Performance Op Tim Ization

Performance Optimization:
Fan, Pump, & Blower Systems

REFERENCE GUIDE
Fourth Edition
First Edition, 1992 Second Edition, December 1998 Third Edition, December 2000
Revised by: Dan Dederer, P.Eng., Enertech Solutions Inc.
Neither Ontario Power Generation, nor any person acting on its behalf, assumes any liabilities with respect to the use of, or for damages resulting from the use of, any information, equipment, product, method, or process disclosed in this guide.
Energy Savings are Good Business
The sun represents sustained life while the lightning bolt depicts energy. The integration represents the perfect partnership of energy utilization and the environment that encourages wise use and respect for all natural resources. The roof represents the in-house aspect of energy efficiency throughout Ontario Power Generation Marcel Gauthier Georgian Bay Region - Retail
Printed in Canada. Copyright 1992, 1998, 2000 Ontario Power Generation
Performance Optimization:
Fan, Pump & Blower Systems
REFERENCE GUIDE
Third Edition
TA B L E
OF
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ..............................................................................1 1.0 PERFORMANCE OPTIMIZATION FUNDAMENTALS ...........................3 Fan, Pump, and Blower Systems ...................................................3 System Defined......................................................................3 System Point of Operation.....................................................4 System Flow and Pressure Relationship.................................4 Fan/Pump Performance Curve .............................................9 Energy-Saving Techniques.............................................................9 General .................................................................................9 Reducing Motor Input Power ..............................................11 2.0 PERFORMANCE OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUES AND MEASURES ..................................................15
Primary Measures For Energy Reduction ...................................15 Speed Modulation ...............................................................15 Equipment Upgrade ............................................................16 High Efficiency Motors ........................................................16 Reduction of Impeller Diameter...........................................16 Variable Inlet Vanes ............................................................16 Booster Pony Applications .................................................16 Ancillary Measures for Energy Reduction ..................................17 System Effect Factors ...........................................................17 Elimination of Cavitation ...................................................17 High Performance Lubricants.............................................17 Coatings..............................................................................17 Internal Running Clearances .............................................17 System Maintenance ...........................................................18
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TA B L E
OF
CONTENTS
Process Control ...................................................................18 3.0 ASSESSMENT METHODS .........................................................19 General .......................................................................................19 Prescreening Information...........................................................19 Step 1: Review Process & Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID).......................................21 Step 2 : Review Prescreening Information ...........................22 Step 3 : Prescreening Conclusions .......................................30 Load Data Gathering...................................................................30 Design Data ........................................................................31 Observations and Estimates by Operating Staff ...................31 Plant Operating Records .....................................................31 Temporary Metering............................................................32 Field Performance Testing ..................................................32 Development of Load Duty Cycle ..............................................34 Technical Options Review..........................................................35 General...............................................................................35 System Loss Evaluation........................................................36 Equipment Internal Evaluation ..........................................37 Application Considerations .................................................38 Energy Assessment .....................................................................39 Economic Analysis ......................................................................40 Total Savings.......................................................................40 Cost Estimates......................................................................40 Simple Payback and IRR .....................................................41 Feasibility Report........................................................................42
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TA B L E
OF
CONTENTS
4.0
PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF CANDIDATES ............................43
General .......................................................................................43 Applicable Safety Standards........................................................43 Applicable Performance Test Standards......................................44 Pump Performance Test Standards.....................................44 Fan and Blower Performance Test Standards.....................44 Measurement Parameters and Test Instruments .........................45 Measurement Parameters ...................................................45 Test Instruments..................................................................45 Calibration of Test Instruments...........................................45 General Test Procedures .............................................................46 Location of Test Points ........................................................46 Control of Turbo Machine and System................................47 Performance Test Records ...................................................48 Rotational Speed Measurement ...........................................48 Motor Input Power Measurement ........................................49 Pump Test Procedures ................................................................51 Liquid Density.....................................................................51 Liquid Flow Rate Measurement ...........................................51 Pump Head Measurement...................................................53 Pump Test Calculation ................................................................55 Liquid Properties Calculation..............................................56 Liquid Flow Rate Calculation..............................................56 Pump Head Calculation .....................................................57 Pump Power Calculation ....................................................58 Fan and Blower Test Procedures.................................................59 Gas Properties .....................................................................59 Gas Flow Rate Measurement ...............................................61
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TA B L E
OF
CONTENTS
Fan and Blower Pressure Measurement..............................63 Fan and Blower Test Calculation.................................................65 Gas Density Calculation (same as specific gravity) .............65 Gas Flow Rate Calculation ..................................................66 Fan and Blower Pressure Calculation ................................68 Fan Power Calculation .......................................................70 5.0 SAFETY...............................................................................71 General .......................................................................................71 Plant Regulations ........................................................................71 Safety Items Specific to Fan, Pump, and Blower Systems ...........72 APPENDICES ................................................................................75
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LIST
OF
FIGURES
CHAPTER 1.0 1.1 Fixed Resistance System........................................................5 1.2 Fixed Resistance System with Constant Static Pressure........6 1.3 Variable Resistance System with Constant Pressure ..............7 1.4 Variable Resistance System with Constant Flow....................8 1.5 Variable Resistance System with Varying Flow and Pressure ....................................................9 1.6 Performance Curve for 100 HP Motor.................................12 1.7 Effect of Speed Reduction ...................................................13
CHAPTER 3.0 3.1 Process and Instrumentation Diagram ................................22 3.2 Data-Gathering Decision Tree..............................................33 3.3 Load Duty Cycle Chart ........................................................34 3.4 Typical Pump Load Duty Cycle............................................35
LIST
OF
FIGURES
CHAPTER 4.0 4.1 Location of Test Points.........................................................46 4.2 Selection of Flow-Measuring Plane......................................47 4.3 Connecting a Wattmeter......................................................49 4.4 Liquid Flow Rate Measurement:Vessel and Timer ...............52 4.5 Liquid Flow Rate Measurement:Orifice Plate ......................52 4.6 Pressure Tap Geometry........................................................53 4.7 Gauge Reference to Datum .................................................54 4.8 Suction Head by Calculation ...............................................55 4.9 Pitot Static Tube...................................................................62 4.10 Double Reverse Tube.........................................................62 4.11 Inclined Manometer ..........................................................62 4.12 Static Pressure Readings ....................................................64
LIST
OF
TA B L E S
CHAPTER 3.0 3.1 Prescreening Review ...........................................................23
vi
Introduction
It is estimated that as much as 20% to 50% of the electrical power used to run industrial fan, pump, and blower systems can be saved by overcoming operating inefficiencies. Opportunities to improve operating efficiency are overlooked for four reasons: low awareness about energy-efficient technologies the financial and operational benefits are not understood initial costs taking precedence over life-cycle costs energy-saving projects are considered less important than other production-related expenditures.
This handbook: characterizes various systems provides a quick reference on performance optimization techniques provides guidelines on how to pre-screen candidates and perform a feasibility study
Introduction 1
reviews field performance testing procedures reviews general plant safety practices
Fan, Pump, and Blower Systems
CHAPTER 1
Performance Optimization Fundamentals

FAN, PUMP, AND BLOWER SYSTEMS Performance optimization of fans, pumps, and blowers requires a thorough understanding of the system because: accurate assessment of performance optimization potential requires an understanding of how the system will respond to changes performance optimization techniques must have no detrimental effects on the process
It is possible to enhance the operation of the process while simultaneously achieving energy savings. System Defined A system is the combination of turbo machinery and connected hardware through which flow occurs. The fan, pump, or blower is the device that provides energy to overcome the resistance of other components and the process. The fluid network of pipes, ducts, valves, and other components define the system. Fans, pumps, and blowers are sized and selected to meet system parameters.
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System Point of Operation The system point of operation is the intersection between the system resistance curve and the turbo machine performance curve. This point determines the flow rate. There are two ways to change the point of operation: change the characteristics of the turbo machine performance curve, varying speed, changing inlet vane settings, etc; alter the system curve by changing system losses or flow.
Frequently, these two changes occur simultaneously. For example: An increase in system resistance may be automatically counteracted by an increase in speed, which keeps flow constant. System Flow and Pressure Relationship How flow and pressure are related in a system depends on whether the system components are fixed resistance (e.g., ductwork) or variable resistance (e.g., dampers, filter, etc.). Fixed Resistance System Pressure is proportional to Flow2 For example: A forced draft fan, fitted with variable inlet guide vanes, supplies air to a boiler. The ductwork system has no throttling dampers.
Inlet
Stack
System Resistance Turbo Curve Machine Performance Curve
Fan Pressure Boiler Flow
Figure 1.1 Fixed Resistance System
Figure 1.1 shows the system, the fan curve, and a fixed resistance system curve. Fixed Resistance System with Constant Static Pressure Pressure a FIow2 + Constant Static Pressure For example: A pump supplying a water tower must overcome the constant static pressure (head) corresponding to the elevation of the tower, plus the fixed resistance in the pipe system.
Water Tower
System Resistance Curve
Inlet
Pressure
Pump
Constant Static Head Flow
Figure 1.2: Fixed Resistance System with Constant Static Pressure
Figure 1.2 shows the system, the pump curve, and a fixed resistance system curve with a constant static head. Variable Resistance System with Constant Pressure Pressure = Constant For example: A blower on a multi-port fume collection system is modulated by an inlet damper to maintain a constant pressure in a header, regardless of the number of open collection ports.
System Resistance Curve Fan Inlet Damper Header
Collection Ports
Pressure Flow
Slide Gates
Figure 1.3 Variable Resistance System with Constant Pressure
Figure 1.3 shows the system, the fan curve, and a constant pressure system resistance curve. Variable Resistance System with Constant Flow Flow = Constant For example: To form insulation batts, a fan is used to draw insulation fibers onto a moving conveyor. The fibers must move at constant velocity to disperse uniformly, and the speed of the conveyor is varied to form different thicknesses of batts. The lower pressure drop through thinner batts is offset by partially closing a damper at the fan inlet.
Raw Insulation
System Resistance Curve
Conveyor
Pressure Flow
Inlet Damper
Fan
Figure 1.4 Variable Resistance System with Constant Flow
Figure 1.4 shows the system, the fan curve, and a constant flow system resistance curve. Variable Resistance System with Varying Flow and Pressure This system is usually defined as a series of discrete operating points with no consistent relationship between flow and pressure. For example: A mine ventilation fan is fitted with manual control Variable Inlet Vanes (VIV), which are adjusted to provide the correct air flow to various areas of the mine. Areas of the mine not in use are isolated by doors.
Points of Operation
Design Point VIGV Closed Mine Fan Doors Mine Shafts Supply Shaft Pressure Flow
Figure 1.5 Variable Resistance System with Varying Flow and Pressure
Figure 1.5 shows the system, the fan curve, and the operating points defined by varying flow and pressure. Fan/Pump Performance Curve Each fan or pump is characterized by a set of operating points (flow, pressure) called its performance curve. The manufacturer supplies this curve, from which the application engineer selects the best fan or pump to meet the system needs. Since systems often have a range of operating points, selecting the optimum fan/pump is critical. E NERGY-S AVING T ECHNIQUES General The objective of all turbo machinery performance optimization techniques is to provide the correct flow and pressure to meet the process requirements, using less electrical power.
Energy optimization methods: provide efficiency improvements at the existing process point(s) of operation. For example: New, more efficient turbo machinery. relocate point(s) of operation to satisfy process requirements at reduced power. For example: ASD (adjustable speed drives),VIV (variable inlet vanes), impeller trim.
To understand these principles, consider the point(s) of operation in terms of the power transmitted to the fluid. For fans and blowers, the minimum power required to develop the air horsepower (AHP), based on theoretical ideal efficiency, is determined by multiplying capacity (Q) by the total system resistance pressure (TP) and dividing by the constant (Kl)*: AHP = Q x TP K1 For pumps, the minimum power required to develop the water horsepower ( WHP), based on theoretical ideal efficiency, is determined by multiplying capacity (Q), total head (H) and specific gravity (SG) of the liquid pumped, and dividing by the constant (K2)*: WHP = Q x H x SG K2 * These constants, K1 and K2, are dependent on the particular fan/pump efficiency as determined by testing and published by the manufacturer.
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The brake horsepower required by the fan, pump, or blower is a function of the total efficiency of the turbo machine: BHP = 1 x [AHP] or BHP = 1 x [WHP] hT hT The input kW required to produce the BHP for the turbo machine is a function of the motor efficiency hm and the efficiency of any other components in the drive train, e.g.,V-belts, fluid drive,ASD ho, etc.: kW = 0.746 x 1 x 1 x BHP hm ho As shown above, all optimization techniques for fans, pumps, and blowers involve either an improvement in the efficiency of the turbo machine or drive train, and/or an improvement in system requirements (i.e., reduced flow and/or pressure). Reducing Motor Input Power Motor input power must be reduced to achieve energy savings. This is achieved by reducing the brake horsepower requirements or varying the speed of the motor. Maintaining Constant Motor Speed with Reduced BrakeHorsepower Requirements For a constant speed motor, applying performance optimization techniques to the turbo machine will reduce input power to the motor, since less brake horsepower (load) is applied to the motor shaft. Figure 1.6 shows a performance curve for a typical induction motor.
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C - Current (FLA=100%) 94 90 B - % Power Factor 100 100
92
80
A - % Efficiency
75
75
90
70
50
50
88
60
D - kW Input
25
25
86 A
0 0 B 25 50 75 Shaft Output - BHP 100 125 150
0 C
0 D
Figure 1.6 Performance Curve for 100 HP Motor
Varying the Speed of the Motor and Turbo Machine This approach includes all applications where the required points of operation can be achieved by varying the speed of the motor. For a fixed resistance system, the theoretical relationship between speed and brake horsepower is: BHP a RPM3 As brake-horsepower requirements decrease, motor input power reduces accordingly.
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For example: Reducing system pressure losses by removing the throttling valve and simultaneously slowing the machine, results in reduced brake horsepower, as shown in Figure 1.7.
Brake Horespower
Reduced Horsepower
Original Point of Operation
New Point of Operation System Resistance Curve Pressure System Resistance Curve Flow Capacity
Figure 1.7 Effect of Speed Reduction
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CHAPTER 2
Performance Optimization Techniques and Measures

The performance optimization techniques addressed in this handbook are divided into two categories: 1. Primary Measures for Energy Reduction moderate to high cost quantifiable energy savings 2. Ancillary Measures for Energy Reduction low to moderate cost fine-tuning measures may be done independently or in conjunction with primary measures P RIMARY M EASURES F OR E NERGY R EDUCTION Speed Modulation Speed control of equipment is achieved in one of two ways: by varying the speed of a motor coupled directly to the load, i.e.,ASDs, multi-speed motors, DC motors; by coupling a fixed-speed driver to the load via a device that permits speed adjustment of the load, i.e., fluid drives, gear systems and adjustable belt drives.
Techniques and Measures
15
Equipment Upgrade Turbo machine upgrades may have applications in these areas: higher efficiency turbo machinery may now be available; due to industrial process changes, turbo machine re-selection may improve efficiency at the new points of operation; worn impeller replacement.
High Efficiency Motors The turbo machinery may operate more efficiently if the existing motor is replaced with a high efficiency motor or one selected closer to its current operating conditions. Reduction of Impeller Diameter Due to over-sizing, the turbo machine may operate against a partially-closed damper or valve. Resizing the impeller reduces horsepower requirements. BHP is proportional to impeller diameter. BHP1 = Diameter1 BHP2 Diameter2 Variable Inlet Vanes These are used to control flow on fans and blowers and are generally efficient in the range close to maximum flow conditions. Booster Pony Applications A booster fan, blower, or pump is used for systems that experience infrequent peaks or upset conditions. This allows main equipment to operate at maximum efficiency under normal conditions.
5
16
A NCILLARY M EASURES F OR E NERGY R EDUCTION System Effect Factors Equipment cannot perform at capacity if fans, pumps, and blowers have poor inlet and outlet conditions. Correction of system effect factors (SEFs) can have a significant effect on performance and energy savings. Elimination of Cavitation Flow, pressure, and efficiency are reduced in pumps operating under cavitation. Performance can be restored to manufacturers specifications through modifications. This usually involves inlet alterations and may involve elevation of a supply tank. High Performance Lubricants The low temperature fluidity and high temperature stability of high performance lubricants can increase energy efficiency by reducing frictional losses. Coatings Coating system components such as pump bowls, impellers, casings, and inner linings of pipe works reduces frictional losses and increases efficiency. Internal Running Clearances The internal running clearances between rotating and non-rotating elements strongly influences the turbo machine's ability to meet rated performance. Proper set-up reduces the amount of leakage (recirculation) from the discharge to the suction side of the impeller.
Techniques and Measures
17
System Maintenance Fan, pump, and blower systems may undergo an actual loss of efficiency due to dirt build-up on components such as filters, coils, and impellers. Duct leaks may be a major problem with high pressure blower systems. Process Control The process served by fans, pumps, and blowers should utilize the flow in an efficient manner based on actual requirements. To achieve this: shut turbo machinery off when it is not required control flow to prevent usage of capacity not required for the process eliminate recirculation modes if possible close duct and pipe runs when they are not needed
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CHAPTER 3
Assessment Methods
GENERAL Some industrial fan, pump, and blower systems operate efficiently, and regular maintenance will ensure continued performance of these systems. The performance of most other turbo machines can be improved. Determining the feasibility of performance optimization measures involves: l. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Candidate Prescreening Load Data Gathering Development of a Load Duty Cycle Technical Option Review Energy Assessment Economic Analysis Feasibility Report
PRESCREENING INFORMATION Engineering and operating data are typically incomplete or unavailable. The information needed to establish candidate potential and viability is usually obtained through observations and discussions with operating personnel.
Assessment Methods
19
The following items should be noted when prescreening candidates: V ISUAL E XAMINATION visual overview of complete system condition of turbo machine and system (i.e., leakage, age) nameplate information of both motor and turbo machine inlet and outlet connections (i.e., elbows obstructing smooth flow) type of elbows in system (i.e., long radius or short square) ductwork/piping changes (i.e., closure of runs) conditions of entry points to plenums or vessels (i.e., squareedged instead of bell-mouthed) maintenance condition of turbo machine and system gaskets protruding into fluid stream damper and valve locations (i.e., percent closed) automatic or manual controls of dampers/valves
WITH
D ISCUSSIONS 20
O PERATING P ERSONNEL
equipment installation date future expansion plans for process turbo machine suitability for process (i.e., adequate capacity) equipment maintenance (i.e., last servicing by manufacturer) type of fluid handled (i.e., corrosive or erosive) system or process changes
availability of process and instrumentation diagrams and performance curves number of operating points required performance at each operating point estimated annual hours at each operating point control mechanism to achieve various operating points approximate range of valve or damper settings approximate range of speed control bypass, idling, or flow wastage when process cycle does not -require turbo machine turbo machine operation problems (i.e., noise, vibration, duct pulsation)
Step 1: Review Process & Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID) To enhance system knowledge, review a process and instrumentation diagram (P&ID) of the system. Sketch by hand if drawings are unavailable. Figure 3.1 shows a P&ID for a typical centrifugal-induced draft (ID) and forced-draft (FD) fan application. P&IDs graphically represent the system and process by: showing the position of the turbo machine to other components differentiating between fixed and variable pressure loss components indicating the parameter controlled in the system (i.e., pressure, flow, temperature) locating the system control point (i.e., discharge ducting, inlet plenum)
Assessment Methods
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Gas
Multiple pipe systems
Heated crude oil to first stage separation Flue Gases
Flue gases to atmosphere
Cell 4
Oxygen percentage monitor I.D. Fan Heat Exchanger Hot Air F.D. Fan 2 To Main 3-phase 600V Cold Air
M
Cell 3 Furnace Cell 2
Cell 1
To Main 3-phase 600V
Crude Oil
Temperature regulation
1 and 2 AC motors (250 hp)
Figure 3.1 Process and Instrumentation Diagram
Step 2 : Review Prescreening Information Evaluate accuracy, importance, and relevance of information obtained in the field. Use the following prescreening review to determine if there are inefficient conditions that can be improved.
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Table 3.1 Prescreening Review

Condition
Inefficient Turbo Machine
Characteristic
Misapplication of low efficiency impeller
Comments
Ro t
Straight Radial Blades Approximately 65% / 70% peak static efficiency
Airfoil Blades Approximately 84% / 90% peak static efficiency
Radial blade impellers needed for material-handling applications Inefficient drive Oversized motor Motor not high efficiency design Oversized V-belt drive package Old adjustable speed-drive technology
Age of equipment Turbo machine operating at poor selection point
Older equipment is generally less efficient
Actual Operating Point Original Selection Point
Ro t
Pressure
ion at
ion at
Actual Operating Point
Pressure Flow Operation with original equipment
Flow Operation with new reselected equipment
Turbo machine relocated for a different application Elimination of some pipe/duct runs on multi-run distribution system Addition of auxiliary cleaning equipment Throttled operation for oversized turbo machine
Assessment Methods
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Table 3.1 Prescreening Review (contd)

Condition
Poor Maintenance
Characteristic
Excessive system resistance Worn impeller or bearings Flow leakage
Comments
Dirty screens, nozzles, filters, coils Material build-up on impellers, turning vanes Vibration/imbalance
Internal turbo machine deficiencies
Holes in flex connection Deteriorated gaskets Loose or distorted flanges Corrosion or erosion in piping and ductwork
Flow
Worn pump seals
Running clearance
Inlet Box
Rot a
n tio
Build-up
Improper set-up of fan impeller allows air to recirculate internally
Build-up on fan blades reduces efficiency Erosion of fan blades reduces efficiency
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Condition
System Effect Factors
Characteristic
Poor fan intake design
Comments
Length of Duct R
Elbow directly on inlet causes non-uniform flow profile
Turning Vanes
Rounded elbow is better than square elbow Addition of turning vanes will streamline flow
Splitter
Installation of splitter plate reduces entry turbulence on fans located near walls
Assessment Methods
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Condition
System Effect Factors (contd)
Characteristic
Poor fan intake design (contd)
Comments
Butterfly Inlet Damper
Butterfly damper close to fan inlet creates turbulence and decreases performance
Impeller Rotation Counterrotating Swirl
Turning Vanes
Impeller Rotation
Corrected Counterrotating Swirl
Orientation of inlet elbows can cause air to pre-swirl in the direction opposite to wheel rotation Turning vanes can improve performance for this condition
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Condition
Characteristic
Poor fan discharge design
Comments
Elbow on Discharge
Fan Re-oriented to Up-blast Position
Elbow directly on fan discharge causes performance deficiency If fan cannot be re-oriented, careful turning-vane design is required Obstructions at fan inlets and outlets
Discharge Duct Work Flex Connection
Axial Fan
Inlet Duct Work
Poor transition and flex connection installations disrupt flow and cause turbulence
Assessment Methods
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Condition
Characteristic
Air pockets at pump inlet
Comments
Suction
Air pocket
Suction
An air pocket can form where a symmetrical elbow appears in a suction line
Eccentric tapered reducer prevents air pockets (above) when pipe size is reduced
Poor pump inlet design
Vertical elbow permits reasonably equal distribution to impeller. Flow is still better with straight section before pump.
Horizontal elbow distorts and may reverse flow. With double-suction pump, inlet on small radius side may be partly starved.
Excessive Flow and Pressure Losses
High pressure losses across system components
Caused by lack of streamlined design Increases exponentially with flow velocity Pressure Loss = Co x (Velocity)2
Poor ductwork offset with square elbows
Improved ductwork with turning vanes
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Condition
Excessive Flow and Pressure Losses (contd)
Characteristic
High pressure losses across system components (contd)
Comments
Optimal off-set design with rounded elbows and turning vanes Vena Contracta
Vena Contracta increases entry losses
Addition of bell mouth creates smooth entry with minimal losses
System entry conditions from plenums and vessels should provide smooth entry conditions for fluid System constrictions may result from construction methods used to bypass other plant equipment System valves and dampers may be in a permanent, partially closed position Excess flow Existing process may operate with less flow Changes to process may reduce flow requirements Process cycle may have periods with no need for turbo machine operation Turbo machine may be running while rest of process is shut down Multi-port collection or distribution system may have ports left open unnecessarily Original performance margins were too great Turbo machine relocated from different application System resistance over-estimated Removal of system component has reduced pressure drop Original sizing done for infrequent upset condition
Flow wastage
Oversized Turbo Machine
Continuous operation with partially closed dampers or valves
Inefficient Control of Turbo Machine
Throttled operating point
Turbo machine throttling used instead of speed control Outlet fan dampers used instead of variable inlet vane control No controls are used and turbo machine supplies excess capacity Recirculation mode used when process does not require turbo machine operation Lack of control sequence may have turbo machine running when not required
Unnecessary operation
Assessment Methods
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Step 3 : Prescreening Conclusions Figure 3.2 presents general conditions that may indicate where systems are operating inefficiently. With this information, you can determine if a candidate(s) merits a more in-depth engineering feasibility study to determine viable technical solutions and quantify savings. Further assessment should be carried out by an experienced engineering specialist (i.e., consultant engineer, contractor, equipment manufacturer, or customer operating staff). Appendix A provides guidelines engineering specialists may follow when they prepare optimization feasibility studies. L OAD D ATA G ATHERING The engineering specialist will prepare feasibility study findings and recommendations, based on: evaluation of viable technical options that can be employed accurate determination of energy savings economic analysis
To effectively carry out this study: locate all point(s) of operation (i.e., flow, pressure, and power); determine the turbo machine load duty cycle; evaluate data accuracy and reliability; evaluate characteristic of data: seasonal, batch, product or output fluctuations.
Common sources of information are given in the following subsections. Figure 3.2 provides general guidelines on how to gather data for development of the load duty cycle.
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Design Data turbo machine performance curve and points of operation design data from engineering files P&ID original field performance tests nameplate information on the turbo machine and motor
For example, obtain the following nameplate data: Motor Type Speed Horsepower Voltage Full load amps for the motor
Turbo Pressure Temperature Rotational speed Machine Design flow Brake horsepower Observations and Estimates by Operating Staff description of process operation parameters controlled in the system history of equipment changes, when and why estimated yearly operating hours
Plant Operating Records accurate and complete records weekly, monthly, and seasonal variations in load pattern recent field performance tests pressure, temperature, amperage, and production output
Assessment Methods
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Temporary Metering performed when operating data is unavailable (or deemed unreliable) typical power metering would be for a two-week period, with 15-minute interval samples interpretation of results should take into account seasonal or production variations if possible, metering on other parameters should be done simultaneously, i.e., temperature, rotational speed, damper settings, pressure, pressure differential across variable resistance components, etc.
Field Performance Testing testing must be done to verify point(s) of operation and system behavior. Chapter 4 of this handbook gives more guidelines on field performance testing.
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Initiate Data Gathering
Gather General Information - Horsepower of Motor - Hours of Operation - Suppliers' Performance Curve
Are Operating Records Available? Yes
No
Are Operating Records Complete? Yes
No
Can the Duty Cycle be No Developed by Other Means? Yes
Field Measurement Required
Is the Load Pattern Seasonal? Yes
No
Extended Data Accumulation Period
Short Data Accumulation Period
Generate Load Duty Cycle
Figure 3.2 Data Gathering Decision Tree

Assessment Methods
33
D EVELOPMENT
OF
L OAD D UTY C YCLE
The load duty cycle is a frequency distribution of the time that a turbo machine operates at each point of operation. Two components are needed for development: turbo machine load Plot the points of operation on the turbo machine performance curve to identify system flow and pressure relationship. duty cycle This is the number of hours the turbo machine operates at each point of operation.
Tabulate all data in a load/duty/cycle chart. An example is shown in Figure 3.3.

Point of Flow Pressure Brake Operation Hp Time at Speed Input Operating (RPM) kW to Motor Point (hr/yr) kWh/yr
1 2 3 4 5 6 TOTAL kWh/yr
Figure 3.3 Load Duty Cycle Chart

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It may be useful to construct a histogram of load versus time to show graphically the load duty cycle of the system. Select the horizontal axis for an appropriate system parameter. See Figure 3.4.
30 Percent Total Operating Time
20
10
0 0 B 10 20 30 40 50 60 Percent Flow 70 80 90 100
Figure 3.4 Typical Pump Load Duty Cycle
T ECHNICAL O PTIONS R EVIEW General Assess the practicality of implementing the various performance optimization techniques. The following items are needed for this process: manufacturer's performance curve; load duty-cycle charts, as completed for existing system, and for system employing performance optimization techniques (see page 34); system P&ID (see page 21); system loss evaluation (see page 36); report on equipment internal inspection (see page 37).
Assessment Methods
35
To determine the best performance optimization technique, 1. Review the process requirements. Determine if the process can operate just as well with reduced flow or pressure. 2. Review system test results to identify peak pressure losses. Evaluate if these losses can be reduced by modifying the system. 3. Compare turbo machine field performance test results with manufacturer's predicted performance. Check equipment internal inspection report to account for discrepancy between actual and predicted performance. Assess the need for equipment repair/maintenance. 4. Assess the viability of each performance optimization technique. Since each installation has unique characteristics, good engineering judgement and experience is required to carry out a thorough evaluation of each technical option. System Loss Evaluation To carry out a comprehensive performance evaluation, the feasibility study must address: original design parameters used for equipment rating actual system requirements duct/pipe geometry and associated system losses
Examples of duct/pipe arrangements that cause high system losses: short radius elbows used in duct/pipe instead of long radius elbows or turning vanes; poor duct/pipe inlet conditions from vessels and plenums;
36
small cross-sectional area duct or pipe sections, resulting in high flow velocities and high friction losses.
System pressure drop tests must be taken during field performance testing to identify high losses. For fan and blower systems, refer to the AMCA (Air Movement and Control Association) Publications 200 and 201, and engineering handbooks for further information on how to assess the merits of system modifications. For pump systems, use the Hydraulic Institute Handbook to evaluate the merits of piping changes. Identification and correction of poor suction conditions can eliminate cavitation, vortices, and uneven velocity distributions. This will result in improved pump performance. Equipment Internal Evaluation Internal inspection is an important step that should not be overlooked, particularly if the field performance test results indicate that the turbo machine is not performing to its rated curve. Look for: noise/vibration during operation V-belts slipping or vibrating wear of impeller or other system components, caused by erosive nature of fluid build-up, causing system blockage or impeller inefficiency improper alignment of equipment gaskets protruding into fluid stream dampers or valves in a partially closed position turning vanes not installed
Assessment Methods
37
steel bracing left inside ductwork inappropriate damper linkage adjustments
Call a manufacturer's service representative or experienced turbo machinery engineer for an accurate evaluation of the internal condition of the turbo machine. Application Considerations To check the suitability of each performance optimization technique, consider the entire system including: type of fluid stream environmental consideration (i.e., indoor, outdoor, hazardous area) system limitations physical constraints
Following are typical application considerations for turbo machine performance optimization techniques: Adjustable Speed Drives - spectrum analysis on impeller may be required - low-speed motor-cooling limitations - reduced motor torque may not overcome high breakaway torque at start-up - may require motor oversizing - fans may be forced into unstable operating ranges - pumps can experience extremely high temperature build-up, if pressure reduction is less than static head
38
Equipment Upgrade - high efficiency impellers are generally not suitable for harsh environments Impeller Trimming - provides permanent de-rating - not suitable if full capacity occasionally needed
Variable Inlet Valves - have non-linear control range when low flows required, may cause pulsations in pressure
E NERGY A SSESSMENT Compare the electrical consumption of each of the selected performance optimization measures with the consumption of the existing system. All desired points of operation will require consideration. Electrical savings can occur in demand (kW) and energy (kWh). Demand savings depend on whether turbo machinery load coincides with the plant's monthly peak. Annual energy savings are based on: hours the process or turbo machine operates at each point of operation average loading at times of monthly demand peaks demand and energy rates for the particular plant
Assessment Methods
39
E CONOMIC A NALYSIS Total Savings Total savings of performance optimization may result from indirect benefits as well as electrical savings. Some examples are: improved power factor raw material savings improved product quality reduced labour costs
Classify non-energy savings into groups of hard and soft dollar savings, based on how easily they can be quantified. Cost Estimates Assess the economics of the performance optimization technique by establishing cost estimates: Capital Equipment - quotations from manufacturers - suppliers catalogues Engineering and Design - estimate as a percentage of direct costs - quotations from consultants or contractors Installation - applying an hourly rate to estimated labour requirements - quotations from contractors
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- equipment rentals - miscellaneous materials Simple Payback and IRR Compare the total cost of implementing a performance optimization technique against the total benefit. Two methods usually used are: Simple payback and internal rate of return (IRR). Simple payback is used to determine the time required for the savings to repay the initial capital outlay. Time (years) = Project cost Average annual cash savings
Internal rate of return takes into account the time value of money. It is an adjusted rate that discounts savings (inflows) and the expense of the project (outflows) to zero. Determine a project's acceptability on these grounds, by comparing the performance optimization project's IRR against the company's prescribed rate of return. If the IRR passes this test, the project will likely be undertaken. The IRR is calculated by finding the discount rate, R, that solves the following equation:
n
t=0
(Cinflow) (1+R)n
= (Coutflow)n (1+R)n
where: Cinflow Coutflow R n
= = = =
cash inflows cash outflows rate of return that will solve the expression signifies that the discounted inflows and outflows must be added from time zero through time n.
Assessment Methods
41
Computer programs are available to assist with the financial evaluation of adjustable speed drives and high efficiency motors. F EASIBILITY R EPORT Refer to Appendix B for the guidelines to produce the feasibility report.
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CHAPTER 4
Performance Evaluation of Candidates

GENERAL This section provides an overview of information required to conduct field performance tests of fan, pump, and blower systems. The equations, and calculation procedures required to correct the measured data back to the manufacturer's performance curves, are also outlined. APPLICABLE SAFETY STANDARDS The fans, pumps, and blowers discussed in this handbook are rotating equipment driven by electric motors. When dealing with this equipment, extreme caution must be exercised to avoid electric shock or injury from rotating or moving mechanical components. All applicable safety standards in effect at the equipment site must be observed. Also follow safety standards and practices outlined in Chapter 5 of this handbook and: AMCA Publication #410 Recommended Safety Practices for Air Moving Devices
43
APPLICABLE PERFORMANCE TEST STANDARDS The data included in the test manuals referenced below for fans, pumps, and blowers will be adequate to conduct the performance tests in most cases. If unusual liquids or gases are being handled, or if a significant amount of duct work or piping is located between the pressure measuring points and the equipment, further information may be required. Additional information regarding the densities and viscosities of various liquids or gases and the friction losses of pipes, ducts, fittings, and transitions may be required. This information is readily available in various engineering handbooks and textbooks. Pump Performance Test Standards
Performance testing standards for pumps have been prepared and published by the Hydraulic Institute, Cleveland, Ohio, USA. The testing standard is part of a complete set of pump standards published as: Hydraulic Institute Standards Fan and Blower Performance Test Standards
The Air Movement and Control Association, Inc. (AMCA),Arlington Height, Illinois, USA, has several publications for testing fans and blowers. The publication most applicable to the type of test performed under this program is: AMCA Publication 203 Field Performance Measurements of Fan Systems
This publication is one of four manuals that also cover the design of air systems, fan and system interaction, including fan laws and system effect factors (SEF), and troubleshooting of air-moving systems.
44
MEASUREMENT PARAMETERS AND TEST INSTRUMENTS Measurement Parameters The parameters that must be determined for accurate evaluation of fan, pump or blower performance are: liquid or gas properties, i.e., density and, for liquids, viscosity; flow rate; inlet and outlet pressure head; rotational speed of equipment; input power.
Test Instruments The instruments required to measure each parameter are listed in the appropriate test procedure sections. Calibration of Test Instruments Instruments used in field performance tests are often subjected to rough handling and hostile environments. Consequently, it is essential to ensure that the instruments are in good condition and are capable of providing accurate and repeatable measurements. As a minimum, the following procedure should be adopted: physical inspection and functionality test of instrument before, during, and after each field test; scheduled calibration of instruments to a recognized national standard; calibration of instruments after repair, or if any doubt arises regarding accuracy.
Note: An extra set of instruments can be useful to check accuracy or replace malfunctioning instruments.
45
GENERAL TEST PROCEDURES Location of Test Points To obtain reliable measurements of the inlet and discharge pressures of the equipment, the location of pressure test points in the pipes or ducts should normally be at least five to ten equivalent diameters downstream of the nearest elbow, transition, or other flow disturbance (Figure 4.1).
L > 5 x di
do
L > 5 x do
yyyyyyyy ,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, yyyyyyyy ,,,,,,,, yyyyyyyy ,,,,,,,, yyyyyyyy

Figure 4.1 Location of Test Points
di
An appropriate pressure loss calculation for the duct or pipe and any fittings between the equipment flange and the measuring point must be made and added to the measured pressure. The flow-measuring plane should also be five to ten equivalent diameters downstream from the nearest flow disturbance or outlet flange as illustrated in Figure 4.2.
46
Inspect the duct/pipe to check that no branches or leaks occur between the measuring plane and the equipment to ensure that the flow measured has passed through the equipment.
Bad Measuring Plane Preferred Measuring Plane
yy ,, ,, yy yyyyyyyyy ,,,,,,,,,
Figure 4.2 Selection of Flow Measuring Plane
Control of Turbo Machine and System The purpose of this test is to determine the performance of the machine during operation. If the system or process varies, the machine performance may modulate during the time the test is being conducted. This must be avoided. The duty points at which a performance test is required must be selected by referencing the process and instrumentation diagram and the duty cycle developed during the prescreening and data-gathering process.
47
A control lockout must be implemented in consultation with plant operating personnel to hold the machine at a constant point of operation during the test. The determination of a single performance point may take from several minutes to several hours, depending on the geometry of the system and the amount of test data to be collected. Multiple readings of data such as power, speed, control valve/damper position, and temperature and pressure of fluid should be taken to ensure these parameters are held constant for long tests.
Performance Test Records A field test data sheet should be prepared before the test to provide a consistent and complete format for recording test data. A custom form should be prepared for each machine to be tested. Refer to the Hydraulic Institute and AMCA 203 handbooks for examples of typical data sheets. Sketches of the test point locations, system duct, or piping orientation and dimensions, and a copy of the P&ID are a necessary part of the performance test records.
Rotational Speed Measurement Instruments most commonly used include an electronic contact or non-contact tachometer, stroboscopic tachometer, or revolution counter with a chronometer. Following are some considerations for speed measurements: Select good physical access to the shaft or some rotating component of the machine.
48
Select instruments that will provide accurate readings for the speed range of interest. A demonstrable accuracy of 0.5% or better is acceptable. At least two readings, one near the beginning of the test and one near the end, should be taken. If the test duration is longer than 15 minutes, additional readings should be taken, approximately every 15 minutes. If multiple readings show the speed to be constant, the time between readings can be extended.
Note: Rotational speed should not change during the course of the test. Motor Input Power Measurement The primary reason for conducting the tests is to estimate how much the motor input power can be reduced, using the optimization techniques available. Therefore, it is essential that a comprehensive analysis of the motor input power be conducted.
CT-1 CT-2 CT-3 PT-1
01 Motor 0 2 Starter 03
Motor
PT-2
Wattmeter
Figure 4.3 Connecting a Wattmeter

49
Many of the machines to be tested under this program will be three-phase, 320, 460 or 575 volt. Portable power analyzers are readily available measure the input power in this range, taking into account voltage, amperage, and power factor. They can provide a direct readout of kW. Refer to Figure 4.3. Specialized measuring equipment, utilizing potential and current transformers, would normally be required for systems above 600 volts. A qualified electrical engineer may have to design an adequate power measuring system. A qualified electrician should connect these analyzers to the motor input power leads. For systems fitted with ASDs, measure the power going into the ASD, rather than the power going into the motor. To determine the actual power being consumed by the equipment, efficiency correction factors for part load operation should be included in the calculations.
The test data sheet should allow for the recording of volts, amps, power factor, and kilowatts, as a minimum. At least two readings, one near the beginning of the test and one near the end, should be taken. If the test duration is longer than 15 minutes, additional readings should be taken, approximately every 15 minutes. If multiple readings show the power to be constant, the time between readings can be extended.
Note: The power consumed throughout the duration of the test should be constant.
50
P UMP T EST P ROCEDURES Liquid Density Density is temperature dependent. Measure liquid temperature at pump inlet and outlet. Liquid Flow Rate Measurement There are numerous methods available to measure fluid flow rate, some of which are outlined in the Hydraulic Institute handbook. The selection of the most appropriate flow measuring equipment will be the responsibility of the engineering specialist who assesses the application. Factors such as an open channel or pipe, existence of any vessels, tanks, or pits in the system, and characteristics of the fluid pumped (i.e., corrosive, toxic chemicals, sewage, etc.) will influence the method used. Three common methods are: If the pump is emptying or filling a vessel or container, a stop watch and volume indicators on the vessel may be utilized to estimate the flow rate. Care must be exercised when using this method to ensure the head does not change during the interval of measurement. Refer to Figure 4.4. The Ultrasonic Flow Meters are non-intrusive flow-measuring devices that can give accurate and repeatable results if calibrated properly for the type of liquid and pipe in use for the application. These devices usually require some minimum content of solids or bubbles of a certain size in the fluid stream.
51
It may be possible to install a calibrated orifice plate in the pipe and determine the flow rate from the differential pressure across the orifice plate. This will require a differential pressure meter connected to the pipe upstream and downstream of the orifice plate in accordance with the orifice plate supplier's recommendations. Refer to Figure 4.5.
Note: The process may have to be shut down to allow for installation of the calibrated orifice plate and pressure taps, or to install a valve to an open line for use of a displacement and timer measuring method.
V1
D1
Do
D2
S1
R' So
Figure 4.4 Liquid Flow Rate Measurement: Vessel and Timer
Figure 4.5 Liquid Flow Rate Measurement: Orifice Plate
52
Pump Head Measurement A broad range of instruments are available to suit any application. Characteristics of the liquid, i.e., temperature, corrosiveness, etc., and the expected range of the measured head must be considered to avoid damage to the instrument by overloading, or by exposure to hot or corrosive fluids.
Brass Plug d d 1" 1" to 8 4
Pipe Coupling
Nipple Connects Here d Approx. Rad. 4
d Approx. Rad. 4
2d
Nipple Weld Connects Here Minimum
Figure 4.6 Pressure Tap Geometry
The range and precision of the instrument should be selected so that the accuracy of the reading is better than 2%. Pressure taps with the proper geometry should be used to ensure accurate pressure readings. Refer to Figure 4.6 for example. Locate pressure taps in the suction and discharge lines in an area where steady flow conditions exist.
53
Ensure that the connection to the tap in the pipe is free of leaks. Vent cocks must be provided to vent trapped air when using wet tube instruments.
Also consider the following: The difference in elevation between the pump center-line and the center-line of the pressure gauge must be added to the gauge reading to refer the reading back to the datum, which is the pump center-line. Refer to Figure 4.7. The flow area of the pipe must also be known so that a velocity head can be calculated and added to the static head to arrive at the total head.
Pg
hg s Vd o Zs Datum
Zd
Vs
Figure 4.7 Gauge Reference to Datum
54
The geometry of the pipe between the gauge and the pump flange must be known, so that friction loss can be calculated and used to arrive at pump total head at the flanges. If the pump is drawing from or discharging to a pit or tank that is open to atmosphere, it may be more convenient to calculate the head at the corresponding pump flange from the difference in elevation and the appropriate losses. Refer to Figure 4.8. Pressure readings should be observed periodically throughout the test to ensure no significant fluctuation occurs.
Static Head
Figure 4.8 Suction Head by Calculation
PUMP TEST CALCULATION Measured pump performance will normally be compared with the pump performance curve issued by the manufacturer. Corrections for specific gravity, viscosity, and speed may be necessary if the fluid characteristics and/or pump speed tested differ from that shown on the performance curve.
55
Corrections for pumps handling viscous liquids are beyond the scope of this handbook. Refer to the Hydraulic Institute Standards for detailed calculation procedures. Liquid Properties Calculation Specific gravity and viscosity of the liquid being pumped is determined from the temperature and type of liquid (i.e., water, oil, ammonia, etc.) or by referring to appropriate charts or tables in engineering reference handbooks or textbooks. Liquid Flow Rate Calculation The calculation of actual flow rate, normally in USGPM (US gallon per minute), must be done following the procedures supplied with the flow-measuring device utilized. If a displacement and time method is being used, the calculation can be performed using the appropriate conversion factors and simple mathematics. Correction from the measured flow rate (Q) to the rated speed (Nc) shown on the curve is performed by using: Qc = where: Qc Q Nc N = = = = flow at rated speed measured flow rated speed measured speed Q x Nc N
56
Pump Head Calculation To determine the total pump head, it is necessary to obtain the total head in the suction and in the discharge and add them together. Total suction head or total discharge head is the sum of the static head and the dynamic head. Static head is the sum of the gauge reading, plus the difference in elevation from the pump center-line datum to the gauge center-line. Dynamic head is given by the expression Hdyn = V2 2g where: Hdyn V g = dynamic head (ft) = average water velocity at gauge reading (ft/sec) = 32.174 (ft/sec2)
Note: The total head developed by a pump is the same regardless of the specific gravity of the liquid being pumped. The gauge reading is expressed in psig. This can be converted to head (ft.), accounting for the specific gravity of the fluid, by using the following equation: H = Gr x 2.31 Sg where: H Gr Sg = static head (ft) = gauge reading (psig) = specific gravity of liquid
57
The total head for the pump, which is calculated above, can be further corrected to the rated speed shown on the manufacturer's performance curve Hc = H x Nc N where: Hc H Nc N = = = = head at rated speed head at test speed rated speed test speed
2
Pump Power Calculation Input power to the pump motor must be calculated in accordance with the procedures applicable to the instrument being used. The performance curve supplied by the pump manufacturer normally shows the input power to the pump. Therefore, the motor input power measured during the test must be corrected for part-load efficiency to reflect the given percent of full-load power at which the motor is operating.
58
The pump input power should then be further corrected to the rated speed and specific gravity shown on the performance curve BHPc = BHP x Nc N
3
x Sgc Sg
where: BHPc BHP Nc N Sgc Sg = = = = = = pump input power at rated speed pump input power at test speed rated speed test speed rated specific gravity test specific gravity
FAN AND BLOWER TEST PROCEDURES Gas Properties The gas density must be determined to accurately calculate other performance parameters. Gas density is a function of absolute pressure, temperature, and molecular weight. Absolute pressure is determined by adding the barometric pressure at the site and the static pressure at the measuring plane. Barometric pressure can be determined with a portable aneroid barometer. Static pressure at the measuring plane must be measured as discussed on page 64. Gas temperature is determined with an instrument-quality thermometer. If the fan is handling ambient air, molecular weight can be assumed to be that of air with appropriate corrections made for relative humidity. Relative humidity is determined by
59
measuring wet bulb and dry bulb temperatures with a sling psychrometer. To determine the density of a gas other than air may require the use of complex equipment by a qualified expert to obtain the chemical composition of the gas. If the gas is a complex mixture of various constituents, as found in many industrial processes, the company chemist or an independent laboratory should be consulted to collect a gas sample for analysis in the lab. Particular care should be used if the gas is toxic, corrosive, or explosive.
Note: It is important to ascertain from the P&ID that the gas does not undergo any change in moisture content or molecular weight (i.e.,water sprays, cooling coils, burners, etc.) between the fan or blower and the plane at which wet and dry bulb temperatures or gas constituents and barometric pressure are measured. If no changes occur, the gas wiIl approximate the perfect gas laws and the ratio of absolute temperatures and absolute pressures can be used to determine the density at all planes of interest. For this reason, it is important to record the temperature and static pressure at all planes of interest.
60
Gas Flow Rate Measurement Air or gas flow rate is determined by performing a velocity pressure traverse in the duct using one of the following: pitot tube and inclined manometer, electronic micromanometer or magnehelic gauge vane anemometer thermistor anemometer used as a probe and readout
The airflow measurement methods recognized by Air Movement and Control Association (AMCA) require the use of a pitot static tube or a double reverse tube, and an inclined manometer, preferably with a variable slope ratio to provide sufficient accuracy at a range of air velocities. Figures 4.9 4.11 (p. 62) show various devices used to measure air or gas velocity pressure. The velocity pressure traverse must be conducted in an area of the duct where the flow is stable and uniform. Refer to AMCA 203 for guidelines to select and qualify a suitable traverse plane location. Generally, the requirement is that more than 75% of the velocity pressure readings should exceed 1/10 of the maximum reading. The number and distribution of traverse points required in a duct is a function of the duct geometry. Refer to AMCA 203 for guidelines on how to select traverse points. The number of points required by AMCA 203 should be taken as a minimum. A traverse using fewer points is unacceptable.
Consider the following: a pitot traverse normally requires two people, since it is usually impossible to hold the pitot tube steady and record the velocity pressure reading at the same time.
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Air Flow
Air Flow
Reverse Tube
Impact Tube
Static Pressure Total Pressure
Stainless Steel Tubing preferred approx. .375" OD
Figure 4.9 Pitot Static Tube
Figure 4.10 Double Reverse Tube
10 in. wg 1:1 Slope Ratio
0.5 in. wg 20:1 Slope Ratio
Figure 4.11 Inclined Manometer

62
The access holes drilled in the duct for the pitot tube should be plugged when not in use to prevent leakage or disruption of flow profiles in the duct. A pitot traverse in a large duct may require special pitot tubes, longer than the standard maximum of 5 feet or access from both sides of the duct. Measurements in high temperature, toxic, or combustible gas streams also require special consideration. If possible, the traverse should be conducted in a duct under negative static pressure so that the gas will not leak out on the tester.
Note: Determining the flow through a fan or blower is generally the most complex part of the performance measurements. If proper equipment and procedures are used, and the selection of a traverse plane is satisfactory, the flow rate can be determined to within 2% to 10% accuracy. A review of the uncertainty analysis in AMCA 203 will highlight the parameters that need to be most tightly controlled to maintain the best accuracy. Fan and Blower Pressure Measurement A broad range of instruments are available. Characteristics of the gas, i.e., temperature, corrosiveness, etc., and the expected range of the measured pressure, must be considered to avoid damage to the instrument by overloading or by exposure to hot or corrosive gases. The range and precision of the instrument should be selected so that the accuracy of the reading is better than 2%.
Pressures to be determined for fans and blowers include static and velocity pressures, which, when added, equal total pressure. Velocity pressure is determined from the calculated flow rate, the area of the duct, and the density of the gas stream.
63
Ps5
Fan Static Pressure Ps = Ps2 - Ps1 - Pv1 where Ps2 = Ps5 where Ps1 = Ps4 where Pv1 = Pv3
Ps4 Pv3
Ps3
Figure 4.12 Static Pressure Readings
Record duct dimensions for all planes of interest. Static pressure readings in the fan discharge duct and in the fan inlet duct and static pressure readings at the velocity pressure traverse plane will be required. Static pressure can be measured from the static tap on the pitot static tube, as the tube is traversed in the duct. This will provide several consistent readings. Refer to Figure 4.12. The pitot tube should be oriented in the same way as for velocity pressure readings or the pressure read from the static tap may not be accurate. Static pressure taps can be made in the wall of the duct. Refer to AMCA 203 guidelines. Four pressure taps are required, equally spaced around the periphery of the duct. The readings from the four taps should be averaged to provide the static pressure at that plane.
Note: Fan suppliers normally specify pressures at the inlet and discharge flanges of the equipment. Consequently, it is important
64
to record the geometry of the ducts between the measuring planes in the inlet and outlet duct and the associated fan equipment flange. FAN AND BLOWER TEST CALCULATION Measured fan or blower performance is normally compared to the performance curve issued by the manufacturer. Performance is normally correlated to the gas density at the inlet to the fan or blower. Inlet gas density must be determined during the test. Corrections for inlet density and speed will be necessary if test results differ from that shown on the performance curve. Gas Density Calculation (same as specific gravity) The base density of the gas can be calculated at any point where it is possible to measure: dry bulb temperature Barometric and static pressure the sum of which is absolute pressure) wet bulb temperature if the gas is air chemical composition analysis for a gas other than air
It will be necessary to calculate the gas density for each plane where flow or pressure measurements are being performed the inlet and outlet flange of the fan or blower any locations in the duct where losses or system-effect factors must be calculated
Using the base density of the gas stream at a known absolute temperature (dry bulb temperature) and an absolute pressure, it is
65
acceptable to calculate densities at other points in the system where the temperature and pressure are known, using the following equation: dX = d1 x T1 x PX TX P1 where: dX d1 T1 TX PX P1 = = = = = = density at plane x density at plane 1 absolute temperature at plane 1 absolute temperature at plane x absolute pressure at plane x absolute pressure at plane 1
Gas Flow Rate Calculation Velocity pressure readings should be corrected for manometer calibration and, if applicable, reverse tube calibration. From the corrected values, the root mean square velocity pressure is calculated as follows: Pv3 = where: Pv3 Pv1 N = root mean square velocity pressure = corrected velocity pressure readings = number of velocity pressure readings (Pv1)0.5 N
2
Having determined Pv3 and the density at the traverse plane (d3), the average velocity (V3) of the gas at this plane can be calculated as follows: V3 = 1096 Pv3 d3
0.5
66
where: V3 Pv3 d3 = average velocity (ft/min) = velocity pressure (in.wg) = density (lbm /ft 3)
Knowing this velocity and the geometry of the ductwork, the flow rate can be calculated as follows: Q3 = V3A3 where: Q3 V3 A3 = gas flow rate (cfm) = average velocity (ft/min) = duct area at traverse plane (ft2)
The fan or blower flow rate is defined as being the volume flow rate at fan inlet density. Continuity of mass allows for the calculations of volume flow rates at other planes in the system. If the densities at the other planes are known, the following equation is used: QX = Q3 x d3 dx where: Qx Q3 d3 dx = = = = flow rate at plane x flow rate at traverse plane density at traverse plane density at plane x
To compare the calculated fan or blower flow rate to the performance curve supplied by the fan or blower manufacturer, it may be necessary to correct for fan speed, using the following equations: Qc = Q x Nc N
67
where: Qc Q Nc N = = = = corrected flow rate measured fan flow rate at test inlet density corrected speed test speed
Note: Density corrections are not applicable, as fans and blowers are constant volume machines. Fan and Blower Pressure Calculation All static pressure readings taken at each measuring plane are averaged linearly to obtain the static pressure (SP) at the plane. Based on the static pressure and a temperature measurement, the gas density at the plane can be calculated, as outlined on page 6. The flow rate at the measuring plane is calculated as outlined on page 66. A velocity at the measuring plane can be calculated from the flow rate and area at the plane. The velocity pressure can therefore be calculated by VP = where: VP = velocity pressure (in.wg) = gas velocity (ft/min) = gas density (lbm/ft3) V 1096
2
xd
The total pressure at the plane is TP = VP + SP
68
Performance curves supplied by the fan or blower manufacturer will show the pressures based on the equipment inlet and outlet flanges. To compare the pressures measured during the test to the performance curve, it is necessary to take into consideration any pressure losses and system effect factor (SEF) between the pressure measuring stations and the fan inlet and outlet flanges to determine the total pressure at the fan inlet and outlet flanges. Also calculate velocity pressure at the outlet flange. Fan static pressure is given by FSP = TPo - TP1 - VPo
where: FSP TPo TP1 VPo = = = = fan static pressure total pressure at fan outlet total pressure at fan inlet velocity pressure at fan outlet
Fan static pressure is normally shown on the manufacturer's performance curve. This is plotted against flow rate. To correct the FSP from the test speed and density to that shown on the performance curve, the following formula is used: FSPc = FSP x Nc N
2
x dc d
where: FSPc FSP Nc N dc d = = = = = = corrected fan static pressure test fan static pressure corrected speed test speed corrected inlet density test inlet density
69
Fan Power Calculation Input power to the motor must be calculated in the manner applicable to the instrument being used. The performance curve supplied by the fan and blower manufacturers normally shows the input power to the fan or blower. Therefore, the motor input power measured during the test must be corrected for part-load efficiency to reflect the percent of full-load power at which the motor is operating. If the equipment is V-belt driven, further adjustment of the measured power is required. It is necessary to estimate the V-belt drive losses as a function of motor horsepower. To correct the measured power to the fan or blower for the speed and density shown on the manufacturer's performance curve, the following formula should be used: BHPc = BHP x where: BHPc BHP = corrected input horsepower = test input horsepower = kWmeasured x Effmotor x Effdrive 0.746 = corrected speed = test speed = corrected inlet density = test inlet density Nc N
3
x dc d
Nc N dc d
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CHAPTER 5
Safety
GENERAL Rotating machinery is a particularly dangerous element of plant equipment due to the tremendous forces that they exert, both mechanically and electrically. Always employ safety measures when carrying out performance tests and exercises. Extreme caution is to be exercised at all times. For the most part, this means applying common sense to the situation. However, every industrial environment will have specific safety regulations that must be followed. PLANT REGULATIONS General safety items apply to most industrial settings. Always refer to existing regulations in specific industrial plants. Hard hat, safety glasses, and certified boots must be worn at all times. Visitors must stay in designated areas. Safety meetings are to be conducted before work commences to discuss hazardous aspects of the work.
Safety
71
Work on scaffolds is to be done in accordance with applicable labor regulations. This may include wearing safety harnesses and belts. Visitors should be well aware of plant evacuation procedures. Visitors must be signed in and out appropriately. Applicable identification badges are to be worn and visible at all times.These are to be turned in before leaving the premises.
SAFETY ITEMS SPECIFIC TO FAN, PUMP, AND BLOWER SYSTEMS Particular attention should be paid to the following safety items while carrying out testing or analysis: The opening of electrical panels and the connection of powermeasuring equipment should be done only by qualified electricians. Before the turbo machine is physically entered or handled, electrical lockouts must be made. Most plants use a gang lock where all parties involved lock out the equipment. In this way, every lock must be removed to restart the fan, pump, or blower. Frequently two locks are required, one for the master control in a power house or electrical room and one for a local disconnect. It is important to be certain that internal pressure and temperature in ductwork or piping is at ambient temperature before access doors are opened. Even low static pressure acting against a large access panel can exert dangerous forces. Likewise, a duct that is under slightly negative pressure can cause doors to close violently and unexpectedly. Very large fans may decelerate for 20 minutes or more after shut-down before coming to a complete stop, at which time the pressures produced usually decrease. However, depending on how a fan is located in a system, duct pressures could actually increase
72
and it is advisable to monitor this before access panels are removed. Before entering the duct, check what the fan or blower system is handling. In many plants, gas checks are mandatory for confined spaces where there may be an accumulation of a hazardous gas, vapor, dust, fumes, or the creation of an oxygendeficient/enriched atmosphere. Special attention should be paid to potentially corrosive products and to dust that may have settled on duct linings. Once agitated, these may be harmful to the skin and respiratory system. Special protective clothing and breathing apparatus may be required. As well as electrical lockouts, it may be necessary to lock out steam-blowing devices, wheel-cleaning soot blowers, and water sprays. These types of devices are frequently on a timer control, which cycles on intermittently and unexpectedly. Inlet and outlet louvre dampers must be locked in a closed position before entering. Draft from the dampers opening slowly can cause a fan impeller to rotate suddenly and quickly and (windmilling). If it is necessary to inspect internal components with dampers open, the wheel should be physically constrained. Always check that instrumentation, hoses, lights, wheelrestraining devices, etc., are removed once an internal inspection is finished. Screens and guards must be replaced. Fans, pumps, and blowers typically have noise levels in excess of 85dba. Even if plant regulations do not require it, it is highly recommended that hearing protection be used at all times. In order to measure rotating speed, it will be necessary to gain access to the rotating shaft. It is recommended that noncontact tachometers be used. When the contact type is used, use caution. Likewise, caution is urged when near V-belt drives,
Safety
73
couplings, and bearings, even when these parts are enclosed by suitable guards. During testing, the rotating speeds must never exceed the manufacturer's rating or catastrophic failure may result. When testing at various points of operation, care should be taken to ensure that the equipment is not operated in an unstable region of the equipment's performance curve. Severe vibration and catastrophic equipment failure may result if: - a fan is operated in a stall condition - a pump is operated in a manner that causes cavitation It must always be recognized that the components of fans, pumps, and blowers are highly stressed. Operation and testing should be done only by knowledgeable and experienced personnel. If there is any doubt as to safety aspects of the work, refer either to a qualified plant engineer or to the manufacturer of the particular equipment involved.
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CHAPTER 6
Appendices
A - E NGINEERING S PECIALIST P ROPOSAL G UIDELINES The Performance Optimization Feasibility Study proposal should include the following outline: (1) Cover Sheet Study title Submitted to (customer name, contact, and location) Date submitted Submitted by (engineering specialist and company) (2) Executive Summary (3) Application/Process Description Equipment type and size (fan, pump, or blower system) Process information (batch, continuous, other) Fluid or material moved (air, water, gas, sewage, etc.) (4) Current Situation Current operating conditions
Appendices
75
Equipment condition (new, refurbished, etc.) Estimated service life remaining Present control scheme Future expansion plan if known (5) Potential for Energy Savings Classify options or measures to be examined into the following general categories: a) ASD (electronic, mechanical, other) b) Equipment modification (sizing, new designs, etc.) c) Process modification (process change, pony equipment, etc.) d) Other (specify) Estimated annual savings (on-peak and off-peak kW and kWh) (6) Customer Benefits (7) Scope of Work Objectives of the study Project initiatives and methodology Project schedule (8) Study Team Proposed staff Sub-contractors Resums for key personnel Type of liability insurance, if any
76
(9) Study Cost Total upset cost breakdown for each study initiative Schedule of fees Terms and conditions
Appendices
77
B - E NGINEERING S PECIALIST R EPORT F ORMAT The engineering specialists feasibility report will typically be 10 to 15 pages, plus any relevant attachments.The guidelines for producing the feasibility report are as follows: (1) Cover Sheet with Following Information Report title Submitted to (customer contact, customer name, and location) Date submitted Submitted by (engineering specialists, company) Professional engineering stamp (2) Executive Summary (3) Introduction Objective of study Scope of work (4) Application/Process Description Equipment type and size (fan, pump, or blower system) Process information (batch, continuous, other) Fluid or material moved (air, water, gas, sewage, etc.) P&ID (5) Current Conditions Discuss current operating conditions Present control schemes Equipment condition (new, refurbished, etc.)
78
Estimated service life remaining Future expansion plan (6) Feasibility Study Methodology a) Load-Data Gathering Discuss load-data gathering sources Test methodology and instrumentations used Field data summary Internal inspection of equipment Load-data sensitivity analysis b) Development of Load-Duty Cycle System curve Number of operating hours at each operating point Develop lead/duty/cycle chart and/or histogram c) Technical Options Review Equipment performance curve List at least three alternatives to optimize the system Assess viability of each technical option Identify ancillary measures to fine-tune system Analysis of Equipment condition d) Energy Assessment and Economic Analysis Develop load/duty/cycle chart for each technical option Calculate demand and energy savings for each option (on-peak and off-peak)
Appendices
79
Calculate total electrical costs savings Provide estimates or quotations for capital equipment, engineering and design work, and equipment installation costs Calculate gross simple payback, IRR, and ROI Calculate eligible incentive amount using appropriate program procedures, net customer cost, net simple payback, IRR, and ROI e) Indirect Customer Benefits Any material savings Power factor correction Increased productivity Maintenance cost savings Other (specify) (7) Conclusions Recommendations Resources required to implement recommendations (8) Attachments
80
C - G LOSSARY
OF
T ERMS
Adjustable Speed Drive: A mechanical, hydraulic, or electric system used to match motor speed to changes in process load requirements. Blower: A fan with discharge pressure from 2 psig (55.4 Wg) to 36 psig (914.6 Wg). Design Point: A point of operation generally based on a duty that is slightly higher than the highest duty ever expected for the application.This point represents a specific set of criteria used to select the fan, pump, or blower. Duty: For a fan, the inlet volume flow at a rated fan pressure; for a pump, the inlet volume at a rated head. Fan: A device that causes flow of gaseous fluid by creating a pressure difference on the medium to be transported. Field Performance Tests: Field determination of turbo machine flow, pressure and power to identify actual points of operation. Head, Dynamic or Total: In flowing fluid, the sum of the static and velocity pressures at the point of measurement. Head, Static: The static pressure of a fluid expressed in terms of the height of a column of fluid that it would support. Horsepower (Hp): The measure of work equivalent to lifting 550 lbs one foot in one second, or 745.7 watts. Load Duty Cycle: The relationship between the operating time and rest time, or repeatable operation at different loads. Load: The burden on a motor by the driven machine, sometimes synonymous with 'required power.' Motor: A device that takes electrical energy and converts it into mechanical energy to turn a shaft.
Appendices
81
Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH): The amount of pressure in excess of the fluid vapor pressure required to prevent the formation of vapor pockets. Performance Curve: A plot of the fan, pump, or blower performance characteristics from zero delivery to free flow. Point of Operation: Where the system curve intersects the pressure and flow curve on the turbo machine's actual performance curve. Pressure, Static: The pressure with respect to a surface at rest in relation to the surrounding fluid. Pressure, Total: The sum of the static pressure and the velocity pressure at the point of measurement. Pressure, Velocity: The pressure at a point in a fluid existing by virtue of its density and its rate of motion. Process and Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID): A schematic of a process that graphically represents the relationship of all process equipment to interconnecting piping, duct-work, and the associated control sensors, actuators, and controllers; usually accompanied by a sequence of operation. Process Control: How turbo machine performance is altered to satisfy system requirements. Speed Modulation: A control process whereby the speed of a rotating machine is varied between preset speeds to maintain a control setpoint. Static Efficiency of a Fan: The total efficiency multiplied by the ratio of fan static pressure to fan total pressure. Static Suction Head: The total system head on the suction side of a pump with zero flow (can be positive or negative).
82
Suction Lift: The head in reference to the system datum that is imposed on the suction of a pump and, for open systems, is the elevation of the pump above the transported fluid exposed to atmosphere. System: The combination of turbo machine and the connected hardware through which flow occurs. System Effect Factor: A factor related to the velocity of the transported medium that corrects for pressure losses due to system inlet and outlet conditions that deviate from standard test conditions. System Losses: Pressure drop across system hardware components. System Resistance: Resistance to flow resulting from the pressure drop and frictional losses of all system hardware. Throttling: An irreversible adiabatic process that involves lowering the pressure of a fluid without work to control flow rate. Turbo Machinery: Equipment that uses rotating elements to impart work on a transported medium, or that uses the energy in a flowing medium to impart work on an external load. Variable Inlet Vanes (VIVs): An inlet device that changes the dynamic characteristics of the machine as if it were a different machine at each of the vane positions.
Appendices
83
D - C ONVERSION F ACTORS Length: Areas: Volume: 1 in 1 ft. 1 in2 1 ft.2 1 in3 1 ft.3 1 Imp. Gallon 1 US Gallon 1L 1 US Gallon 1 Imp. Gallon = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = 25.4 mm 0.3048 m 0.6452 x 10-3 m2 = 645.2mm2 0.0929 m2 16.387 ml 0.02832 m3 4.546 L 3.785 L 1 x 10-3 m3 0.13368 ft3 1.20095 US Gallon 0.4719 x 10-3 m3/s 0.2728 m3/hr = 4.546 L/min 0.2271 m3/hr = 3.785 L/min 5.08 x 10-3 m/s 0.3048 m/s 0.3048 m/s2 0.4536 kg 28.35 g 16.02 kg/m3 92903 cSt = 92903 mm2/s 47880 cP = 47880 mPa.s
Volume Flow: 1 CFM 1 Imp. GPM 1 US GPM Velocity: 1 fpm 1 ft./s
Acceleration: 1 ft./s2 Mass: Density: Viscosity: Kinematic Dynamic 1 lb 1 oz. 1 lb/ft3 1 ft.2/s 1 lbs/ft2
84
Pressure:
1 in W.G. 1 in Hg 1 psi 1 kPa 1 atm 1 bar 1 in Hg 1 ft. 1 hp
= = = = = = = = =
0.2484 kPa,W.G. @ 68F 3.386 kPa, Hg @ 32F 6.895 kPa 1000 N/m2 14.696 psi 14.504 psi 13.63 in W.G. 0.3048 m 0.7457 kW
Head: Power:
Temperature: 1 F = 0.556 C 0 C Corresponds to 32 F, 273.2 K and 491.7 R For F to C : TC = (TF - 32) x .556 For F to R : TR = TF + 459.7 For C to K : TK = TC + 273.2
Appendices
85
A CKNOWLEDGEMENT Portions of this publication have been reprinted with the permission of the Air Movement and Control Association, Inc. and the Hydraulic Institute. More information on standards for the design, testing, and application of fan, pump, and blower systems is available from the above-mentioned associations. Fans/Blowers: Air Movement and Control Association, Inc. 30 West University Drive Arlington Heights, Illinois, 60004-1893 Tel: (708) 394-0150 Fax: (708) 253-0088 Hydraulic Institute 30200 Detroit Road Cleveland, Ohio, 44145 Tel: (216) 899-0010 Fax: (216) 892-1404
Pumps:
Neither of the said associations assume any liability with respect to the use or misuse of the information, data, designs, concepts, calculations, or source listing, contained in the handbook.
86
OTHER IN-HOUSE REFERENCE GUIDES:

Adjustable Speed Drives Fans Electrical Systems: Preventative Maintenance Energy Monitoring & Control Systems Lighting Lamp Substitution Motors Power Quality Power Quality Mitigation Pumps
COMMENTS: For any changes, additions and/or comments call or write to: Scott Rouse Project Manager Ontario Power Generation 700 University Avenue, H10-F18 Toronto, Ontario M5G 1X6 Telephone (416) 592-8044 Fax (416) 592-4841 E-Mail srouse@hydro.on.ca
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Performance Optimization:

Fan, Pump, & Blower Systems

Revised by: Dan Dederer, P.Eng., Enertech Solutions Inc.

Energy Savings are Good Business

Printed in Canada. Copyright 1992, 1998, 2000 Ontario Power Generation

PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF CANDIDATES ............................43

CHAPTER 3.0 3.1 Prescreening Review ...........................................................23

Fan, Pump, and Blower Systems