Aee1 Skript

Advanced Electrical Engineering 1 Electromagnetics
Prof. S. Peik
September 13, 2012
Prof. S. Peik
Foreword
Unlike other engineering disciplines, the complete theory of electrical engineering can be summarized in four fundamental equations known as Maxwells equations. This course gives an introduction to electric and magnetic eld theory, leading to Maxwells equations. In addition, the theory is applied to wave propagation problems and guided waves on transmission lines. This knowledge enables us to understand the physics behind electrical signals traveling through lines and electronic devices. These lectures notes are supplemental material to the lectures. Parts of this document are taken from various sources.
Lecturer:
Prof. Dr. S. Peik Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science University of Applied Sciences Bremen Neustadtswall 30 28199 Bremen Ofce E E609 Phone 5905-2437 email speik@hs-bremen.de web http://www.nt.hs-bremen.de/peik
The title page shows Faradays rst induction coil. Using this coil Faraday discovered the law of induction, now known as Faradays law.
Version: September 13, 2012
Contents
1 Introduction 1.1 The Phenomenon of Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Electrical Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8 8 9 9
1.2.1 Separation of Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Conservation of Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.4 Charge Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5 Moving Charge, Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 1.6 Summary 2 Electric Fields 2.1 Coulombs Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2 Permittivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 2.2.1 Analogy to Gravitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 2.3 Vectorial Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 2.3.1 Superposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 2.4 Denition of the Electric Field 2.4.1 The Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.5 The Field Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 2.6 Field Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 2.6.1 Electric Field of a Point Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 2.6.2 Vector Type Field Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.6.3 General Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 2.7 Field Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 2.8 Electric Fields in Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 2.8.1 Homogeneous Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 2.9 Typical E-Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.10Summary E-Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Prof. S. Peik 3 Potential 33
3.1 Energy of the Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 3.2 Electric Potential V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 3.2.1 Constant-Potential Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.3 Independence of Path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 3.4 Potential of a Point Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 3.5 Electric Voltage V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 3.6 Potential from Charge Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 3.7 The Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.8 Analogy to Gravitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 3.9 The Conversion Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.10Electric Dipoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 3.11Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 4 Capacitance and Capacitor 50
4.1 Capacitance of a Parallel Plate Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 4.2 Recipe for Deriving the Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 4.3 Circuits with Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 4.4 Energy in Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 4.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 5 Electric Flux and Flux Density 57
5.1 Denition of the D-Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 5.2 D-Fields in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 5.3 Electric Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 5.4 Relation between D and E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.5 Gausss Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 5.6 Divergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 5.7 Gausss Law in Differential Form 5.8 Inuence and Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.9 Partly Filled Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 5.10E-Field and D-Field on Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 5.11Stored Energy in Electrostatic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 5.12Poissons and Laplaces Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 5.13Procedure for Solving Boundary Value Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 5.14Solving Laplace with Finite Element Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 5.14.1Relaxation Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 5.15Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Prof. S. Peik 6 Moving Charges 74
6.1 Current I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 6.2 U-I-Relation at Capacitors in AC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 6.3 Current Density J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 6.4 Current Density Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
6.5 Relation Between E and J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 6.6 Resistance R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 6.7 Drift Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 6.8 Converted Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.9 Continuity Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 7 Magnetostatics 84
7.1 History of Magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 7.2 Permanent Magnets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 7.3 Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 7.4 Magnetic Field Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 7.5 Magnetic Field of the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 7.6 The Magnetic Field H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 7.6.1 Magnetic Field of a Current Through a Long Wire . . . . . . . . . . 87 7.7 Amperes Law, Denition of H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 7.8 Magnetic Fields Due to Current in a Long Straight Wire . . . . . . . . . . 89 7.8.1 The Curl Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 7.9 Amperes Law in Point Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 7.9.1 H-Field on a Sheet of Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 7.10Solenoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 7.11Biot-Savarts Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 7.12Magnetic Dipoles and Current Loop Analogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 7.13Denition of Magnetic Field by the Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 7.14Magnetic Flux Density 7.14.1Permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
7.15Hysteresis Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 7.16Magnetic Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 7.17Magnetic Vector Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
7.17.1Gauge Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 7.17.2Poisson Equation for Magnetostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 7.18Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Prof. S. Peik 8 Inductance and Magnetic Circuits 111
8.1 Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 8.2 Flux Linkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 8.3 Inductance of a Long Solenoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 8.4 Circuits with Inductances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 8.5 Energy in the Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 8.6 Magnetic Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 8.7 Magnetic Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
8.7.1 Perfect Magnetic Conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 9 Time-Varying Fields 119
9.1 Faradays Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 9.2 Lenzs Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 9.3 Moving Loop in a Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 9.4 Self- and Mutual Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 9.4.1 Mutual Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 9.4.2 Self Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 9.5 V-I-Dependence in coils in AC-Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
9.6 Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 9.6.1 Ideal Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
9.7 Eddy Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 10 Electromagnetic Forces 10.1Lorentz Force 129
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
10.1.1Force on a Current Carrying wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 10.2Force on two Parallel Wires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 10.3Force on an Air Gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 11 Electromagnetic Waves 133
11.1History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 11.2Maxwells Contribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 11.3Displacement Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 11.4Maxwells Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 11.5Time Harmonic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 11.6Electromagnetic Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 11.7Plane-Wave Propagation in Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 11.8EM-Wave Reections at Normal Incidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Prof. S. Peik 12 Waves on Transmission Lines 146
12.1Time-Harmonic Signals on Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 12.2Solution of the Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 12.3Propagation Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 12.4Wave Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 12.5Wave Length and Propagation Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 12.6Phase Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 12.6.1Lossless Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 12.7Determining the Constants by Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 12.8End Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 12.9Terminated Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
12.9.1Matched Load
12.9.2Arbitrary Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 12.10 Reections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 12.11 Input Impedance of a Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 12.11.1 Impedance Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 12.11.2 Short and Open Line Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 A Vector Algebra 165
A.1 Vectors and Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 A.1.1 Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 A.1.2 Vector Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 A.2 Coordinate Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 A.2.1 Cartesian Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 A.2.2 Cylindrical Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 A.2.3 Spherical Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 A.2.4 Relations of Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 A.2.5 The Poisonous Snake A.3 Vector Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
A.3.1 Line, Surface and Volume Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 A.3.2 Del Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 A.3.3 Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 A.3.4 Divergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 A.3.5 Curl and Stokes Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 A.3.6 Laplacian Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 A.4 Converting Operators between Coordinate Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Prof. S. Peik B Useful Tables 181
B.1 Greek Alphabet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 B.2 Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Introduction
During this course we develop a better understanding of the underlying physics of electric circuits, including properties of resistors, capacitors, inductors, and transmission lines. Firstly, we concentrate on the fundamental concepts of electrostatics (capacitors, resistors) and magneto-statics (inductors). Here we explore the basic laws of electromagnetics such as Coulombs law, Gauss law, Amperes law and Faradays law. In addition to descriptive methods we acquire mathematical methods such as vector calculus in order to solve more complex electromagnetic problems. Secondly, we extend our knowledge to electrodynamic concepts which will enable us to investigate wave problems and transmission lines. The course concludes in the formulation of the complete Maxwells equations and the application of Maxwells equations. [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
1.1
The Phenomenon of Electricity

Electricity was rst observed by the Greek philosopher Thales (577 b.c). He noticed, that a glass and an amber rod attract each other when rubbed with silk.
Figure 1.1: Thales of Miletus (ca. 635 BC-543 BC), also known as Thales the Milesian, was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher and one of the Seven Sages of Greece. Many regard him as the rst philosopher in the Greek tradition as well as the father of science. Thales is credited with rst popularizing geometry in ancient Greek culture, mainly that of spatial relationships. Herodotus cites him as having predicted the solar eclipse of 585 BC that put an end to ghting between the Lydians and the Medes.
Two amber rods expel each other, whereas an amber and a glass rod attract each other.
Prof. S. Peik
b Am
er
Ro
d ber Am
Ro
Ambe
r Rod
Glass
Rod
Figure 1.2: Phenomena of Electricity
This phenomena can be explained with the existence of electric charges. Since we observe attraction and repulsion, there must be two different kinds of charges. We name them positive (+) and negative (-) charge. This denition goes back to Benjamin Franklin, who dened arbitrary, that positive charges are the charges on the glass. The word electricity is derived from the Greek word E (electron) meaning amber.
1.2
Electrical Charge
The origin of charges can be pinpointed inside the atom. Using Bohrs model we can associate positive charges with the protons in the atoms nucleus, and negative charges with the electrons, that form the atoms hull. Electrons can be removed from the atom.
Elektron
Neutron Proton + + + +
Figure 1.3: Bohrs Model
As observed with the amber and the glass rod, charges of charges of opposite sign attract each other, whereas charges of equal sign repel each other. We use the letter Q for the quantity of charge. The unit of Q is Coulomb (or C in short) named after Charles Augustin de Coulomb.
1.2.1
Separation of Charges
When we feed energy to the atom we can extract an electron from the atom. The remaining positively charged atom is now called an ion. We can also add electrons
Prof. S. Peik to atoms; in that case the atom is negatively charged by one electron charge. This is also called an ion. Generally, matter is always composed of negative charges (electrons) and positive charges (protons). When both charges are balanced within an object, the object is electrically neutral outside. However, we can always separate positive and negative charges, such that we create a positively charged section and a negatively charged section.
+- + + -+ + -+
Q=Q-+Q+=0
Separation by adding energy
+ + + + + +
Q+
Attraction F
- -- Voltage V Q-
Figure 1.4: Separation of Charges
We will observe the following effects: 1. Force: On the charged bodies acts a force attraction on like charges repulsion on unlike charges 2. Voltage: Between the two charged bodies exists a voltage V = 1 2 .
1.3
Conservation of Charge
By experiment we can show, that there is an interesting proposition about charge Conservation of Charge: The total charge Q of a closed system is always constant. No physical or chemical process is able to change it. The proposition is based on the theory, that the charge of a proton and electron is xed and electrons and protons cannot vanish and that opposite equal charges nullify each other. There are a number of other conservation laws in physics, e.g. energy conservation and mass conservation. These propositions can be conrmed by experiment but cannot be proved directly.
1.4
Charge Distributions
Charges can be be placed either in a point or can be distributed spatially. The main charge distributions are
10
Prof. S. Peik Point charges Line charges Surface charges Space or volume charges Figure 1.5 shows common possible charge distributions. For line charges, the charge Q is usually given by Charge per length, i.e. = l , with the unit Coulombs per meter. Similarly, this applies to surface charges = A and volume charges = V .
Surface Charge Line Charge
Volume Charge
Figure 1.5: Charge Distributions
As mentioned earlier those charges are denoted usually by their densities, e.g. in C . m3 In a cloud or line of charge we dene dQ as the innitesimal small charge element. The total charge is calculated by
Q=
Vol
dQ =
( x, y, z) dV
(1.1)
Similarly for line and surface charges by
Q = Q =
Length
( x, y, z) dl
(1.2) (1.3)
Area
( x, y, z) dA
The charge per length, area, or volume is called the charge density. When the charge density is equal everywhere in space, we say the charge distribution is homogeneous. When the charge density changes spatially the charge distribution is inhomogeneous. In that case the charge density must be specied for all spatial points as a function of the spatial components x, y and z, that is ( x, y, z). In general
C Line charge density (r ) = dl with the unit m . C Surface charge density (r ) = dA with the unit m 2. C Space charge density (r ) = dV with the unit m 3, dQ dQ dQ
11
Prof. S. Peik where r = ( x, y, z) is the vector leading to the point where the charge is located, the so called source points . The total charge over a volume can be computed by integration of the charge density. For example
Q=
Vol
( x, y, z) dx dy dz
(1.4)
This integration means, that we sum up all charge densities over the complete volume Vol . We can imagine the integration as a summation of charges in very small (innite small) cubes lling the complete volume. Within each cube the charge is homogeneous.
The total charge is usually specied by the capital letter Q. In contrast, point charges are specied by the small letter q. Example 1: A cube of 1cm1cm1cm has a homogeneous volume charge of = 12 m3 . What is the total charge Q of the cube?
Q=
1cm 1cm 1cm 0 0 0 C
= See Also: Denition of Coordinate Systems Appendix A.2
dx dy dz = 12 1012 C
Example 2:
A square plate of size 2 a 2 a is located in the x-y plane centered at x = y = 0 is charged 2 y2 with a surface charge density of ( x, y) = (1 x a )(1 a ) . Find the total charge Q of the plate?
= = =
a a a a
( x, y) dx dy =
(1
y2 2 a2 )(2a )dy a 3
(1
a y2 x2 ) (1 )dx dy a a a
(1.5) (1.6) (1.7)
(2 a
2 a2 2 8 a3 4 a4 ) = 4 a2 + 3 3 9
you may use mupad or a similar program, try:
Q:=int(int((1-y*y/a)*(1-x*x/a),x=-a..a),y=-a..a) simplify(Q)
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Prof. S. Peik Example 3:

0 Find the total charge Q in a sphere with volume charge = R r /3 and radius R
= = = = = = =
(r )dV 0 2 R r sin r2 d drd R 0 0 0 3 R r3 0 2 sin d dr R 0 0 3 R4 0 2 sin R d R 0 12 0 R3 sin d 1 6 0 R3 0 [ cos ]0 6 R3 0 3
(1.8) (1.9) (1.10) (1.11) (1.12) (1.13) (1.14)
Maxima Code for the Integration:
integrate(r/3*sin(%theta)*r*r,%theta,0,%pi); integrate(%,r,0,R); %rho/R*integrate(%,phi,0,%pi);
1.5
Moving Charge, Current

The energy used to separate charges is released when the charges are joined again. For example, in a ash light the separated charges inside the battery are joined through the lamp. The energy is released as light and heat in the lamp. Electrical engineering makes use of this retaining and releasing of energy, for transmission of energy (power systems) or signal transmission (communications). The ow of electrons through a wire is called electrical current . The current is always caused by unequal charges at the end of the wire. This tension1 caused by the unequal charges is called the voltage. The current I inside the wire is dened as the ratio of the charge Q owing through the the time period t trough the cross section of the wire divided by the time period t.
current I =
Charges Q owing through the cross section time period t

or using differentials
(1.15)
I=
1
dQ dt
dQ = I dt
(1.16)
Note, in German the word for tension and voltage is the same called Spannung
13
Prof. S. Peik Interestingly, the area of the cross section is irrelevant. The unit of the electric current is consequently C s . This unit is abbreviated Ampere or A in short. For historic reasons, the Ampere is a fundamental SI unit whereas the Coulomb is derived from the Ampere. That is why the Coulomb is often referred to as Ampere-Seconds or As. By counting electron owing through a wire, we can derive the amount of charge one single electron is carrying2 . We get as the electron charge
qelectron = e = 1, 602 1019 C = qe
(1.17)
where obviously qe = 1, 602 1019 C. The amount qe is the so called elementary charge. This is the smallest quantity charges come in. We cannot generate half an elementary charge, as electrons cannot be split. Note, that the electron charge is the negative elementary charge. Example 4: One electron per second ows through a wire. Then, the current through the
wire is Using very sensitive Ampere meters we can measure currents as small as 1014 A. This corresponds to 62.500 electrons/s.
I = qe 1s = 1, 6 1019 A
'
Cell Phone Battery and Lightning
A cell phone battery with a capacity of 1000 mAh at 3.7V can deliver 1 Ampere current for one hour. The charge on the battery isQ = 1A 3600s = 3600C The stored energy is E = V I t = 3.7V 1A 3600s = 13320J
Q
& % A detailed discussion of currents and current densities is performed in Chapter 6. In the next chapter we will concentrate on static (i.e. xed) charges.
In comparison a cloud in a thunderstorm holds up to 200 Coulomb with voltages around 30 Million Volts. The stored energy is E = V Q = 3 107 V 200C = 6, 000, 000, 000J
1.6
Summary
There are positive and negative charges
2 As the elementary charge is very small, we cannot just count electrons in a wire. Thats why the electron charge is in reality measured with different methods.
14
Prof. S. Peik equal charges repel; unequal charges attract Separation of charges cause a voltage and mechanical forces The sum of all charges in a closed system is constant Charge only come in multiple of the elementary charge qe Charge of an electron is qe =-1,602 1019 C There are point, line, surface, and volume charges Electric current describes moving charges with I = dt
dQ
The unit of charge is the Coulomb and the unit of current is the Ampere
15
Electric Fields
In this chapter we will discuss the effects due to static electric charges only. This means, that there are no currents owing. This section of electromagnetism is called electrostatics.
2.1
Coulombs Law
In the last Chapter we discovered that there are the forces between charged bodies. However, we described the phenomena, qualitatively only. The exact strength of forces between charges can be found experimentally. We will perform the following experiments as shown in Figure 2.1. Two charges of strength q1 and q2 are separated by the distance r. On charge 1 acts the force F1 , on charge 2 acts the force F2 . Alternatively, we place the setup into a medium.
q1 F1 q1 F1 q1 F1
q2 F2 r q2 F2
r
iu Med
q2 F2
m
Figure 2.1: Experiment to Coulombs Law
By accurate measurements we can nd the following proportionalities: F1 = F2 = F always F q1 F q2
16
Prof. S. Peik F r1 2
1 Fvacuum F is a function of the medium, e.g. in water F = 81
We can establish the following proportionality
q1 q2 r2
(2.1)
assuming the charges are very small compared to the distance r. This rst known quantitative law of electricity was found in 1785 by Augustine Coulomb, see Figure 2.2. Hence it is called Coulombs law. This proportionality can be transformed into an equality by introducing a constant k
F=k
q1 q2 r2
(2.2)
By experiment we can gure out, that k depends on the media surrounding the charges. The medium around charges is called the dielectric. The factor k has a unit. We get
[k] =
[ F ][r ]2 [ Q ]2
(2.3)
[k] =
with
kg m 2 1 m 2 2 s2 A s kg m2 s3 A
(2.4)
[U ] = 1V =
wet get
(2.5)
[k] =
Vm As
(2.6)
By measurements, we can nd the value of k in vacuum to be
k=
1 4 0
(2.7)
with 0 =8.8541012 As/Vm When introducing a surrounding medium, the k changes by a factor r , where r is a dimensionless constant which depends on the dielectric. Together with 0 we can introduce a combined constant = 0r (2.8)
17
Prof. S. Peik
2.2
Permittivity
This dependence of the forces from the medium is called the permittivity. The Constant is the permittivity constant or number, with 0 being the absolute permittivity number of vacuum and r being the relative permittivity constant or number. A more detailed description of permittivity is given in Chapter 5. The relative permittivities of some materials is given in Table 2.1. Using the permittivity denition we can write
F=
1 q1 q2 4 0 r r2
(2.9)
This is the form of Coulombs law used in many textbooks.
Figure 2.2: Coulomb is distinguished in the history of mechanics and of electricity and magnetism. In 1779 he published an important investigation of the laws of friction (Thorie des machines simples, n ayant egard au frottement de leurs parties et a la roideur des cordages), which was followed twenty years later by a memoir on viscosity. In 1785 appeared his Recherches thoriques et exprimentales sur la force de torsion et sur llasticit des ls de metal. This memoir contained a description of different forms of his torsion balance, an instrument used by him with great success for the experimental investigation of the distribution of charge on surfaces and of the laws of electrical and magnetic force, of the mathematical theory of which he may also be regarded as the founder.
Material Vacuum Air Polyethylene Rubber Amber
r
1 1,00059 2,3 2,5...2,5 2,8
Material Quartz Glass Ceramic dest. Water Diamond
r
3,8...5 5...7 9,5...100 81 16,5
Table 2.1: Permittivity of Some Materials
2.2.1
Analogy to Gravitation
Coulombs law is very similar to Newtons law of gravitation:
m1 m2 r2
(2.10)
In contrast to Newtons law, Coulombs law has some differences:
18
Prof. S. Peik There are two types of charges (+ and -) even charges repel, an effect unknown in classical gravitation theory Forces are much, much, much stronger Example 5: Two students stand 1m apart. One student lacks 1% of his electrons. The
other student has 1% too much.
++ + F F __ _
The force F is equal to the gravitational force of the earth. Normally, we cannot generate such big electrostatic forces. Positive and negative charges are generally very nicely balanced.
2.3
Vectorial Description
When the charges are positioned into the three-dimensional space at the position vectors r1 and r2 , we can rewrite Coulombs law as
F21 =
with
1 q1 q2 a21 4 0 r R2
(2.11)
R = |r2 r1 | (distance) r2 r1 a21 = R

Here we say, F21 is the force on charge 2 due to charge 1.
F12 q1
(2.12) (2.13)
r2 - r1 q2 r1 r2 F21
Figure 2.3: Vectorial Coulomb Forces on Two Charges
We may write directly
F21 =
1 (r2 r1 ) q1 q2 3 4 0 r |r r |
2 1
(2.14)
19
Prof. S. Peik
2.3.1
Superposition
The principle of superposition applies to Coulomb forces. That means that the forces do not interfere with each other and the resulting force is added linearly. If we have a number of charges q1 , q2 , . . . , q N the total force on charge q j is
Fj =
qj 4 0
q k (r j r k ) |r j r k |3 k =1
(2.15)
or for charge distributions the force on charge q j is
Fj =
Example 6:
qj 4 0
(r j r ) dV |r j r |3
(2.16)
, r2 = x and r3 = 2x + 3y Three charges q1 = 1C, q2 = 1 C and q3 = 2C are located at r1 = x in vacuum. Find the force F1 , F2 , F3 on the charge q1 to q3 . First we nd r1 r2 r1 r3 r2 r3
= = =
2 x 3y 3 x 3y x
(2.17) (2.18) (2.19)
The force on q1 is
F1
= = =
1C 4 0 1C 4 0 1C 4 0
1C
3y 2 x 3 x + 2C 3 |2|3 2 2 3 +3
1C2 4 0
6y 2 x 6 x + 3 |2|3 2 2 3 +3
(2.20)
1 2 2 x y x 4 2 2 1 2 2 y ( ) x 4 2 2
(2.21) (2.22)
Similar for the other charges. (Left to the reader)
2.4
Denition of the Electric Field

Coulombs law opens some questions: The force acts on separated charges that are placed in a vacuum. How can a force act on something that is not connected to the cause by any medium. This problem is similar to the forces acting in Newtons law or on a magnetic compass. To answer this question we have to abandon the idea of cause and effect are joined through a physical touchable carrier. In our new understanding the space itself (even empty space) becomes the carrier of forces. The physicians M. Faraday (1873) and J.C Maxwell developed this idea. The property of space to act with forces on charges etc. is called a eld.
20
Prof. S. Peik
2.4.1
The Field
A eld, therefore, describes a special property of the space. In an electric eld, this special state is created by the presence of charges somewhere in the eld as seen from Coulombs law. In order to understand, how elds look like, we have to answer the question how the properties of the space changes due to the presence of charges? Let us walk through an example rst. We assume two electric point charges, one positive one negative, in space as seen in Figure 2.4. Now, we position a small test charge somewhere in the space. The test charge should be very small compared to the other charges. How does the force act on this test charge due to the presence of the two other charges? If we can answer this question, we found the eld description for the point where the test charge is placed.
Test charge
+ q1
q2
Figure 2.4: Experiment for Field Determination
On the test charge acts a force from the two other charges. As we assume a positive test charge, one force pushes the test charge away from the left charge And one force pulls it towards the right charge. The second force is stronger as the distance between test and right charge is smaller. The resulting Force Ftot is the vectorial addition of the two forces as shown in Figure 2.5.
Figure 2.5: Total Force on Test Charge
Now the eld is determined for the location of the test charge: In that location the eld creates a force down-right of certain strength. After determining the eld, we not not need to know the cause of the eld (here two charges) anymore. The eld is a complete description of the physical phenomenon. However, we need to derive the eld for the other locations in space as well. Therefore, we place the test charge at different locations in space and repeat our force calculation.
21
Prof. S. Peik Now, we can describe the complete space in form of an electric eld. The electric elddescribing a forcehas a direction (eld direction) and magnitude (eld strength) everywhere. We can envisage the eld best by drawing imaginative force lines in space. The force lines describe the path of the test charge traveling through space due to the pulling-pushing forces of the eld. Some force lines are shown in Figure 2.6. These lines are also known as eld lines.
Figure 2.6: Force Lines of Example Field
2.5
The Field Concept

For a detailed discussion of elds we rst dene the eld in general: Fields describe a special property of space Fields can either describes a cause or an effect in space. For example, elevation lines describe the property of the surface of earth, that are at the same elevation. This is a eld. Generally, we have two types of elds: Scalar and vectorial elds. Vectorial elds can be either irrotational (divergence) elds or rotational elds.
22
Prof. S. Peik
Fields
Scalar Fields describe a scalar property e.g.. temperature, pressure, elevation
Vectorial fields describe a property with magnitude and direction e.g. wind, gravity
Conservative Fields (Source Fields, Irrotaional Fields) Field lines have a source and a sink e.g. electric fields
Rotational Fields field lines circle around e.g. hurricanes
As mentioned before, electrical elds have a direction and a magnitude. The force lines start a one charge and end on another charge (or at innity). Hence, electrical elds are vectorial source elds.
2.6
Field Strength
We can now dene a quantitative description of the space lled with charges. We call this description the electric eld. The electric eld describes the effect on a charge placed in the eld. However, this force depends on the test charge qt . Therefore, the force effect does not describe the electric eld properly. The eld would depend on the strength of the test charge. We need to nd a eld description, that is independent of the charge qt and only describes the properties of space due to the placed charges. Applying Coulombs law we nd that the force on the test charge is doubled when the test charge qt is doubled. The charge qt is linearly proportional to the force that act on it. Consequently, we can eliminate the effect of qt by dening the eld as the ratio of force to charge qt .
23
Prof. S. Peik
E=
F qt
(2.23)
with the unit
[ E] =
VAs [ F] N V = = m = [ Q] As As m
(2.24)
With F ( x, y, z) being the force acting on Q at the point x, y, z. As F is a vector, the electric eld E( x, y, z) is a vector, as well. Typical values of electric elds are given in Table 2.2. Field Type Atmosphere (clear weather) Discharge level of Air Surface of cellular phone antenna (reception) Surface of cellular phone antenna (transmit) Inside capacitor Inside conducting wire Inside depletion layer of semi conductor
Table 2.2: Typical Values of Electric Fields
Field Strength E 100...200 V/m 30 kV/cm 1...103 V/m 1000 V/m 106 V/m 0,1 V/m 104 ...108 V/m
2.6.1
Electric Field of a Point Charge

From Coulombs law we can directly derive the electric eld of a point charge. With the absolute value of the force F between a point charge q and a test charge qt :
| F| =
1 qt q 4 r2
(2.25)
follows an electric eld | E| as a function of r and the charge q of
| E| =
| F| | F| 1 q = = qp qp 4 r2
(2.26)
The direction of the electric eld is always radial symmetric.
2.6.2
Vector Type Field Equation

The above equation describes the absolute value of E only. The electric eld, however, is a vector quantity. We have to dene the vector quantity E now. Let us assume a point charge q in the origin of the coordinate system. We are now looking at the eld point at x = r x , y = ry , z = rz . It is easy to see, that the direction
24
Prof. S. Peik
Field point with E r q
|E| ~1/r2
Figure 2.7: Field of a Point Source
of E in the point r = (r x , ry , rz ) is the the direction of r, where r is the vector leading to the eld point. In order to get the vector quantity E from the already known absolute value E we just multiply the absolute value by the direction of r of length one. With = r we get1 the unit vector of r being r
|r |
E=
1 q r 4 r2 |r |
(2.27)
as the distance r2 = |r |2 we can also write
E=
q r 4 |r |3
(2.28)
2.6.3
General Description
An electric eld at the point r due to a point charge q at r can be obtained by using the difference vector r r as the distance vector p from equation 2.28 as
E=
q rr 4 0 |r r |3
(2.29)
Where r points to the eld point of interest and r points to the source point as seen Figure 2.3.
E
Field Point
r - r q r
Figure 2.8: Vectorial E-Field Description

1
, p We denote unit vectors with a hat, e.g. z
25

Find the electric eld E at the point ( x = 1m, y = 3m, z = 4m) with a point charge of 2 C at ( x = 3m, y = 2m, z = 2m). the difference vector is l = (2, 1, 6) with the absolute value l =
41, hence
(2.30)
E=
2 1 2As 1 1 4 0 41m2 41 6
The same applies for a eld due to N charges
E=
1 4 0
q k (r r ) |r r |3 k =1
(2.31)
or in case of charge distributions with the innite small charges dQ per element we get
E = E = E =
1 4 0 1 4 0 1 4 0
(r r ) dl for line charges |r r |3 (r r ) dS for surface charges |r r |3 (r r ) dV for volume charges |r r |3
(2.32) (2.33) (2.34)
Example 8:
Find the E-Field of a uniform innite line charge on the z-axis. Since the line is innite long and on z-axis the E-eld is shows some symmetries. The eld always points radial outwards from the line and is independent of z. Hence, we need to calculate the E-eld in the xy-plane (with z = 0) only.
The distance is seen from the gure and Pythagoras: |r r | = Now using equation 2.32
Using cylindrical coordinates (, , z) we use as eld point and source point + Field point: r = R Source point r = zz zz + (Note: Here is the poisonous snake lurking, see Appendix A.2.5) hence: r r = R
z2 + R2
1 4 0
(r r ) dl = 4 0 |r r |3 R z2 dz =
R zz dz 3 2 2 z +R
(2.35) (2.36) (2.37) (2.38) (2.39)
using symmetrie we know that Ehas -component only:
= = =
4 0
3 R2
1 1 ( 2 ( 2 )) R 4 0 R R 1 2 0 R
z R 4 0 R2 z2 + R2
1 The eld of an innite line decays with R with the distance to the line. The eld is always direction. oriented in
26

A ring of radius a is charged with the uniform charge density and is placed in the xyPlane with the axis coaxial with the z-axis as shown below. Find the E-eld alongthe z-axis.
x a
Solution: A charge element has the charge dQ = dl , with dl = a d . The vector leading to the The vector r leading to the eld point on the z-axis is just z = zz . + source point is in cylindrical coordinates r = a , because of the poisonous snake in cylindrical coordi a Be aware, that r r = zz nates (see Appendix A.2.5) The Field expression is
2 0
1 4 0
|r r
rr
|3
a d =
1 4 0
2 0
zz z2 + a
23
a dl +
1 4 0
2 0
1 dl + 4 0
2 0
(2.40) dl
Due to symmetry we get only a z-component of E, such that Ez , i.e. E = (0, 0, Ez ) and we can omit the other two integrals (which cause poisonous snake problems) with
Ez =
1 4 0
2 0
z z2 + a
23
a dl =
1 za 3 2 2 0 ( z + a2 ) 2
(2.41)
when using the total charge Q = 2 a we get
Ez =
1 z Q 4 0 (z2 + a2 ) 3 2
(2.42)
1 1 Note, that for z ( a is negligible), the expression converges towards Ez = 4 2 Q, 0 z which is the expression for the point charge. Hence, far away, the ring eld resembles a point charge.
2.7
Field Lines
Field lines are imaginary lines in space to visualize the electric eld. Their tangential direction is always identical to the direction of E. Field lines do not exist in reality but are a helpful tool to understand the effects of the eld. Field lines have the following properties The lines are always pointing in the direction of E. The direction is the direction of a force on a positive test charge. The density of the lines are a gauge for the absolute value of the eld.The denser the lines the stronger the eld.
27
Prof. S. Peik Field lines are always smooth and continuous. The start at positive charges or innity and end at negative charges or innity. Exception: The lines can be non continuous at boundaries.
ect ors
q>0
q<0 q>0 Q<0
E-V
Field Line
Figure 2.9: Field Lines as Description of Fields
Experimentally, eld lines can be made visible through metal chips. Figure 2.10 shows some of these experiments.
Figure 2.10: Field Lines Made Visible through Metal Chips, from [?]
28
Prof. S. Peik
' Lightning
Clouds contain millions and millions of water droplets and ice particles suspended in the air. As the process of evaporation and condensation occurs, these droplets collide with other moisture that is condensing as it rises. The importance of these collisions is that electrons are knocked off of the rising moisture, creating a charge separation. The newly knocked-off electrons gather at the lower portion of the cloud, giving it a negative charge. The rising moisture that has lost an electron carries a positive charge to the top of the cloud. As the rising moisture encounters colder temperatures in the upper cloud regions and begins to freeze, the frozen portion becomes negatively charged and the unfrozen droplets become positively charged. At this point, rising air currents have the ability to remove the positively charged droplets from the ice and carry them to the top of the cloud. The remaining frozen portion either falls to the lower portion of the cloud or continues on to the ground.
The charge separation has an electric eld associated with it. Like the cloud, this eld is negative in the lower region and positive in the upper region. The strength or intensity of the electric eld is directly related to the amount of charge build-up in the cloud. As the collisions and freezing continue to occur, and the charges at the top and bottom of the cloud increase, the electric eld becomes more and more intense so intense, in fact, that the electrons at the Earths surface are repelled deeper into the Earth by the negative charge at the lower portion of the cloud. This repulsion of electrons causes the Earths surface to acquire a strong positive charge. All that is needed now is a conductive path so the negative cloud bottom can conduct its electricity to the positive Earth surface. The strong electric eld creates this path through the air, resulting in lightning. The lightning is a high-voltage, high-current surge of electrons, and the temperature at the core of a lightning bolt is incredibly hot. For example, when lightning strikes a sand dune, it can instantly melt the sand into glass. The combination of the rapid heating of the air by the lightning and the subsequent rapid cooling creates sound waves. These sound waves are what we call thunder. There can never be thunder without lightning.
from: http://science.howstuffworks.com/question646.htm, photo: NASA
&
29
Prof. S. Peik
2.8
Electric Fields in Conductors

Electrical conductors, e.g. a copper rod, are dened as objects with charges inside, that can move freely around. In contrast, insolators, e.g. a plastic sheet, have xed charges, that cannot be moved. In ideal conductor the charges can move without any obstacles such that we cannot observe any frictional loss (=resistivity). Real conductors, however, always posses a resistivity. As a result, the freely movable charges cannot move without friction. In ideal conductors we cannot observe electric elds. The reason for this is explained as follows: Let us assume we created an electric eld inside an ideal conductor. The agile charges now move due to the eld (which creates a force F = qE). Positive charges will gather at one end of the conductor. The negative charges will gather at the other end. Now, the charges themselves create an inner eld in the conductor. The inner eld compensates the applied eld. The charges move as long around, as long there is a eld (=force on charges). At the end, when no charges move anymore the eld is compensated to zero. We memorize : There is no electric eld inside ideal conductors
E0
Using the same idea, we can nd out that the inside of any hollow and even perforated ( a cage) conducting body is eld free. We call this a Faradays cage. A car, for example is a Faradays cage.
ideal conductor ideal conductor ideal conductor Faradays Cage
no field inside E E no field inside E
no field neg. Charge pos. Charge
Applied Field Force
Inner Field compensates Applied Field
Inner Field compensates Applied Field
Figure 2.11: E-Fields inside ideal conductors are compensated
Figure 2.12: Faradays Cage in Action, Please, Dont Try This at Home! (taken from www.tesladownunder.com)
30
Prof. S. Peik Using the same argument, we can demonstrate that the electric eld is always perpendicular to the surface of ideal conductors. Tangential components cannot exist, as the would create compensation currents in the conductor. The E-Field is always perpendicular to ideal conductor surfaces!
E
E=0
Ideal Conductor
E
E=0
a Ide l nd Co or uct
Ideal Conductor
Figure 2.13: Electric Field and Ideal Conductors
2.8.1
Homogeneous Field
A eld is called homogeneous, when the eld vector is the same in magnitude and direction everywhere in the region of interest.
homogenes Feld
inhomogenes Feld
Figure 2.14: Homogeneous and non-Homogeneous Field
2.9
Typical E-Fields
Besides the point charge eld we can easily derive the eld patterns of most symmetric charge congurations. The most common elds are given in Figure 2.15.
31
Prof. S. Peik
Point
|E | =
1 q 4 r2
Line
|E | =
1 2 r
Sphere
|E | = 0 for r a |E | = 1 Q for r > a 4 r2
Plate
1 Q |E | = 2A
Parallel Plates
|E | =
1Q A
Figure 2.15: Common Charge Arrangements and Their Fields
2.10
Summary E-Fields
Coulombs Law describes the Forces between two electric charges. Permittivity describes the dependence of the Coulombs forces from the media. The absolute dielectric constant is 0 =8.8541012 As/Vm The relative dielectric constant captures the factor of forces Fields describe a special property of the space. The space surrounding electric charges is called an electric eld. We distinguish scalar Fields and vector elds (source- or curling elds) The electric eld is a vector source eld The electric eld strength is dened as the ration of the force per charge. The direction of the E-eld is the direction of the Coulombs force on a positive charge Field lines illustrate the shape of the electric eld In ideal conductor E = 0 , Field lines are always perpendicular to the surface of an ideal conductor.
32
Potential
The introduction of an electric eld allows us to describes the the effects on charges placed into the space. The electric eld is an ideal tool for calculating forces on charges. The rise of an electric voltage is the second effect of the separation of charges. Voltage can exist between isolators, conductors. Voltage always occurs between two points of different potential. Obviously, the potential offers a different method for describing the special property of space due to electric charges in that space. We can also nd a connection between the description through an electric eld and the description through potentials.
3.1
Energy of the Electric Field

The electric potential can be dened directly from the energy levels in an electric eld. The concept can be best seen, when we take a look at the potentials in the gravitational eld rst as shown in Figure 3.1. In a gravitational eld g the work W is performed when moving the mass m against the eld. Similarly, work is performed in the electric eld when we move an electrical charge q against the electrical eld E.
Gravitational Field g 1 + Electrostatic Field
E 1
F=mg
F 2
F=Eq
F 2
Moving mass m from 1 to 2 performs the work W12=gms
Moving charge q from 1 to 2 performs the work W12=Eqs
Figure 3.1: Analogy Gravitation and Electrostatic Field
33
Prof. S. Peik
Figure 3.2: Denition: Performed Work
Let us assume the charge q is moved about the distance s exactly against the eld E. Now the work performed is
W = F l
(3.1)
When moving the charge at an angle with respect to the eld E we perform the work
W = F l cos()
as seen in Figure 3.2.
(3.2)
Generally, we can phrase the the work as a scalar product of the two vectors of force and direction W = F l (3.3) where s contains the distance and direction of the movement. Using this denition, we can easily determine the work performed, when a charge is moved along a straight line in a homogeneous eld. In case of an inhomogeneous eld we have to integrate along the path of the movement. Assume we move from P1 to P2 as shown in Figure 3.3. As a rst approximation we can sum up the work performed of small section of length s of the path. The total work is then
W=
F l
(3.4)
as shown in the left hand side of Figure 3.3. When summing up an innite number of innite short distances of length ds we get the exact result as an integration of
P2
WP1,P2 =
P1
F dl
(3.5)
34
Prof. S. Peik
Figure 3.3: Performed Work along an Inhomogeneous Field
This is shown on the right hand side of Figure 3.3. The force F can now be replaced by F = E q. The performed work due to a charge of strength q is hence dened as :
P2
WP1,P2 =
P1
E q dl
(3.6)
When we move along the eld work is released (denoted positive), when moving against the eld work has to be expended, as denoted negative. The Integral
P2
W=
P1
E q dl
(3.7)
is a charge dependent measure of the energy released when a charge q is moved in the eld from P1 to P2 . Using this integral we can also use the energy released when moving a charge from point Px to a reference point P0 to dene the eld. This energy is stored in the charge. We call this energy the potential energy of the charge at point Px . the potential energy describes the energy that is released when moving q from point Px to the reference point P0 , that is
P0
WPot ( Px ) =
Px
E q dl =
Px P0
E q dl
(3.8)
The minus sign appears, because we reverse the path direction from (Px P0) to (P0 Px).
35
Prof. S. Peik
5J
5J
2J
2J
Pa th
t. 5J In f P o
1 5J
P0
2J
te Al
Figure 3.4: Denition of a Potential Field from an E-Field
3.2
Electric Potential V
Now we can dene an electric potential V 1 , which is independent of the test charge q. Again we normalize the energy with respect to the charge
V=
Wpot q
rn a
te Pat h of Int.
2J
(3.9)
The electric potential V is a scalar function of the location (x,y,z), i.e. The Electric Potential V is a Scalar Field The potential V is always referenced to a reference point P0 with the reference potential V0 = 0. The potentials unit is Joules per Coulomb known as Volt (V).
[V ] =
VAs J = =V C As
(3.10)
Using eqn. 3.7 we get for the potential

Px P0
V=
1
E dl
(3.11)
In the English literature the potential is usually abbreviated as V . However, try to avoid confusion with the voltage V and the unit Volt V which use the same symbol!
36
Prof. S. Peik where P0 is a xed reference point with the the reference potential V0 = 0. If the potential V is positive in a given point, we gain potential energy moving a positive charge from the reference to that point. We need an external agent to perform the work. The reference is usually set at the origin of the coordinate system or at innity. In principle it can be set anywhere in space, however.
3.2.1
Constant-Potential Surfaces
The potential remains constant, when we move perpendicular to the E-eld, because no work is performed. When moving on a surface with constant potential, we call this surface a constant potential surface. In two-dimensional eld problems constant potential lines are formed. As a general rule we can state Constant potential lines or surfaces are always perpendicular to the E-eld vector! since the E-eld vector is always perpendicular to ideal conducting surfaces we can also state: Ideal conducting surfaces are always constant potential surfaces; ideal conductors are always on a constant potential We can place a conducting foil on constant potential surfaces without disturbing the eld. Examples for E-elds with its constant potential surfaces and lines are given in Figure 2.4.
Figure 3.5: E-Fields and Their Constant Potential Surfaces and Lines, Respectively
3.3
Independence of Path
When moving a charge in the electrostatic eld or moving a mass in the gravitational eld from point 1 to point 2, we have to perform the work W12. This means that the object has now a potential energy of
P2 P1
Wpot = 37
G ds
(3.12)
Prof. S. Peik The path we choose to get from point 1 to point 2 is irrelevant. The total performed work is always the same. The is a consequence of the law of conservation of energy. The total work performed when moving a charge is independent of the chosen path When moving a charge through the eld and returning back to the starting point the total performed work must be zero. Compared to gravitational eld, we obviously recognize that we moved as much up as we moved down in the terrain. This observation is part of the so called Maxwells equation for electrostatic elds.
Closed Path of Integration
Figure 3.6: The Total Work W =
E ds on a Closed Path is Zero
Maxwells equation of electrostatic elds states:
E ds = 0
The total work performed on a closed path is zero!
(3.13)
The circle in the integral means, that we integrate over a closed path. Due to the property of eqn 3.13 the E-eld is said to be conservative or irrotational. Thus, an electrostatic eld is a conservative eld. From this Maxwells equation we can also directly derive Kirchhoffs voltage law:
Mesh
V=0
(3.14)
3.4
Potential of a Point Charge

We can calculate the potential of a point charge q located at the origin with the reference potential set to zero at r0 .
E =
q r 4 0 r2
r
(3.15) (3.16) (3.17)
q dr r r 2 r0 4 0 r 1 1 q V = ( ) 4 0 r0 r V = 38
Prof. S. Peik
With the reference of V () = 0, i.e. r0 = the potential between r and innity is
V=
q 4 0 r
(3.18)
For a point charge placed at r we get at the eld point r
V (r ) =
q 1 4 0 |r r |
(3.19)
Note, the potential decreases with 1 r with the distance from the point charge.
3.5
Electric Voltage V
The potential is dened as an energy level compered to a reference point V0 . However, often we prefer to express the difference of potentials between two points directly. The difference of potential is the so called voltage. The voltage between the points 1 and 2 is dened as
V12 = V1 V2
(3.20)
where V1 is the potential at point 1 and V2 is the potential at point 2. A negative voltage indicates, that the potential at point 2 is actually higher than at point 1. The Voltage between two points can be obtained from the E-eld directly
P2 P1
V12 = V1 V2 =
E ds
(3.21)
Figure 3.7: Aleksandro Volta (1745-1827)
39
24cm 9cm
E
3 12cm 1
In the sketched homogeneous eld we observe a voltage of 7,2 V between point 1 and 2. a) What is the electric eld magnitude at point 1 b) What is the electric eld magnitude at point 2 c) What is the voltage between point 2 and 3 d) When xing the potential at point 3 to V =0 V, nd the potentials at point 1 and 2 Solution:
7,2V V a) V12 = P1 E d x = | E| ( x2 x1 ) following: | E| = 24 cm = 30 m V b) E is constant: 30 m c) V = E x = 30 0, 09 V = 2, 7 V d)V1 = 0, 15 m E = 4, 5 V and V2 = 0, 09 m E = 2, 7 V P2
40

Find the potential inside a parallel plate capacitor with constant E-eld.
Assume a zero potential on the left plate. Solution: Between the plates we have
1Q A Setting the potential on the left plate to V0 =0V at xre f = 0, we get E = const = V (x) =
x 0
(3.22)
E ds = E x =
1Q x A
(3.23)
The integral reduces to a multiplication as the eld is constant. The potential decades linearly with the distance of x. The Equipotential surfaces are parallel to the plates
3.6
Potential from Charge Distributions

With the knowledge of the eld from point charges, we can now calculate the potential eld from any charge distribution by superposition similar to eqns 2.32 to 2.34
V (r ) = V (r ) =
1 4 0 1 4 0 1 4 0
(r ) (r )
1 dS |r r | 1 dV |r r |
1 dl |r r |
(3.24) (3.25)
V (r ) =
(r )
(3.26)
The potential can be calculated in two different ways
41
Prof. S. Peik If the E-Field is known we use equation 3.11 If the charge distribution is known, we use the integral formulas as sketched above Example 12:
A ring of radius a is charged with the uniform charge density and is placed in the xyPlane with the axis coaxial with the z-axis as shown below
x a
Find the potential eld function along the z-axis Solution: , and the source point is r = a + We use cylindrical coordinates. The eld point is r = zz The distance between the points is |r r | = a2 + z2 Again the length of the loop element is dl = a d Hence using eqn. 3.24:
V (r )
= = = =
1 4 0
Loop
(r )
2 1 1 ad 4 0 0 a2 + z2 1 1 a 2 2 4 0 a + z2 a 2 0 a2 + z2
1 dl |r r |
(3.27) (3.28) (3.29) (3.30)
3.7
The Gradient
The electric eld vector always points in the direction of the greatest alteration of the V ) is indicated by the magnitude potential. The change of potential per length (unit m of the E-eld vector. Hence, we can derive the E-eld E from a given potential eld function V by using the following derivation From our denition of the potential as V =
E dl follows that
(3.31)
dV = Edl = Ex dx Ey dy Ez dz
Using the term
dV =
V V V dx + dy + dz x y z 42
(3.32)
Prof. S. Peik we can obtain by comparing eqn. 3.31 and 3.32:
Ex =
or
V x
Ey =
V y
Ez =
V z
(3.33)
E = grad V ( x, y, z) =
with the denition
(3.34)
grad f ( x, y, z) =
df dx df dy df dz
(3.35)
This is the so called gradient operator. Note, that the gradient translates a scalar function into a vector function. Often we can nd the gradient denoted with the so called (say:nabla) operator, dened as
=
Then we can write the gradient as
d dx d dy d dz
(3.36)
grad f ( x, y, z) = f ( x, y, z) =
leading to the often used notation
d dx d dy d dz
f ( x , y, z ) =
df dx df dy df dz
(3.37)
E = V
(3.38)
43

V V 2 Find the E-eld from the potential eld V ( x, y, z) = 3 V + 2 m y + 1, 5 m z From eqn. 3.11 we get
0 E = 2 3z
V m
The eletric eld and potential at point (1,1,1) is
V E
= =
3V + 2V + 1.5V = 6.5V 0 2 V m 3
(3.39) (3.40)
We can derive the potential in point (1,1,1) also from the E-eld by integrating the eld from the origin to the point (1,1,1). Since the potential at the origin is already 3V we have to add 3V to the nal solution, hence
V = 3V
(1,1,1) (0,0,0)
E dl
(3.41)
Since we can set the path of integration freely we integrate along the path (0, 0, 0) (1, 0, 0) (1, 1, 0) (1, 1, 1). In ther words, we integrate along the x-axis rst, then along the y-axis and then along the z-axis
(1,0,0) (0,0,0) x =1
x =0 x =1 x =0 x =1 x =0
= =
3V 3V 3V 3V 6.5V
E dl
(1,1,0) (1,0,0)
E dl
y =1 y =0 y =1 y =0
(1,1,1) (1,1,0)
E dl
(3.42)
= = = =
0dx
0 2 xdx 0
y =1 y =0
E xdx
y=0,z=0
2dy
z =1 z =0
0 2 ydy 0 3z zdz
E ydy
x =1,z=0
z =1 z =0 z =1 z =0
0 2 zdz (3.44) 3z
(3.45) (3.46) (3.47)
E zdz
x =1,y=1
(3.43)
3V + 2V + 1.5V
Example 14:
Find the electric eld along the z-axis from the potential of the last Problem with the charged ring
V = 0 0
d dx d dy d dz
a = 2 0 a2 + z2
d dx d dy d dz
a 2 0 a2 + z2 a 2 0 a2 + z2 a 2 0 a2 + z2
(3.48)
z a 2 0 z2 + a2 3
(3.49)
Compare with solution of last chapter in eqn 2.41.
Equation 3.38 is only valid in electrostatic elds where no time-variations occur. With mathematical thoroughness we can show, that the gradient can only be applied to irrotational (=conservative) elds.
44
Prof. S. Peik
3.8
Analogy to Gravitation
The electric potential eld is a scalar eld, similar to the elevation of a terrain in a gravity eld. We can nd many analogies between electrostatic elds and gravitational elds, e.g. Elevation h Elevation Difference Mass m Slope G
Potential V Voltage U Charge Q Electric Field E
The direction of E (or G, respectively) is always perpendicular to the constant potential lines (elevation lines)!
10m 20m 30m 40m 50m
Slope G
Constant Potential Contours (Elevation Lines)
Figure 3.8: Elevation Lines of a Terrain, and Perpendicular Slope Direction
The absolute value of the E-Field E (Slope G) is proportional to the potential drift (slope)!
G1
G2
Figure 3.9: Bigger Slope means Bigger | G |
3.9
The Conversion Triangle

The relation between source charges , vector eld E and potential V . in electrostatics can be summarized in the following triangle:
45
Prof. S. Peik
Vector Field
r |r r r | 3 d V
E
V =
E
so co on mi i n ne n a g up ar the yo at u re
Ed
= 1 4
1 V = 4
1 dV |r r |
3.10
Electric Dipoles
An electric dipole is formed when two point charges of equal but opposite magnitude are separated by a small distance. Consider a dipole as shown in Figure 3.10.
z r1 r
+Q d -Q
r2 y
x
Figure 3.10: Dipole
The potential generated by this dipole is
V=
Q 4 0
1 1 r1 r2
Q 4 0
r2 r1 r1 r2
Po
te n
tia
2 =near V you
coming up soon in a theatre
where r1 and r2 are the distances of the positive and negative charge from the eld point respectively. If d r then we can approximate
with d = d z and the denition in spherical coordinates. With d cos = d r p = Qd

So ur ce
(3.50)
V=
Q d cos 4 0 r2
(3.51)
(3.52)
46
Prof. S. Peik as the dipole moment we may write eqn 3.51 as
V=
pr 4 0 r2
(3.53)
If the dipole is not centered at the origin but at r we get
V (r ) =
p (r r ) 4 0 |r r |3
(3.54)
The electric eld due to a dipole centered in the origin can be obtained from eqn. 3.38
E = V =
Or shortly
Qd cos Qd sin + r 2 0 r3 4 0 r3
(3.55)
EDipole =
where p = | p| = Qd
p ) + sin (2 cos r 4 0 r3
(3.56)
Note, eld strength decays with 1/r3 with distance.
47

is located at the point (3, 5, 0) in Cartesian space. Derive the An electric dipole p = 5 nCm y electric potential and electric eld in the origin p (0 r ) (3 x + 5y ) nCm m 25 5y 9 C Vm = 3 10 m As(3.57) 3 m3 4 0 4 + 9 4 | 0 | 13
(3.58)
V (0, 0, 0)
= =
25 1 3 109 V 4 13 | 0 |
4 0 |0 r
|3
For calculating the E-eld, we need the function V (r ) , hence (without units)
V ( x , y, z )
= =
(( x 3) x + ( y 5) y + zz ) 5y p (r r ) = 3 4 0 |r r |3 4 0 ( x 3)2 + (y 5)2 + z2 4 0
(3.59)
( x 3)2 + ( y 5)2 + z2
5( y 5)
(3.60)
Easier if we move the origin to the dipole location with x = x 3, y = y 5, z = z , then
E = gradV = difcult
(3.61)
V ( x , y, z )
=
4 0
5y x2+y2+z2
3
(3.62)
Ex Ey Ez
= = =
5 4 0
x 2 +y 2 +z 2
3 x y
2 2 2 5 (2y x z ) 5 4 0 2 2 x +y +z 2
5 45 4 0 345 5 44 = 4 0 345
(3.63) (3.64) (3.65)
5 4 0
x 2 +y 2 +z 2
y z
=0
for the position in the old origin x = 3, y 5, z = 0.
48

Mupad Code :
>> V:=K*(y-5)/sqrt((x-3)^2+(y-5)^2+z^2)^3; >> Efield:=linalg::grad(V,[x,y,z]); >>z:=0;K:=1; >>field:= plot::vectorfield([Efield[1],Efield[2]], x = -1..4, y = -1..6, Grid=[20,20], Color = [Flat, RGB::Red]);plot(field):
3.75
2.5
1.25
0 0 1.25 2.5 3.75 x
3.11
Summary
When moving a charge in a eld we perform the work W = Q E ds E-elds behave similar to gravitational elds The integration of the force along a path yields the performed work The potential is dened as V =Wpot / Q and describes the potential energy per charge. The potential is always referred to a reference potential V0 = 0V at reference point p0 The potential eld is a scalar eld The E-eld can be derived from the potential through the gradient operator Locations with the same potential form constant potential surfaces The voltage describes a potential difference V 12 = V2 V1 The total work performed when moving a charge through an electrostatic eld along a closed path is always zero
49
Capacitance pacitor
and
Ca-
Capacitors are two conducting bodies of arbitrary geometry that are isolated against each other. Between the conductors we have a potential difference (voltage) of V1 V2 = V . A general capacitor is shown in Figure 2.5. The capacitor is a very important component in most electronic circuits. Capacitors are used for AC-Circuit impedances and as energy storage devices (e.g. in watches).
-Q Q E
V
Figure 4.1: Capacitor
The geometry and distance of the conductor surfaces of the capacitor determine the work performed for separating the charges on the capacitor. For any given charge Q stored on the capacitor surfaces, we get a certain voltage V . The charge Q is always proportional to the voltage V . We dene as capacitance of the capacitor
C=
Q V
(4.1)
The capacitance C species the amount of charge Q required to create a voltage of 1V. The unit of C is
[C ] =
[ Q] As = =F [V ] V
(4.2)
The unit 1 As V = 1 F is called a Farad in honour of the physicist Michael Faraday.
50
Prof. S. Peik
Figure 4.2: Michael Faraday (1791-1867)
In practice, the capacitance is extremely small, such that we often use the sub-units 1F = 106 F = 1 Microfarad 1nF = 109 F = 1 Nanofarad 1pF = 1012 F = 1 Pikofarad 1fF = 1015 F = 1 Femtofarad
4.1
Capacitance of a Parallel Plate Capacitor

The concept of capacitance can be explained with the parallel plate capacitor. In Figure 4.3 a parallel plate capacitor is shown wit plate area A and plate distance d . The capacitor is charged with the charge Q on the left plate and the charge Q on the right plate. Between the plates we have a homogeneous E-Field.
E=const
Figure 4.3: Parallel Plate Capacitor
The electric eld strength is
| E| = const =
The potential along the x-axis is
1Q A
(4.3)
V = E x =
1Q x A
(4.4)
and therefore the voltage between the plates is
V12 = V ( x = 0) V2 ( x = d) =
1Q d A
(4.5)
We observe, that the voltage V is directly proportional to the charge Q on the plates. We can directly derive the capacitance using the denition of eqn. 4.1
51
Prof. S. Peik
CPPC =
Q A = U d
(4.6)
We seen from the result, the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is only a function of geometric quantities as the area A, and the plate distance d as well as the medium (with permittivity r (remember: = 0 r ). In practice, we often need large capacitances. This means, we have to maximize area while minimizing the distance between the plates. Technical implementations of capacitors use coiled up plates for example.
Figure 4.4: Various types of capacitors, from [?]
Example 17: A parallel plate capacitor (Area A= 1000 cm2 , plate distance d= 1 mm, Air as Dielectricum) has a capacitance of C = 0 A/d= 885,4 pF. A voltage of U = 10 V between
the plates gives rise to a charge on the plates. This charge is very small; however, it includes n = Q/q = 5, 53 1010 elementary charges already.
Q = CU = 885, 4 pF 10 V = 8, 85 nC
4.2
Recipe for Deriving the Capacitance

We can derive the capacitance of arbitrary structures with the following step-by-step approach. 1. We assume a charge Q on the capacitor surfaces 2. We derive the E-eld due to these charges , if necessary with numerical methods (computers) 3. We derive the voltage between the surfaces by V = being points on plate 1 and 2
Pl2 Pl1 Q
E ds with the limits
4. We compute the capacitance C by the denition C = V . The charge Q drops out, such that only geometrical parameters are left
52

A spherical capacitor is a capacitor composed of two concentric spheres. with radius r1 and r2
If the distance d between the spheres is very small, i.e. d = r2 r1 r1 , we can derive the capacitance from the equation for the parallel plate capacitor; now, the area is the surface of the sphere of A = 4 r2 and d=r2 -r1 , such that we get
CSphere = 4
For large distances of the spheres we use the recipe 1. The inner sphere has charge Q
Q
r2 r2 r1
(4.7)
1 2. The eld is | E| = 4 from the table r2 3. Th e voltage between the spheres is the integration from r1 to r2
UV =
r2 1 Q r1 4 r2 dr
1 Q = 4 r
r2 r1
Q 4
r12 +
1 r1
Q 4
r2 r1 r1 r2
4. Now the capacitance is
C=
Q r r = 4 1 2 V r2 r1
(4.8)
Other capacitances of popular arrangements are given in Table 4.1:
53
Prof. S. Peik Arrangement Geometry

E=const A
Capacitance
Parallel Plates
V
C = A d
Concentric spheres
1 r2 C = 4 rr 2 r1
a r r
Two identical spheres

l
C = 2 1 +
r ( a2 r 2 ) a( a2 ar r2 )
r1
Double cylinder co-axial

r2
l r
C=
2l r ln r2
1
Two wire line
C=
l ln( a r)
Table 4.1: Capacitances
4.3
Circuits with Capacitors

Capacitors in parallel are exposed to the same voltage V , whereas the charges on the plates add up
Qtot = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + Q2 Q1 Q3 Qtot + = + + V V V V Ctot = C1 + C2 + C3 +

We can summarize Capacitors in Parallel:
(4.9) (4.10) (4.11)
Ctot = C1 + C2 + C3 +
Capacitors in series will hold the same charge Q on every capacitor. Hence we get for the total voltage
Vges = V1 + V2 + V3 +
using V = Q/C follows
(4.12)
Q Q Q Q = + + + Cges C1 C2 C3
(4.13)
54
Prof. S. Peik dropping Q : Capacitors in Series:

1 Cges
1 C1
1 C2
1 C3
4.4
Energy in Capacitor
A capacitor can hold energy in form of an electric eld. The eld with the charges has the ability to perform work, as mentioned before. We can calculate the amount of stored energy by integration. While charging a capacitor the current i (t) ows through into the capacitor. The work dW , that is performed per time interval dt is hence
dW = v i dt
(4.14)
where u and i are the instantaneous values of the voltage and current in the capacitor. Using the denition
v=
and
Q C
(4.15)
i=
follows
dQ dt
(4.16)
dW =
Q dQ 1 dt = Q dQ C dt C
(4.17)
The total Energy is calculated by the summation of the energy increments
W=
with Q = CV follows
1 1 Q2 Q dQ = C C 2
(4.18)
W=
as the stored energy within the capacitor.
1 CV 2 2
(4.19)
4.5
Summary
The capacitance C is dened as the charge Q per voltage V stored on a twoconductor body, i.e. C = Q/V The unit is Farad F and usually very small
55
Prof. S. Peik The Capacitance is only a function of geometry and material The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is C = A d . For many other arrangements also formulas are given capacitors in parallel have a total capacitance of Cges = C1 + C2 + C3 +
1 1 1 Capacitors in series have a total capacitance of C1 = C +C + +C
ges 1 2 3
2 The stored energy in a capacitor is W = 1 2 CV
56
Electric Flux and Flux Density
The electric eld is dened as the force F per charge Q. As shown before the force is not only dependent from the sources in space but also from the material lling the space. The electric eld is a description of the effects of electrostatics and does not describe the cause of the eld directly. For describing the eld by the cause we introduce the electric ux density D. The D-eld is dened by the cause, namely charges positioned in space.
5.1
Denition of the D-Field

The electric ux density is dened from the assumption, that all electric charges on surfaces emit electric ux lines, usually visualized by eld lines. As seen from Figure 5.1 the ux lines are created by the charges. We can now dene
|D| =
Charges dQ Q = lim = Surface Area dA A 0 A
(5.1)
Charges Q
Figure 5.1: Denition of the Electric Flux Density D
The more charges per surface element, the bigger the D-eld. The D-eld direction is identical with the E-eld direction, as the force lines follow the ux lines.
57
Prof. S. Peik The unit of the electric ux density is
[D] =
As [ Q] = 2 [ A] m
(5.2)
5.2
D-Fields in Space
The D-eld in not only dened for charges surfaces. The D-eld lls the complete space as the E-eld does. The D-eld associated with an electrostatic eld anywhere in space can be derived by the inuence experiment.
Figure 5.2: Inuence Experiment
When placing two conducting touching plates into a eld the charges in the plates are separated. When we now disconnecting the plates and removing them from the Field we observe a eld between the plates. The charges per surface on these plates are equal to the D-eld strength. The D-eld is the same not matter what the medium in the causing eld is. Due to this denition the ux density is sometimes called displacement ux density.
5.3
Electric Flux
The total all of D-eld lines form the electric ux . The exact amount of ux is determined by integration
Dd A
(5.3)
Obviously, the electric ux is measured in Coulomb.
5.4
Relation between D and E

As mentioned before, the electric eld E describes the effect of electrostatics in space, namely the force on test charges. The D-eld D describes the cause of electrostatic elds, i.e. charges placed in space. Using this denition the D-eld is independent of the medium lling the space. Fro Figure 5.2 see can derive the relation between D and E. In the small parallel plate Q capacitor with homogeneous eld we have E = 1 A as known from Figure 2.15.
o r
As D is always in the direction of E we can dene
58
Prof. S. Peik
D = 0r E
(5.4)
where the permittivity is a constant factor describing the dependence of the medium. This constant = 0 r is the already dened permittivity constant . In Chapter 2 we introduced the constant without explaining the exact denition. This denition is now complete.
5.5
Gausss Law
When a charge distribution over a closed volume is given, we can nd an interesting connection between the amount of charge in the volume an the D-Field penetrating the surface of the volume. This equation is known as Gausss law. Gausss law states that the total electric ux through any closed surface is equal to the total charge enclosed by that surface. As an equation we can write
tot =
or
D dA =
Charges =
v dv
(5.5)
D dA =
v dv
(5.6)
This equation is known as the integral form of Gausss law. A visual interpretation is given in Figure 5.3. This equation is also known as one of Maxwells equations.
D Q
dA
Figure 5.3: Visual Interpretation of Gausss Law: The Sum of all D-lines Penetrating the Hull A is Equal to the Total Charge Q Inside the Hull.
Another implied statement of Gausss law is, that electric eld lines always start on positive charges, so called sources, and end on negative charges, so called sinks. The electric eld is hence a conservative eld.
5.6
Divergence
We can obtain the total outward ow of the ux of the D-eld D from a closed surface S from the integral D dS. We can now dene the divergence of D as the net outward ow of ux per unit volume over a closed incremental surface
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Prof. S. Peik
Figure 5.4: Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855), German Mathematician, developed the theorem known as Gausss Law. He was the rst to measure electric and magnetic elds in absolute quantities
div D = D = lim
v 0
Dd A v
(5.7)
where v is the volume enclosed by the surface A in which P is located . An inward ow means negative divergence. An outward ow means positive divergence, as illustrated in Figure A.4.
div A<0 div A>0 div A=0
Figure 5.5: Denition of the Sign of the Divergence Operator
The divergence of any vector eld A( x, y, z) is given by
div A = A =
Ay Ax Az + + x y z
(5.8)
We note, that the result is a scalar eld. The divergence can only be taken from a vector. The divergence from a scalar does not make sense. We can nd a relation between the surface integral of an arbitrary volume V and its volume integral, by
AdA =
AdV
(5.9)
This is known as the the divergence theorem. The divergence theorem states that the total outward ow of a vector eld A through a closed surface S is the same as the volume integral of the divergence of A.
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Prof. S. Peik
dS
Volume V dV Closed Surface S
Figure 5.6: Divergence Theorem
5.7
Gausss Law in Differential Form

We can compare the divergence theorem and Gausss law of eqn. 5.6 and get
D = v
(5.10)
This is the differential form of Gausss law. This law is another one of Maxwells equations. It states that the charge density at a given point is always the divergence of the D-eld at this point. Gausss law is directly derived from Coulombs law and hence just another way of stating Coulombs law. Gauss law provides an easy way of calculating the electric eld E quantitatively if the qualitative eld distribution (e.g. in symmetric eld) is known. Using Gausss law we can derive the capacitance more generally by
C=
Q = U
D dA E dl
(5.11)
In practice, the recipe of Section 4.2 is usually used.
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Uniformly charged dielectric sphere Consider a uniformly charged sphere of radius a with a charge density . 3 The total enclosed Charge is Q = Sphere dV = 4 3 a The charge enclosed inside a smaller sphere of radius r inside is Now we can apply Gausss law. The right hand side of 5.6 is D-eld is symmetric on the surface of the sphere and perpendicular to the surface, the left hand side of Gausss law is
3 dV = 4 3 r 4 dV = 3 r3 . Since the
Dd A = | D | Asur f ace
with Asur f ace = 4 r2 we get for Gausss law
(5.12)
| D |4 r 2 |D|
= =
4 3 r 3 1 r 3
(5.13) (5.14)
4 a3 and Outside of the sphere for r > a the charge inside the volume stays constant Q = 3 we get
| D |4 r 2 |D|
= =
4 3 a 3 Q 1 1 3 1 a 2 = 3 4 r 2 r
(5.15) (5.16)
|D|
5.8
Inuence and Polarization

Electrical conductors and isolators behave quite different in electrostatic elds. The effects are known as inuence and polarization, respectively. Inuence: Inside an ideal conductor the charges can move freely. When the force F = E q acts on the charges they separate. As explained before the charges accumulate on the conductor surface and compensate the outer eld through their inner eld. Polarization: Most molecule inside isolators are dipoles. When an electrostatic eld is applied to an isolators, the molecules (dipoles) turn to get aligned with the eld. This orientation weakens the eld. Hence the E-elds inside isolators is always smaller than in vacuum. The weakening depends on the dipole character of the medium, i.e. r .
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Prof. S. Peik
E
Leiter
Freie Ladungen
Isolator
Dipole
Figure 5.7: Inuence and Polarization
5.9
Partly Filled Capacitors

The D-eld in a parallel plate capacitor with layered dielectrics is constant, as no extra charge are located on the boundaries (Gausss law!). The E-eld changes by the ratio of the r s. We can use capacitors in series as equivalent circuit. In capacitors with transverse layered dielectrics the E-eld remains constant, as the voltage between the plates is the same everywhere (V = E d). The D-eld is denser in the high material higher permittivity. The equivalent circuit for this capacitor are capacitors in parallel.
5.10
E-Field and D-Field on Boundaries

On boundaries between two dielectric media with r1 and r2 , respectively, conditions apply to E- and D-eld. We call these conditions the boundary conditions.
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Prof. S. Peik
Figure 5.8: Partially lled Capacitor
Figure 5.9: Partially across lled Capacitor
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Prof. S. Peik When we observe a tangential E-eld on a surface with Et1 in medium 1 and Et2 in medium 2 the following condition applies
Et1 = Et2
(5.17)
This condition can be easily proved by integrating the E-eld along a short path with Edl as shown in Figure 5.11. Since the path is closed and the normal eld is not existent, the tangential eld in both media must be the same. For the same reason tangential E-elds can never jump in value.
Int. Path
1 Et,1
Et,2
Figure 5.10: Integrating E-Field on Boundary
Using eqn. 5.4 we get
r 2 Dt 1 = r 1 Dt 2
(5.18)
The tangential component of the E-eld remains constant whereas the tangential r1 . component of the D-eld changes by
r2
For D-elds the normal component remains equal on both sides of the boundary, i.e.
Dn 1 = Dn 2
(5.19)
This statement can be proved by using Gausss law with a surface as shown in Figure . Since there are no charges in the surface, the total DdS on the upper and lower lid of the surface must be equal. Consequently, both D-elds must be equal.
Gaussian Surface
1 2
Dn,1
Dn,2
Figure 5.11: Integrating E-Field on Boundary
By using eqn. again we get for the E-eld
r1 En1 = r2 En2
An overview is shown in Figure 5.12.
(5.20)
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Prof. S. Peik
1 2
Et,1 Et,2
1 2
Dt,1 Dt,2
Et,1=Et,2
2Dt,1=1Dt,2 1 2 Dn,1 Dn,2
1 2
En,1 En,2
1En,1=e2En,2
Dn,1=Dn,2
Figure 5.12: Boundaries with E- and D- Fields
5.11
Stored Energy in Electrostatic Fields

Any static electric eld stores energy, as it takes energy to separate charges, that build up that eld. We already calculated the energy stored inside the eld of a capacitor resulting in eqn. 4.19
W=
1 CV 2 2
(5.21)
We can now calculate the total energy stored in any electric eld, by the following derivation. Let us assume an innite small parallel plate capacitor of plate distance 2 dl and with the plate area dA. This capacitor stores the energy dW = 1 2 CdV , where
dV is the voltage across the capacitor. The capacitance of the capacitor is C = dA dl . The voltage is determined by the E-eld by dV = | E| dl . Hence the Energy is dW = 1 1 dA (| E| dl )2 = dA | E|2 dl 2 dl 2
(5.22)
where dA dl is the Volume dV of the elementary capacitor. Hence the stored energy per volume element dV is
dW = dW =
1 | E|2 dV 2 1 | D | | E| dV 2
(5.23) (5.24)
Now we can nd the total stored energy in the System by integrating over the volume of the system
W=
1 2 66
| D | | E| dV
(5.25)
Prof. S. Peik Since D and E are always in the same direction we can also write | D | | E| = D E = 2 | E |2 = 1 | D | and
W=
1 2
D E dV
(5.26)
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Prof. S. Peik
5.12
Poissons and Laplaces Equations

Poissons and Laplaces Equation are derived easily from Gausss law
D = E =
and
(5.27)
E = V
Substituting the equations gives
(5.28)
(V ) =
(5.29)
When our medium is homogeneous we can write
2 V =
(5.30)
This is known as Poissons equation. In the special case of no volume charge we get
2 V = 0
known as Laplaces equation.
(5.31)
Laplaces equation is of signicant importance in solving electrostatic boundary value problems. If we are able to nd a solution of Laplaces satisfying all boundary condition, we found a unique solution of the problem. This statement is phrased as the uniqueness theorem as The solution to the Laplaces equation in some volume V is uniquely determined if V is specied on the boundary surface S. a visualization of the concept is sketched in Figure 5.13. The solution to the multidimensional Laplaces equation can be found in most cases using the separation of variables.
5.13
Procedure for Solving Boundary Value Problems

The following procedure can be applied when solving Laplaces or Poissons Equation 1. Solve the equation using either direct integration when V is a function of one variable or separation of variables if V is a function of more than one variable The solution includes constants, that can be determined from the boundary conditions
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Prof. S. Peik
V(x,y)
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1 3.5 4
3 0 0.5 1 Boundary Conditions 1.5 2 1.5 1 2 2.5
2.5
3.5
4 0
0.5
Figure 5.13: Potential in a Closed Surface with Fixed Boundaries
2. Apply the boundary conditions, to determine a unique solution for V 3. With V we can obtain now E and D 4. If desired, nd the charge Q induced on a conductor using Q = = Dn (D-component normal to surface) 5. If desired nd the capacitance from C = Q/V Example 20:
Find the potential V on a dielectric rod (length l ) charged with 0 and a voltage of V0 between the ends of the rod.
V=V0 0 z z=l V=0V
dS where
The potential depends only on z. Hence
d2 V 0 = dz2
The solution to this differential equation is (by integrating twice)
(5.32)
0 2 z + Az + B 2 Applying the boundary conditions yield, when z = 0 V= V (0) = B = V0 hence B = V0

when z = l
(5.33)
(5.34)
V (l ) =
The electric eld is given by
0 2 V l + Al + V0 = 0 hence A = 0 l 0 2 2 l V0 l + 0 (z ) z l 2
(5.35)
E = V =
(5.36)
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Prof. S. Peik
5.14
Solving Laplace with Finite Element Methods

Laplaces equation is a kind of averaging instruction. The value of V ( x, y, z) is the average of its surrounding points as we will show below. Using nite differences, we can design a numerical technique, solving Laplaces equation with arbitrary boundary conditions. This can be sketched in two dimensions as follows
h
a h V1
V3 c b d V0 V4 V2
Figure 5.14: Denitions for Finite Difference Method
With Laplaces equation in two dimensions we have
2 V 2 V + =0 x2 y2
using the nite, but very small distance h between two eld points, we get
(5.37)
V x
Similar at the other distances:
V0 V1 h
(5.38)
V x V y V y
V2 V0 h V3 V0 h V0 V4 h
(5.39)
(5.40)
(5.41)
2V V Knowing that = ( x ) / x we can approximate the second derivative of V at the x2 point 0 by
2 V x2
Similarly for y
V x b
V x a
V2 V0 V0 + V1 h2
(5.42)
2 V y2
V y c
V y d
V3 V0 V0 + V4 h2
(5.43)
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Prof. S. Peik Substituting these equations into Laplaces equation yields
2 V V + V2 + V3 + V4 4V0 2 V + 1 0 2 2 x y h2
Solving for V0 we nd that
(5.44)
V0
1 (V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 ) 4
(5.45)
Including a space charge we can extend the equation using Poissons equation
V0
1 (V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 + h2 ) 4
(5.46)
5.14.1
Relaxation Method
The Potential at a given point is always the average of its surrounding points. We can nd the Potential eld by iteratively checking this condition. Starting with all nodes zero inside the region and the boundary nodes with the given potential, we go through all nodes iteratively and compute the average of the surrounding nodes. We repeat this procedure until the solution converges. This method is known as the iterative nite difference method or relaxation method.
71

We can use Excel or OOCalc in the iteration mode, to nd the potential eld inside a box with given boundary values (here green). The calculated cells are simple the average value from the surrounding cells.
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Prof. S. Peik
5.15
Summary
The electric ux density D is dened as the density of ux lines caused by charges Q on a surface A.
As The electric ux density D has the unit m 2.
The d-eld is proportional to the E-eld by the factor Gausss law describes the equality of charges inside a volume to the ux leaving the volume Inuence is the compensation movement of free charges inside a conductor when an external eld is applied Polarization is the rotation of dipoles inside a dielectric when an external eld is applied The tangential E-eld on boundaries is continuous The normal D-eld on boundaries is continuous The method of images allows to solve problems involving grounded conducting plates. The Laplace Equation and Poisson equation describe the potentials through differential equations
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Moving Charges
In the previous chapters we assumed that all charges are at rest. The charge distribution was static. In this chapter we investigate the effects arising due to moving charges.
6.1
Current I
The movement of charges is known as electrical current. . The current is denition is: The current is dened as the electric charges passing a given area in a conductor per unit time For a conductor with the charge quantity Q per time interval t we get
I=
Q t
(6.1)
Figure 6.1: Denition of current
For the derivation of an instantaneous current in time varying arrangements we use the differential
I=
dQ dt
(6.2)
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Prof. S. Peik
Figure 6.2: Andre Marie Ampere (1775-1836), French physicist and professor of mathematics. About one week after Oersted he discovered the magnetic eld generated by an electric current in 1820. Ampere explained the observed phenomenon and then developed the force relations between current-carrying conductors. By doing so, he laid the foundation of the electromagnetic theory. His theory and the work of Michael Faraday are the main pillars of Maxwells theory on electromagnetism. The unit of current and the law bearing his name (see Section 7.7 ) attest the importance of his contribution.
The unit of the current is the Ampere C s = A. Following this denition, the current direction is dened as the ow direction of positive charges in a conductor. We call this the technical current direction. However, in most conductors the moving charges are electrons carrying a negative charge. The true movement of the charges is hence in the opposite direction of the current I . We call this the true current direction.
6.2
U-I-Relation at Capacitors in AC Circuits

We can determine the current through a capacitor using I = dt and the capacitance Q denition C = U as follows
dQ
I=C
dU dt
(6.3)
j t and the curUsing a harmonic sinusoidal signal with the voltage phasor U = Ue j t we can rewrite eqn 6.3 as rent phasor I = Ie dU d j t j t =C Ue = C j Ue dt dt
U
I = C U =
(6.4)
1 I j C
(6.5)
following an AC-Resistance, the so called impedance of
ZC =
1 j C
(6.6)
6.3
Current Density J
The current is a macroscopic unit. The current species the total ux of charges through a conductor. It does not indicate a eld unit in a particular point in space.
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Prof. S. Peik We can dene a current density J that lls that gap. The current density is dened as the current per area element. The current density is a vector pointing always in the direction of the current ow.
Figure 6.3: Denition of Current Density J
In differential notation we get:
J=
dI n dA
(6.7)
denotes the direction of the current density. where n

The unit of the current density is
[ J] =
A m2
(6.8)
The current density J inside a conductor can vary even though the current I remains constant. Figure 6.4 shows such an arrangement with a non uniform cross section wire.
Figure 6.4: Current Density Field in a Conductor of Non-Uniform Cross Section
The total current I through a cross section A can be derived from integrating the current density over the area A.
I=
cross section
J dA
(6.9)
In case of a homogeneous current density we get
I = JA
(6.10)
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Prof. S. Peik
6.4
Current Density Fields

The current density describes a property of space with magnitude and direction, and is, hence, a vector eld. The current density elds behave similar to the ow elds of a non turbulent ow of liquids and gases. As the charges follow the force lines (i.e. E-eld) the current density is always directed in the direction of the E eld driving the charges. Consequently, E- and J-eld are aligned in space in isotropic media. For current density elds the following applies: J-elds are always limited to the boundaries of the conductor On boundaries to dielectrics ( J = 0 in dielectric!) the current density ows parallel to that border. The ow is perpendicular to the surface of perfect conductors.
Example 22:
Below an example for a current density eld is given
non perfect conductor perfect conductor
Current Density J
Dielectric
6.5
Relation Between E and J

As mentioned before, J- and E-eld align in space, following
JE
(6.11)
This proportionality can be rewritten as equality using the constant and we get
J = E
(6.12)
The factor denotes the conductivity of of the conducting material. This equation is known as the point form of Ohms law. Note that in a perfect dielectric J = 0 regardless of the electrical eld E and in a perfect conductor E = 0 regardless of the current density J . The reciprocal value of is called the resistivity c . We have
c =
Typical values for are given in Table
(6.13)
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Prof. S. Peik Material Silver Copper Aluminum Tungsten Zinc Brass Sea Water dest. Water Glass Paper Quartz (fused)
S Conductivity m
6.1 107 5.8 107 3.5 107 1.8 107 1.7 107 1.7 107
4
104 1012 1011 1017
Table 6.1: Conductivity of some materials
6.6
Resistance R
We can now dene a unit similar to the capacitance, that relates the current to the voltage across conducting bodies. Figure 6.5 shows a cylindrical conductor with uniform cross section A and length l with two terminals left and right. .
Figure 6.5: Resistor
The current owing through this cylinder is
I=
The Voltage across the cylinder is
JdS =
EdS
(6.14)
V=
Edl
(6.15)
We can now dene the ratio of voltage across the cylinder and current though the cylinder by
R=
V = I
l A
Edl EdS
(6.16)
known as the resistance of the cylinder. Equation 6.16 is well known as Ohms law.
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Prof. S. Peik For homogeneous elds we get
R=
| E|l | E|l l U = = = I A | J|A | E| A
(6.17)
The resistance R depends from geometrical parameters only and uses the unit V A abbreviated as (say Ohm in honour of the Physicist Georg Simon Ohm. The 1 reciprocal value of the resistance is called the conductance G = R with the unit S for Siemens. In North America the unit symbol (say:mho) is also often used. When the resistor has a non-uniform cross section or non-uniform conductivity in one direction only, e.g. the x-direction, we can determine the total resistance by integrating innite small slices of thickness dx
R=
dx ( x ) A( x )
(6.18)
Figure 6.6: Georg Simon Ohm (1789-1854) physicist and professor at the University of Nuremberg. Inspired by his work on galvanic chains he developed the the law of the proportionality between current and voltage in a conductor in 1826. The unit of this proportionality constant is named in his honor Ohm with the symbol .
Circuits with Resistors Obviously from equation 6.16, resistors in series have a total resistance of
RGes = R1 + R2 + R3 +
Resistors in parallel have a total resistance of
(6.19)
1 1 1 = + + RGes R1 R2
(6.20)
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Determine the resistance, the Fields E and J , the voltage drops V1 and V2 and the current I of the arrangement below. The voltage V0 is given.
V0 V1
I 1 A 21
V2
l
x
The Resistance is calculated from two resistors in series with
R = R1 + R2 =
The partial resistances are equal. Following
l 2l 2l + = 1 A 21 A 1 A
(6.21)
I=
V A = 1 V0 R 2l I = 1 V0 A 2l
J
(6.22)
The J-Field is constant, as the cross-section is constant, and x-directed
J=
(6.23)
The E-eld is not constant, as changes end derived by E =
E1 E2
The voltage drops are from V = E d
= =
V0 2l V0 4l
(6.24) (6.25)
V1 V2
= =
V0 2 V0 2
(6.26) (6.27)
This can also be found by Ohms law V1 = I R1 and V2 = I R2
Example 24:
Determine the resistance between inner conductor (radius a) and outer conductor (radius b) of a coaxial cable of length l . The lling of the cable has a conductance of . 0 0 between the conductors. Hence the current density is J = E . The E-eld is E = E The voltage between inner and outer conductor is
b
V=
The current across the cable is
2 l 0
E0 b d = [ E0 ln ]b a = E0 ln a
(6.28)
I=
J d dz =
E0 d dz = 2 E0 l
(6.29)
Using the denition of the Resistance
R=
ln b V a = [] I 2l
(6.30)
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Prof. S. Peik
6.7
Drift Velocity
Alternatively to the description by J the ow of current inside a conductor can be expressed by the drift speed of the charges in the conductor. Inside the conductor we have a density of free charges given by . This density is a constant of the conductor material. In order to have a current I owing through the cross section A a total number of dQ charges must cross the cross section A within the time dt. This total charge is distributed over the volume V = A dl , where dl is the distance traveled in the time interval dt. Hence
dQ = dl A
(6.31)
This volume moves by dl within dt. In other words the charges inside the volume move by the
v=
Using the current denition
dl dt
(6.32)
I=
I we get and J = A
dQ l A = = A v dt t
(6.33)
J = v
(6.34)
The velocity v is known as the drift velocity inside the conductor. It represents the actual speed of the charges inside the conductor. Example 25:
The investigate the drift velocity in a typical domestic wiring system. A current of 0.5 A ows through a copper wire with the cross section A = 1.5mm2 . Copper has a free electron density of 8.49 1028 Electrons per m3 . Solution: I A Current density is J = A = 3.33 105 m 2 The charge density is
following:
= 8.49 1028 1.6 1019 = 13.58 109 C /m3 J m mm = 2.45 105 = 88 s h
(6.35)
v=
(6.36)
The electrons move with 88 mm per hour.
6.8
Converted Power
The power in watts is dened as the rate of change of energy (in Joules) or force times velocity, hence
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Prof. S. Peik
Fv =
or
dv E v =
E v dV
(6.37)
P=
E J dV
(6.38)
which is known as Joules law. The power density w p in Watts/m3 is given by the integrand
wp =
dP = E J = E2 dV
(6.39)
for a uniform cross section resistance we get for eqn. 6.38
P=
or
J dS dl = V I V2 R
(6.40)
P = V I = I2 R =
Example 26:
(6.41)
Calculate the dissipated power inside the coaxial cable from the previous example using Joules law
= = = =
E J dz d d E E0 0 dz d d
2 E0 dz d d a 0 0 b 2 2 E0 l ln a b 2 1
(6.42) (6.43) (6.44) (6.45)
using V = E0 ln b a follows
P = 2 l
2 using P = V R yields the same result.
V2 ln
b a
(6.46)
6.9
Continuity Equation
Due to the conservation of charges, the total outow of current from a volume is dQ equal to the negative net change of charge dt inside the volume, or
Iout =
JdS =
dQ dt
(6.47)
Invoking the divergence theorem to the left side we get
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Prof. S. Peik
V dQ
J dv =
dQ dt
(6.48)
d dv, and hence The right side can be written as dt = dt V
J dv =
d dv dt
(6.49)
or
J =
d dt
(6.50)
This is known as the continuity equation. With constant charge density inside the conductor, we get J = 0. This is known as Kirchhoffs current law.
83
Magnetostatics
The second major phenomenon of electromagnetics is the magnetism. Magnetism is a phenomenon by which materials exert an attractive or repulsive force on other materials. Magnetism arises whenever electrically charged particles are in motion. Some well known materials that exhibit magnetic properties are iron, some steels, and the mineral lodestone. All materials are inuenced to one degree or another by the presence of a magnetic eld, although in some cases the inuence is too small to detect without special equipment.
7.1
History of Magnetism
Around 600 B.C. the magnetic properties of natural ferrite (Fe3O4) stones (lodestone) were described by Greek philosophers. The effect was not further investigated and did not have any practical application for a long time. Around the 10th century it was discovered by Chinese sailors, that a magnet always orients itself in north-south direction. The rst Reference to a compass in Europe was given 1175 by Alexander Neckem an English monk of St. Albans. In 1600, William Gilbert, later physician to Queen Elizabeth I of England, published his great study of magnetism, "De Magnete""On the Magnet". It gave the rst rational explanation to the mysterious ability of the compass needle to point north-south: the Earth itself was magnetic. "De Magnete" opened the era of modern physics and astronomy and started a century marked by the great achievements of Galileo, Kepler, Newton and others.
Figure 7.1: William Gilbert (1544-1603) and his book De Magnete
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Prof. S. Peik In 1820, a physicist Hans Christian Oersted, learned that a current owing through a wire would move a compass needle placed beside it. This showed that an electric current produced a magnetic eld. In 1830, Joseph Henry (1797-1878), discovered that a change in magnetism can make currents ow, but he failed to publish this. In 1832 he described self-inductance - the basic property of inductor. In recognition of his work, inductance is measured in Henries. The stage was then set for the encompassing electromagnetic theory of James Clerk Maxwell. Michael Faraday (1791-1867) an Englishman, made one of the most signicant discoveries in the history of electricity: Electromagnetic induction. He thought if electricity could produce magnetism, why couldnt magnetism produce electricity. In 1831, Faraday found the solution. Electricity could be produced through magnetism by motion. He discovered that when a magnet was moved inside a coil of copper wire, a tiny electric current ows through the wire.
7.2
Permanent Magnets
Permanent magnets exert a magnetic eld permanently. The following applies to permanent magnets they are always dipoles. The poles are referred to as north pole (pointing north) and south pole (pointing south) Unlike pole attract each other, like poles repel each other.
7.3
Magnetic Field
Magnetic elds are produced by electric currents, which can be macroscopic currents in wires, or microscopic currents associated with electrons in atomic orbits, as in permanent magnets. Magnetic eld sources are essentially dipolar in nature, having a north and south magnetic pole. Magnetic elds are usually denoted by the symbol B. Historically, this eld is describing the effect of the eld. The B-eld is known as magnetic ux density or magnetic induction, The eld describing the cause of the eld is called the magnetic eld (strength) H . Even though using opposite denition to the electric eld quantities, this terminology is still often used to distinguish the two in the context of magnetic materials. Otherwise, however, this distinction is often ignored, and both symbols are frequently referred to as the magnetic eld. Some authors call H the auxiliary eld, instead. We might refer just to the H-eld and B-eld.
7.4
Magnetic Field Lines

When placing a test magnet (usually a compass needle) into a magnetic eld, we observe, that the test magnet aligns itself in space. That means, that we can nd,
85
Prof. S. Peik similar to the electric eld, force lines lling the space. These force lines are the direction of the magnetic eld. The direction of the eld is the equilibrium direction of a compass needle placed in the eld.
Figure 7.2: Force Lines (Field) of a Bar Magnet
Therefore, a magnetic eld is a vector eld. It associates with every point in space a vector that may vary in time. We dene, that eld lines start on a north pole and end on a south pole on permanent magnets. When taking a closer look, magnetic eld lines are actually always closed lines, i.e. the magnetic eld is a rotational eld and not conservative. Magnetic eld lines can be made visible by iron chips as demonstrated in Figure 7.3.
Figure 7.3: Field of a Bar Magnet Made Visible by Iron Chips, from Practical Physics, publ. 1914 by Macmillan and Company
7.5
Magnetic Field of the Earth

The earths magnetic eld is similar to that of a bar magnet tilted 11 degrees from the spin axis of the earth. Magnetic elds surround electric currents, so we surmise that circulating electric currents in the Earths molten metallic core are the origin of the magnetic eld. A current loop gives a eld similar to that of the earth. The earths magnetic eld is attributed to a dynamo effect of circulating electric current, but it is not constant in direction. Rock specimens of different age in similar locations have different directions of permanent magnetization. Evidence for 171 magnetic eld reversals during the past 71 million years has been reported. Although the details of the dynamo effect are not known in detail, the rotation of the Earth plays a part in generating the currents which are presumed to be the source of the magnetic eld. Mariner 2 found that Venus does not have such a magnetic eld although its core iron content must be similar to that of the Earth. Venuss rotation period of 243 Earth days is just too slow to produce the dynamo effect. Interaction of the terrestrial magnetic eld with particles from the solar wind sets up the conditions for the aurora phenomena near the poles.
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Prof. S. Peik
Figure 7.4: Magnetic Field of the Earth, from peter.reid@ed.ac.uk
7.6
The Magnetic Field H

The magnetic eld strength H describes the direction and magnitude of the magnetic eld in space. The H-eld is dened by the cause of the eld which is a moving charge or current.
7.6.1
Magnetic Field of a Current Through a Long Wire

Permanent magnets are not the only source of magnetic elds. In 1820, Hans Christian Oersted discovered that an electric current owing through a wire caused a nearby compass to deect. This indicated that the current in the wire was generating a magnetic eld. Oersted studied the nature of the magnetic eld around the long straight wire. He found that the magnetic eld existed in circular form around the wire and that the intensity of the eld was directly proportional to the amount of current carried by the wire, as shown in gure 7.5. He also found that the strength of the eld was strongest close to the wire and diminished with distance from the conductor until it could no longer be detected.
I
Figure 7.5: Magnetic Field around a Current Flowing Through a Wire, Experiment using iron chips, from [?]
Oersted also noticed that the direction of the magnetic eld was dependent on the direction of the electrical current in the wire. There is a simple rule for remembering the direction of the magnetic eld around a conductor. It is called the right-hand rule. If a person grasps a conductor in ones right hand with the thumb pointing in
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Prof. S. Peik the direction of the current, the ngers will circle the conductor in the direction of the magnetic eld. We say the current and the H-eld form a right-handed system.
Figure 7.6: Right-Hand-Rule also found in the IEEE Logo
7.7
Amperes Law, Denition of H

There is a relation between current in the space and the H-eld in the space: The magnetic eld in space around an electric current is proportional to the electric current which serves as its source, just as the electric eld in space is proportional to the charge which serves as its source (Gausss law!). This is summarized in Amperes law. Amperes Law states that for any closed loop path, the sum of the length elements times the magnetic eld in the direction of the length element is equal to the electric current enclosed in the loop. Amperes law is the magnetic version of Gausss law in electrostatics.
n
H dl =
A
J dA =
i =1
Ii = current enclosed
(7.1)
The integral of the magnetic eld in a closed loop is equal to the total current passing through the loop Consequently the unit of H is A/m.
I1 I2 I3 I4
Flche A H
Figure 7.7: Amperes Law
If there are no currents enclosed, the integral H-eld lines must always circle currents.
H dl becomes zero. This means,
88
Prof. S. Peik We can use Amperes law to calculate H-elds when the current distribution is known in space. However, we must know the qualitative H-eld distribution in order to perform an integration. James Clerk Maxwell noticed a logical inconsistency when applying Amperes law on charging capacitors, and thus concluded that this law had to be incomplete. To resolve the problem, he came up with the concept of displacement current and made a generalized version of Amperes law which was incorporated into Maxwells equations. The displacement current describes the change of electric ux in the electric eld. The generalized formula is as follows:
H dl =
A
J dA +
d dt
(7.2)
A detailed discussion of displacement currents is given in Chapter 11. ' Clip-On Ammeter A clip-on ampere meter can measure currents through wires without opening the current loop. By measuring the magnetic elds surrounding the wire, we can determine the current by Amperes law.
&
7.8
Magnetic Fields Due to Current in a Long Straight Wire

A long straight wire is carrying the current I as shown in Figure 7.8. With Amperes law we get
H dl = I
(7.3)
Since we have cylindrical symmetry we can assume that | H | is constant a for constant distance r from the wire. Integrating on one of these circles with radius r becomes a multiplication of H 2 r.
Hence
| H | (2 r ) = I
(7.4)
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Prof. S. Peik
H r
I
Figure 7.8: Magnetic Field around a Current Carrying Wire
Solved for H
|H| =
7.8.1 The Curl Operator
I 2 r
(7.5)
We completed our study of Gausss law by applying it to a differential volume element and were led to the concept of divergence. We now apply Amperes circuital law to the perimeter of a differential surface element and discuss the third and last of the special derivatives of vector analysis, the curl. Our immediate objective is to obtain the point form of Amperes circuital law. For that purpose we create a square shaped loop lying in the xy-plane.
z y
H1y H1x
Jz
H2x H2y
Figure 7.9: z-directed Current Related to a Square H-Loop in the xy-Plane
The
H dl is then equal to the otal current in z-direction through the loop, i.e I = Jz A, where A = x y H dl = H1x x + H2y y H2x x H1y y = Jz x y
(7.6)
Note, that at the H2x x and H1y y are substracted as the integration direction (green dashes) is against the direction of the coordinates. The H-Field strength in x-direction may differ over the length y in y-direction by Hx . For Hy respectively. Hence H2x = H1x + Hx and H2y = H1y + Hy
H1x x + ( H1y + Hy ) ( H1x + Hx ) x H1y y = Jz x y

(7.7)
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Prof. S. Peik
Hy y Hx x = Jz x y Hy Hx = Jz x y
(7.8) (7.9)
For nite lengths x and y we create an error, as we integrated and assume the H to be constant along each section. When shrinking the x and y to an innite small dx and dy we get the exact current density Jz for a single point
dHy dHx = Jz dx dy
(7.10)
Jz
H Jy Jx
Jy z y x Jx
Jz
Figure 7.10: Operation Applied to All Three Direction
We can repeat the same calulation for y- and x-directed currents, as seen in Figure and get
dHy dHz dy dz dHx dHz dy dx dHy dHx dx dy
= Jx = Jy = Jz
(7.11) (7.12) (7.13)
This operation on the H -vector is known as the curl operation. Applying the curl to a vector yields a new vector. Hence the curl is dened in cartesian coordinates as:
curl H
dHy dHz dy dz
+ x
dHx dHz dy dx
+ y
dHy dHx dx dy
(7.14)
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Prof. S. Peik We can formulate the curl operator from our well known nabla operator applying the cross product
H = J
(7.15)
The curl can also be written in cylindrical and spherical coordiantes. See the formula sheet for the exact denition.
Figure 7.11: Paddle Wheel Visualisation: The curl of a vector eld is related to the rate at which a rigid paddle wheel would rotate if placed in the ow. (a) The paddle wheel rotates because the velocity of the uid varies in a direction perpendicular to the ow. (b) Rotation is generated by the curvature of the ow.
Example 27:
Take the vector eld, which depends on x and y linearly: F ( x, y, z) = y x xy . Simply by visual inspection, we can see that the eld is rotating. If we place a paddle wheel anywhere, we see immediately its tendency to rotate clockwise. Using the right-hand rule, we expect the curl to be into the page. If we are to keep a right-handed coordinate system, into the page will be in the negative z direction. The lack of x and y directions is analogous to the cross product operation.
The curl of the eld is If we calculate the curl:
F = 0x + 0y +
x ( x ) y y
z = 2z
7.9
Amperes Law in Point Form

The equation
H = J
(7.16)
is known as Amperes law in point form, known as the third Maxwells equation. Since H = 0 magnetostatic elds are not conservative!
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A cylindrical wire with radius R carries a current of I . Assume a homogeneous current density inside the wire. Find H in cylindrical coordinates.
x x=5cm
H-Field outside:
H dl 2| H |
= = =
I I 1 2
(7.17) (7.18) (7.19)
|H|
The eld shows rotational symmetry around the wire. Hence, H has a -component, only.
H=
I 2
(7.20)
H inside wire: I 2 The current enclosed inside the Amperian loop is = | J | A with J = R 2 and A = (7.21) Using Amperes law
H dl 2 r | H |
= = =
| J| A
I 2 2 R2 I 2 R2
(7.22) (7.23) (7.24)
|H|
The eld shows rotational symmetry around the wire. Hence, H has a -component, only.
H=
I 2 R2
(7.25)
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Find the eld Hy along the x-axis of the last example: In Cartesian coordinates using eqn A.38 to A.39 we get for H outside
Hout
= = =
I 2 2 x 2 + y2 I x 2 + y2
+ cos y ) ( sin x
(7.26)
y x 2 + y2
+ x
x x 2 + y2
(7.27) (7.28)
I +xy ) (y x 2 ( x 2 + y2 )
On the x-axis H has a y-component only, namely
Hy,out (y = 0) =
Similarly for the inside Field
I I x = 2 x 2 ( x 2 + y 2 ) y =0
(7.29)
Hy,in (y = 0) =
I x 2 R2
(7.30)
Hy
5
0 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4
-5
94

Lets double-check the above result using Amperes law in point form H = J Outside:
= = = = =
I 2 + r H Hz z z +1 ( H ) H
(7.31)
H 1 Hz z + +0 0r 1 I 2 1
(7.32) z
(7.33)
( H ) z
1 ) (
(7.34) (7.35)
0 = Joutside
Inside:
= = = = =
I 2 R2 H 1 Hz z
(7.36)
+ r z
H Hz z
+1
( H ) H
(7.37) z
(7.38) (7.39) (7.40)
() 1 I 2 R2 1 I (2 ) z 2 R2 I = Jinside z R2
7.9.1
H-Field on a Sheet of Current

An innite sheet in the z = 0 plane carries the y-directed surface current Ky y (unit is here A/m). Applying
Amperian Path 4 1 2
Amperes law yields
H dl = Ky y
(7.41)
The H-eld is composed of an innite number of parallel currents in y-direction. Using superposition we can deduct, that the H-eld is x-directed with
H=
for z > 0 H0 x for z < 0 H0 x 95
(7.42)
Prof. S. Peik Now integrating along the sketched Amperian Path of width b
H =
1
+
2
+
3
+
4
H dl
(7.43) (7.44) (7.45)
= 0 + ( H0 )(b) + o + H0 b = 2 H0 b
with the total current of I = bKy through the loop we have for Amperes law
bKy = 2 Ho b Ky H0 = 2
following for the eld
(7.46) (7.47)
H=
or in general
Ky 2 x Ky 2 x
for z > 0 for z < 0
(7.48)
H=
1 K an 2
(7.49)
where an is the unit normal vector of the sheet.
7.10
Solenoids
A long straight coil of wire can be used to generate a nearly uniform magnetic eld similar to that of a bar magnet. Such coils, called solenoids, have an enormous number of practical applications. The eld can be greatly strengthened by the addition of an iron core. Such cores are typical in electromagnets.
Figure 7.12: Solenoid with Field, from [?]
Shown in Figure 7.13 is a cross section of such a solenoid of length l with N turns. The superposition of the circular elds inside the solenoid gives rise to an almost homogeneous eld inside. The eld outside is typically very weak.
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Prof. S. Peik
Solenoid: l
Cross Section:
Fields from Wires
N Turns I
Superposition
homogeous Field Inside, Neclectible Filed Outside

Figure 7.13: Magnetic Field of a Solenoid
A
Path of Integration
Figure 7.14: Path of Integration for H-eld Derivation
97
Prof. S. Peik Taking a path about which to evaluate Amperes Law as shown in Figure 7.14 gives only a contribution inside the coil. As the eld outside is very weak we can neglect contributions from outside. Applying Amperes law
I = NI =
2
H dl
(7.50)
Now assuming the eld to be zero outside we can split our integration into two sections
1
H ds =
1
H dl +
2 Hl
Hdl = H l
0
(7.51)
following
|H| =
NI l
(7.52)
The eld inside a solenoid is constant and depends only from the length l and the number of turns N . Interestingly it is independent from the cross section of the solenoid.
7.11
Biot-Savarts Law
A more general form of Amperes law in differential form is Biot-Savarts law. The Biot-Savarts Law relates magnetic elds to the currents which are their sources. In a similar manner, Coulombs law relates electric elds to the point charges which are their sources. Finding the magnetic eld resulting from a current distribution involves the vector product, and is inherently a calculus problem when the distance from the current to the eld point is continuously changing. An innitesimal current element makes a contribution to the magnetic eld at point P which is perpendicular to the current element, and perpendicular to the radius vector from the current element to the eld point P. The direction of the magnetic eld contribution follows the right hand rule illustrated for a straight wire. This direction arises from the vector product nature of the dependence upon electric current.
I ds r dH
Figure 7.15: Biot-Savarts Law
The Field contribution of a current element with current I and length dl is hence
dH =
I dl sin 4 r 2
(7.53)
98
Prof. S. Peik where r is the distance to the eld point P and the angle between current and the vector leading to the point P. Figure 7.15 shows the denitions. The H-eld vector is always perpendicular to the current direction. Hence we can write in vector notation
dH =
I dl r I dl r = dH = 2 4 r 4 |r |3
(7.54)
where R is the vector leading from the current element (source point) r to the eld point r, e.g. r r. Example 31:
The H-eld in the center of a circular loop is : With = 90, we get
dH =
I ds 4 r 2
(7.55)
I ds r dH
The total eld is the integration of dH
H=
dH =
I I I ds = 2 r = 2r 4 r 2 4 r 2
(7.56)
We cannot calculate this result using Amperes law, as the H-eld distribution is not known.
Just as for different charge congurations, we can now derive H-elds for different current distributions.
H = H = H =
I dl r (line current) 2 4 r K dS r (surface current) 4 r 2 J dV r (volume current) 2 4 r
(7.57) (7.58) (7.59)
7.12
Magnetic Dipoles and Current Loop Analogy

There are two different ways of dening sources of magnetic elds as Figure 7.16 illustrates. Gilbert Model: Using the analogy to electrostatics, we can dene as sources and sinks of magnetic eld lines two magnetic charges usually referred to as
99
Prof. S. Peik south and north pole. These charges arranged as dipoles, create exactly the observed eld. We must know though, that the dipoles must not be split, as there are no magnetic monopoles. The model is kind of bad physics, as we explain an observation based on our knowledge from electrostatics and ignore the problem of the single charges. Amperes Model: Every magnetic eld is created by a moving charge, a.k.a current. It is hence a purely electrical phenomenon. Every moving charge gives rise to a magnetic eld, that is circling this current. This can be nicely seen in Biot-Savarts law above. A magnetic dipole eld is created by a current owing in a loop. A very small loop is an elementary magnet. Note that electrons spin and create a magnetic dipole eld. This is the origin of any permanent magnetic eld.
H
N S
Figure 7.16: Field from a Magnetic Dipole or Current loop
7.13
Denition of Magnetic Field by the Effect

Recall the two basic vector elds of electrostatics: The E-Field is dened by the effect, i.e. the force on a test charge, precisely E = F q V with the unit m The D-Field is dened by the cause, i.e. charges producing ux lines, where D = Q Flux As Area = A with the unit m2 Similarly, we can dene the magnetic eld in two ways, by the cause or by the effect respectively: The H-Field is dened by the cause, i.e. current producing eld lines. We can easily see the relation in Biot-Savarts law. A current element gives rise to magnetic eld line loops. The B-Field is dened by the effect, i.e. a force turning a magnetic dipole, as shown in Figure 7.17. When placing a magnet or current loop into a magnetic eld, we can observe a torque acting on the magnet. The torque is a force on a cantilever, here the magnet length. The force on a current loop (or dipole magnet) is proportional to the surrounding eld, the B-Field.
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Prof. S. Peik
F
S
F
I
Figure 7.17: Force observed from a magn. Dipole and Current Loop of Size b b
7.14
Magnetic Flux Density

When the B-eld is perpendicular to the current I in a wire of length l we can observe a force F which is
F B F I F l
(7.60) (7.61) (7.62)
hence
F = I l | B|
The unit of the ux density is Ws 1 Vs [ F] = = 2 = 1T [ I ][l ] m Am m
(7.63)
The direction of F is perpendicular to I and B. More details are given in Chapter 10.
[ B] =
(7.64)
The SI unit for magnetic eld is the Tesla. One Tesla is equal to 1 Newton/(A/m). From these units it can be seen that the ux density is a measure of the force applied to a particle by the magnetic eld. The B-Field is known as the magnetic ux density or or magnetic induction. In terms of behavior its the counterpart to the electric ux density D in electrostatics,even though cause and effect are switched. The magnetic ux density B can be similarly derived from H as the electric ux density D can be derived from E. Similar to the relation of eld strength and ux density in electrostatics we can nd
B = H
(7.65)
with the permeability of = 0 r , where the absolute permeability 0 = 4 Vs Vs = 1,257106 Am is the permeability of free space. Compare with of elec107 Am trostatics!
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Prof. S. Peik
7.14.1
Permeability
The relative permeability r is a constant of the material lling the space. The permeability is a material property that describes the ease with which a magnetic ux is established in the component. A table is given in Table . Type Diamagnetism Material Silver Lead Copper Vacuum Air Aluminum Tungsten Platinum Iron
r
0,999921 0,999984 0,99999 1 1,00000035 1,000024 1,000067 1,000256 1000
Paramagnetism
Ferromagnetism
Table 7.1: Relative Permeabilities of Some Materials
Materials may be classied by their response to externally applied magnetic elds as diamagnetic, paramagnetic, or ferromagnetic. These magnetic responses differ greatly in strength. Diamagnetism is a property of all materials and opposes applied magnetic elds, but is very weak. Paramagnetism, when present, is stronger than diamagnetism and produces magnetization in the direction of the applied eld, and proportional to the applied eld. Ferromagnetic effects are very large, producing magnetizations sometimes orders of magnitude greater than the applied eld and as such are much larger than either diamagnetic or paramagnetic effects. For paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials the relative permeability is very close to 1. For ferromagnetic materials, the relative permeability may be very large.
7.15
Hysteresis Loop
Ferromagnetic materials exhibit a non-linear dependence between the magnetic ux B and the magnetic eld H . Hence
B = H for ferromagnetic materials

or is not a constant, rather a function of H and B.
(7.66)
Ferromagnetic materials can be characterized by a hysteresis loop. A hysteresis loop shows the relationship between the induced magnetic ux density B and the
102
Prof. S. Peik magnetizing force H. It is often referred to as the B-H loop. An example hysteresis loop is shown in Figure 7.18. The loop is generated by measuring the magnetic ux density B of a ferromagnetic material while the magnetic auxiliary Field H is changed. A ferromagnetic material that has never been previously magnetized or has been thoroughly demagnetized will follow the dashed line as | H | is increased. As the line demonstrates, the greater the amount of current applied, the stronger the magnetic eld in the component. At the far right point almost all of the magnetic domains are aligned and an additional increase in the magnetizing force will produce very little increase in magnetic ux. The material has reached the point of magnetic saturation. When H is reduced back down to zero, the curve will move to point Br . At this point, it can be seen that some magnetic ux remains in the material even though the magnetizing force is zero. This is referred to as the point of retentivity on the graph and indicates the remanence or level of residual magnetism in the material. (Some of the magnetic domains remain aligned but some have lost there alignment.) As the magnetizing force is reversed, the curve moves to point Hc , where the ux has been reduced to zero. This is called the point of coercivity on the curve. (The reversed magnetizing force has ipped enough of the domains so that the net ux within the material is zero.) The force required to remove the residual magnetism from the material, is called the coercive force or coercivity of the material.
B
Br
New Curve
Hk
Br:Residual Magnetism Hk: Point of Coercivity
Figure 7.18: Hysteresis Loop for Ferromagnetica
As the magnetizing force is increased in the negative direction, the material will again become magnetically saturated but in the opposite direction. Reducing H to zero brings the curve to B = 0 again. It will have a level of residual magnetism equal to that achieved in the other direction. Increasing H back in the positive direction will return B to zero. Notice that the curve did not return to the origin of the graph because some force is required to remove the residual magnetism. The curve will take a different path back the saturation point where it with complete the loop. From the hysteresis loop, a number of primary magnetic properties of a material can be determined. Retentivity Br - A measure of the residual ux density corresponding to the saturation induction of a magnetic material. In other words, it is a materials ability to retain a certain amount of residual magnetic eld when the magnetizing force is removed after achieving saturation. Residual Magnetism Br or Residual Flux - the magnetic
103
Prof. S. Peik ux density that remains in a material when the magnetizing force is zero. Note that residual magnetism and retentivity are the same when the material has been magnetized to the saturation point. However, the level of residual magnetism may be lower than the retentivity value when the magnetizing force did not reach the saturation level. Coercive Force - The amount of reverse magnetic eld which must be applied to a magnetic material to make the magnetic ux return to zero.
7.16
Magnetic Flux
The number of magnetic lines of force cutting through a plane of a given area at a right angle is known as the magnetic ux density B. The total number of lines of magnetic force in a material is called magnetic ux . The total ux is simply the ux density applied over an area A
BdS
(7.67)
Flux carries the unit of a Weber or Wb, which is simply a Tesla-square meter. The magnetic ux is a quantity of convenience in the statement of Faradays Law (described in the next Chapter) and in the discussion of objects like transformers and solenoids. Flux lines of magnetic elds are always closed. In other words there are no sources and drains of magnetic ux lines, as magnetic sources are always currents or magnetic dipoles1 . It is not possible to have a isolated magnetic monopole (magnetic charge). Thus the total ux through a closed surface in a magnetic eld must be zero, that is
BdS = 0
(7.68)
This is known as the law of conservation of magnetic ux or Gauss law for magnetostatic elds. Although the magnetic eld is not conservative magnetic ux is conserved. By applying the divergence theorem of eqn. A.62 we obtain
B = 0
This is known as Maxwells fourth equation in point form.
(7.69)
1 Magnetic permanent dipoles have their origin also in subatomic currents, hence, magnetic elds are always created by currents
104

Inside a ferromagnetic bar (r = 1000) with two cross sections as shown a magnetic eld is generated by a coil with N = 100 turns. Find H , B and in both sections. Assume a length of the coil of a. The length a is 1cm. The current I =1A.
N Turns a a
B1
B2
2a
2a
I
The H-eld is created following eqn. 7.52
H1 =
now
NI 100A A = = 10 000 l 0.01m m

Vs Am
(7.70)
B1
= =
0 r H1 = 4 107 12.566 T
1000 10 000
A m
(7.71) (7.72)
The ux in setion one is
= =
0.0012566 Vs
B A = 12.566 T 0.012 m2
(7.73) (7.74)
Since the ux must remain the same in section one and section twom the B and H eld changes to
B2
= =
H2
= =
0.0012566 Vs = A2 4 0.012 m2 3.1415 T B2 3.1415 T = 0 r 0 1000 2499.9

A m
(7.75) (7.76) (7.77) (7.78)
7.17
Magnetic Vector Potential

As we know from Chapter 3 the electric eld E can always be expressed as the gradient of a scalar potential function. There is no general scalar potential for the magnetic eld B but it can be expressed as the curl of a vector function. This function A is given the name magnetic vector potential but it is not directly associated with work the way that scalar potential is. In order to dene the vector potential, we start with dening a scalar magnetic potential Vm similar to eqn 3.38 by
H = Vm
(7.79)
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Prof. S. Peik With the identity ( A) = 0 and Amperes law we can write
J = H = (Vm ) = 0
(7.80)
Since Vm must satisfy the vector identity (Vm ) = 0 the scalar potential is only dened for regions with J = 0.
2 Vm = 0 when J = 0
(7.81)
In order to satisfy Gausss law for magneto-statics and the identity we can nd out that
B = A
Plugging it into Amperes law yields
(7.82)
B = ( A ) = ( A ) 2 A = J
7.17.1 Gauge Transformations
(7.83)
Since the magnetic eld B is dened as the curl of A, and the by vector identity the curl of a gradient is identically zero, then any arbitrary function which can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar function f may be added to A without changing the value of B obtained from it. That is, A can be freely substituted for A where
A = A + f
(7.84)
Such transformations are called gauge transformations, and there have been a number of "gauges" that have been used to advantage is specic types of calculations in electromagnetic theory.
106

We dene an arbitrary vector potential
We can now derive the B-Field of this Potential as
0 A= 0 xyz
(7.85)
We can use a gauge transformation with any scalar function, e.g. f = x + y2 + z3 , where
xz B = A = y z 0 1 f = 2y 3z2
(7.86)
(7.87)
The B-eld derived from this potential is still
1 2y Our new vector potential is now A = A + f = x y z + 3z2 xz B = A = y z 0

(7.88)
Mupad Code:
export(linalg); print(Unquoted," First we define an arbitrary Vector Potential A="); A:=matrix(3,1,[0,0,x*y]); print(Unquoted," The B-field is B=curl(A)="); B:=curl(A,[x,y,z]); print(Unquoted," now we define a differentiable function f="); f:=x+y*y+z*z*z; print(Unquoted," where grad(f)="); grad(f,[x,y,z]); print(Unquoted," Now we can define a new Aprime=A+grad(f)"); Aprime:=A+grad(f,[x,y,z]); print(Unquoted," The B-Field is still B=curl(Aprime)="); B:=curl(A,[x,y,z]); quit
The simplest gauge transformation is done by choosing A such that A = 0. This is known as Coulombs gauge. Another gauge often used in EM-wave problems is the Lorenz gauge A = j = 0, including a scalar potential .
107

Using Coulombs gauge on the vector potential of the last example A = 0 must be satised. This is not the case
We can now add the gradient of an arbitrary function which xes the problem.
A =
x y z
0 0 = xy xyz
(7.89)
0 A = ( A + f ) = 0 + xyz
1 x y z2 , The gradient is As we see, we can use a function f = 2 1 2 2 yz 1 f = 2 xz2 x y z
f x f y f z
= 0
(7.90)
(7.91)
Now
we have a Coulombs gauge
A = (A + f ) =
1 2 2 yz 1 2 2 xz
=0
(7.92)
7.17.2
Poisson Equation for Magnetostatics
By choosing Coulombs gauge we get
B = 2 A = J
(7.93)
In contrast to the usual denition the Laplacian operator 2 is applied to a vector. Note, that we have to use the denition
2 A = ( A ) ( A )
In Cartesian coordinates, we can derive three independent differentials, as
(7.94)
+ ( 2 A y ) y + ( 2 A z ) z 2 A = ( 2 A x ) x
(7.95)
In other curvilinear coordinate systems this is not the case (poisonous snake), i.e.
+ ( 2 A ) + ( 2 A ) 2 A = ( 2 Ar )r
in spherical coordinates.
(7.96)
Eqn 7.93 is the Poisson equation known from electrostatics now applied to magnetostatics. We can now solve this equation and get the solution for the vector potential
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Prof. S. Peik
A = A = A =
I dl for a line current 4 R K dS for a surface current 4 R J dV for a volume current 4 R
(7.97) (7.98) (7.99)
dA Idl R
Figure 7.19: Vector Potential from Current Distributions
As seen from the equation this vector equation are actually three scalar equation for x,y, and z-direction. This means the d A and d J are always in the same direction. However, when applying A = 4 R we must express J in Cartesian coordinates. Again, the poisonous snake is the problem. Also, note, that the vector potential can usually not be derived for problems with currents in innity, like an innite straight wire. Here we have to apply other strategies, as described in [?]. From the vector potential A we can now derive the magnetic ux by applying Stokes theorem on = B dS with eqn. 7.82 and get
J dV
A dl
(7.100)
The total ux through a closed loop can be derived by summing up the A-eld along the boundary of the loop. The validation of the above equations is omitted here and can be found in [?] and other electromagnetics textbooks. One rationale for the vector potential is that it may be easier to calculate the vector potential than to calculate the magnetic eld directly from a given source current geometry. Its most common application is to antenna theory and the description of electromagnetic waves.
109

1 2 Wb Given the magnetic potential A = 4 z m calculate the total magnetic ux crossing the surface = , 1 2m and 0 z 5m 2
Using B = A = 2 now the ux is =

5 0 1 2
B dS =
5 0 1
B dz d =
15 5 1 1 22 5[ ] = (4 1) = Wb 2 2 1 4 4
3 4 1
(7.101)
Or using eqn 7.100
A dl =
+
1 2
+
3
+
4
(7.102)
z
3 4 4
A
2 2 1 1 2
/2
=
2
Az ( = 1) dl
1 4
Az ( = 2) dl
(7.103) (7.104)
1 4 15 5 + 5 = Wb 4 4 4
7.18
Boundary Conditions
The behavior of magnetostatic elds on boundaries is analogous to the denitions in electrostatic elds
Ht1 = Ht2 Bn1 = Bn2

and
(7.105)
1 Hn1 = 2 Hn2 2 Bt1 = 1 Bt2
(7.106)
110
Inductance and Magnetic Circuits
In Chapter 4.1 we dened a capacitance as the ratio of electric ux (i.e. the D-eld) to voltage. The device storing the electrostatic energy was the capacitor. Analogously, we dene now an inductance as the ratio of magnetic ux to current. The device storing magnetic energy is the inductor.
8.1
Inductance
Let us take a closer look at a current loop again as shown in Figure 8.1 . The current I creates a magnetic ux through the loop. Following Amperes law the ux is linearly dependent on the current I .
Figure 8.1: Current loop with B-eld
The inductance of a current loop is dened as
L=
The unit of the inductance is
(8.1)
[ L] =
[] Vs = =H [I] A
(8.2)
with the short form H (Henry). Note, in comparison the unit with the capacitance unit [C]=F=As/V
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Prof. S. Peik
8.2
Flux Linkage
For a solenoid with more than one turn the magnetic ux multiplies with the number of turns as the ux penetrates every loop. We can now dene a total ux called the ux linkage to be = N (8.3) where N is the number of turns of the coil.
Figure 8.2: Explanation Flux Linkage
Hence the inductance of a solenoid is
L=
N I
(8.4)
8.3
Inductance of a Long Solenoid

For a long slim solenoid of length l and cross section A and N turns we can easily nd its inductance. We know that H = nl I , hence B = 0 nl I . Consequently the ux is = B A = 0 A nl I With the denition of the inductance we get:
L=
N n2 = 0 A I l
(8.5)
The circuit symbol for an inductance is a group of four semi circles as shown in Figure 8.3.
Figure 8.3: Circuit Symbol of an Inductance
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Prof. S. Peik
8.4
Circuits with Inductances

When connecting several inductances the total inductance of the group is derived by the following equations.
Inductances in series:
L ges = L1 + L2 + L3 +
L1 L2 L3
(8.6)
Inductances in parallel:
1 1 1 1 = + + + L ges L1 L2 L3
L1 L2 L3
(8.7)
Example 36:
Calculate the external inductance per length of a coaxial cable as shown. The external inductance is dened as the inductance due to the B-eld in the dielectric region
R2 R3
R1
we know for the dielectric region
B2 =
I 2 I d dz 2
(8.8)
The ux through an area element in this region is
d = B2 d dz =
(8.9)
Hence the total ux through the region between the conductors is
R2
R1
l 0
d =
R2
R1
l 0
I I I R2 2 d dz = l [ln ] R R1 = l 2 ln R 2 2 1
(8.10)
The external inductance is due to the B-eld in the dielectric, hence the external inductance for a cable of length l is
Lext =
l R = ln 2 I 2 R1
(8.11)
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Prof. S. Peik
8.5
Energy in the Magnetic Field

Just as the energy of electrostatic elds the magnetic eld energy is derived by
W=
1 2
H B dV =
1 2
| H |2 dV
(8.12)
following for the stored energy in an inductor
W=
We can rearrange the eqn. and get
1 2 LI 2
(8.13)
L=
1 2W = 2 2 I I
B H dV
(8.14)
114

From last example we know
B2 =
Hence the inductance using eqn. 8.14 is
I 2
R2 R1 0 l 0 l
(8.15)
Lext
= =
1 I2
2 0
2 0 R2 R1
H 2 d dz
(8.16) (8.17) (8.18) (8.19)
1 d dz 22 2 2
= =
Or the inductance per length
2 l
R ln 2 R1 4 2 l R ln 2 2 R1 R ln 2 2 R1
Lext ==
Compare with the last example! We know for the inner conductor region < a
(8.20)
B1 =
following
I 2 R2 1
(8.21)
Lint
= =
1 I2
2 0
2 0 R1 0 0
R1 0 l 0
B2 d dz
(8.22) (8.23) (8.24) (8.25)
1 2 2 d dz 4 2 R4 1
=
Lint
or as impedance per length
2 l l 8
1 R1 [ 4 ]0 4 2 4 4 R1
Lint =
The total inductance is L = Lint + Lext = 2
1 4
(8.26)
R2 R1
+ ln
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Prof. S. Peik
8.6
Magnetic Circuits
Magnetic eld lines can be guided through ferromagnetic materials, as the r 0 is very high compared to the 0 in air. Consequently, We call ferromagnetic materials also magnetic conductors. The magnetic ux can be considered a magnetic current driven by the H-eld. The H-eld is created by currents passing through the H-eld loop. Magnetic eld lines are always closed, as the current loop is in an electric circuit. Using this analogy, we can treat magnetized ferromagnetic rings as a circuit analogous to electric circuits. We call this a magnetic circuit. When we can assume homogeneous elds inside the material we can dene A coil with N turns acts like a generator with magnetic voltage Um = N I . The current is represented by a magnetic current which is equal to the ux A piece of ferromagnetic material with r acts like a loss-less wire A piece of material with r = acts like a resistor Rm , also known as reluctance Rm
Um,FE
I N
Um
Um,G
r lFE
Figure 8.4: Ferromagnetic Torus with Air Gap and equivalent. Magnetic Circuit
We can relate now the magnetic quantities to the electric quantities by compares Amperes law with Kirchhoffs law. For Amperes law we have for the magnetic circuit of Figure 8.4
H dl =
(8.27) (8.28)
HFE l FE + HG lG = N I
where the indexes FE and G denote the Iron and Gap, respectively. In Kirchhoffs law we get
UM = Um,FE + Um,G
Comparing the two we can observe
(8.29)
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Prof. S. Peik
Um,FE + Um,G =
Um
(8.30) (8.31)
HFE l FE + HG lG = N I
The source can be represented as a DC voltage source with Um = N I . The voltage drops are represented by Um, FE = HFE l FE and Um,G = HG lG . Note that the unit of the magnetic voltage is Amperes.
8.7
Magnetic Resistance
We dened the ux as the magnetic current
Im =
(8.32)
Now we can relate the magnetic voltage to the magnetic current and nd a magnetic resistance also called reluctance. For the section of iron we have
Rm =
Um,FE H l = FE FE = Im
1 B l FE
1 A l FE
1 l FE A
(8.33)
or in general for any cylindrical section of length l and cross section Aas shown in Figure 8.5
l
I N
Um
r
Figure 8.5: Denition of Magnetic Reluctance
Rm =
1 l A
(8.34)
For a magnetic circuit with homogeneous elds we can use an electric equivalent circuit with Denition Magnetic Voltage Magnetic Current Magnetic Resistance (Reluctance) Unit A Vs
A Vs
Um = N I Im = 1 l Rm = A
Analogous to electric circuits we can dene an Ohms law
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Prof. S. Peik
Um = Rm
and also can apply Kirchhoffs laws
(8.35)
Um = 0
Example 38:
and
= 0
(8.36)
on any magnetic circuit.This technique is very useful in analyzing magnetic circuits

Find the inductance of the torus-coil in Figure 8.4 with l FE = 20cm and gap width of l g =2mm and a cross section of A =1cm2 and a r = 1000. The coil has 200 turns. The magnetic voltage source has a voltage of Um = N I = 200 I FE The magnetic reluctance of the torus is Rm, FE = l A
0 r
The magnetic reluctance of the gap is Rm,g = A 0 The magnetic current (ux ) is hence
lg
Um = R FE + R g
NI
l FE 1 0 A ( r
+ lg )
(8.37)
The inductance is the ux linkage N per current I . Hence
L L
= =
N N = I I N2
fe
NI
l FE 1 0 A ( r
+ lg )
(8.38)
o A l
(8.39)
+ lg
Using the numerical values we get L = 2.28mH
8.7.1
Perfect Magnetic Conductor

In a perfect magnetic conductor the permeability reaches innity and the magnetic voltage drop is zero, there is still ux (magn. current) and, consequentely, magnetic ux density
= H = 0 = nite B = nite
(8.40) (8.41) (8.42) (8.43)
118
Time-Varying Fields
So far we observed static elds, only. Static means that we do not have any eld variations over time. Now, let us extend our eld theory to dynamic problems, i.e. with time variation. Time-varying magnetic elds for example generate electricity, which is called induction. The law of induction, rst observed by Faraday, is now known as Faradays law.
9.1
Faradays Law
Any change in the magnetic environment of a coil of wire will cause a voltage (emf) to be "induced" in the coil. No matter how the change is produced, the voltage will be generated. The change could be produced by changing the magnetic eld strength, moving a magnet toward or away from the coil, moving the coil into or out of the magnetic eld, rotating the coil relative to the magnet, etc.
Flux Decreases
Vi
Vi
Vi
Figure 9.1: Time-Varying Flux through a Loop Induces Voltage
Experimentally we can demonstrate induction by two magnetically linked coils. as shown in Figure 9.2. Changing the current in coil 1 creates a change of the ux through coil 2, and, hence, a voltage Vi . Also moving the coil away or rotating it will result in ux changes and hence in an induced voltage Vi Faraday formulated his law of induction as
Vi =
d dt
(9.1)
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Prof. S. Peik
B,
i Ui
Figure 9.2: Induction from One Coil to Another
for a coil with N turn we get using ux linkage
Vi = N
d dt
(9.2)
Here Vi is the induced voltage of the arrangement. We seen from the equation we get an induced voltage only, when the ux through the loop changes. In case of a stationary loop as shown in Figure 9.1 the total induced voltage becomes the integral of the E-eld along the wire and = B dS, hence we can rewrite Faradays law as
Vi =
E dl =
B dS t
(9.3)
By applying Stokes Theorem onto the LHS of this equation we get
( E) dS =
B dS t
(9.4)
or
E =
B t
(9.5)
This is known as the point form of Faradays law.
9.2
Lenzs Law
The minus sign in eqn. 9.1 denotes, that the induced voltage is of opposite sign of the ux using a right-hand system. Finding the correct sign of Vi can be very tricky, as a lot of directions and coordinate systems might be involved. We can nd the sign of the voltage or induced current, however, by a very simple rule: The induced current in a conductor is always directed such that it opposes the change in the applied eld This rule is known as Lenzs law, after the nineteenth century Russian scientist Heinrich Lenz who rst formulated it.
120
Prof. S. Peik When an emf is generated by a change in magnetic ux according to Faradays Law, the polarity of the induced emf is such that it produces a current whose magnetic eld opposes the change which produces it. The induced magnetic eld inside any loop of wire always acts to keep the magnetic ux in the loop constant. In the examples below, if the B eld is increasing, the induced eld acts in opposition to it. If it is decreasing, the induced eld acts in the direction of the applied eld to try to keep it constant.
increasing d/dt>0 (opposes increasing ) (opposes decreasing ) decreasing d/dt<0
----Ui<0 +++ +++
+++ +++ Ui>0 -----
Figure 9.3: Lenzs Law
9.3
Moving Loop in a Magnetic Field

We can create a change of magnetic ux also by moving the loop into out out of the eld. A loop of Area A moved into the eld will experience a positive ux change. Hence a negative induced voltage will be observed. Example 39:
A triangular loop is moved into a homogeneous magnetic eld with constant velocity v
The ux increases rst by t2 , stays then constant and decreases by t2 again. The induced voltage is equal to the negative derivative of . Hence we get the run of the ux and voltage as follows
Parabola
Parabola Vi
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Prof. S. Peik
9.4
Self- and Mutual Inductance

We can induce a voltage in a coil through a time-varying magnetic eld generated by another coil. This arrangement is shown in Figure 9.4. Thew left coil is called the primary coil. The right coil is called the secondary coil.
Mutual Inductance
N1 N2 B, A i Vi
Self Inductance
N1 B, A i Vi
Figure 9.4: Mutual and Self Inductance
A current I1 though the primary coil creates a ux 21 in the secondary coil. This ux reaches partly or in whole the secondary coil and induces the voltage
Vi2 =
9.4.1 Mutual Inductance
N2 d21 dt
(9.6)
This follows the denition of the mutual inductance as
M21 =
N2 21 i1
(9.7)
In plain English, the mutual inductance is the ux through coil 2 generated by a current in coil 1 divided by that current in coil 1. The mutual inductance has the unit Henry. Now we can write for the induced voltage
Vi2 = M21
di1 dt
(9.8)
Similarly we can dene a reverse mutual inductance
M12 =
and
N1 12 i2
(9.9)
Vi1 = M12
di2 dt
(9.10)
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Prof. S. Peik for the induced voltage in the primary coil due to a current in the secondary coil. Interestingly the two mutual inductances are always identical due to reciprocity.
M12 = M21
(9.11)
The proof is omitted here and can be found in many electromagnetics text books.
9.4.2
Self Inductance
The current i1 gives also rise to an induced voltage in its own coil. That is, the ux 1 creates a voltage
Ui1 =
N1 d1 dt
(9.12)
at itself. Following with the denition of inductance from eqn 8.1
L=
for the induced voltage
N 1 i1 di dt
(9.13)
Ui = L
This is known as the self induced voltage.
(9.14)
9.5
V-I-Dependence in coils in AC-Circuits

j t as the applied voltage to a coil we get Using the phasor U = Ue U = L dI = Lj Ie j t = ZL Ie j t dt
(9.15)
As the inductor is considered a passive device, the EMF-voltage direction is switched, such that voltage and current are in the same direction. This means the impedance of a coil is just ZL = j L (9.16)
9.6
Transformer
A Transformer is a ferromagnetic ring with at least two coils on it. A typical transformer is shown in Figure 9.5. The left coil, called the primary coil, has N1 turn. The right coil, the secondary coil, has N2 turns. There is a galvanic separation between the coil, this means no charges can move from one coil to the other. Energy is transmitted from the primary coil to the secondary coil by the magnetic eld only. As shown in Figure 9.5, the left coil creates a magnetic ux 1 , that penetrates the right coil. For time-varying currents, this induces a voltage on the right coil.
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Prof. S. Peik
i1 u1
N1 L1
1 2
N2 L2
i2 u2
Figure 9.5: Transformer
The ux creates the voltages by Faradays law
V1 = V2 =
Using the denition L1 = Ni1 follows 1
N1 d1 dt N2 d2 dt
(9.17) (9.18)
V1 = L1
Or similarly
di1 . dt d 1 i1
(9.19)
M21 = N2
(9.20)
as mutual induction from coil 1 to coil 2. Hence9.17 and 9.18
V1 = L1 V2
di1 dt di = M21 1 dt
(9.21) (9.22)
When exciting the secondary coil 2 with i2 we get
V1 = M12 V2
di2 dt di2 = L2 dt
(9.23) (9.24)
Note, that the mutual inductance in forward direction and backward direction is always the same, i.e. M12 = M21 .
124
Prof. S. Peik Superposition of both cases yields
V1 = L1 V2
di1 di2 +M dt dt di1 di2 = M + L2 dt dt
(9.25) (9.26)
M L1 L2
Figure 9.6: Circuit Schematic of a Transformer
1 e j t and I 2 = I 2 e j t we get For AC-Circuits with I 1 = I
U 1 = j L1 I 1 + j MI 2 U 2 = j MI 1 + j L2 I 2
or written as a matrix
(9.27) (9.28)
U1 U2
= j
L1 M M L2
I1 I2
(9.29)
Equations 9.27 and 9.28 can be extended by including ohmic losses inside the coils such that
U 1 = ( j L1 + R1 ) I 1 + j MI 2 U 2 = j MI 1 + ( j L2 + R2 ) I 2
(9.30) (9.31)
We can interpret eqn. 9.30 and 9.31 by an equivalent circuit as shown in Figure 9.7.
I1 U1
R1
L1-M
L2-M
R2
I2 U2
Figure 9.7: Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
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Prof. S. Peik
9.6.1
Ideal Transformer
An ideal transformer implements a core with high permittivity , no copper losses and no fringe elds. The primary side has by denition N turns whereas the secondary side has one turn. Now we have the inductances
L1 = N 2 L2 = l A
l A
(9.32) (9.33)
M12 = M21 = N
l A
(9.34)
where l is the length of the ring core and A its cross-section. Hence
U 1 = j ( N 2 U2
l l ) I 1 + j ( N ) I 2 A A l l = j ( N ) I 1 + j ( ) I 2 A A
(9.35) (9.36)
Multiplying eqn . 9.36 by N and dividing the equations yields
U1 NU 2 U1 U2
Similarly we can nd
= 1 = N
(9.37) (9.38)
I1 1 = I2 N
(9.39)
2 and, hence, an impedance Z = U I2 on the secondary side is transformed into a new 1 impedance Z = U I seen on the primary side as 1
Z = N2 Z
(9.40)
9.7
Eddy Currents
Faradays Law implies that a changing magnetic ux produces an induced electric eld even in empty space. If a metal plate is inserted into this empty space the induced electric eld produces an electric currents in the metal. These induced currents are called eddy currents. If the induced currents are created by a changing magnetic eld then the Eddy currents will be perpendicular to the magnetic eld and owing in circles if the B-eld is uniform.
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Prof. S. Peik
Electrical Conductor
Eddy Current
dB/dt
Figure 9.8: Eddy Currents
These induced electric elds are very different from electrostatic electric elds of point charges. For one thing they do not begin and end on charges but circle around on them self in loops. Secondly, and more importantly practically, the induced electric eld is non conservative, i.e. the work done by generated electric eld can not be recovered except as heat. Often eddy currents generate unwanted losses. For example, in a transformer core, eddy currents heat up the core. By constructing the metal core of alternating layers of conducting and nonconducting materials, the size of the induced loops are reduced thereby reducing the energy lost.
Figure 9.9: Lamented Transformer Core
127
Prof. S. Peik
' Roller Coaster Break
&
Eddy current breaks are used for many applications. For example, in underneath a roller coaster car aluminum plates are installed. when moving inside a magnetic eld, eddy current are generated and produce heat. The energy is taken from the movement of the car. The car breaks.
128
Electromagnetic Forces
10
(10.1)
Magnetic elds are often utilized to create mechanical forces. A short overview of these effects are given here.
10.1
Lorentz Force
The Lorentz force is the force exerted on a charged particle in an electromagnetic eld. The particle will experience a magnetic force The force relationship is in the form of a vector product:
F = Q(v B)
v B
v B
Figure 10.1: Lorentz Force
The force is perpendicular to both the velocity v of the charge Q and the magnetic eld B. The direction of the force is given by the right hand rule, as shown in Figure 10.2. The thumb indicates the direction of the cause (Movement), the index nger points in the direction of the eld (B-eld) and the middle nger points in resulting force direction. By switching cause and effect, we can also get the direction of the induced current, when the wire moves through the eld. In contrast, in an electric eld the force always acts on a charge Q in the same direction as the E-eld. Thus an electron qe will simply be accelerated in the same
129
Prof. S. Peik linear orientation as the E eld, but that electron will spiral when traveling through the B eld, due to the orientation of the cross product operator, by the right-hand rule.
Cause
Fie
ld
Effect
Figure 10.2: Right Hand Rule:
10.1.1
Force on a Current Carrying wire
We can also derive the force on a current through a wire perpendicular to a magnetic eld, as shown in Figure 10.1. We know from the continuity equation
I=
dQ dt
(10.2)
further the velocity of charges in the wire is
v=
following
dl dt
(10.3)
F = ( I dt)
or
l B dt
(10.4)
F = I lB
where l is the length of the wire in the eld with the direction of the current.
(10.5)
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Prof. S. Peik
Joch
N I I B F B F
Figure 10.3: Lorenz Force
10.2
Force on two Parallel Wires

The force on two parallel wires with current I1 and I2 is
Two force can be derived from the Lorentz force to
F=
I1 I2 l 2 d
(10.6)
The SI-Unit Ampere is dened by this arrangement: One ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of innite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed one metre apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2 107 N per metre of length. The denition for the ampere is equivalent to xing a value of the permeability of As . vacuum to 0 = 4 107 Vm
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Prof. S. Peik
10.3
Force on an Air Gap

When a magnetic circuit has an air gap, we can observe a force on the circuit, such that the parts of the circuit are attracted. Figure 10.4 shows such a circuit.
F Joch Anker
i N
F
Figure 10.4: Force on an Air Gap in a Magnetic Circuit
The force on the air gap is
F=
1 B2 L AL 2 0
(10.7)
The exact derivation of this formula is given in many text books.
132
Electromagnetic Waves
11
In the last chapters we already realized that magnetism and electricity are not two isolated realms of physics. As shown, electric currents can generate magnetic elds and magnetic elds can generate electric elds. In this chapter we will investigate the effects of this interaction further. We will work out, that time-varying electric elds can also generate magnetic elds. This brings us to the postulation of the existence of electromagnetic waves. EM-waves can propagate through the empty space by exchanging electric and magnetic energy periodically.
11.1
History
The postulation of electromagnetic waves is strongly connected to the name James Clark Maxwell. In the middle of the 19th century He developed the mathematical concept that implies the existence of EM-waves. Being a mathematician he did not reinforced his theory by experiments. However, 1888 Heinrich Hertz did the crucial experiment. He designed an apparatus that generated waves with around 100 MHz. He demonstrated that these waves could be reected, focused, and diffracted. Further he could show that the waves are polarized.
Figure 11.1: James C. Maxwell (1831-1879) and Heinrich Hertz (1847-1894)
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Prof. S. Peik
11.2
Maxwells Contribution
Michael Faraday revolutionized physics in 1830 by showing that electricity and magnetism were interrelated phenomena. He achieved this breakthrough by careful experimentation. Between 1864 and 1873 James Clerk Maxwell achieved a similar breakthrough by pure thought. Of course, this was only possible because he was able to take the experimental results of Faraday, Ampere, etc., as his starting point. All these equations were known in its integral Form, i.e.
Faradays Law: Amperes Law: Gausss Law: magn. Gausss Law.:
C C
E dl = H dl =
t J
B dA
(11.1) (11.2) (11.3) (11.4)
A V
S S
DdS = BdS = 0
dV
Maxwells rst great achievement was to realize that these laws could be expressed as a set of partial differential equations. Of course, he wrote his equations out in component form because modern vector notation did not come into vogue until about the time of the First World War. In modern notation, Maxwell rst wrote
E = H = J D = B = 0
d B dt
(11.5) (11.6)
11.3
Displacement Current
Maxwells second great achievement was to realize that there was something wrong with the equations. We can see that there is something slightly unusual about eqns. 11.5 and 11.6. They are very unfair to electric elds! After all, time varying magnetic elds can induce electric elds, but electric elds apparently cannot affect magnetic elds in any way. However, there is a far more serious problem associated with the above equations, which we alluded to earlier on. Consider the integral form of the second Maxwells equation (i.e., Amperes law)
H dl =
J dS
(11.7)
This says that the line integral of the magnetic eld H around a closed loop C is equal to the ux of the current density through the loop. The problem is that the ux of the current density through a loop is not, in general, a well dened quantity. In
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Prof. S. Peik order for the ux to be well dened the integral of J dS over some surface S attached to a loop C must depend on C but not on the details of S . We can observe this from the point form equation
H = J ( H ) = J 0 = J
(11.8) (11.9) (11.10)
This means the divergence of the right hand side of eqn 11.7 in point form must be zero, J = 0 (11.11) Compare this with the continuity equation 11.12.
J =
d dt
(11.12)
Unfortunately, the above condition is only satised for non time varying elds. Thus, d J = 0 is only true in a steady state (i.e., when dt = 0 ). The problem with Amperes law is well illustrated by the following example. Consider a long straight wire interrupted by a parallel plate capacitor as shown in Figure 11.2.
Before Maxwell: After Maxwell:
HTang. is not continous d/dt
d/dt=Displacement Current
I H due to d/dt
H-Field
H-Field
Figure 11.2: Circuit with Capacitor Illustrating Problem with Amperes Law
Suppose that C is some loop which circles the wire. In the non time dependent situation the capacitor acts like a break in the wire, so no current ows, and no magnetic eld is generated. There is clearly no problem with Amperes law in this case. In the time dependent situation a transient current ows in the wire as the capacitor charges up, or charges down, so a transient magnetic eld is generated. Thus, the line integral of the magnetic eld around C is (transiently) non-zero. According to Amperes law, the ux of the current through any surface attached to C should also be (transiently) non-zero. At the boundary on the capacitor plate, this condition is not satised. The ux seems to be interrupted, which is not in line with Amperes law and the continuity equation. As a corollary we can state, that the tangential H-Field is not continuous at the boundary between wire and capacitor.
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Prof. S. Peik
Fixing Amperes Law

Perhaps, if we add a term involving to the right-hand side of eqn 11.7 we can somehow x up Amperes law? This is, essentially, how Maxwell reasoned more than one hundred years ago. The electric ux into the capacitor is equal to the change of the charge on the plates. The charge Q on the plates change by
dQ =i dt
(11.13)
The charge Q on the plates are also the sources of the D-Field. The sum of all charges are equal to the sum of all D-eld lines, e.g. Q = V dV = S D dS or simply Q = . Hence we could come up with a term like
d = iv dt
(11.14)
which describes the continuation of the current i in the wire by a special current iv . This might x Amperes law. Including our extra current iv Maxwells equation reads
H dl = i + iv H dl = i + d dt
(11.15) (11.16)
Rewriting with S D dS = we get
H dl = i +
or in point form
d dt
D dS
(11.17)
H = J+
d D dt
(11.18)
We nd that the divergence of the right-hand side is
(J +
d d D) = J + D dt dt d d = + =0 dt dt
(11.19) (11.20)
as a consequence of charge conservation. We see, that the problems above are xed. The extra current is called the displacement current (this name was invented by Maxwell).
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Prof. S. Peik In summary, we have shown that although the ux of the real current through a loop is not well dened, if we form the sum of the real current and the displacement current then the ux of this new quantity through a loop is well dened. The extended Amperes law is hence
H dl =
Jd A +
d dt
Dd A
(11.21)
or
H = J+
d D dt
(11.22)
11.4
Maxwells Equations
Including the displacement current Maxwell wrote down his nal set of equations as: Differential Form Integral Form Name
B E = t
E dl =
B dS
(11.23)
Faradays Law
H = J+
D t
H dl =
J+
D dS t
(11.24)
Amperes Law
D =
DdS =
dV
(11.25)
Gausss Law
B = 0
Together with the material equations
BdS = 0
(11.26)
magn. Gausss Law
D = E
(11.27) (11.28)
B = H
these equations describe the complete electromagnetism.
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Prof. S. Peik
11.5
Time Harmonic Fields

d = j . Therefore, Maxwells Using time harmonic phasors we get for the derivative dt equation become
E H D B
= = = =
j B J + j D 0
(11.29) (11.30) (11.31)
11.6
Electromagnetic Waves
The above equations suggest to solve the equation system of four equations for one variable, lets say E. In the following we demonstrate, that this can be done. The limitation is, that our region must not include currents or charges anywhere. Using the operation on both sides of Maxwells rst equation yields
E = j ( B)
and substituting B = 0 H we get
(11.32)
E = j0 ( H )
(11.33)
Assuming a current free region, we now plug the above into Maxwells second equation 11.29 and we get
E = j0 ( j D ))
with D = 0 E and j2 = 1
(11.34)
E = 2 0 0 E
Now let us remember the following vector identity
(11.35)
E = ( E ) 2 E
(11.36)
Since we do not have any charges in the region and revisiting eqn. 11.31 we have E=0, therefore E = 2 E (11.37) Plugging this into eqn 11.35 yields
2 E + 2 0 0 E = 0
substituting k2 = 2 0 0 we obtain
(11.38)
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Prof. S. Peik
2 E + k 2 E = 0
or
(11.39)
E k2 E = 0
of the medium. In vacuum we have k = These equations has the famous form
(11.40)
This is known as the Helmholtz equation. The constant k is called the wave number
0 0 .
d2 A ( ) k2 A ( ) = 0 d 2
which is known as the general wave equation, where
(11.41)
k2 =
2 v2
(11.42)
with the angular frequency of the wave and v is the propagation velocity. For our electromagnetic wave we get
v=
1 m = 2, 998 108 = Speed of light c 0 0 s
(11.43)
About this velocity Maxwell wrote in 1864: This velocity is so nearly that of light, that it seems we have strong reason to conclude that light itself (including radiant heat, and other radiation if any) is an electromagnetic disturbance in the form of wave propagated through the electromagnetic eld according to electromagnetic laws." Maxwell assumed, that light is an electromagnetic wave with velocity c (as any EMwave). The same procedure can be applied to solve for the H-eld and we get
2 H + k 2 H = 0
(11.44)
In 1873 Maxwell published his work in a two volume book with the title "A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism". The book is a summary of all known effects of electromagnetism including the displacement current. The Treatise is the foundation of electromagnetism and acts as the base for any work in electrical engineering. The impact of these equations are regarded as the biggest achievement in natural science ever. Some quotes:
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Prof. S. Peik "From a long view of the history of mankind - seen from, say, ten thousand years from now - there can be little doubt that the most signicant event of the 19th century will be judged as Maxwells discovery of the laws of electrodynamics", Richard Feynman "Maxwells Equations have had a greater impact on human history than any ten presidents.", Carl Sagan It is notable, that the Treatise was written in a very obscure way. Virtually nobody understood the book. The physicist Oliver Heaviside quit his job as telegrapher and devoted his life to understand the book.He later wrote... "I saw that it was great, greater, and greatest, with prodigious possibilities in its power. I was determined to master the book... It took me several years before I could understand as much as I possible could. Then I set Maxwell aside and followed my own course. And I progressed much more quickly." In 1873 he developed the operational calculus using operators such as and rst "popularised" Maxwells equations. The four equations as we know them today are actually set up by Oliver Heaviside.
Figure 11.3: Oliver Heaviside (1850 - 1925)
Figure 11.4: Maxwells Treatise
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Prof. S. Peik
11.7
Plane-Wave Propagation in Medium

Let us now nd a solution for the possible E- and H-eld distributions for a plane Eeld. Plane E-eld means the E-eld is non-varying with in the plane perpendicular to the propagation direction. For example, this plane is the x-y plane and the E-eld vector lies in x direction. Now we revisit the Helmholtz equation
E k2 E = 0
Assuming an E-eld with an x-component only, we have for the rst curl
(11.45)
Ex Ey = Ez
for the second curl follows
y Ez z Ex x Ey
z Ey x Ez y Ex
0 E = z x y Ex
(11.46)
y Ex z z Ex 0 z Ex = 0 ( y Ex ) y Ex x z Ex 0
(11.47)
When assuming a uniform eld in x and y direction (the so called plane wave) we have no variation in x and y direction, hence / x = 0 and /y = 0 following
2 z2 Ex E = 0 0
We have to investigate the x-component only for the differential equation
(11.48)
d 2 Ex + k 2 Ex = 0 dz2
The general solution for this differential eqn. is
+ jkz jkz Ex = Ex + Ex 0e 0e
(11.49)
(11.50)
+ direction where Ex 0 and Ex0 are constants to be determined. We see that the solution is composed of two location-depending phasors. The E-Field has in time-domain a sinusoidal variation in z-direction and is x-directed. Remember, that there is still also the the sinusoidal time variation sin( t).
The rst solution refers to a forward traveling wave. The second solution to a backward traveling wave. Both wave superimpose linearly. We can now determine the H -eld for the forward wave E+ (z) using Faradays law eqn 11.29.
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Prof. S. Peik
E = j H j H = ( E) Ex ( z ) j H = ( 0 ) 0 0 + (z) j Ex H = z + Ex ( z )
(11.51) (11.52)
(11.53)
(11.54)
0 j + e jkz H = = jkEo 0
(11.55)
hence, there is a y-component only with

+ Hy =
k + jkz + jkz = Hy E e 0e xo
+ Hy 0 =
(11.56)
hence
k + E xo
(11.57)
The H-eld is perpendicular to the E-eld and the direction of propagation. H-eld and E-eld are in phase and travel with the same velocity in z-direction. The arrangement of the elds is illustrated in Figure 11.5. The proportion of Exo to Hyo is called the intrinsic impedance
= = k
0 0
(11.58)
For vacuum the intrinsic impedance is 0 =
377.
(11.59)
We can now nd the time-variance of the E-eld vector

+ | Exo E(z, t) = Re{ E} = x | cos( t kz + + )
We observe, that the eld changes over time t and with distance z. The Time period for one complete oscillation is known as the time period T = 1 f . Now we can also dene a propagation distance period called the wave length
2 k
(11.60)
We can also dene a velocity, that follows the propagation of the points with the same phase. Looking at the time-variance solution closely we see that the phase velocity of the wave is
vp =
1 = = k 142
(11.61)
Prof. S. Peik
Figure 11.5: Fields of a Planar Wave
Note that with k = v p substituted in eqn 11.60
=
In vacuum we get the velocity
vp f
(11.62)
v p = 3 108
m = speed of light = c s
(11.63)
and for the relation between the wavelength and frequency f
c = f
(11.64)
11.8
EM-Wave Reections at Normal Incidence

(Note: This section should be studied with basic knowledge of transmission line theory, next Chapter) Consider the z-directed plane EM-wave of Section 11.7. This wave is now normal incident to a planar boundary in the xy-plane at z = 0. The left medium (medium 1) has a dielectric permittivity of 1 , a magnetic permeability 0 and a intrinsic impedance of 1 =
1 1 0
. The wave number of medium 1 is k 1 .
+ e jkz and a reected wave E e jkz we get a total Considering an incident wave Eo o E-eld x-component and H-eld y-component of
+ jk1 z jk1 z E1x = E1 e + E1 e 1 + jk1 z jk1 z H1y = (E e E1 e ) 1 1
(11.65) (11.66)
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Prof. S. Peik
medium 1 medium 2
E1
E2
E1
Figure 11.6: Incident and Reected EM-Wave at Boundary of Two Media
Similarly, we can assume a wave in the rright medium with 2 , impedance 1 = and the wave number k 2 . Since there is no reected wave (no further boundaries) we get
1 1 0
+ jk2 z E2x = E2 e 1 + jk2 z H2y = E e 2 2
(11.67) (11.68)
At the boundary we have to apply our boundary conditions from Figure 5.12. The tangential components must be continuous, hence
E1x (z = 0) = E2x (z = 0) H2y (z = 0) = H2y (z = 0)
(11.69) (11.70) (11.71) (11.72) (11.73)
+ + = E2 1 + 1 + ( E1 E1 ) = E 1 2 2
+ E1 E1 + + Simultaneous Solutions for E1 and E2 for a given incident wave E1 yield:
E1 = + E2 =
2 1 + + E = E1 (reected wave) 2 1 1 2 2 + E+ = E1 (transmitted wave) 2 1 1
(11.74) (11.75)
where
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Prof. S. Peik
= =
2 1 2 + 1 2 2 2 1
(11.76) (11.77)
The quantities and are known as reection coefcient and transmission coefcient. In case of lossless medium 1 and 2 are real and and are also real. We can easily see that = 1 (11.78) for nonmagnetic media ( = 0 ) we get
r2 r1 = r2 + r1
Example 40:
(11.79)
The dielectric constant of Pyrex glass is 4.6. At a transition between air and glass we get for = 0.36402. As the power contained in the wave is equal to the square of the E-Field, a fraction of the power of 0.364022 = 0.1325 = 13% is reected. Hence only 87% of light intensity (=power) is transmitted into the glass. Note, that the dielectric constant of materials varies with frequency. Hence our assumption of 13% might not be completely correct.
145
Waves on sion Lines
Transmis-
12
At low frequencies, lines act as a short connection between two devices. At higher frequencies, this is not true anymore. Rather, the signal changes with the length of the line due to the nite velocity of the signal propagation. Details in [7, 8] For a closer examination we have to analyze a two wire line in more detail. We assume a line with an arbitrary cross-section as shown in Figure 12.1.
Figure 12.1: Line: Cross-section, symbol and Equivalent Circuit
The capacitance per line length is called the capacitance line parameter C with F . Similarly we can dene an R , L and G . The line parameters can be the unit m determined through the geometry of the line cross section. This line can be represented as a chain of innite small line sections. Each section acts like a small two port with shunt capacitance C dz and conductance G dz and series inductance L dz and resistance a R dz s shown in Figure 12.2.
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Prof. S. Peik
-du i u Rdz Ldz i+di Cdz u+du
Gdz
dz
Figure 12.2: Equivalent circuit of a Line Element
Now we compare the input voltage u1 with the output voltage u2 . Using the schematic of Figure 12.2 we get for the main loop u2 = u1 + du. Or using the impedances
u + R dz i + L dz
di + u + du = 0 dt di dt
(12.1)
du = R dz i + L dz
As i2 = i1 + di at the node we get
(12.2)
i + G dz u + C dz
Hence, we get for the voltage drop
du + i + di = 0 dt
(12.3)
du = R dz i + L dz
and the shunt branch current
di dt
(12.4)
di = G dz u + C dz
Dividing both equation by dz we get
du dt
(12.5)
du dz di dz
di dt du = G u+C dt
= R i+L
(12.6) (12.7)
These equation describe the line completely for time variations t as well as local variations z. For the lossless case , i.e. R = G = 0, we get
du dz di dz
di dt du = C dt
= L
(12.8) (12.9)
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Prof. S. Peik By differentiating both eqns with respect to dz and substitution we get
d2 u dz2 d2 i dz2
For the lossy case we get
= LC
d2 u dt2 d2 i = LC 2 dt
(12.10) (12.11)
d2 u dz2 d2 i dz2
du d2 u +C L 2 dt dt di d2 i = R G i + (R C + L G ) + C L 2 dt dt
= R G u + (R C + L G )
(12.12) (12.13)
These equations are known as the telegraph equations. The equations for voltage and current are the well known wave equations. We can conclude, that the voltage and current on the line travels as waves on it. The velocity in the lossless case is
1 1 c m vp = = = with c = 2, 998 108 0 r 0 r r r s
(12.14)
we note, that the velocity in free space, i.e. r = r = 1, the wave propagates with the velocity of light c. This is a very strong indication, that light itself is an electromagnetic wave. As seen from Figure 12.3 any shaped signal propagates on the line with the velocity v p . We can prove that that kind of functions f (z, t) solve the wave equation.
Zi Uo ejt Zo
Propagation with vel. v
t=t1
z
Propagation with vel. v
t=t1=z1/v
z1
Figure 12.3: Signal propagates on lossless line
12.1
Time-Harmonic Signals on Lines

When assuming time-harmonic signals on the line we can use the phasor representation
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Prof. S. Peik
i (t) = Re{ I e j t } und u(t) = Re{V e j t }

In our differential equations we get
(12.15)
dV dz dI dz
= ( R + j L ) I = ( G + j C )V
(12.16) (12.17)
The solution of the coupled differential equations system is
d2 V = ( R + j L )( G + j C )V dz2
or using the abbreviation
(12.18)
2 = ( R + j L )( G + j C )
we get
(12.19)
d2 U = 2 V dz2
We call the propagation constant.
(12.20)
This is the time-harmonic wave equation, that describes the voltage distribution on the line completely. We can nd a similar equation for the current
d2 I = 2 I dz2
(12.21)
12.2
Solution of the Wave Equation

The general solution of the wave equation is
V (z) = V0+ ez + V0 ez I (z) =

+ z I0 e
(12.22) (12.23)
z I0 e
+ + with U0 and U0 or. I0 and I0 being arbitrary constants xed by the boundary conditions. The constant can be either determined by xing current and voltage at the beginning of the line (constant current and voltage source) or at the end of the line (xed impedance) or a combination.
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Prof. S. Peik
Zi Uo ejt Zo
Forward Wave
Backward Wave
Superposition= ?
Figure 12.4: Phasor diagram for forward and backward traveling wave
12.3
Propagation Constant
The constant is known as the propagation constant. As we already know
( R + j L )( G + j C ) = + j
(12.24)
The propagation constant has a real and imaginary part . The real part is called attenuation constant. The imaginary part is called phase constant. The attenuation constant describes the power loss in the line per length (typically meter, foot or kilometer). A lossless line has attenuation constant of zero. An = 1 5 km means, that the voltage on the line is attenuated by e5 per kilometer.
The phase constant describes the phase rotation per length. A = 45 m means, that the voltage phasor rotates by 45 per meter length. The phase shift is always a delay in the direction of propagation, as the wave needs time to travel along the line. The propagation constant proportional to the phasor frequency.
12.4
Wave Impedance
When we use the voltage description of the wave equation from eqn. 12.75. By partial differentiation of eqn. 12.75 y z we get:
dU + z z = (U0 e + U0 e ) dz
And with eqn.12.16 we get
(12.25)
I=
We we substitute
dU 1 = R + j L dz R + j L
+ z z U0 e U0 e
(12.26)
R + j L
= Z0 and get
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Prof. S. Peik
I=
1 + z z U0 e U0 e Z0
+ U U0 ez 0 ez Z0 Z0
+ I0 I0
(12.27) (12.28)
I=
+ + We can now relate I0 and I0 to the voltages U0 and U0 and get + + U0 U0 Z0 = + Z0 I0 U0 U0 Z0 = Z0 I0
+ I0
(12.29) (12.30)
I0 =
The Voltage V + and and current I + on the line are in a xed relation. This ratio is called the line impedance or wave impedance. We see that
Z0 =
R + j L =
( R + j L ) ( R + j L ) ( R + j L )( G + j C )
R + j L G + j C L C
(12.31)
Z0 =
In the lossless case
(12.32)
Z0 =
(12.33)
the line impedance is real. Note, that the real value does not mean, that the line is lossy! The line impedance has the unit (Ohm). This impedance characterizes the line behavior and is the most important line parameter. Is is also important to know, that we cannot measure the line impedance with ohm meters. The line impedance just relates voltage and current of the forward traveling wave and backward traveling wave, respectively,
V0+ + I0 V0 I0
= Z0 = Z0
(12.34) (12.35)
12.5
Wave Length and Propagation Constant

As seen from eqn. ?? the voltage on a line depends on the time as well as on the location on the line. The periodicity over time is known as the Period T = 1 f . The
speed of phase change of time is known as the angular velocity = 2 f = 2T .A
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Prof. S. Peik similar relation of the phase change over the length of the line can now be specied. This constant is known as the phase constant . From eqn. ?? we get the location z pl as the location with same phase as location z = 0 by
z pl z pl
= 2 2 =
(12.36) (12.37)
The spatial period on the line is known as the wave length . As seen from eqn. ?? the wave length and the phase constant are related by
(12.38)
12.6
Phase Velocity
The nodes of constant phase propagate with the velocity v over the line.
1 Ausbreitung 0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 0 -0.2 2 3 4
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
Figure 12.5: Propagation of a Forward Wave over Time
The phase velocity on the line is
v=
(12.39)
also called the propagation velocity on the line.
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Prof. S. Peik
Relating 12.39 with = 2 we get
v=
or using 2 = f
(12.40)
v = f
This equation is the most basic equation of wave propagation.
(12.41)
153

Consider the following observed voltage distribution on a line at t = 0 and t = 1ms.
1 t=0ms 1 t= 1 ms
0.5 1/e 0 0 2 4 6 8 901m 10 12 14 16 18 20 z [m] -0.5
0.5 901m 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 z [m] -0.5
-1
-1
The attenuation can be derived from the envelope e-function. The envelope decays in 10 m to 1/e of the original value. Hence
ez 1 e10m 10 m
= = = =
Np
1 e z=10m 1 e 1 1 0.1 m
(12.42) (12.43) (12.44) (12.45)
The attenuation is 0.1 per meter or = 0.1 m The Wave length is 4m as seen from measurement. The phase changes by 90 within 1 /2 rad 1m m m. Hence, the phase constant is = 1m = 2 m . The phase velocity is v = 1ms = 1000 s . We can now calculate the frequency
f =
1000 m v s = = 250Hz 4m
(12.46)
Alternatively we can calculate and v from . Now
=
and
2 rad = 2 m
(12.47)
v=
2 250Hz m = = 1000 1 s 2 m
(12.48)
Since the voltage at z = 0 is 1 V and there is no backward traveling wave , the voltage function is (12.49) V (z) = 1Ve0.1z j 2 z
12.6.1
Lossless Line
When looking at lossless lines with R = G = 0 our line equations simplify to
Z0 =
L C = j = j L j C = j L C 1 = v = LC 2 2 1 v = = = = f LC f LC 154
(12.50) (12.51) (12.52) (12.53)
Prof. S. Peik
12.7
Determining the Constants by Boundary Conditions

When setting boundary conditions at the beginning of the line, i.e. xing current I (0) and voltage U (0) at the beginning of the line we have
+ V (0) = Va = U0 + V0 1 I ( 0 ) = Ia = (U + V0 ) Z0 0
(12.54) (12.55)
and
V0+ =
Va Z0 Ia Va + Z0 Ia uand V0 = 2 2
(12.56)
Hence we have for the voltage and current distribution along the line
V (z) = I (z) =
1 1 (Va + Z0 Ia ) ez + (Va Z0 Ia ) ez 2 2 1 Va 1 Va z + Ia e Ia e z 2 Z0 2 Z0
(12.57) (12.58)
this is known as the physical Form of the line voltage/current distribution, with the coefcients
V0+ = V0 =
+ I0 =
1 (Va + Z0 Ia ) 2 1 (Va Z0 Ia ) 2 V+ 1 Va + Ia = 0 2 Z0 Z0 1 2 Va Ia Z0
(12.59) (12.60) (12.61)
I0 =
V0 Z0
(12.62)
Hence we can write
V (z) = V0+ ez + V0 ez I (z) =

In mathematical form we get
+ z I0 e
(12.63) (12.64)
z I0 e
V (z) = Va
ez + ez ez ez Z0 Ia 2 2 155
(12.65)
Prof. S. Peik or using the denitions of hyperbolic functions
U (z) = Ua cosh(z) Z0 Ia sinh(z) Ua I (z) = Ia cosh(z) sinh(z) Z0
(12.66) (12.67)
12.8
End Conditions
When xing the current Ie = I (l ) and voltage Ue = U (l ) at the end of the line, i.e. z = l we get
+ l e + V0 el V (l ) = Ve = U0 1 I (l ) = Ie = (U + el V0 el ) Z0 0
(12.68) (12.69)
where now
V0+ =
and we get
1 (Ve + Z0 Ie )el 2
and
V0 =
1 (Ve Z0 Ie )el 2
(12.70)
V (z) = I (z) =
1 1 (Ve + Z0 Ie ) e(l z) + (Ve Z0 Ie ) e(l z) 2 2 1 Ve 1 Ve + Ie e(l z) Ie e(l z) 2 Z0 2 Z0
(12.71) (12.72)
In mathematical form we have
V (z) = Ve cosh((l z)) + Z0 Ie sinh((l z)) Ve I (z) = Ie cosh((l z)) + sinh((l z)) Z0
(12.73) (12.74)
12.9
Terminated Lines
We can solve the differential equations with boundary values only. In our case, this means, that the lines must be terminated . A terminated line is given in Figure 12.6 . The line is fed to the left with the harmonic voltage phasor Vo e j t . The source has the source impedance Zi . The line is loaded at the end with an Impedance ZL . This is called the termination. The line has the length l . The solution of this boundary problem can be derived with the well known techniques. The voltage distribution on the line can be derived (see [?]) to be the phasors
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Prof. S. Peik
Zi Uo ejt Zo Zl
Figure 12.6: Line with Source and Load
V (z) = V0+ ez + V0 ez I (z) =

+ z I0 e
(12.75) (12.76)
z I0 e
+ + with V0 and V0 and. I0 And I0 being constants to be determined.
The rst part of the right side describes a forward traveling wave. The second part a backward traveling wave.
12.9.1
Matched Load
When the line is terminated by an impedance equal to the line impedance we call this a matched load as shown in Figure ??, i.e.
Zl = Z0
At the end we have the relation of voltage and current of
(12.77)
Ve = Zl = Z0 or Ve = Z0 Ie Ie
When plugging this into eqn 12.71 we get
(12.78)
V (z) = Ve e(l z) Ve (l z) I (z) = e Z0

As for z = 0 (Beginning of Line) we get Va = Ve el we have
(12.79) (12.80)
U (z) = Va ez Va z I (z) = e Z0
(12.81) (12.82)
Voltage and current distribution on the line with matched load are identical to the distribution on an innite line. There is no backward wave. Matched termination is often a desirable goal, as for the matched case, we do not get problems from reected waves and also maximize the power delivered to the load.
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Prof. S. Peik
Zi Uo ejt Zo Zl
1 Ausbreitung 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2
-0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1
Figure 12.7: Wave on a line with Matched Termination
Zi Uo ejt Zo Zl
1 Ausbreitung 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2
hinlaufende Welle rcklaufende Welle
-0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1
Figure 12.8: Not Matched Load with Reected Wave
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Prof. S. Peik
12.9.2
Arbitrary Load
In the arbitrary load case we get reected waves. The load forces the voltage Ve and the current Ie at the end of the line (z = l ) to be
Ve = Zl Ie
With eqn. 12.71 we get
(12.83)
U (z) =
1 1 ( Z + Z0 ) I e e(l z) + ( Zl Z0 ) I e e(l z) 2 l 2
+ U0 U0
(12.84)
In order to simplify the calculations we move and ip our coordinate system to the end of the line, i.e. z = l z. Note, the variable z counts positive to the left. We get now
V (z ) =
1 1 ( Zl + Z0 ) I e ez + ( Zl Z0 ) I e ez 2 2
+ U0 U0
(12.85)
Where
V0 Zl Z0 + = Z +Z V0 0 l
(12.86)
This ratio of the forward and backward wave voltage at z = l is called reection coefcient
Z Z0 = l = Zl + Z0
Z
ZL Z0 ZL Z0
1 +1
(12.87)
We can also determine Z l from the reection coefcient 0
ZL 1+ = Z0 1
To summarize, the waves on the line have now the form
(12.88)
V (z ) = V0+ e j z + e j z
+ with U0 being the incident wave at z = l .
(12.89)
When using Zl = Z0 we observe that = 0 as mentioned before.
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Prof. S. Peik
12.10
Reections
Wave propagate through the line. When the hit a termination or a discontinuity they will be absorbed or reected. The reected amount in amplitude and phase is described by the reection coefcient
Phasor of incident wave at termination V = + Phasor of reected wave at termination V
(12.90)
The reection coefcient can be complex. For passive terminations, the reection coefcient is always || 1, i.e. lies always inside the unit circle of the complex plane. The reection coefcient can be derived from the line impedance Z0 and the load (termination) impedance ZL by
ZL Z0 ZL + Z0
(12.91)
Depending on the type of load we get the following types of reection Open line end with ZL = : Incident and reected wave have the same amplitude and phase , hence = 1 shorted line with ZL = 0 : Incident and reected wave have the same amplitude and a 180 phase difference , hence = 1 Matched load: The load impedance is equal to the line impedance ZL = Z0 . There are no reections, i.e. = 0. General load L Z0 The load is ZL = Z0 . There is a reected wave with = Z ZL + Z0 . When the imaginary part of is positive, the load is inductive. When the imaginary part of is negative, the load is capacitive.
12.11
Input Impedance of a Line
We assume a line as shown in Figure 12.9. As shown below we can determine the input impedance of this arrangement. Let us revisit eqn. 12.71 and 12.72
U (z) = Ue cosh((l z)) + Z0 Ie sinh((l z)) Ue I (z) = Ie cosh((l z)) + sinh((l z)) Z0
e with the ratio U Ie = Zl for the load impedance.
(12.92) (12.93)
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Prof. S. Peik
l
Zo Zl
Zin
Figure 12.9: Input impedance of Line with Load
Now, we determine the ratio of the voltage and the current at the beginning of the line by
Zin =
U (0) Z cosh(l ) + Z0 sinh(l ) Z cosh(l ) + Z0 sinh(l ) = l = Z0 l Zl I (0) Z 0 cosh( l ) + Zl sinh( l ) cosh(l ) + Z0 sinh(l )
(12.94)
sinh or using the hyperbolic function tanh = cosh we get
Zin = Z0
ZL + Z0 tanh l Z0 + ZL tanh l
(12.95)
In the loss less case with = j we get:
Zin = Z0
ZL + jZ0 tan l Z0 + jZL tan l
(12.96)
12.11.1
Impedance Transformation
When we choose l = 4 we get an interesting relation. Using l = 2 we get now 2 Z0 Zl
Zin =
(12.97)
Z2
in other words: The impedance Zl at the end is transformed into a new impedance Z0 l at the input. This only works for a length of exactly /4. Hence, the transformation is strongly frequency dependent. We can widen the bandwidth of the transformation by cascading several of this /4-Transformers. For a line length of l = 2 we get another interesting relation. Now = and
Zin = Zl
(12.98)
This means, that inserting a line of half a wave length does now change the impedance of the load. No matter if the load is matched or not. This is also valid for one frequency only.
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Prof. S. Peik
12.11.2
Short and Open Line Impedance
The open or short ended line is a special case of Eqn. 12.96. The input impedance is always purely imaginary. The open-ended or shorted line is, therefore, a reactance. For shorted line:
Zin = Z0 tanh l = jZ0 tan l

For open-ended line:
(12.99)
Zin = Z0 coth l = jZ0 cot l

Zin/Z0 8 6 4 2 0 -2 -4 -6 -8 Zin/Z0 8 6 4 2 0 -2 -4 -6 -8 /8 /4 3/4 /2 3 /4 /2 3/2 2 3 Leerlauf am Leitungsende /4 /2 3/2 2 3 Kurzschlu am Leitungsende
(12.100)
Figure 12.10: Input Impedance of a Shorted and Open-Ended Line
With open or shorted lines we can realize reactance with arbitrary values. With a closer look we can see that we can model these lines using L-C equivalent circuits.
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Prof. S. Peik
Kurze Leitung mit l</4:
</4
L
Zo
Zin
</4
C
Zo
Zin
Kurze Leitung mit l</4;3/4;5/4...:
/4
C L
Zo
Zin
/4
C
Zo
Zin
In microwave engineering Ls and Cs are often realized using line segments.
163

A 50-receiving-antenna is connected to a receiver with 50 input impedance. The receiving antenna can be modelled as a voltage source with a 50 source resistance. The source voltage is 10 mV. The operating frequeny is 440MHz. With a direct connection between antenna and receiver the power delivered to the receiver is equal to the available power
PL = Pavail =
(U0 /2)2 = 0, 5W 50
(12.101)
assuming RMS voltages. Now, we insert a 4m long lossless 75 -cable between antenna and receiver. Zi Ia Ie
Uo
Ua
Zo
Ue
ZL
with a phase delay of
c f
= 0.68mand = 9, 23 rad m . l =
=
2 l
2 0.68 4
= 36, 92 rad.
at the cable-reciever transition we have a reection of the wave of:
25 ZL Z0 = = 0.2 ZL + Z0 125
(12.102)
A similar reection occurs at the transition antenna-cable, where = 0.2 In other words, 20% of the voltage is reected at the rst as well as second transisiton. Since the power is proportional to U 2 , we have 4% of power reection and 96% of power transmission at each discontinuity. The input impedance is
Zin = Z0 Ua = Ia =
ZL + jZ0 tan l = (68, 9 + j28, 7) Z0 + jZL tan l
(12.103)
Now we can determine the voltage at the cable input: Zin Z +50 10mV = (6, 03 + j0.96)mV
Ua ZI N
in
= (0.079 j0.02)mA The transmission line equation is hence

1 1 (Ua + Z0 Ia ) e j z + (Ua Z0 Ia ) e j z 2 2 1 Ua 1 Ua + Ia e j z Ia e j z 2 Z0 2 Z0
U (z) I (z)
= =
(12.104) (12.105)
At the end of the cable we have:
U (l ) = (2, 57 + j2, 65)mV I (l ) =

The power at the load is
U (l ) ZL
= (0, 05 + j0, 053)mA

PL = Ue Ie = 0, 46uW
(12.106)
Alternatively, we can estimate the power at the load by the assumption of 4% power reection at each discontinuity, i.e. 0.96*0.96=0.92=92% transmitted power. Here, we neclect multiple reections. Hence, PL = Pver f 0, 92 = 0, 46uW. The forward and backward travelling wave componentns are:
+ U0 U0
= = =
Ua
1 (Ua + Z0 Ia ) = (5, 99 + j0, 24)mV = 6e j0,04 2 1 (Ua Z0 Ia ) = (0, 0328 j1, 2)mV = 1, 2e j1,54 2 + U0 + U0 = (6, 02 j0, 96)mV (see above)
(12.107) (12.108) (12.109)
164
Vector Algebra
A
(A.1)
A.1
Vectors and Fields

A scalar has a magnitude only. In contrast, vectors have a magnitude and direction. In this notes, scalars are written in italics, e.g. u, whereas vectors are written with an arrow, e.g. A. For electrodynamic problems we use almost exclusively threedimensional vectors, that span into the ordinary space. The components of a vector are written as
Ax Ay A= Az
The magnitude of a vector is written as | A|. In Cartesian coordinates the magnitude of a vector is given as
| A| =
2 2 A2 x + Ay + Az
(A.2)
is dened as a vector whose magnitude is unity and its direction is A unit vector a along A, this is = a A
| A|
(A.3)
, y , z . The unit vectors in x, y and z direction in Cartesian coordinates are dened as x

Vectors add and subtract, by adding (or subtracting, respectively) the vector components.
A x + Bx A + B = Ay + By Az + Bz
(A.4)
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Prof. S. Peik
A.1.1
Fields
A eld is a function that species a quantity (scalar or vector) anywhere in a region. Hence, a eld describes a certain property of space. Fields can be vector elds or scalar elds, depending on the quantity described in the region. An example for a scalar eld is a temperature eld; whereas ocean currents are described by a vector eld.
A.1.2
Vector Multiplication
Vectors can be multiplied in two different ways: by scalar or vector multiplication. The scalar-product or dot-product of two vectors A and B, written A B is dened geometrically as the product of the magnitudes of the two vectors and the cosine of the angle between them. A B = | A| | B| cos (A.5) In Cartesian coordinates, that is
A B = A x Bx + Ay By + Az Bz
The following rules apply
(A.6)
A( B + C ) = A B + AC A A = | A|
2
A B = B A
(A.7) (A.8) (A.9)
The cross-product or vector-product of two vectors A and B, written as A B is a vector quantity whose magnitude is the area of a parallelogram formed by the two vectors and is in the direction perpendicular to both vectors, following the right-hand rule. Thus
A B = | A| B| sin n
where n is normal to both vectors A and B. In Cartesian coordinates we get
(A.10)
AB =
x Ax Bx
y Ay By
z Az Bz
Ay Bz Az By = Az Bx A x Bz A x By Ay Bx
(A.11)
Note that the cross product is not commutative, i.e.
A B = B A
but is anti-commutative
(A.12)
A B = ( B A) 166
(A.13)
Prof. S. Peik
A.2
A.2.1
Coordinate Systems
Cartesian Coordinates
Z
(x,y,z) O x y X z Y
Cartesian (rectangular) coordinates are two-dimensional or three-dimensional coordinates, conventionally denoted the x- , y- and z-axes; Coordinates are mutually perpendicular and lie anywhere in the interval (, ); - The line element is given by:
+ dyy + dzz ds = dx x
(A.14)
- the volume element by:
dV = dx dy dz
(A.15)
- The nabla operator is given by:
=x
d d d +z +y dx dy dz
(A.16)
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Prof. S. Peik
A.2.2
Cylindrical Coordinates
Cylindrical coordinates are suitable for problems with cylindrical symmetry. The coordinates are dened by concentric cylinders
p= + + z z
dz
d d
Cylindrical coordinate system is an "extended" two-dimensional polar coordinate system into the three-dimensional by superimposing a height z axis; The coordinates are (, , z) or (r, , z) are given by:
x 2 + y2 y x
(A.17)
= tan1
(A.18)
z=z
where [0, ), [0, 2 ) ,and z (, ). The Cartesian coordinates are then given by:
(A.19)
x = cos
(A.20)
y = sin
(A.21)
z=z
The line element is:
(A.22)
+ dzz + d ds = d
The volume element is:
(A.23)
dV = d d dz
The nabla operator is:
(A.24)
d d 1 d +z + d d dz
(A.25)
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Prof. S. Peik
A.2.3
Spherical Coordinates
Spherical coordinates are suitable for problems with spherical symmetry. The coordinates are dened by concentric spheres
p=r r + +
r d
d
r d sin
The coordinates (r, , ) are given by:
x 2 + y2 + z2 y x
(A.26)
= tan1 x 2 + y2 r
(A.27)
= sin1
= cos1
z r
(A.28)
where [0, ), [0, 2 ),and [0, ]. The Cartesian coordinates are then given by:
x = r cos sin
(A.29)
y = r sin sin z = r cos

The line element is:
(A.30)
(A.31)
+ r sin d + rd ds = drr
the area element is:
(A.32)
da = r2 sin dd r
The volume element is:
(A.33)
dV = r2 sin d ddr
The nabla operator is:
(A.34)
=r
d d 1 d + 1 + dr r d r sin d
(A.35)
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Prof. S. Peik
A.2.4
Relations of Coordinates
Coordinates can be converted with the following formulas (from [?])
Cylindrical Cartesian
x = cos y = sin z = z x 2 + y2 y = tan1 x z = z =

Spherical Cartesian
(A.36)
= cos sin x = sin + cos y = z z

(A.37)
(A.38)
= cos x + sin y = sin x + cos y = z z
(A.39)
x = r sin cos (A.40) y = r sin sin z = r cos r = x2 + y2 + z2 (A.42) x 2 + y2 z
sin = sin cos r + cos cos x cos = sin sin r + cos sin y = cos r sin z (A.41) = sin cos x + sin sin y + cos r z = cos cos x + cos sin y sin z = sin x + cos y (A.43)
= tan1 = tan1 y x
A.2.5
The Poisonous Snake

There is a poisonous snake lurking in the spherical and cylindrical coordinate system, , change their direction depending on , , as Grifths calls it in [?]. The vectors r always points outward in a cylindrical coordinate the point p in space. For example, system, but this could be x or y-direction in Cartesian coordinates. For example, in Figure A.1 the vectors in cylindrical coordinates are
a = 1
and b = 1 + 2 2
(A.44)
Naively adding the two vectors yield
a + b = 2
(A.45)
The poisonous snake snapped. Of course, the real answer is a + b = 0 as seen from points in different directions for the two vectors, the addition Figure A.1. Since the
170
Prof. S. Peik
b
1
y x
-1
Figure A.1: Example for the Poisonous Snake
does not work. To be correct, we must always dene the unit vectors including the point of reference. This is usually not done because is it not practical. When we are aware of the problem, it should not cause any difculties. Keep in mind: Do not add, subtract or multiply vectors using spherical or cylindrical unit vectors
, vectors. , , Do not integrate or differentiate with r

If in doubt, re-express the problem using Cartesian coordinates.
A.3
Vector Calculus
A main concept of modern mathematics is the calculation of problems using innite small quantities. This area of math is called calculus. We can dene an innite small section in the Cartesian space in all three direction by dening dx, dy and dz.These length are dened as innite short but still existent. Differential displacement is given by
+ dy y + dz z dl = dx x
A differential normal area is given by
(A.46)
dS =dy dz x
for an area in the y-z-plane. The same applies to the other two areas. A differential volume element is dened as
(A.47)
dV = dx dy dz
For the denitions in other coordinate systems check [?, ?, ?].
(A.48)
A.3.1
Line, Surface and Volume Integrals

The line integral C A dl is the integral of the tangential component of A along the curve C. Given a vector eld A as shown in Figure A.2, we can also write
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Prof. S. Peik
C A
dl
Figure A.2: Denition of the Line Integral
b C
A dl =
| A| cos dl
(A.49)
where is the angle enclosed by Aand l . The surface integral describes the ux of A through a surface S, as shown in Figure A.3.
A dS
(A.50)
The surface integral is also dened for closed surfaces. For a closed surface (enclosing a volume) the ux becomes
A dS
(A.51)
which describes the net outward ux of A from S. A closed surface describes always a volume.
dS
Figure A.3: Denition of the Line Integral
The volume integral over a scalar over the volume V is dened by
P=
dv
(A.52)
A.3.2
Del Operator
The operator (say:nabla) is a simple denition, that helps us to shorten vector calculus expressions. This is sometimes referred to as the Nabla-operator.
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Prof. S. Peik
+ y + z x x y z
(A.53)
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Prof. S. Peik
A.3.3
Gradient
The gradient of a scalar eld V is a vector that represents both magnitude and direction of the maximum rate of increase of V . In Cartesian coordinates we get
grad V =
V x V y V z
(A.54)
The gradient operator can also be expressed using the del-operator and the dot product, that is
grad V = V =
for cylindrical coordinates we get
V x V y V z
(A.55)
f =
and for spherical coordinates
df df 1 df + z + d d dz
(A.56)
f =
df df 1 df + 1 + d d sin d
(A.57)
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Prof. S. Peik
A.3.4
Divergence
The divergence of A at a given point P is the outward ow per unit volume as the volume shrinks to that point. Hence
div A = A = lim
v 0
A dS v
(A.58)
An inward ow means negative divergence. An outward ow means positive divergence, as illustrated in Figure A.4.
div A<0 div A>0 div A=0
Figure A.4: Denition of the sign of the divergence operator
The divergence of a vector eld A( x, y, z) is given by
A =
ay az ax + + x y z
(A.59)
We note, that the result is a scalar eld. The divergence can only be taken from a vector. The divergence from a scalar does not make sense. In cylindrical coordinates the divergence becomes
A ( , , z ) =
In spherical coordinates
1 1 A Az ( A ) + + z
(A.60)
A (r , , ) =
1 2 1 1 A (r Ar ) + (sin A ) + 2 r r r sin r sin
(A.61)
We can nd a relation between the surface integral of an arbitrary volume V and its volume integral, by
AdS =
AdV
(A.62)
This is called the divergence theorem, otherwise known as Gausss law. The divergence theorem states that the total outward ow of a vector eld A through a closed surface S is the same as the volume integral of the divergence A.
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Prof. S. Peik
dS
Volume V dV Closed Surface S
Figure A.5: Divergence Theorem
A.3.5
Curl and Stokes Theorem

The curl is an axial (or rotational) vector operator whose magnitude is the maximum circulation of A per unit area as the area tends to zero. Its direction is the normal direction of the area when the area is oriented so as to make the circulation maximum. That is the curl is
curl A = A = max
S 0
lim
A dl S
(A.63)
is the unit vector normal to the where S is the area bounded by the curve L and n surface S.
The curl can be expressed by a cross product
x curl A = A =
x
y
y
z
z
Ax
Ay
Az
y Az z A x x Ay
z Ay x Az y A x
(A.64)
in cylindrical coordinates we obtain
A (r , , z ) =
A 1 Az r z
+ r
Ar Az z
+1 r
(rA ) Ar r
z
(A.65)
in spherical coordinates we get
A (r , , ) =
1 r sin
( A sin ) A
+ r
1 r
1 Ar (r A ) sin r
+ 1 r
(rA ) Ar r
(A.66) There are some important properties of the curl
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Prof. S. Peik
The curl of a vector eld is another vector eld The curl of a scalar eld makes no sense
(A.67) (A.68)
The divergence of the curl of a vector eld vanishes, that is ( A) = (A.69) 0 The curl of the gradient of a scalar eld vanishes, that is V = (A.70) 0
Other properties of the curl can be found in [?, ?, ?, ?]. The curl provides the maximum circulation of the eld at a given point. The direction of the curl is normal to the rotation. Homogeneous elds have a curl of 0 everywhere. The curl is only non-zero in elds that rotate somehow. From the denition of the curl we can derive the following
A dl =
( A)dS
(A.71)
This is called Stokes Theorem. Stokes Theorem states, that the circulation of a vector eld A around a closed path L is equal to the surface integral of the curl of A over the open surface S bounded by L provided that A and A are continuous on S.
dS L Surface S
Cl os
dl
ed t Pa h L
Figure A.6: Stokes Theorem
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Prof. S. Peik
A.3.6
Laplacian Operator
Besides the Nabla or Del-operator it is practical to dene another operator the so called Laplacian operator. The Laplacian operator is written as 2 and is the divergence of the gradient, i.e . The operator is always applied to a scalar eld. Sometimes the Laplacian is abbreviated with .
2 = = = div grad
In Cartesian coordinates we get
(A.72)
2 f =
in cylindrical coordinates we get
2 f 2 f 2 f + + x2 y2 z2
(A.73)
1
in spherical coordinates
2 f 1 2 f + 2 2 z2
(A.74)
2 f =
1 r 2 r
r2
f r
1 r2 sin
sin
1 2 f r2 sin2 2
(A.75)
A.4
Converting Operators between Coordinate Systems

We can generalize all above formulas and operators for any orthogonal coordinate system. Lets dene an arbitrary three-dimensional orthogonal coordinate system with the ,v and w are pointing in the coordicoordinates u, v and w. The Their unit-vectors u nate direction and are mutually perpendicular. Cartesian, spherical and cylindrical systems are examples of these coordinate systems. The displacement vector if a coordinate system is (when moving from point (u, v, w) to (u + du, v + dv, w + dw))
+ g dv v + h dw w dl = f du u
where f , g, h are positional functions of the particular coordinate system. Example 43:
Find the function f , g, h for the Cartesian, cylindrical and spherical system. Cartesian: Does not depend on position, hence f = g = h = 1
(A.76)
cylindrical with u = r, v = , w = z : The coordinate-length dr and dz does not vary with position, hence f = h = 1. The displacement in -direction is r d hence g = r spherical with u = r, v = , w = : Similar with f = 1, g = r and h = r sin
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Prof. S. Peik
p=r r + +
r d
d
r d sin
Figure A.7: Segment in spherical coordinates
If we want to calculate the gradient in a special orthogonal coordinate system we have to compute the change dt of the scalar function t(u, v, w), if we move the distance dl . We can write for
dt =
t t t du + dv + dw u v w
(A.77)
We can rewrite this as a dot-product
dt = t dl = (t)u f du + (t)v g dv + (t)w h dw

provided we dene
(A.78)
(t)u
1 t f u
and
(t)v
1 t g v
and(t)w
1 t h w
(A.79)
The gradient of t , then, is
1 t 1 t 1 t + + u v w f u g v h w
(A.80)
We can now pick the appropriate expressions of f , g, h for the desired coordinate system and yield the gradient expressed in this coordinate system. Using the information from the example we get the table System Cartesian Spherical Cylindrical
u x r r
v y
w z z
f 1 1
1
g 1 r r
h 1 r sin 1
A similar technique can be applied for the calculation of the divergence and the rotation. For more information check [?, App A]. The divergence in arbitrary orthogonal coordinate systems is
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Prof. S. Peik
A
The rotational operator is
1 ( ghAu ) + ( f hAv ) + ( f gAw ) f gh u v w
(A.81)
1 1 1 + + (hAw ) ( gAv ) u ( f Au ) (hAw ) v ( gAv ) ( f Au ) w gh v w f h w u f g u v

(A.82)
and the Laplacian Operator is
2 t
1 f gh u
gh t f u
f h t g v
f g t h w
(A.83)
180
Useful Tables
B
N Oo P T , X
nu xi omicron pi rho sigma tau upsilon phi chi psi omega
B.1
Greek Alphabet
A B E , Z H , I K M
alpha beta gamma delta epsilon zeta eta theta iota kappa lambda mu
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Prof. S. Peik
B.2
Constants
c e mn mp me h Lichtgeschwindigkeit Elementarladung Neutronenruhemasse Protonenruhemasse Elektronenruhemasse Plancksches Wirkungsquantum Diracs Konstante (= h/2 ) Boltzmannkonstante Gravitationskonstante Stefan-Boltzmann Konstante Erste Strahlungskonstante (= 2 hc2 ) Zweite Strahlungskonstante Permittivitt im Vakuum Permeabilitt im Vakuum Avogadrokonstante Gaskonstante Bohrradius Bohr magneton Fine structure constant (= 1/137.0) Sonnemasse Sonnenradius Sonneluminositt Erdmasse mittlerer Erdradius Lichtjahr Astronomische Einheit Parsec
h
k G
c1 c2
o o
NA R a0
B
M R L M R 1 light year 1 AU 1 pc 1 year
8.314 J K1 mol1 5.292 1011 m 9.274 1024 J T1 7.297 103 1.989 1030 kg 6.96 108 m 3.827 1026 J s1 5.976 1024 kg 6.371 106 m 9.461 1015 m 1.496 1011 m 3.086 1016 m
2.998 108 m s1 1.602 1019 C 1.675 1027 kg 1.673 1027 kg 9.110 1031 kg 6.626 1034 J s 1.055 1034 J s 1.381 1023 J K1 6.673 1011 N m2 kg2 5.670 108 J m2 K4 s1 3.742 1016 J m2 s1 1.439 102 m K 8.854 1012 C2 N1 m2 4 107 H m1 6.022 1023 mol1
182
Bibliography
[1] Matthew N.O. Sadiku. Elements of Electromagnetics. Oxford University Press Inc, USA, new ed of 2 revised ed edition, 6 1997. [2] William Hayt and John Buck. Engineering Electromagnetics. McGraw-Hill Science/Engineering/Math, 8 edition, 1 2011. [3] Kenneth R. Demarest. Engineering Electromagnetics. Prentice Hall, 1 edition, 10 1997. [4] David J. Grifths. Introduction to Electrodynamics (Pie). Prentice Hall International, 3rd international ed. edition, 5 2003. [5] Fawwaz T. Ulaby, Eric Michielssen, and Umberto Ravaioli. Fundamentals of Applied Electromagnetics (6th Edition). Prentice Hall, 6 edition, 3 2010. [6] David Halliday, Robert Resnick, and Jearl Walker. Fundamentals of Physics Extended. Wiley, 9 edition, 3 2010. [7] David M. Pozar. Microwave Engineering. Wiley John + Sons, 3. a. edition, 1 2004. [8] Hans-Georg Unger and Johann Hinken. Elektromagnetische Wellen auf Leitungen. Hthig, 4. au. edition, 12 1995.
183
Index
amber, 8 Ampere, 14 Amperes law, 88 B-eld, 85 Biot-Savarts law, 98 capacitance, 50 capacitor, 50 capacitor, AC circuit, 75 Charge, 10 charge density, 11 charge distributions, 11 clip-on ammeter, 89 closed surface, 172 coercivity, 103 coil, 96 compass, 84 conductivity, 77 constant potential surface, 37 Coulomb, 14 Coulombs gauge, 107 Coulombs law, 18 cross product, 166 Curl, 176 curl, 90, 91, 176 current, 13, 74 current density, 76 current direction, 75 del operator, 172 Diamagnetism, 102 differential displacement, 171 dipole, 46 dipole moment, 47 displacement current, 89 displacement ux, 58 Divergence, 175 divergence, 175 divergence theorem, 60, 175 drift velocity, 81 electric ux density, 57 electric potential, 33 electromagnets, 96 elementary charge, 14 Faraday, 85 Ferromagnetic, 102 eld description, 21 eld direction, 22 eld line, 22 eld lines, 22 eld strength, 22 ow of current, 81 ux, 172 gauge transformations, 106 Gauss law, 175 Gauss law for magnetostatic elds, 104 Gausss law, 59 Gausss law for magneto-statics, 106 Gradient, 174 gradient, 174 gravitational eld, 33 H-eld, 85 Helmholtz equation, 139 Henry, 85 hysteresis loop, 102 impedance, 75 Inductance, 111 integration, 34 intrinsic impedance, 142 iron core, 96 Joules law, 82 Joules, 81 Kirchhoffs current law, 83 Kirchhoffs voltage law, 38 Laplaces equation, 68 law of conservation of magnetic ux, 104 line integral, 171 lodestone, 84
184
Prof. S. Peik magnetic dipoles, 104 magnetic eld (strength), 85 magnetic eld lines, 85 magnetic eld of the earth, 86 magnetic ux, 104, 109 magnetic ux density, 85, 101 magnetic induction, 85 magnetic monopole, 104 magnetic potential, scalar, 105 magnetism, history, 84 magnetostatic elds on boundaries, 110 Maxwell, 85, 89 Maxwells equation for electrostatic elds, 38 mho, 79 moving charges, 74 mutual inductance, 122 Nabla, 172 Oersted, 85, 87 Ohm, 79 Ohms law, 77 Paramagnetism, 102 permanent magnets, 85 permeability, 101, 102 permeability, absolute, 101 permittivity, 18 phasor, 75 Poissons equation, 68 potential, 33 Power, 81 residual magnetism, 103 resistance, 78 resistivity, 77 retentivity, 103 right-hand rule, 87 scalar product, 166 Self Inductance, 123 solenoid, 96 source points, 12 Stokes Theorem, 177 surface integral, 172 Tesla, 101 test charge, 21 unit vectors, 165 vector potential, 105 Volt, 36 volume integral, 172 work, 33
185

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Advanced Electrical Engineering 1 Electromagnetics

September 13, 2012

Version: September 13, 2012

1 Introduction 1.1 The Phenomenon of Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Electrical Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2.1 Separation of Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3 Conservation of Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.4 Charge Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Prof. S. Peik 3 Potential 33

3.8 Analogy to Gravitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 3.9 The Conversion Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

3.10Electric Dipoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 3.11Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 4 Capacitance and Capacitor 50

Version: September 13, 2012

Prof. S. Peik 6 Moving Charges 74

6.9 Continuity Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 7 Magnetostatics 84

Version: September 13, 2012

Prof. S. Peik 8 Inductance and Magnetic Circuits 111

8.7.1 Perfect Magnetic Conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 9 Time-Varying Fields 119

9.6 Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 9.6.1 Ideal Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

9.7 Eddy Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 10 Electromagnetic Forces 10.1Lorentz Force 129

Version: September 13, 2012

Prof. S. Peik 12 Waves on Transmission Lines 146

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Prof. S. Peik B Useful Tables 181

B.1 Greek Alphabet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 B.2 Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

Version: September 13, 2012

The Phenomenon of Electricity

Figure 1.2: Phenomena of Electricity

Figure 1.3: Bohrs Model

Version: September 13, 2012

Separation by adding energy

Figure 1.4: Separation of Charges

Version: September 13, 2012

Figure 1.5: Charge Distributions

Similarly for line and surface charges by

Version: September 13, 2012

= See Also: Denition of Coordinate Systems Appendix A.2

(1.5) (1.6) (1.7)

you may use mupad or a similar program, try:

Version: September 13, 2012

Prof. S. Peik Example 3:

(r )dV 0 2 R r sin r2 d drd R 0 0 0 3 R r3 0 2 sin d dr R 0 0 3 R4 0 2 sin R d R 0 12 0 R3 sin d 1 6 0 R3 0 [ cos ]0 6 R3 0 3

(1.8) (1.9) (1.10) (1.11) (1.12) (1.13) (1.14)

Maxima Code for the Integration:

integrate(r/3*sin(%theta)*r*r,%theta,0,%pi); integrate(%,r,0,R); %rho/R*integrate(%,phi,0,%pi);

Moving Charge, Current

Charges Q owing through the cross section time period t

Version: September 13, 2012

qelectron = e = 1, 602 1019 C = qe

Version: September 13, 2012

Version: September 13, 2012

Figure 2.1: Experiment to Coulombs Law

By accurate measurements we can nd the following proportionalities: F1 = F2 = F always F q1 F q2

We can establish the following proportionality

By measurements, we can nd the value of k in vacuum to be

Version: September 13, 2012

This is the form of Coulombs law used in many textbooks.

Material Vacuum Air Polyethylene Rubber Amber

Material Quartz Glass Ceramic dest. Water Diamond

Table 2.1: Permittivity of Some Materials

In contrast to Newtons law, Coulombs law has some differences:

Version: September 13, 2012

R = |r2 r1 | (distance) r2 r1 a21 = R

Figure 2.3: Vectorial Coulomb Forces on Two Charges

We may write directly

integrate(r/3sin(%theta)rr,%theta,0,%pi); integrate(%,r,0,R); %rho/Rintegrate(%,phi,0,%pi);