When was the HGP initiated and completed? Who were the proponents?

The HGP was started in October 1990 and finished in 2003. It was directed by Ari Patrinos, head of the Office of Biological and Environmental Research, and Francis Collins. Why is it important to know the sequence of the human genome? There are several benefits and potential medical and biotechnological advances that can stem from knowledge of the human genome. These include tests for genetic predisposition to various diseases like breast cancer, liver diseases, and more; easy access (for researchers) to the structure and function of any gene they want to know about; development of new therapeutic procedures; and better accuracy in tracing our evolutionary path. How are gene linkage maps and physical maps of the genome made? For the gene linkage maps, a linkage map of many thousand evenly spaced genetic markers on the chromosomes is made. The order and spacing of the markers are based on recombination frequencies. The markers may be genes or other identifiable sequences like RFLPs or microsatellites (short repetitive sequences). For the physical maps, the distances between markers are expressed in a physical quantity, such as the number of nucleotides along the DNA. The DNA of each chromosome is cut into a number of identifiable restriction fragments, and the original order of the fragments in the chromosome is determined using chromosome walking. The DNA fragments used for physical mapping are prepared by cloning. After they are cut, they are only about 1,500 base pairs long, short enough for easy sequencing. What are the uses of the technique called chromosome walking? In chromosome walking, a known gene is marked by a probe and then cut by two different restriction enzymes then cloned to produce two libraries with overlapping fragments. Probes are then used to mark the ends of each fragment that overlap with the next fragment; the areas marked by the probes become known sequences. This method is used to map genes physically. What issues attend the HGP? The HGP has various ethical, legal, and social issues. These include fairness in the use of genetic information (who should have access to it and why?), privacy, uncertainty in gene tests for susceptibilities and complex conditions (like heart disease) associated with more than one gene, philosophical issues (can genes be associated with human behavior?), health and environmental issues caused by genetically modified food and microorganisms, and many others. What is the patent controversy related to the HGP? The criteria required for patenting gene fragments are that the discoverer(s) must identify new sequences, be able to specify the product of the sequence and the function of this product in nature, and enable one skilled in genetics to use the sequence for its stated purpose. However, most such discoverers provide vague functions for their discoveries, such as being used as a probe to discover more new genetic sequences. This fails to satisfy any of the criteria for patentingresearchers will also have a difficult time studying the discovered gene, especially when many different people hold patents on different parts of the same genomethe researcher will have to pay them all apart from his own staff to study the sequence. How can these issues be resolved? In 1990, the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) released stricter criteria which require the exact function in nature to be stated before one can earn a patent.