cycles are of utmost importance to all life on earth.
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Nutrient cycles

Biogeochemical Cycles: Besides energy, all organisms require various nutrients. In addition to water molecules, the elements of primary importance in these nutrients are carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and phosphorus. Nutrients, unlike energy, are recycled through ecosystems in nutrient (biogeochemical) cycles. For each element, the cycle may involve: 1. A reservoir, in which the nutrient is present but temporarily unavailable, 2. An exchange pool, which is the primary source of nutrients, and 3. The biotic community, which consists of the organisms through which nutrients pass at various stage of the food chain. The reservoirs are naturally occurring stores of abiotic components of the environment but when they are exposed to certain Water Cycle biochemical forces of physical forces involving the elements, they may weather or decompose to release the stored substances or energy. These are then passed on to the environment in a state whereby they are available for use by biotic components. This marks the entry into the food chain and subsequent movement of the nutrients through the chain in biomass development and energy release. One thing to note is that the constant movement of the nutrients between the

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biotic and abiotic components hardly get them back into the reservoirs in a short time but only after centuries or even more. Earth has a stable water supply which 98 percent of the earths water is contained in, oceans, lakes, rivers and streams with the remaining found in, the form of ice, water vapour, and in the bodies of living organisms. The constant movement of water, from earth to the atmosphere is called the water cycle. This cycle is driven by solar energy which facilitates the transformation of water from the different forms of solid, liquid and gas. It makes it possible for the Earths water supply to be available for use over and over again. The sun evaporates water off water bodies such as rivers and lakes, as well as from moist surfaces, air and bodies of living organisms. This water is drawn back up into the atmosphere, and falls back to earth in the form of rain. There is a greater amount of evaporation, from the ocean than the amount of precipitation (rainfall) this results in a movement of water vapour by the wind to inland areas, areas closer to the ocean receive more precipitation (rainfall) than those which are further from the ocean or are protected by a mountain range. Water is also absorbed from the bodies of terrestrial plants and animals as well as the soil, the collective process of evaporation from the soil and plants is called evapotranspiration - the constant movement of water through evaporation by the sun. Water which is not evaporated by the sun may re-enter the water cycle by seeping down through the soil, until it reaches the zone of saturation, here all of the holes and cracks of the soil are filled with water below which there is a bed of solid rock which the water cannot penetrate. This region is referred to as aquifer. Summary Life is generally sustained by matter and energy. These two are present in all forms of life. However, all life is constantly in a sort of relationship whereby the matter and energy required is in constant motion through a series of exchange from one life form to the other. Usually there is a natural store where the substances are held like in rocks but on being subjected to some forces, they get free and move freely in the environment. From then, the natural cycles of nutrient and energy exchange take over. In the case of water, it is the bulk of life forms, in tissues and circulatory systems. Generally in the environment, water can exist as liquid, solid or vapour. The form it assumes is dependent on the amount of energy inherent in the water. Thus solar energy is important in the transformation of water between the various forms as it facilitates evapotranspiration which is followed by condensation and eventual precipitation. The two cycles therefore operate the perpetual mutual exchange of matter and water. Post-Test 1. In what form does water exist in biotic components of the environment? 2. How is the energy present in fossil fuels available to humans?
3. How are the nutrients lost during erosion available for human use?

References
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http://wiki.answers.com/Q/How_do_the_biotic_and_abiotic_components_change_the_equilibriu m_of_the_ecosystems#ixzz1WXnWjmXe http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/esp/2001_gbio/folder_structure/ec/m3/s3/index.htm http://library.thinkquest.org/C007506/cycles.html

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LECTURE 5. Natural processes involving the components, equilibrium and relationships among the specific components (2). Introduction The act of use and reuse of environmental components is an ever happening process. The continual availability of the substances is however predicated on cycles which combine, breakdown and again recombine the substances to transform them into useable forms at the various stages of the cycles. Without the cycles, one can visualise a stage where a particular components will be converted into another form in a unidirectional way until the basic source is depleted and all life dependent on the component eventually ceases. Two important components will be discussed in this lecture: Carbon and Oxygen. Arguably, these two are the most important of all the basic components as they are found in all life forms and in many abiotic components as well. They function significantly in most of the cycles and all food chains. Objectives At the end of the lecture, you should be able to: 1. understand the uses of carbon and oxygen in the environment. 2. know the processes through which carbon and oxygen are replenished in the environment. 3. link the two cycles and understand human activities relating to each.

Pre-Test 1. Describe 2 ways of oxygen uptake in the environment. 2. What is the significance of vegetation to oxygen and carbon availability in the environment? 3. Of what importance is the sun in the 2 cycles?

Content Carbon Cycle Carbon is a basic element occurring in all life either in tissues, organs or in the energy cycle. It is variously produced and at the same time used up in stages of the food chains and the main issue in primary production and subsequent consumption involves carbon compounds. It exists in the element form as coal and others but its major use is in energy storage and release. The cycle described in the diagram below is informative in this regard:

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Carbon cycle

During photosynthesis producers convert carbon dioxide in the atmosphere into carbon containing compounds such as sugars and cellulose. These compounds are then utilized by primary consumers such as cattle or elk, which, by the process of respiration, convert the carbon containing compounds into carbon dioxide and water. These processes viewed on a global scale, is called the Carbon Cycle. In the carbon cycle the primary photoynthesizers are the plants, phytoplankton, marine algae, and cyanobacteria. These organisms utilize carbon dioxide and water to produce carbohydrates and oxygen which the photosynthesizers use themselves. Plants do release carbon dioxide from their leaves and roots, and phytoplankton and marine algae and cyanobacteria, release carbon dioxide into the water where it remains in equilibrium with the carbon dioxide of the air. Not only is carbon dioxide released by plants, it is also released by animals which eat the plants and animals which eat those animals, during the process of respiration which is a basic process of life. Carbon dioxide is also released by the combustion of organic carbon sources such as wood, coal and oil. An enormous amount of organic carbon resides in the bodies of dead plants and animals, along with the wastes of living animals. Decomposers, such as fungi and other small invertebrates, consume this Carbon; these decomposers also release carbon dioxide. Up until the industrial revolution the processes of photosynthesis and respiration were essentially in balance with one another. Although carbon dioxide is only a portion of the atmosphere, along with water vapour, and methane and the other greenhouse gasses, it plays a major role in the ecosystems on earth. These green house gases absorb infrared radiation from the sun, while allowing sunlight to pass through. It also blocks infrared radiation (heat) from being lost in space by enveloping the earth. So as the amount of these green house gases increase the amount of heat lost from the earth decreases causing the overall temperature of earth to increase. Global warming produced in this
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manner is known as the greenhouse effect. The green house effect is due mainly to our use of fossil fuels such as coal and oil, the ploughing of the soil and the destruction and burning of the tropical forests. When deforestation occurs, plants that act as carbon sink (arbsorb CO2) are depleted and this leads to an accumulation of CO2 which is a greenhouse gas. The Oxygen Cycle Almost all living things need oxygen. They use this oxygen during the process of creating energy in living cells. Just as water moves from the sky to the earth and back in the hydrologic cycle, oxygen is also cycled through the environment. Plants mark the beginning of the oxygen cycle. Plants are able to use the energy of sunlight to convert carbon dioxide (CO2) and water into carbohydrates and oxygen in a process called photosynthesis. CO2 + H2O + sunlight carbohydrates + O2 This means that plants breathe in carbon dioxide and breathe out oxygen. Animals form the other half of the oxygen cycle. They breathe in oxygen which is used to break carbohydrates down into energy in a process called respiration. Carbohydrates + O2 CO2 + H2O + energy

Carbon dioxide produced during respiration is breathed out by animals into the air. So oxygen is created in plants and used up by animals, as is shown in the figure above. But the oxygen cycle is not actually quite that simple. Plants must break carbohydrates down into energy just as animals do. During the day, plants hold onto a bit of the oxygen which they produced in photosynthesis and use that oxygen to break down carbohydrates. But in order to maintain their metabolism and continue respiration at night, the plants must absorb oxygen from the air and give off carbon dioxide just as animals do. Even though plants produce approximately ten times as much oxygen during the day as they consume at night, the night-time consumption of oxygen by plants can create low oxygen conditions in some water habitats.

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Summary Carbon and oxygen are essential elements not only as building blocks of life but also in the energy generation and utilisation. Carbon is taken up by plants in the form of gaseous carbon IV oxide which they combine with water and in the process store sun energy which is later available to animals in the food chain. The two cycles again reemphasise the interdependence among components of an environment. The importance of plants in an environment is crucial for the survival of animals including man. The basic producers ensure that primary and other consumers have energy and nutrients to survive. Post-Test 1. Describe the reaction occurring among plants in the night. 2. What happens when massive deforestation takes place in an area? 3. How do animals help plants to survive? References http://water.me.vccs.edu/concepts/oxycycle.html

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Human activities and the environment

LECTURE 6.

Dependence on the environment for food, energy, water and oxygen.

Introduction The environment comprises of plants and animals both at micro and macro sizes as well as humans, the most highly developed animals, although the combination will depend on the particular environment. For several years there have been various forms of interaction among and between these strange bed-fellows. The interaction also involves sets of processes which facilitate transformation of solar energy and other nutrients, and also the exchange of the energy and nutrients across the inhabitants of the environment. However complex the workings of living organisms, they share with all other natural systems the same physical principles of the conservation and transformation of matter and energy. Over long spans of time, matter and energy are transformed among living things, and between them and the physical environment. In these grand-scale cycles, the total amount of matter and energy remains constant, even though their form and location undergo continual change. Almost all life on earth is ultimately maintained by transformations of energy from the sun. Plants capture the suns energy and use it to synthesize complex, energy-rich molecules (chiefly sugars) from molecules of carbon dioxide and water. These synthesized molecules then serve, directly or indirectly, as the source of energy for the plants themselves and ultimately for all animals and decomposer organisms (such as bacteria and fungi). Objectives At the end of the lecture, you should be able to:
1. know benefits derivable from the environment

2. understand the impact of human activities on the environment. 3. understand waste management and waste generation. Pre-Test 1. List three human activities that impact the environment. 2. How does human uncontrolled human population affect sustainability of environment? 3. Can materials be actually wasted in life? Content Dependence on the environment for food, energy, water and oxygen The elements that make up the molecules of living things are continually recycled. Chief among these elements are carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, calcium, sodium, potassium, and iron. These and other elements, mostly occurring in energy-rich molecules, are passed along the food web and eventually are recycled by decomposers back to mineral nutrients usable by plants. Although there often may be local excesses and deficits, the situation over the
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whole earth is that organisms are dying and decaying at about the same rate as that at which new life is being synthesized. That is, the total living biomass stays roughly constant, there is a cyclic flow of materials from old to new life, and there is an irreversible flow of energy from captured sunlight into dissipated heat. An important interruption in the usual flow of energy apparently occurred millions of years ago when the growth of land plants and marine organisms exceeded the ability of decomposers to recycle them. The accumulating layers of energy-rich organic material were gradually turned into coal and oil by the pressure of the overlying earth. The energy stored in their molecular structure we can now release by burning, and our modern civilization depends on immense amounts of energy from such fossil fuels recovered from the earth. By burning fossil fuels, we are finally passing most of the stored energy on to the environment as heat. We are also passing back to the atmosphere - in a relatively very short time - large amounts of carbon dioxide that had been removed from it slowly over millions of years. The amount of life any environment can sustain is limited by its most basic resources: the inflow of energy, minerals, and water. Sustained productivity of an ecosystem requires sufficient energy for new products that are synthesized (such as trees and crops) and also for recycling completely the residue of the old (dead leaves, human sewage, etc.). When human technology intrudes, materials may accumulate as waste that is not recycled. The accumulation will gradually become a distortion in the cycle that involves the particular substance. The interdependence of organisms in an ecosystem often results in approximate stability over hundreds or thousands of years. As one species proliferates, it is held in check by one or more environmental factors: depletion of food or nesting sites, increased loss to predators, or invasion by parasites. If a natural disaster such as flood or fire occurs, the damaged ecosystem is likely to recover in a succession of stages that eventually results in a system similar to the original one. Like many complex systems, ecosystems tend to show cyclic fluctuations around a state of approximate equilibrium. In the long run, however, ecosystems inevitably change when climate changes or when very different new species appear as a result of migration or evolution (or are introduced deliberately or inadvertently by humans). Any form of intervention in a natural cycle is resisted or adjusted to by the system in order to annul the effect of the intervention. The adjustment of the system may result in shocks to the components which also try to adjust to accommodate the shock. Usually, the adjustment is completed over a long term during which normalcy or a semblance of it is attained. However, if the adjustment is drastic or the new equilibrium is intolerable to some components, then extinction or evolution of new species may result. This dimension will begin a process of total overhaul of the environment to accommodate the new entrants or displacement of another. Imagine a change that will require elimination of lions in a particular environment, if a new set of predators do not evolve, the primary consumers will simply multiply out of proportion beyond the carrying capacity of primary producers. This will naturally weigh down the plants and make them extinct in a matter of time and truncate the energy cycle.

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Summary Basic nutrients for life support exist in the environment while the sun provides the energy. Conversion of the nutrients to usable forms is done through several processes in both biotic and abiotic means. The nutrient cycles are linked to places where the nutrients are stored or storable and they engender conversion mechanisms which not only translocate the nutrients but also convert to different substances. In the same way, solar energy is captured and processed into chemical forms that can again be reconverted for use when and where needed. The significance of the role players in each cycle cannot be overemphasised as they serve at duty posts of nature and foster the survival of the environment. Another form of balance is established among role players of various cycles to ensure sufficiency and avoid waste. The latter balance is a delicate one and a key to environmental sustainability.

Post test 1. In what ways do mankind influence the ecosystem? 2. What are the long term consequences of ecosystem alteration? 3. List five elements that are important in life. References http://www.project2061.org/publications/sfaa/online/chap5.htm

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LECTURE 7. Significant activities as they influence the environment especially the

components and nutrient cycles (Monocropping and Agricultural Chemical Use). Introduction The environment is crucial for life support and plays a significant role in biodiversity conservation which inadvertently ensures its maintenance. The interaction with the environment however requires a lot of caution so as to consciously preserve it. As the humans are engaged in activities in the bid to satisfy individual and group social and economic desires, the environment provides the means and materials towards these ends. And when the ends are satisfied, the wastes are dumped back into the environment. The environment is thus being treated as an unappreciated and possibly abandoned thing. Perhaps, this attitude is engendered by a lack of knowledge on appropriateness of human activities, or a compromise of proper behaviour for other gains or a mix of these. It is deemed necessary to understand the consequences of our actions especially as they affect the environment. Objectives At the end of the lecture, you should be able to:
1. highlight how human production activities affect the environment.

2. show ways in which domestic activities affect the environment. 3. know significant components of the environment affected by human activities. Pre-Test 1. How can a productive enterprise become environmentally unsafe? 2. Is planting many crops better than just one? 3. What is the meaning of persistent chemical and how does it harm the environment? Content Significant activities as they influence the environment especially the components and nutrient cycles There activities which are undertaken in pursuit of certain goals and which while realising the set goals generate negative consequences on the environment. These activities include monocropping and use of chemicals in agricultural production. Monocropping is the agricultural practice of growing the same crop year after year on the same land. Monocropping is most frequently practiced in industrialised countries agricultural systems; where large plantations of maize (corn), soybeans and wheat are three common crops often grown using monocropping techniques. It is increasingly being done in developing countries as genetically modified organisms (GMO) and industrial farming are displacing native crops and local farmers.

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While economically a very efficient system, allowing for specialization in equipment and crop production, monocropping is also controversial, as it often leads to depletion of the nutrients of the soil and problems with weeds and pesticides. These in turn lead to the monocropping system being dependent on pesticides and artificial fertilisers. It also leaves the crop more susceptible to disease as genetic similarity between plants makes them equally vulnerable. An example of this would be the potato famine of Ireland in 18451849, and is the main cause of the current food crisis with monoculture rice crops failing as the effects of climate change become more acute. This procedure, known as monocropping, is very chemical intensive. Monocropping also raises problems because farmers who practice the technique often remove large patches of trees and leave the land fallow for a shorter duration. Mono-cropping is commonly seen as the solution to one problem, whether the problem is economic, environmental or political, but simultaneously hosts many other problems. While there are some distinct advantages to monocropping, it is environmentally questionable, and it can potentially lead to serious economic problems for farmers, as well. Many environmental advocates would like to see a shift away from monocropping, as would people who work in the developing world. The obvious advantage to monocropping is that it allows a farmer to specialize in a particular crop, which means that he or she can invest in machinery designed specifically for that crop, along with high-yield seeds which will generate a large volume of the crop at harvest. With staple crops like wheat, corn, and soy, farmers can also be confident that the crop will produce a high income, although this scheme can backfire; if demand declines radically, a farmers monocrop may become a liability. From an environmental perspective, monocropping is harmful for a number of reasons. For one thing, it severely depletes the soil, as the plant will strip the soil of the nutrients it needs thereby distorting the nutrient balance in the soil. This forces farmers to use fertilisers, which can further disturb the natural balance of the soil and contribute to a host of environmental problems, from pollution to desertification. Monocropping can also contribute to the proliferation of crop pests and diseases, which can be a serious liability when a farmers land is planted exclusively with one crop. As an alternative to monocropping, farmers can rotate crops, planting different crops in each field annually, and they can also periodically allow fields to lie fallow to recover. Some farmers also encourage the practice of mixing crops in the field each year, using a combination of crops to strengthen the soil and create a more diverse yield. Chemical use: There has been a long speculated link between agricultural chemicals and environmental pollution. The agricultural chemicals most often linked to environmental pollution include veterinary medicines, pesticides, non-organic fertilisers, and other chemicals designed to eradicate disease in crops and animals. Since these chemicals are responsible essentially for poisoning forms of life (diseases are forms of life too), it stands to reason, then there should be a concern about runoff from the application of agricultural chemicals entering groundwater, streams, and soil. It is well known that pesticides in the environment DDT in particular are responsible for the massive die-offs of birds in regions of America that depend on agriculture for survival. And its
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equally well-known that veterinary hormones and other chemicals used in agriculture have harmful effects on human beings upon direct exposure. The main issue of concern here is that what particular path does an application of a chemical follow in a biotic of abiotic component. For instance, when fertiliser is applied to the soil, does the soil utilise all the substance(s) applied and if not are there residual effects on the soil or other components of the environment? In the same vein, in a biotic system like poultry, thus the bird convert all the hormones applied to its feed and if not what are the residual effects? These questions presented scary answers which led and is still leading to proscription of certain chemical confirmed more persistent in the environment than others. Agricultural chemical use and soil and water quality degradation associated with agricultural production are significant among the environmental problems confronting the United States. In fact, these are now perceived as environmental problems comparable to other environmental problems such as air quality deterioration and the release of toxic pollutants from industrial sources. While the growth of agricultural chemical use is an integral part of the technological revolution in agriculture that has generated major changes in production techniques, uncertainties about the health effects of agricultural chemicals are very important concerns. Severe soil degradation from erosion, compaction, or salinization can destroy the productive capacity of the soil. It can also impair water quality from sediment and agricultural chemicals. The human-health consequences of drinking-water contamination by non-fertiliser agricultural chemicals are less well documented than the effects of excess nitrates. However, there is widespread concern about potential adverse human-health consequences from long-term, lowlevel exposure to agricultural chemicals in drinking water. There is particular concern about potential effects of these pesticides as carcinogens or as endocrine disruptors. In addition to human health concerns, water pollution by agricultural chemicals adversely affects fish and wildlife, commercial fisheries, recreational uses of surface waters, and water treatment facilities. Excess nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus from fertilisers can promote eutrophication of surface waters. Pesticide residues in waters may affect the health and vigour of aquatic and riparian wildlife species. Also, the runoffs of excess fertiliser nutrients and toxic agricultural pesticides are thought to be the major causes of the Dead Zone in the Gulf of Mexico and coastal estuaries. Summary It is gradually becoming obvious that the balance in nature is precarious and that most things exist because they are useful and have important roles in the ecosystem. Attempts by man to classify certain components as beneficial and others not, has led to preferences and focus on preferred products with an all out war on the perceived useless. This has brought distortions to the ecosystem. The way things are carried out to remove unwanted and enhance the wanted components has titled the balance in nature leading to overall adjustments which is resulting into unsavoury situations. The procedure which often involves use of chemicals leaves a trail of damage to the environment and the outcome interferes with natural selection, tolerance and balance. Post-Test 1. How is monocropping related to famine in some parts of the world?
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2. What consequences should be expected from the introduction of GM crops? 3. How does agricultural chemical harm the human?

References http://agroforestry.net/events/afwksp2006/pres/Nelson_Monocrops_script.pdf http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-monocropping.htm http://www.controllingpollution.com/agricultural-chemicals-environmental-pollution/ http://books.google.com/books/about/Agriculture_and_the_environment.html? id=xMnWugCfQSwC http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/1027/1052055/Regional_Updates/update30.htm http://www.enotes.com/topic/Monocropping

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LECTURE 8. Significant activities as they influence the environment especially the

components and nutrient cycles (species depletion in wildlife and fisheries) Introduction It has been severally mentioned that the existence of any component in an environment implies its importance among others there. This means that it plays a significant role in the energy and nutrient cycles of that environment. When something happens to impede or prevent this component from functioning, a gap is created with the result that the environment loses its balance. A chain of reactions is thereby set off as other components requiring the functioning of the missing one become endangered. Species get depleted in the field of agriculture, wildlife, forestry and fisheries. This has a lot of impact on science as gene banks become inadequate and genetic materials that may be useful in developing vaccines, genetic modification and other uses are lost. Objectives At the end of the lecture, you should be able to: 1.
2. 3.

know the importance of trees in the environment understand the implication of over harvesting of trees in the environment ascertain why some trees go into extinction Pre-Test

1. 2. 3.

What is the importance of trees to the environment? What happens to the environment when trees become over harvested? How can some tree species go into extinction? Content Significant activities as they influence the environment especially the components and nutrient cycles The proliferation of species on the planet serves a lot of purpose which vary from the human point of view to the basic purpose of existence and establishment of links among the numerous species. Some of the specific importances of the species are as discussed below: Scientific and Ecological Importance of Species Every species can help scientists understand how life has evolved and functions, and how it will continue to evolve on this planet. Wild species also provide many of the ecological services that make up earth capital and thus are key factors in sustaining the earths biodiversity and ecological integrity. They supply us (and other species) with food, recycle nutrients essential to agriculture, and help generate and maintain soils. They also produce oxygen and other gases in the atmosphere, absorb pollution, moderate the earths climate, help regulate local climates and water supplies, reduce
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erosion and flooding, and store solar energy. Moreover, they detoxify poisonous substances, break down organic wastes, control potential crop pests and disease carriers, and make up a vast gene pool for future evolutionary processes. Aesthetic and Recreational Importance Wild plants and animals are a source of beauty, wonder, joy, and recreational pleasure for many people. Wildlife tourism, sometimes called ecotourism, is the fastest growing segment of the global travel industry. It does not merely serve for sightseeing but as knowledge bases and means of comparing the numerous species. This has helped to develop information which eventually becomes useful in handling the various species. Ethical Importance Some people believe that each species has an inherent right to exist, or to struggle to exist. This ethical stance is based on the view that each species has intrinsic value unrelated to its usefulness to humans. According to this view, we have an ethical responsibility to protect species from becoming prematurely extinct as a result of human activities. Extinctions Extinction is a natural process and eventually all species become extinct. Each year, a small number of species becomes extinct naturally at a low rate. Based mostly on fossil record, evolutionary biologists estimate that the current average natural rate of extinction is 3 species per year if there are about 10 million species. In contrast, mass extinction is an abrupt rise in extinction rates above the natural level. It is a catastrophic, often global event in which large groups of existing species (perhaps 25-70%) are wiped out. Most mass extinctions are believed to result from one or a combination of global climate changes that kill many species and leave behind those able to adapt to new conditions. Conservationists believe that we are facing a new mass extinction, which is taking place in only a few decades, rather than over thousands to millions of years. Such rapid extinction cannot be balanced by speciation because it takes 2,000-100,000 generations for new species to evolve. Fossil and other evidence related to past extinctions indicates that it takes millions of years to recover biodiversity through adaptive radiations. Thus repercussions for humans and other species from the current human-caused mass extinction will affect the future course of evolution for 5-10 million years. Factors that cause species extinctions There are many reasons why animals become extinct: 1. Habitat Destruction is one of the most obvious forms of damage to ecosystems today. Coral reefs are subject to dynamite fishing in some parts of the world and other marine ecosystems suffer from substrate damage done by boat anchorages. Deforestation is a key form of destruction brought about by logging, clearing for farming and habitat destruction that occurs slowly, bit by bit. Singapore in Southeast Asia has had 95% of its native lowland rainforests cleared after extensive deforestation. As many as 26 forest bird species became extinct between 1923 and 1949 while 35 forest species disappeared between 1949 and 1998.
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2. Fragmentation is a form of habitat destruction in that much of the original habitat gets removed or modified, leaving patches of the remaining habitat. Even though these patches may initially have most of the species that were once there, the diversity will degenerate. This is usually because life cycles of plants and animals are so disrupted that many species simply die out over time. Many animals do not like crossing open or bare ground from one patch to another, so they remain isolated in an island of habitat, which is vulnerable to further damage. 3. Introduced species create major problems. This form of destruction happens without direct human interference, once the introduced species is released. This has been a major concern against the use of Genetically Modified Crops. Yet, the effects can be devastating. Introduced species create major problems in the following ways: They can become predators and kill native species so quickly and thoroughly that the native species becomes extinct. They can breed out of control, without natural checks and balances. In this way, the introduced species eat far more than the native vegetation can support. Since vegetation is usually the basis for an ecosystem food chain, if that gets destroyed, the rest of the food chain will most likely collapse. Introduced species can compete for space, nutrition and mineral resources. In severe cases, an introduced species will push out the native species over time, resulting in significant changes in the ecosystem as a whole. E.g. On islands in the Gulf of California, many species and subspecies of rodents are relict species, restricted to the islands, and are now considered extinct or verging on extinction. Five native taxa are now considered extinct (e.g. Neotoma bunkeri). The most probable cause for extinction was the introduction of non-native species, specifically cats. 4. Over harvesting refers to the catching of wild populations of animals, which are left to their own devices to recover their numbers. In the marine environment, vast numbers of fish and marine animals are harvested every year. Little or no effort is put into assisting their increase after harvesting, and the populations get smaller each year and risk extinction. 5. Local forms of pollution may be absorbed by a large healthy ecosystem. Excessive release of chemicals over extended time periods will poison forests and render lakes almost sterile. Liquid chemical pollution can destroy the biological fabric of river systems. Pollution also has a tendency to spread out ever further and find its way into food chains Human impacts on the environment, such as habitat loss and pollution, do not threaten all groups of species equally. At greatest risk are species with small population sizes, species whose populations vary greatly and species with slow rates of population growth. In biology and ecology, extinction is the end of an organism or of a group of organisms (taxon), normally a species. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of the species, although the capacity to breed and recover may have been lost before this point. Because a species potential range may be very large, determining this moment is difficult, and is usually done retrospectively. The increase in the rate of extinction is directly related to the increase in the human population over the same period of time. The vast number of humans has caused great damage to the planet,
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as wild habitats have been taken over, forcing animals and plants into smaller and smaller areas, until some of them have become extinct. We have also polluted some habitats with chemicals and refuse, making them unfit for wildlife. These causes of extinction are known as indirect destruction. Animals may also become extinct through direct destruction. This includes the hunting and capturing of animals. Humans have always hunted and killed wildlife but early humans lived more in harmony with nature, they killed animals for essentials like food and clothing. When guns were invented mass destruction of species was possible. Animals have been, and still are, killed for meat, clothing, medicines, feathers, eggs, trophies, tourist souvenirs - and sometimes just for amusement. Some species are still captured in the wild for the live pet trade, even though their numbers are dwindling. Summary Every species created is important in life. Even if the usefulness is yet to be known, technology will eventually get around to it. Generally speaking, the ecosystem, food chain and other linkages have a pot for every species component of the environment; therefore, its absence will be felt and may even degenerate to unpalatable situations. Apart from this, the fact that the organism can be studied is important because through this, knowledge and understanding which may be applicable to other more useful species can be generated. The onus is thus on man to respect the ordinary existence off species and only live in a way that will not jeopardise biodiversity. Post test
1. Describe 2 importances ascribable to tree species in the environment.

2. How can over harvesting harm the ecosystem and how can this be avoided in the face of the rising human population? 3. Describe what generally happens when a species become extinct. References http://www.admwebstudios.co.uk/Biodiversity3.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction

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LECTURE 9. Significant activities as they influence the environment especially the

components and nutrient cycles (Fossil fuels use and anthropogenic wastes disposal). Introduction This lecture looked at the issues concerning the use of fossil fuels, the essence and implication on the environment. Despite the fact the fossil fuels are the mostly available fuels to the people; their uses have implications on the environment. There is also a mention of the implication of disposal of anthropogenic wastes that are not biodegradable. Objectives At the end of the lecture, you should be able to: 1.
2. 3.

know the effect of the use of fossil fuels on the environment identify what anthropogenic wastes are understand the implication of indiscriminate waste disposal on the environment Pre-Test

1. 2. 3.

How should wastes be managed for healthy environment? What is bad to the environment in the use of biofuels? How best should the anthropogenic wastes be disposed? Content Fossil fuels Fuels are substances generally combusted to generate heat energy which can be applied to a variety of uses like cooking, machine powering, electricity generation which in turn can be put to a myriad of uses. In the process of biomass production, solar energy is often converted to form plant bodies as leaves, stems and other parts including fruits and grains. Thus much carbon and potential energy is stored in these parts and which can eventually be liberated through the process of oxidation during combustion or in animal bodies. Consumption of fuel can therefore be simply seen as a process involving: 1.
2.

Release of carbon earlier withdrawn from the environment as the formed compounds breakdown. A way of accessing solar energy earlier trapped through biochemical reactions.

Fossil fuels have been largely indicted for contributing immensely to global warming through the release of carbon IV oxide gas (CO2) which is a greenhouse gas. However alternative fuels, so called biofuels, do not fair better despite the campaign supporting their superior environmental friendliness. This is because so much land has to be cleared and much forest cover destroyed if the plants are not to compete with the already inadequate human food supply. The result is such that the production of biofuels release more CO2 which more than accounts for the expected
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reduction from combusting the fuel. Thus overtime, biofuels are not that environmentally supportive as being campaigned. Anthropogenic waste disposal Each time something is thrown as garbage, think of where it will finally end up. Whether it is a plastic glass, your broken cell phone or the used up battery cells from your portable CD/MP3 player, they all contribute in some way to environmental pollution and are also hazardous to life. Not only are they biodegradable, but also disposing of them has their own risks as they release harmful toxins into the air, surrounding soil and ground water. Accumulation of wastes due to its improper disposal is a major problem. As population grows at a rapid rate there is an increase in the amount of wastes being produced especially in the cities. In the absence of proper waste management, this waste lies littered on our streets, road corners and improperly disposed of in vacant land. All of these are serious health hazards apart from being eyesores. If they are not cleared regularly at the earliest, they invite host of problems like increasing numbers of insect vectors like flies, mosquitoes, etc., scavengers such as stray dogs, pigs and rats which spread dangerous diseases. It also generates bad odour and causes pollution. The disposal of solid waste is a problem which grows with the growth of population and development of industries. Disposal of waste in open pits has become routine in majority of places. Semisolid or solid matters that are created by human or animal activities, and which are disposed because they are hazardous or useless are known as solid waste. Most of the solid wastes, like paper, plastic containers, bottles, cans, and even used cars and electronic goods are not biodegradable, which means they do not get broken down through inorganic or organic processes. Thus, when they accumulate they pose a health threat to people, plus, decaying wastes also attract household pests and result in urban areas becoming unhealthy, dirty, and unsightly places to reside in. Moreover, it also causes damage to terrestrial organisms, while also reducing the uses of the land for other, more useful purposes. Solid wastes typically may be classified as follows:

Garbage: decomposable wastes from food Rubbish: non-decomposable wastes, either combustible (such as paper, wood, and cloth) or non-combustible (such as metal, glass, and ceramics) Ashes: residues of the combustion of solid fuels Large wastes: demolition and construction debris and trees Dead animals Sewage-treatment solids: material retained on sewage-treatment screens, settled solids, and biomass sludge Industrial wastes: such materials as chemicals, paints, and sand

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Mining wastes: slag heaps and coal refuse piles Agricultural wastes: farm animal manure and crop residues.

Disposal Methods Disposal of solid wastes on land is by far the most common method in most of the countries and probably accounts for more than 90 percent of the worlds municipal refuse. Incineration accounts for most of the remainder, whereas composting of solid wastes accounts for only an insignificant amount. Selecting a disposal method depends almost entirely on costs, which in turn is likely to reflect local circumstances. Landfill Sanitary landfill is the cheapest satisfactory means of disposal, but only if suitable land is within economic range of the source of the wastes; typically, collection and transportation account for 75 percent of the total cost of solid waste management. In a modern landfill, refuse is spread in thin layers, each of which is compacted by a bulldozer before the next is spread. When about 3 m (about 10 ft) of refuse has been laid down, it is covered by a thin layer of clean earth, which also is compacted.

1) Resource recovery implies attempts being made to still find some way or the other to make solid wastes materials useful. Common practices aim at generating heat from the materials through: combustion processes and pyrolysis processes. *A number of companies burn in-plant wastes in conventional incinerators to produce steam. * Pyrolysis, also called destructive distillation, is the process of chemically decomposing solid wastes by heat in an oxygen-reduced atmosphere. The process results in a gas stream containing primarily hydrogen, methane, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and various other gases and inert ash, depending on the organic characteristics of the material being pyrolyzed 2) Waste recycling * Recyclable materials are recovered from municipal refuse by a number of methods, including shredding, magnetic separation of metals, air classification that separates light and heavy fractions, screening, and washing. * Another method of recovery is the wet pulping process: Incoming refuse is mixed with water and ground into a slurry in the wet pulper, which resembles a large kitchen disposal unit. Large pieces of metal and other non-pulpable materials are pulled out by a magnetic device before the slurry from the pulper is loaded into a centrifuge called a liquid cyclone. Here the heavier noncombustibles, such as glass, metals, and ceramics, are separated out and sent on to a glass- and metal-recovery system; other, lighter materials go to a paper-fibre-recovery system. The final residue is either incinerated or is used as landfill. Environmental impacts of waste disposal Disposing of waste has huge environmental impacts and can cause serious problems. Much is buried in landfill sites holes in the ground, sometimes old quarries, sometimes specially dug, in some countries. Some waste will eventually rot, but not all, and in the process it may smell or
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generate methane gas, which is explosive and contributes to the greenhouse effect. Leachate produced as waste decomposes may cause pollution. Badly-managed landfill sites may attract vermin or cause litter. Incinerating waste also causes problems, because plastics tend to produce toxic substances, such as dioxins, when they are burnt. Gases from incineration may cause air pollution and contribute to acid rain, while the ash from incinerators may contain heavy metals and other toxins. Summary The process of consumption and even production inadvertently generates wastes. While generating energy for domestic use by combusting fossil fuels, a lot of gases, chief among which is carbon IV oxide, are released and these may harm the environment. The effects are mainly felt in the air but may extend on the long run to other areas. Anthropogenic wastes are usually subjected to biodegradation during which process they generate a myriad of substances into the environment. Depending on the nature of the parent material, the substances may be harmful to the environment often affecting environmental components and leading to serious health challenges among the biotic components including man. Post test 1. Describe an appropriate technology for managing waste. 2. Why is biofuel also considered unsuitable an alternative to fossil fuel? 3. Burying of anthropogenic waste is a good waste disposal method. Discuss. References: http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/GlobalWarming/story?id=4257226&page=1 http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761569634/solid_waste_disposal.html http://environment.about.com/od/fossilfuels/a/biofuels.htm http://environment.about.com/od/fossilfuels/Environmental_Issues_Fossil_Fuels_Alternative_Fu els.htm http://environmentengineering.blogspot.com/2008/03/waste-disposal-burning-problem-tobe.html http://maps.grida.no/go/graphic/emissions-due-to-solid-waste-disposal-on-land http://www.environment.gov.au/soe/2006/publications/drs/indicator/395/index.html http://www.essortment.com/fossil-fuel-its-impact-environment-57291.html http://www.greenchoices.org/green-living/waste-recycling/environmental-impacts http://www.greenenergychoice.com/green-guide/fossil-fuels.html
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http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/climate-change/biofuels-make-climate-changeworse-scientific-study-concludes-779811.html http://www.tutorvista.com/content/science/science-ii/environment/waste-affect-environment.php http://your.kingcounty.gov/solidwaste/facilities/new-disposal-rates.asp

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LECTURE 10.

Local issues like degradation, desertification, pollution, erosion.

Introduction The environment is indeed a diverse surrounding and while for an individual or group, the surrounding and thus the environment is limited, the factor of group size and reach will still come to play. A village will obviously have a smaller environment than a city, a local government than a state and so on. The smaller the size the closer the issue of the environment touches the individual and the latter also influences the environment more decisively. However, the partitioning of the environment is most limited to the soil since events happening in the air can hardly be confined to a narrow space for too long. There is the possibility of narrowing down the environment to local areas in which case the concern will be the activities and processes that take place in the area as they affect the immediate surroundings. Suffice this to mean that certain activities will have direct impact on the immediate environment more sharply and less over a certain distance from the point of origin. Similarly, there are activities which impinge on the more general environment than the local, that is, their effect is felt across wide distances from the point of origin. The issue is not in categorising the activities as they affect the environment but rather to visualise the local effect as being of short time and affecting only specific components of the environment whereas the global effects have a way of accumulating all the effects experienced at the local level over a time period and compounding them as global effect. Also, the individual local effects tend to impede the functioning of a cycle regarding a particular resource and when many of such cycles are affected for a long time, the cumulative effect reflects on the energy cycle and other processes making it into a global phenomenon. Objectives At the end of the lecture, you should be able to: 1. understand specific local issues affecting the environment. 2. relate individual activities as they are linked and the component of the environment so affected.
3. evolve mitigating attitude towards the activities affecting the environment.

Pre-Test 1. Explain environmental degradation. 2. What is desertification and how does it occur? 3. List 5 substances that contribute to environmental pollution. Content Environmental degradation

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This is the deterioration of the environment through depletion of resources such as air, water and soil; the destruction of ecosystems and the extinction of wildlife. It is defined as any change or disturbance to the environment perceived to be deleterious or undesirable. Environmental degradation implies the gradual loss of normal status and a progressive decline in quality of performance of environmental components or process. This is a general statement describing the state of any component which due to prevailing situation cannot provide the services it used to perform. This may be due to several factors: 1. A chain reaction arising from what has happened to another component with which certain cooperation is expected. For example, loss of soil quality as a result of deforestation.
2. Presence of undesirable substances which interfere with normal biochemical reactions

within cycles. This can be through unregulated use of chemicals, waste disposal and pollution.
3. Overuse/abuse in a way that renders the component incompetent to meet the demands

from it. Over-exploitation is the main culprit here and this is largely due to the ever increasing demand for agriculture and its products and other environment dependent endeavours. When natural habitats are destroyed or natural resources are depleted, environment is degraded. Environmental degradation is a crucial issue that threatens not just the present but the future as the ability to survive is compromised. And it can be caused by natural events but more generally, it is being caused by human beings. This is why the present generation is being called to show some level of consciousness and responsibility in their exploitation and dependence on the environment and realise that there is limit to which the environment can be plundered before the consequences hit us. A single act of degradation may bring momentary economic satisfaction or otherwise but when the consequences will come, it will endure for decades. Some of the results of environmental degradation are discussed: Desertification The desert is known for its dryness and inability to support plant growth. Conversely, other vegetation types support plant growth in varying extent. However, if does happen that a place where plants used to grow becomes so dry that plants can no longer grow there, the situation describes desertification. Desertification is a gradual process of conversion of semi arid land to arid condition. Desertification is caused by a combination of factors that change over time and vary by location. These include indirect factors such as population pressure, socioeconomic and policy factors, and international trade as well as direct factors such as land use patterns and practices and climaterelated processes. The way the environment is managed is usually responsible for the way it withstands the earth forces of rain, wind and sunshine. Under normal circumstances, these forces merely dictate the prevailing season but not climate. This is because of the cycles which bring the environmental components back to their previous form each time they are affected by the elements.

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However, when the components are in such a state that they have lost their resilience through the demand made on them either through irresponsible exploitation or other forms of abuse, it may so happen that the slightest onslaught from the elements becomes devastating. The environment become irreparably hit and unable to recover, the status slides downwards until it gradually becomes a desert. Biological diversity, which contributes to many of the services provided to humans by dryland ecosystems, is diminished by desertification. Vegetation and its diversity are instrumental in soil conservation and in the regulation of surface water and local climate. The disruption of the interlinked services that are provided by dryland plant biodiversity is a key trigger for desertification and its various consequences, including the loss of habitats for other species. Desertification affects global climate change through soil and vegetation losses. Indeed, dryland soils contain a lot of carbon which could be released into the atmosphere as a result of desertification, with significant consequences for the global climate system. It is estimated that each year 300 million tons of carbon are lost to the atmosphere from drylands as a result of desertification. This represents about 4% of global emissions from all sources combined. Pollution Pollution describes the state of having uncomplimentary introduction of undesirable substances into a system. The system thereby loses its form, becomes unstable and the productivity is impaired. Environmental pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the environment that makes the environment unhealthy for habitation and on the extreme, can harm the ecosystem. Pollution is a major distortion of the natural working system as the cycles that normally ensure replenishment of the components get impeded through the destruction of one or more of the biotic components or even a destabilisation of the abiotic components. Pollution can take many forms: the air we breathe, the water we drink, the ground where we grow our food, and even the increasing noise we hear every day - all contribute to health problems and a lower quality of life. Pollution is occurring all over the world and poisoning the planets oceans. Even in remote areas, the effects of marine degradation are obvious. In some areas, the natural environment has been exposed to hazardous waste. In other places, major disasters such as oil spills have ruined the local environment. Air pollution is by far the most harmful form of pollution in our environment. Air pollution is cause by the injurious smoke emitted by cars, buses, trucks, trains, and factories, namely sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides. Even smoke from burning leaves and cigarettes are harmful to the environment causing a lot of damage to man and the atmosphere. Evidence of increasing air pollution is seen in lung cancer, asthma, allergies, and various breathing problems along with severe and irreparable damage to flora and fauna. Even the most natural phenomenon of migratory birds has been hampered, with severe air pollution preventing them from reaching their seasonal metropolitan destinations of centuries. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), released from refrigerators, air-conditioners, deodorants and insect repellents cause severe damage to the Earths environment. This gas has slowly damaged the atmosphere and depleted the ozone layer leading to global warming. Water pollution caused industrial waste products released into lakes, rivers, and other water bodies, has made marine life no longer hospitable. Humans pollute water with large scale
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disposal of garbage, flowers, ashes and other household waste. In many rural areas one can still find people bathing and cooking in the same water, making it incredibly filthy. Acid rain further adds to water pollution in the water. In addition to these, thermal pollution and the depletion of dissolved oxygen aggravate the already worsened condition of the water bodies. Water pollution can also indirectly occur as an offshoot of soil pollution through surface runoff and leaching to groundwater. Noise pollution, soil pollution and light pollution too are the damaging the environment at an alarming rate. Noise pollution include aircraft noise, noise of cars, buses, and trucks, vehicle horns, loudspeakers, and industry noise, as well as high-intensity sonar effects which are extremely harmful for the environment. Maximum noise pollution occurs due to one of modern sciences best discoveries the motor vehicle, which is responsible for about ninety percent of all unwanted noise worldwide. Soil pollution, which can also be called soil contamination, is a result of acid rain, polluted water, fertilisers etc., which leads to bad crops. Soil contamination occurs when chemicals are released by spill or underground storage tank leakage which releases heavy contaminants into the soil. These may include hydrocarbons, heavy metals, herbicides, pesticides and chlorinated hydrocarbons. Light Pollution includes light trespass, over-illumination and astronomical interference. Erosion Human Causes of Erosion Human activity on and around the earths surface whether it is in the backyard or down the park are known to cause erosion 10 times more than naturally occurring processes. Human life has been the number one cause of erosion dating back to the first millennium. Agriculture and construction are the 2 ways in which humans cause erosion. Construction when unnecessarily conducted can be quite damaging to soil cover. Agriculture is another human cause of erosion because humans move the top soil and make it prone to erosion. Grazing and deforestation are also human causes of erosion because human life is making the grounds surface soil bare and extremely prone to erosion by natural forces. Natural Causes of Erosion Mother Nature works in mysterious ways. One of the most natural causes of erosion is rainfall. Rainfall can be devastating to soil because of the force and impact in which it hits the topsoil with. Wind is another natural factor which causes erosion. Wind is known to pick up soil and shift it to another space whilst it does so the actual soil degrades and loses its soil particles. Wind and water together can cause erosion to occur severely. Wind itself can not cause as much harm as they do together. Ice and snowfall are another 2 natural causes of erosion and they too can be devastating to crop yields, landscaped gardens, land investments and commercial parks. Soil generally takes just as long to form than it does to erode. To protect our earth from naturally and human caused erosion there should be an erosion control plan in place to give the soil a better chance at fighting these occurrences.
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Summary Environmental degradation implies a situation whereby the environment is incapable of functioning normally and cannot render usual services. This is a threat to future generations and is happening because the present generation is doing the wrong things concerning the environment. One of the consequences of degradation is desertification which is largely caused by inability of the environment to withstand the forces of the elements. Desertification affects biodiversity and climate. Pollution is another factor causing degradation and this can be in various forms affecting different components of the environment. Pollution can be through domestic, business or agricultural activities which generate effects that transcend the source of the pollution but affecting many other non-contributors too. It leads to health issues, acid rains and sometimes serious damage to boy organs or tissues. Post-Test 1. Of the components of the environment, which is usually degraded? 2. Describe the relationship between desertification and climate and vegetation. 3. How does pollution affect the soil? References Johnson, D.L., S.H. Ambrose, T.J. Bassett, M.L. Bowen, D.E. Crummey, J.S. Isaacson, D.N. Johnson, P. Lamb, M. Saul, and A.E. Winter-Nelson. 1997. Meanings of environmental terms. Journal of Environmental Quality 26: 581-589.) http://www.uccee.org/Environmental_Pollution.html http://ezinearticles.com/?What-Are-the-Causes-of-Environmental-Pollution?&id=2700476 http://www.greenfacts.org/en/desertification/l-2/7-climate-change-biodiversity-loss.htm#0

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LECTURE 11. Agriculture and the environment Introduction Environmental mitigation is typically a part of an environmental crediting system established by governing bodies which involves allocating debits and credits. Debits occur in situations where a natural resource has been destroyed or severely impaired and credits are given in situations where a natural resource has been deemed to be improved or preserved. Therefore, when an entity such as a business or individual has a debit they are required to purchase a credit. In some cases credits are bought from mitigation banks which are large mitigation projects established to provide credit to multiple parties in advance of development when such compensation cannot be achieved at the development site or is not seen as beneficial to the environment. Crediting systems can allow credit to be generated in different ways. Objectives At the end of this lecture, you should be able to: 1. understand the need to assume neutrality in using the environment. 2. know the relationship between agriculture a production process and the environment a natural resource base. 3. understand the nexus between human population increase, agriculture and environment. Pre-Test 1. What nutrients easily get depleted as a result of agricultural production? 2. How can agriculture be intensified without harming the environment? 3. How do agricultural chemicals harm the environment? Content Agriculture and the environment Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the environment, on individual, organisational or governmental level, for the benefit of the natural environment and (or) humans. Due to the pressures of population and our technology the biophysical environment is being degraded, sometimes permanently. This has been recognised and governments began placing restraints on activities that caused environmental degradation. Since the 1960s activism by the environmental movement has created awareness of the various environmental issues. Protection of the environment is needed from various human activities. Waste, pollution, loss of biodiversity, introduction of invasive species, release of genetically modified organisms and toxins are some of the issues relating to environmental protection. Some of these activities are listed:
1. Economic pursuit has driven man to over-exploit the environment by causing

deforestation and other excessive demands on natural resources.

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2. Technology has enhanced human population growth through disease and health

management. This increases demand for food and the same technology developed modern production methods most of which have serious impact on the environment e.g. plantation agriculture causing deforestation and habitat destruction for some species, agrochemicals destroying unintended species, causing human health problems as they get into food chain, developing new resistant species and distorting ecobalance and so on.
3. Increased demand for energy and consequentially, combustion of fossil fuels which

generate carbon IV oxide and its attendant issues. An expanding global population, rapid conversion of critical habitat to other uses, and the spread of invasive species to non-native habitats pose a serious threat to the worlds natural resources and to all of us who depend on them for food, fuel, shelter and medicine. Policies that distort markets and provide incentives for unsustainable development intensify the problem. Many environmental problems respect no borders and threaten the health, prosperity and even the national security of the whole world. Pesticide contamination of food and water, polluted air, and invasive plant and animal species can take their toll on our welfare and economy. Twentyfive percent of prescription drugs come from rapidly-disappearing tropical forests. When people around the globe lack access to energy, clean water, food, or a liveable environment, the economic instability and political unrest that may result can be felt at home in the form of costly peacekeeping and humanitarian interventions or lost markets. Addressing these problems and achieving sustainable management of natural resources worldwide requires the cooperation and commitment of all countries. Some of the approaches may sound drastic but the imminent threat is grave: 1. Alternative energy sources are necessary such that less energy is used and renewable sources are patronised e.g. solar or wind energies. 2. Sustainable production method should be encouraged e.g. organic agriculture and use of biological pest control. While these measures may compromise yield, they compensate by being environment friendly and of less cost. 3. Natural environment should be left undisturbed as much as possible thus enhancing biodiversity and wildlife conservation. The issue of environment requires political will to enforce popular regulations that are specific to the location in question. It does not have to be what is happening elsewhere but what is practicable here. The economic aspect of the issue can be a disincentive as environment friendly or sustainable practices often bring the pareto-optimality question to the fore. In such cases, the political factor will design economic mitigation of the challenges through incentives so as to stimulate commitment toward sustainability. In some situations enforcement and punitive approaches may also come to play but that is after the political issue have entrenched the idea as a law. This will be in the area of pollution, waste management and production methods.

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The focus of agricultural practices should be to reduce GHG emissions, increase soil carbon sequestration in land, and contribute biomass feedstock for energy use. Mitigation strategies are already in place or under review (list adapted from Beyond Kyoto, 2008): More efficient use of commercial nitrogen (N) fertilisers: this can be achieved through adjustment of application rates, application methods, time of application, use of inhibitors, new proposed technologies, etc.

Expanded soil survey providing landscape information required for sound management decisions.

Composting manure to produce fewer GHG emissions than when it is stockpiled.

Livestock feeding and grazing strategies to improve feed efficiency and reduce CH4 emissions. Reduction of tillage practices to prevent soil erosion, conserve soil moisture, reduce fossil fuel use and regain lost soil carbon. Controlled stubble burning to prevent the release of carbon from crop residues into the atmosphere. Increased use of perennial forages and legumes in crop rotations to generate N in the soil and reduce N2O emissions from subsequent N fertiliser use, and to build soil carbon. Land management practices for carbon sequestration: wetland restoration, permanent cover, afforestation, riparian area improvement, etc. Organic farming

Summary Agricultural production is one of the processes that create environmental hazard, albeit unintentionally. This occurs as the drive to satisfy ever increasing food demand heightens and technologies suddenly come onboard without having been tested for environmental friendliness. Innovations that impact the soil, water and forests as well as ecosystems are pushed with devastating effects. So while production grows in leaps over the short period, it greatly declines or even stops on the long run thereby endangering populations and displacing communities. It is now known that apart from testing innovations for environment compatibility, sustainability should now be the goal of production rather than economy in the short time basis. Practices that are known to impact seriously on the environment need be appraised and redesigned to promote sustainability through minimising effects on the environment. Post test 1. What factors seem to push man to engage wrong practices that affect environment? 2. How do agricultural wastes impact the environment? 3. What is soil sequestration?
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References http://in.answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20091110035946AAaYgRL http://www.state.gov/g/oes/env/ http://www.gov.mb.ca/agriculture/soilwater/climate/fcc03s00.html

LECTURE 12. Global issues (I): Global warming, green house gases, and ozone layer

depletion Introduction There are situations when perturbations in the environment create global impacts. The activities leading to this experiences could have emanated from other locations but it is usually due to cumulative effects which now spreads often covering large areas and distant from the origin. An example is the dust generated from industries in a country and which eventually contaminate the environment of another through rain and wind. Global phenomenon arises from the way the environment has been handled in some parts of the world and generates effects that are felt over a wider region internationally. While it is difficult to pin down the actual contribution of specific countries to the overall effect, it is possible to determine those who contribute to the effect. This, in a sense, is why international treaties are proposed to address issues relating to the environment while also expecting concerted efforts to mitigate deleterious effects. Objectives At the end of the lecture, you should be able to: 1. understand the concept of global warming and the role of greenhouse gases.
2. know the components and sources of greenhouse gases. 3. ascertain the significance of the ozone layer to the earth.

Pre-Test
1. Explain the concept of greenhouse effect and how it comes about.

2. How does the ozone layer get depleted? 3. What are the consequences of global warming? Content Global warming This is defined as the increase of the average temperature on Earth atmosphere and oceans. As the Earth gets hotter, disasters like hurricanes, droughts and floods become more frequent. The instrumental temperature record shows that the average global surface temperature increased by 0.74 C (1.33 F) during the 20th century. An increase in global temperature will cause sea levels to rise and will change the amount and pattern of precipitation, and a probable expansion of subtropical deserts. Warming is expected to be strongest in the Arctic and would be associated
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with continuing retreat of glaciers, permafrost and sea ice. Other likely effects of the warming include more frequent occurrence of extreme weather events including heat-waves, droughts and heavy rainfall events, species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes, and changes in agricultural yields. Warming and related changes will vary from region to region around the globe, though the nature of these regional changes is uncertain. In a 4 C world, the limits for human adaptation are likely to be exceeded in many parts of the world, while the limits for adaptation for natural systems would largely be exceeded throughout the world. Hence, the ecosystem services upon which human livelihoods depend would not be preserved. Proposed responses to global warming include mitigation to reduce emissions, adaptation to the effects of global warming, and geo-engineering to remove greenhouse gases from the atmosphere or reflect incoming solar radiation back to space. The main international mitigation effort is the Kyoto Protocol, which seeks to stabilise greenhouse gas concentration to prevent a dangerous anthropogenic interference. As of May 2010, 192 states had ratified the protocol. The only members of the UNFCCC that were asked to sign the treaty but have not yet ratified it are the USA and Afghanistan. Evidence for warming of the climate system includes observed increases in global average air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice, and rising global average sea level. Green house gases Radiation from the sun is absorbed by the earth as radiant visible light. Eventually, the heat from the earth is re-emitted into the atmosphere as infrared radiation (IR). As an example, infrared radiation is what you can feel and see (slightly) emanating from metal tops on a hot sunny day. A greenhouse gas (sometimes abbreviated GHG) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range. Gases that trap heat in the atmosphere are often called greenhouse gases. The primary greenhouse gases in the Earths atmosphere are water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. In the Solar System, the atmospheres of Venus, Mars, and Titan also contain gases that cause greenhouse effects. Greenhouse gases greatly affect the temperature of the Earth; without them, Earths surface would be on average about 33 C (59 F) colder than at present. Some greenhouse gases such as carbon IV oxide occur naturally and are emitted to the atmosphere through natural processes and human activities. Other greenhouse gases (e.g., fluorinated gases) are created and emitted solely through human activities. The principal greenhouse gases that enter the atmosphere because of human activities are:

Carbon IV oxide (CO2): Carbon IV oxide enters the atmosphere through the burning of fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal), solid waste, trees and wood products, and also as a result of other chemical reactions (e.g., manufacture of cement). Carbon IV oxide is also removed from the atmosphere (or sequestered) when it is absorbed by plants as part of the biological carbon cycle. Methane (CH4): Methane is emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural gas, and oil. Methane emissions also result from livestock and other agricultural practices and by the decay of organic waste in municipal solid waste landfills. Nitrous Oxide (N2O): Nitrous oxide is emitted during agricultural and industrial activities, as well as during combustion of fossil fuels and solid waste.
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Fluorinated Gases: Hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and sulfur hexafluoride are synthetic, powerful greenhouse gases that are emitted from a variety of industrial processes. Fluorinated gases are sometimes used as substitutes for ozone-depleting substances (i.e., CFCs, HCFCs, and halons). These gases are typically emitted in smaller quantities, but because they are potent greenhouse gases, they are sometimes referred to as High Global Warming Potential gases.

Ozone layer depletion The ozone layer is a layer in Earths atmosphere which contains relatively high concentrations of ozone (O3). This layer absorbs 9799% of the Suns high frequency ultraviolet light, which is potentially damaging to the life forms on Earth. The distribution of ozone in the stratosphere is a function of altitude, latitude and season. It is determined by photochemical and transport processes. The ozone layer is located between 10 and 50 km above the Earths surface and contains 90% of all stratospheric ozone. Under normal conditions, stratospheric ozone is formed by a photochemical reaction between oxygen molecules, oxygen atoms and solar radiation. The ozone layer is essential to life on earth, as it absorbs harmful ultraviolet-B radiation from the sun. In recent years the thickness of this layer has been decreasing, leading in extreme cases to holes in the layer. Causes of Ozone Depletion The cause of ozone depletion is the increase in the level of free radicals such as hydroxyl radicals, nitric oxide radicals and atomic chlorine and bromine. The most important compound, which accounts for almost 80% of the total depletion of ozone in the stratosphere are chlorofluorocarbons (CFC). These compounds are very stable in the lower atmosphere of the Earth, but in the stratosphere, they break down to release a free chlorine atom due to ultraviolet radiation. A free chlorine atom reacts with an ozone molecule (O3) and forms chlorine monoxide (ClO) and a molecule of oxygen. Now chlorine monoxide reacts with an ozone molecule to form a chlorine atom and two molecules of oxygen. The free chlorine molecule again reacts with ozone to form chlorine monoxide. The process continues and the result is the reduction or depletion of ozone in the stratosphere. Possible Effects of Ozone Depletion The ozone layer is important due to its blockade of the harmful effects of ultraviolet rays. The ozone layer is responsible for absorbing the ultraviolet rays and thereby preventing them from passing through the atmosphere of Earth. Ultraviolet rays of the Sun are associated with a number of health related and environmental issues. The most important of these is the association between ultraviolet rays and an increased risk of developing several types of skin cancers including malignant melanoma, basal and squamous cell carcinoma. Even the incidents of cortical cataracts can also increase significantly with the increased exposure to ultraviolet rays.

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The effects of ozone depletion are not limited to humans only, as it can affect animals and plants as well. It can affect important food crops like rice by adversely affecting cyanobacteria, which helps them absorb and utilize nitrogen properly. Phytoplankton, an important component of the marine food chain, can also be affected by ozone depletion. Studies in this regard have shown that ultraviolet rays can influence the survival rates of these microscopic organisms by affecting their orientation and mobility. Summary The earth is becoming warmer and the consequences are already ravaging our environment. International efforts are being garnered to mitigate the effects and there have been treaties and protocols to this effect. Greenhouse gases production contribute to the global warming as they deplete the ozone layer as well as release infracted light back into the atmosphere. The excessive and more direct heat from the sun affect organisms often leading to extinction. It also leads to species changes that may affect the entire environment and food chains. Post test 1. What is ozone and how is it affected by greenhouse gases? 2. How can global warming be linked to floods and sea level rise? 3. Can the ozone layer be replenished? References http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/index.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_layer http://www.buzzle.com/articles/ozone-layer-depletion-effects-and-causes-of-ozone-depletion.html http://esl.jrc.it/envind/pf_intro/pf_int06.htm

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LECTURE 13.

Global issues (II): Climate change and acid rain

Introduction Climate Change is the measurable increases in the average temperature of Earths atmosphere, oceans, and landmasses. Scientists believe Earth is currently facing a period of rapid warming brought on by rising levels of heat-trapping gases, known as greenhouse gases, in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases retain the radiant energy (heat) provided to Earth by the Sun in a process known as the greenhouse effect. Greenhouse gases occur naturally, and without them the planet would be too cold to sustain life as we know it.

Objectives At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

1.

understand how climate change happen with effects throughout the world identify the effects of climate change on the environment know how changes in the environment lead to acid rain

2.
3.

Pre-Test 1. 2. 3. What do you know about climate change? What happens when the ice in the arctic region? What do you know about acid rain?

Content
1.

Climate change

This is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years. It may be a change in average weather conditions or the distribution of events around that average (e.g., more or fewer extreme weather events). Climate change may be limited to a specific region or may occur across the whole Earth. Climate changes in response to changes in the global energy balance. On the broadest scale, the rate at which energy is received from the sun and the rate at which it is lost to space determine the equilibrium temperature and climate of Earth. This energy is then distributed around the globe by winds, ocean currents, and other mechanisms to affect the climates of different regions. Polar Regions Polar regions include the Arctic in the Northern Hemisphere and Antarctica in the Southern Hemisphere. The Arctic encompasses a large, mostly frozen ocean surrounded by land, is home
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to almost four million people (ACIA, 2004). Antarctica is an ice-covered continent surrounded by ocean and is generally uninhabited. The Arctic is expected to experience the greatest rates of warming compared with other world regions (IPCC, 2007). In part, this is because ice has greater reflectivity (also known as albedo) than the ocean or land. Melting of highly reflective snow and ice reveals darker land and ocean surfaces, increasing absorption of the suns heat and further warming the planet, especially in those regions. There is evidence that climate change is already having observable impacts in the Arctic and in Antarctica. Many of these observed changes are consistent with the expected effects of climate change under a range of climate scenarios.

Effects on the Climate System

Average temperatures in the Arctic have risen at almost twice the rate as temperatures in the rest of the world over the past few decades. Widespread melting of glaciers and sea ice and rising permafrost temperatures present additional evidence of strong Arctic warming. The above trends are expected to continue during this century, resulting from ongoing increases in atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases (though greenhouse gases do not primarily originate from the Arctic). Melting of Arctic glaciers is a contributing factor to sea-level rise around the world. Warming is very likely to alter the release and uptake of greenhouse gases from soils, vegetation, and coastal oceans. Ocean acidification will adversely affect marine calcifiers by making it more difficult for these organisms to form protective shells Reduction in sea ice is very likely to have devastating consequences for polar bears, icedependent seals, and local people for whom these animals are a primary food source.

Effects on Biological and Human Systems

Arctic impacts will have implications for biodiversity around the world because migratory species depend on breeding and feeding grounds in the Arctic. Reduced sea ice is likely to increase marine access to the regions resources, expanding opportunities for shipping and possibly for offshore oil extraction (although operations could be hampered initially by increasing movement of sea ice in some areas). As frozen ground thaws, many existing buildings, roads, pipelines, airports, and industrial facilities are likely to be destabilized. Increased areas of tree growth in the Arctic could serve to take up carbon dioxide (CO 2, the principal greenhouse gas emitted by human activities) and supply more wood products and related employment, providing local and global benefits. However, tree growth would mean absorption of additional sunlight (as the land surface would become darker and less reflective) and add to regional warming. Climate change is taking place within the context of many other ongoing changes in the Arctic, including observed increases in chemical contaminants entering the Arctic from other

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regions, overfishing, land use changes that result in habitat destruction and fragmentation, rapid growth in the human population, and cultural, governance and economic changes. The conclusions of the ACIA report are further supported by evidence from remote sensing technologies. Satellites and U.S. and British Navy submarines have provided data on retreating Arctic sea ice and decreasing Arctic ice thickness. Satellite data show that the extent of Arctic sea ice has decreased by about three percent per decade. 2. Acid rain

This is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic, meaning that it possesses elevated levels of hydrogen ions (low pH). It can have harmful effects on plants, aquatic animals, and infrastructure. Acid rain is caused by emissions of carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides which react with the water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids. Wet deposition refers to acidic rain, fog, and snow. As this acidic water flows over and through the ground, it affects a variety of plants and animals. The strength of the effects depend on many factors, including how acidic the water is, the chemistry and buffering capacity of the soils involved, and the types of fish, trees, and other living things that rely on the water. Prevailing winds blow the compounds that cause both wet and dry acid deposition across state and national borders, and sometimes over hundreds of miles. Scientists discovered, and have confirmed, that sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NO2) are the primary causes of acid rain. Most of the SO2 and NO2 come from electric power generation and car exhausts together with other engines that rely on burning fossil fuels like coal. Acid rain occurs when these gases react in the atmosphere with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form various acidic compounds. Sunlight increases the rate of most of these reactions. The result is a mild solution of sulphuric acid and nitric acid. Acid rain causes acidification of lakes and streams and contributes to damage of trees at high elevations (for example, red spruce trees above 2,000 feet) and many sensitive forest soils. In addition, acid rain accelerates the decay of building materials and paints, including irreplaceable buildings, statues, and sculptures that are part of our nations cultural heritage. Prior to falling to the earth, SO2 and NO2 gases and their particulate matter derivatives, sulphates and nitrates, contribute to visibility degradation and harm public health. Acid rain has also been shown to have adverse impacts on forests, freshwaters and soils, killing insect and aquatic life-forms as well as causing damage to buildings and having impacts on human health. Surface waters and aquatic animals Both the lower pH and higher aluminium concentrations in surface water that occur as a result of acid rain can cause damage to fish and other aquatic animals. At pHs lower than 5 most fish eggs will not hatch and lower pHs can kill adult fish. As lakes and rivers become more acidic biodiversity is reduced. Acid rain has eliminated insect life and some fish species. However, the extent to which acid rain contributes directly or indirectly via runoff from the catchment to lake and river acidity (i.e., depending on characteristics of the surrounding watershed) is variable. The
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United States Environmental Protection Agencys (EPA) website states: Of the lakes and streams surveyed, acid rain caused acidity in 75 percent of the acidic lakes and about 50 percent of the acidic streams. Soils Soil biology and chemistry can be seriously damaged by acid rain. Some microbes are unable to tolerate changes to low pHs and are killed. The enzymes of these microbes are denatured (changed in shape so they no longer function) by the acid. The hydronium ions of acid rain also mobilise toxins such as aluminium, and leach away essential nutrients and minerals such as magnesium. 2 H+ (aq) + Mg2+ (clay) 2 H+ (clay) + Mg2+ (aq)

Soil chemistry can be dramatically changed when base cations, such as calcium and magnesium, are leached by acid rain thereby affecting sensitive species, such as sugar maple (Acer saccharum). Forests and other vegetation Adverse effects may be indirectly related to acid rain, like the acids effects on soil (see above) or high concentration of gaseous precursors to acid rain. High altitude forests are especially vulnerable as they are often surrounded by clouds and fog which are more acidic than rain. Other plants can also be damaged by acid rain, but the effect on food crops is minimized by the application of lime and fertilisers to replace lost nutrients. In cultivated areas, limestone may also be added to increase the ability of the soil to keep the pH stable, but this tactic is largely unusable in the case of wilderness lands. Human health effects Acid rain does not directly affect human health. The acid in the rainwater is too dilute to have direct adverse effects. However, the particulates responsible for acid rain (sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides) do have an adverse effect. Increased amounts of fine particulate matter in the air do contribute to heart and lung problems including asthma and bronchitis. Other adverse effects Acid rain can also damage buildings and historic monuments, especially those made of rocks such as limestone and marble containing large amounts of calcium carbonate. Acids in the rain react with the calcium compounds in the stones to create gypsum, which then flakes off. CaCO3 (s) + H2SO4 (aq) CaSO4 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

The effects of this are commonly seen on old gravestones, where acid rain can cause the inscriptions to become completely illegible. Acid rain also increases the corrosion rate of metals, in particular iron, steel, copper and bronze.

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Summary Climate change is apparently a response to the stress being experienced by the environment. This stress is visible in the changes occurring to weather pattern and climate. The changes are greater in the polar and arctic regions leading to higher temperatures, melting of ice, rise in ocean level and attendant flooding. Overall impact is on biodiversity depletion and habitat destruction. Acid rain, on the other hand, is caused by presence of certain gases in the atmosphere. It has direct effect on water bodies, forests and vegetation, soils and physical structures including houses but not directly related to human health. Post test 1. 2. 3. Enumerate activities that lead to climate change. Describe the likely consequences of melting ice in the arctic region. What effect does acid rain have on agriculture? References Arctic Climate Impact Assessment (ACIA), 2004: Impacts of a Warming Arctic: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 144 pp. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain#Adverse_effects http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change#Causes http://www.policyalmanac.org/environment/archive/acid_rain.shtml IPCC, 2007: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning (eds.)].

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LECTURE 14. Environmental reclamation and protection through agroforestry practices.

Introduction The importance of agriculture cannot be overemphasised. The practice of agriculture has however been implicated in its effect on the environment especially in the areas of deforestation, tillage practices and waste management. In particular, the nexus between agriculture, environment and forestry appears crucial if the practices will be sustainable. This establishes a relationship between agriculture and forestry more so that both can only be practiced on the land. While agriculture exposes the land to degradation, forestry protects and maintains it. This positions forestry as an ameliorative option for reversing what agriculture would have caused. But since agricultural production has no alternative, a combination of agriculture and forestry gave rise to agroforestry which by simple definition is any land management practice which combines and agricultural production system with a soil conserving practice like planting of trees or shrubs. Objectives At the end of this lecture, you should be able to: 1. realise that agriculture can be practiced in an environmentally sustainable way. 2. know the land management practices that are sustainable. 3. know the combination of forestry and agriculture species that can be sustainably combined. Pre-Test 1. How can land be sustainably exploited agriculturally? 2. Which crop and forestry species can be planted with mutual benefits? 3. What are the costs of incorporating forestry species in and agricultural plan? Content Environmental reclamation and protection through agroforestry practices The focus of this lecture is agroforestry which explains the management of agricultural land to allow compatible forestry species that ameliorate the decline of soil quality due to cultivation. Agroforestry refers to combinations of trees, crops and livestock that are intentionally designed and managed as a whole production unit. Crop production can be optimized when crops are combined with trees and shrubs. The benefits include increased crop yields, improved soil and water quality, increased biodiversity, as well as lower greenhouse gas emissions and increased carbon sequestration. In addition, alternate crop uses related to trees and shrubs, including bioenergy, fruits, nuts, horticulture nursery stock, wood fibre and livestock shelter, could diversify farms and enhance their profitability.

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Agroforestry practices According to the World Agroforestry Centre, Agroforestry is a collective name for land use systems and practices in which woody perennials are deliberately integrated with crops and/or animals on the same land management unit. The integration can be either in a spatial mixture or in a temporal sequence. There are normally both ecological and economic interactions between woody and non-woody components in agroforestry. In agroforestry systems, trees or shrubs are intentionally used within agricultural systems, or non-timber forest products are cultured in forest settings. Knowledge, careful selection of species and good management of trees and crops are needed to optimize the production and positive effects within the system and to minimize negative competitive effects. In some areas, a narrow definition of agroforestry might simply be: trees on farms. Hence, agroforestry, farm forestry and family forestry can be broadly understood as the commitment of farmers, alone or in partnerships, towards the establishment and management of forests on their land. Where many landholders are involved the result is a diversity of activity that reflects the diversity of aspirations and interests within the community. Impacts of agroforestry Agroforestry systems can be advantageous over conventional agricultural and forest production methods through increased productivity, economic benefits, social outcomes and the ecological goods and services provided. Biodiversity in agroforestry systems is typically higher than in conventional agricultural systems. Agroforestry incorporates at least several plant species into a given land area and creates a more complex habitat that can support a wider variety of birds, insects, and other animals. Agroforestry also has the potential to help reduce climate change since trees take up and store carbon at a faster rate than crops. Agroforestry tree species of research interest in the tropics, particularly in relation to improving maize yields in sub-Saharan Africa, include the nitrogen fixing species Sesbania sesban, Tephrosia vogelii, Gliricidia sepium and Faidherbia albida. Unlike other trees, Faidherbia sheds its nitrogen-rich leaves during the rainy crop growing season so it does not compete with the crop for light, nutrients and water. The leaves then regrow during the dry season and provide land cover and shade for crops. Potential impacts of agroforestry can include: Reducing poverty through increased production of agroforestry products for home consumption and sale

Contributing to food security by restoring farm soil fertility for food crops and production of fruits, nuts and edible oils Reducing deforestation and pressure on woodlands by providing fuelwood grown on farms Increasing diversity of on-farm tree crops and tree cover to buffer farmers against the effects of global climate change
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Improving nutrition to lessen the impacts of hunger and chronic illness associated with HIV/AIDS

Augmenting accessibility to medicinal trees, the main source of medication for 80% of Africas population. Alley cropping Alley cropping, sometimes referred to as sun systems, is a form of intercropping, and can be applied by farmers as a strategy to combat soil erosion, to increase the diversity of farmland, as a means for crop diversification and to derive other integrated benefits. In this practice, crops are planted in strips in the alleys formed between rows of trees and/or shrubs. The potential benefits of this design include the provision of shade in hot, dry environments (reducing water loss from evaporation), retention of soil moisture, reduce soil erosion, decrease nutrient loading and protect watersheds, increase in the structural diversity of the site and wildlife habitat. It has potential for both diversifying farm incomes and increasing on-farm carbon sequestration. The woody perennials in these systems can produce fruit, fuelwood, fodder, or trimmings to be made into mulch. Forest farming Forest farming, also known as shade systems, is the sustainable, integrated cultivation of both timber and non-timber forest products in a forest setting. Forest farming is separate and distinct from the opportunistic exploitation / wild harvest of non-timber forest products. Successful forest farming operations produce: mushrooms, maple and birch syrup, native plants used for landscaping and floral greenery (e.g. salal, sword fern, bear grass, cedar boughs and others), medicinal and pharmaceutical products (e.g. ginseng, goldenseal, cascara or yew bark), wild berries and fruit. Silvopasture Silvopastures combine livestock grazing on forage crops or pastures within actively managed tree or shrub crops. Cattle, sheep and goats are the most common livestock incorporated into silvopasture systems and they may be deployed entirely within a private farm/woodlot silvopasture. After crop is harvested lambs can graze the stubble. Eventually the trees will be sufficiently high to cope with sheep grazing lower branches. Virtually no productivity will be lost and as the trees starts to influence the micro-climate the paddock will become more and more productive. Silvopastures can increase net carbon storage when both trees and forages are properly managed. Trees perform a further service by providing shade and shelter for livestock during extreme weather. Riparian buffers and integrated riparian management Riparian buffers are managed forest and shrubs belts in areas bordering lakes, streams, rivers, and wetlands. Integrated riparian management systems are used to enhance and protect aquatic and riparian resources as well as generating income from timber and non-timber forest products. Similar to shelter and timber-belts, integrated riparian management systems can employ a wide variety of tree and shrub species, with specific plantings tailored to suit the specific growing conditions and production opportunities. The main benefits of these buffers are to filter surface
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run-off, which may contain sediments, nutrients and/or pesticides, protect stream banks and shorelines from erosion, and sequester carbon. Shelterbelts Shelterbelts consist of one or more rows of trees strategically planted on the farm. They are an effective tool for fighting climate change because they remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and can moderate the microclimate around the shelterbelt. Studies at Agri-Food Canadas Shelterbelt Centre show that the above-ground portion of a mature poplar tree in a shelterbelt stores about 970 kg of carbon dioxide, white spruce about 520 kg and green ash trees about 230 kg. There is also carbon stored in the roots - about 5075 percent of the carbon stored above ground. Shelterbelts also reduce wind, cut soil erosion and nutrient loss, conserve water, control blowing snow, and may provide diversification opportunities, such as fruit production. The potential drawbacks are increased shade and competition with crops for water and nutrients. Agro woodlots Fast growing woody crops, such as hybrid poplar trees, provide environmental benefits with high rates of nutrient uptake and large amounts of carbon storage over rotation lengths as short as 15 years. Biomass from trees can also be used as an alternative fuel (bioenergy). Carbon dioxide emissions from a unit of electricity generated from bioenergy are 10 to 20 times lower than from fossil fuelbased electricity production Other uses Agroforestry practices may also be employed to realize a number of other associated Environmental Services, including:

Carbon sequestration (process of appropriating or storing carbon through assimilating carbon IV oxide) Odour, dust, and noise reduction Waste water or manure management (e.g. utilizing urban waste water on intensive, short rotation forests for wood fibre production) Green space and visual aesthetics. Enhancement or maintenance of wildlife habitat.

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Summary The importance of maintaining soil productivity has become clear to agricultural practitioners. However, putting this into practice requires an understanding of which practice will not have long term effect on the soil. So, natural practices are being favoured over the use of artificial and chemical fertilisers. Agroforestry involves a simulation of a natural environment on the farm and this enable the soil environment to get replenishment through natural processes. There are different forms of agroforestry compatible with different ecologies and using different species of crops, shrubs or trees. Each combination has similar advantages but can best be suited to specific situation. Post test 1. 2. 3. Can trees and crops grow on the same plot forever? Explain. Which agroforestry practice will you recommend to a fish farmer? How will agroforestry ameliorate the effect of soil pollution? References http://www.climatechangeconnection.org/Solutions/Agroforestry.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agroforestry

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LECTURE 15. Concepts on sustainability and biodiversity conservation (carbon footprint,

carbon banking, carbon tax). Introduction The state of the earths environment has become a global issue because there are no absolute boundaries in the environment. From an understanding of the interaction among the components of the environment, it is obvious that soil degradation can affect the water, air and even vegetation and climate. The latter usually cuts across national boundaries. The issue of environmental degradation is therefore international and every activity in every nation and community is being scrutinised to prevent environmental vandalism. The United Nations has set up many bodies to watch, advise on mitigation and prevention and research into potential root causes of environmental degradation. The battle is being fought on various fronts starting with an assessment of contributions to the menace. Objectives At the end of this lecture, you should be able to: 1. have an understanding of what is being done globally and at other levels concerning environmental degradation. 2. know how to determine environmental stewardship or vandalism. 3. know about international trades concerning the environment. Pre-Test 1. What is carbon footprint? 2. How can environmental vandalism be redeemed? 3. How is the pareto-optimality issue in environmental stewardship addressed? Content Sustainability Sustainability is the capacity to endure. For humans, sustainability is the long-term maintenance of well being, which has environmental, economic, and social dimensions, and encompasses the concept of stewardship, the responsible management of resource use. In ecology, sustainability describes how biological systems remain diverse and productive over time, a necessary precondition for human well-being. Healthy ecosystems and environments provide vital goods and services to humans and other organisms. There are two major ways of managing human impact on ecosystem services. One approach is environmental management; this approach is based largely on information gained from earth science, environmental science, and conservation biology. Another approach is management of consumption of resources, which is based largely on information gained from economics.

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Human sustainability interfaces with economics through the social and ecological consequences of economic activity. Moving towards sustainability is also a social challenge that entails, among other factors, international and national law, urban planning and transport, local and individual lifestyles and ethical consumerism. Ways of living more sustainably can take many forms from reorganising living conditions (e.g. ecovillages, eco-municipalities and sustainable cities), to reappraising work practices (e.g. using permaculture, green building, sustainable agriculture), or developing new technologies that reduce the consumption of resources. Carbon footprint A carbon footprint is the total set of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions caused by an organisation, event, product or person. Greenhouse gases can be emitted through transport, land clearance, and the production and consumption of food, fuels, manufactured goods, materials, wood, roads, buildings, and services. For simplicity of reporting, it is often expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide, or its equivalent of other GHGs, emitted. An individuals, nations, or organisations carbon footprint is measured by undertaking a GHG emissions assessment. Once the size of a carbon footprint is known, a strategy can be devised to reduce it, e.g. by technological developments, better process and product management, carbon capture, consumption strategies, and others. The mitigation of carbon footprints through the development of alternative projects, such as solar or wind energy or reforestation, represents one way of reducing a carbon footprint and is often known as Carbon offsetting. The main influences on carbon footprints include population rise, emphasis on economic output, energy consumption and carbon intensity of the economy. These factors are the main targets of individuals and businesses in order to decrease carbon footprints. Scholars suggest the most effective way to decrease a carbon footprint is to either decrease the amount of energy needed for production or to decrease the dependence on carbon emitting fuels. The key ways to determine the carbon footprint is to look at the materials that were used to make the item for consumption. For example, the juice carton is made of Aseptic carton, the beer can is made of aluminium and some water bottles either made of glass or plastic. The larger the size, the larger the footprint will be. The total amount of greenhouse gases produced to directly and indirectly support human activities, usually expressed in equivalent tons of carbon dioxide (CO2). In other words, when you drive a car, the engine burns fuel which creates a certain amount of CO2, depending on its fuel consumption and the driving distance. CO2 is the chemical symbol for carbon dioxide). When you heat your house with oil, gas or coal, use fuelwood, then you also generate CO2. Even if you heat your house with electricity, the generation of the electrical power may also have emitted a certain amount of CO2. When you buy food and goods, the production of the food and goods also emitted some quantities of CO2. Your carbon footprint is the sum of all emissions of CO2 (carbon dioxide), which were induced by your activities in a given time frame. Usually a carbon footprint is calculated for the time period of a year.

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The best way is to calculate the carbon dioxide emissions based on the fuel consumption. In the next step you can add the CO2 emission to your carbon footprint. Below is a table for the most common used fuels:

Examples: Fuel type Unit Petrol Diesel 1 litre 1 litre CO2 emitted per unit 2.3 kg 2.7 kg

Each of the following activities add 1 kg of CO2 to your personal carbon footprint:

Travel by public transportation (train or bus) a distance of 10 to 12 km (6.5 to 7 miles) Drive with your car a distance of 6 km or 3.75 miles (assuming 7.3 litres petrol per 100 km or 39 mpg) Fly with a plane a distance of 2.2 km or 1.375 miles. Operate your computer for 32 hours (60 Watt consumption assumed) Production of 5 plastic bags Production of 2 plastic bottles Production of 1/3 of an American cheeseburger (yes, the production of each cheeseburger emits 3.1 kg of CO2!)

To calculate the above contributions to the carbon footprint, the current UK mix for electricity and trains was taken into account. The carbon footprint is a very powerful tool to understand the impact of personal behaviour on global warming. Most people are shocked when they see the amount of CO2their activities create! If you personally want to contribute to stop global warming, the calculation and constant monitoring of your personal carbon footprint is essential. Carbon Bank Carbon Bank is a term used to describe the international effort to reduce carbon gas emissions (Carbon IV oxide, Methane, CFCs etc) which may contribute to global warming. An industrialized nation may produce more than its share and a less developed nation may be provided incentives for not destroying its rain forests such as food aid and so on, since plant life, and especially the very rich plant life of the tropical rain forests removes carbon dioxide from the air by photosynthesis.

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A carbon credit is a generic term for any tradable certificate or permit representing the right to emit one tonne of carbon dioxide or the mass of another greenhouse gas with a carbon dioxide equivalent (tCO2e) equivalent to one tonne of carbon dioxide. It is a permit that allows the holder to emit one ton of carbon dioxide. Carbon credits and carbon markets are a component of national and international attempts to mitigate the growth in concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs). One carbon credit is equal to one metric tonne of carbon dioxide, or in some markets, carbon dioxide equivalent gases. Carbon trading is an application of an emissions trading approach. Greenhouse gas emissions are capped and then markets are used to allocate the emissions among the group of regulated sources. The goal is to allow market mechanisms to drive industrial and commercial processes in the direction of low emissions or less carbon intensive approaches than those used when there is no cost to emitting carbon dioxide and other GHGs into the atmosphere. Since GHG mitigation projects generate credits, this approach can be used to finance carbon reduction schemes between trading partners and around the world. There are also many companies that sell carbon credits to commercial and individual customers who are interested in lowering their carbon footprint on a voluntary basis. These carbon offsetters purchase the credits from an investment fund or a carbon development company that has aggregated the credits from individual projects. Buyers and sellers can also use an exchange platform to trade, such as the Carbon Trade Exchange, which is like a stock exchange for carbon credits. The quality of the credits is based in part on the validation process and sophistication of the fund or development company that acted as the sponsor to the carbon project. This is reflected in their price; voluntary units typically have less value than the units sold through the rigorously validated Clean Development Mechanism. Credits are awarded to countries or groups that have reduced their green house gases below their emission quota. Carbon credits can be traded in the international market at their current market price. Biodiversity Biodiversity is the degree of variation of life forms within a given ecosystem, biome, or an entire planet. Biodiversity is a measure of the health of ecosystems. Biodiversity is in part a function of climate. In terrestrial habitats, tropical regions are typically rich whereas polar regions support fewer species. Rapid environmental changes typically cause mass extinctions. One estimate is that less than 1% of the species that have existed on Earth are extant. The period since the emergence of humans has displayed an ongoing biodiversity reduction and an accompanying loss of genetic diversity. Named the Holocene extinction, the reduction is caused primarily by human impacts, particularly habitat destruction. Conversely, biodiversity impacts human health in a number of ways, both positively and negatively. Overexploitation occurs when a resource is consumed at an unsustainable rate. This occurs on land in the form of overhunting, excessive logging, poor soil conservation in agriculture and the illegal wildlife trade. The international trade of endangered species is second in size only to drug trafficking.
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About 25% of world fisheries are now overfished to the point where their current biomass is less than the level that maximizes their sustainable yield. The overkill hypothesis explains why earlier megafaunal extinctions occurred within a relatively short period of time. This can be connected with human migration. Summary With the importance globally attached to the health of the environment, concerted effort is being made on all fronts to discourage environmental abuse and to prevent the doomsday predictions, redemptive actions are being enforced. Measurements are being developed to assign environmental compliance with credits given for positive performance and debit for the opposite. Focus has also being on biodiversity with emphasis on indigenous species preservation as well as human population regard for exploitative activities having thoughts for sustainability rather than economic gains. Post test 1. 2. 3. How can carbon credit be utilised by the holder? Of what significance is indigenous species to science? What is the meaning of biomass? References http://timeforchange.org/what-is-a-carbon-footprintdefinitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_footprint#Kyoto_Protocol.2C_carbon_offsetting.2 C_and_certificates http://in.answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20080819012037AAYG0Qo http://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/carbon_credit.asp#ixzz1YslnWpc5 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_credithttp://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/carbon_credit.a sp#axzz1YslNidPt http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_Sustainability_Index

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