The Digestive System

"Just a spoonful of sugar... " goes the song. But what happens to that sugar once you swallow it? In fact, how is it that you are able to swallow it at all? Your digestive system performs amazing feats every day, whether you eat a double cheeseburger or a stalk of celery. Read on to learn what exactly happens to food as it makes its way through your digestive system. What Is Digestion? Digestion is the complex process of turning the food you eat into the energy you need to survive. The digestion process also involves creating waste to be eliminated. The digestive tract (or gut) is a long twisting tube that starts at the mouth and ends at the anus. It is made up of a series of muscles that coordinate the movement of food and other cells that produce enzymes and hormones to aid in the breakdown of food. Along the way are three other organs that are needed for digestion: the liver, gallbladder, and the pancreas.

Food's Journey Through the Digestive System Stop 1: The Mouth The mouth is the beginning of the digestive system, and, in fact, digestion starts here before you even take the first bite of a meal. The smell of food triggers the salivary glands in your mouth to secrete saliva, causing your mouth to water. When you actually taste the food, saliva increases. Once you start chewing and breaking the food down into pieces small enough to be digested other mechanisms come into play. More saliva is produced to begin the process of breaking down food into a form your body can absorb and use. In addition, "juices" are produced that will help to further break down food. Stop 2: The Pharynx and Esophagus Also called the throat, the pharynx is the portion of the digestive tract that receives the food from your mouth. Branching off the pharynx is the esophagus, which carries food to the stomach, and the trachea or windpipe, which carries air to the lungs.

The act of swallowing takes place in the pharynx partly as a reflex and partly under voluntary control. The tongue and soft palate -- the soft part of the roof of the mouth -- push food into the pharynx, which closes off the trachea. The food then enters the esophagus. The esophagus is a muscular tube extending from the pharynx and behind the trachea to the stomach. Food is pushed through the esophagus and into the stomach by means of a series of contractions called peristalsis. Just before the opening to the stomach is an important ring-shaped muscle called the lower esophageal sphincter (LES). This sphincter opens to let food pass into the stomach and closes to keep it there. If your LES doesn't work properly, you may suffer from a condition called GERD, or reflux, which causes heartburn and regurgitation (the feeling of food coming back up). Stop 3: The Stomach and Small Intestine The stomach is a sac-like organ with strong muscular walls. In addition to holding food, it serves as the mixer and grinder of food. The stomach secretes acid and powerful enzymes that continue the process of breaking the food down and changing it to a consistency of liquid or paste. From there, food moves to the small intestine. Between meals the non-liquefiable remnants are released from the stomach and ushered through the rest of the intestines to be eliminated. Made up of three segments -- the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum -- the small intestine also breaks down food using enzymes released by the pancreas and bile from the liver. Peristalsis is also at work in this organ, moving food through and mixing it up with the digestive secretions from the pancreas and liver, including bile. The duodenum is largely responsible for the continuing breakdown process, with the jejunum and ileum being mainly responsible for absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream. A more technical name for this part of the process is "motility" since it involves moving or emptying food particles from one part to the next. This process is highly dependant on the activity of a large network of nerves, hormones, and muscles. Problems with any of these components can cause a variety of conditions. While food is in the small intestine, nutrients are absorbed through the walls and into the bloodstream. What's leftover (the waste) moves into the large intestine (large bowel or colon). Everything above the large intestine is called the upper GI tract. Everything below is the lower GI tract Stop 4: The Colon, Rectum, and Anus The colon (large intestine) is a five- to seven -foot -long muscular tube that connects the small intestine to the rectum. It is made up of the ascending (right) colon, the transverse (across) colon, the descending (left) colon and the sigmoid colon, which connects to the rectum. The appendix is a small tube attached to the ascending colon. The large intestine is a highly specialized organ that is responsible for processing waste so that defecation (excretion of waste) is easy and convenient. Stool, or waste left over from the digestive process, passes through the colon by means of peristalsis, first in a liquid state and ultimately in solid form. As stool passes through the colon, any remaining water is absorbed. Stool is stored in the sigmoid (S-shaped) colon until a "mass movement" empties it into the rectum, usually once or twice a day. It normally takes about 36 hours for stool to get through the colon. The stool itself is mostly food debris and bacteria. These bacteria perform several useful functions, such as synthesizing various vitamins, processing waste products and food particles, and protecting against harmful bacteria. When the descending colon becomes full of stool it empties its contents into the rectum to begin the process of elimination. The rectum is an eight-inch chamber that connects the colon to the anus. The rectum:

Receives stool from the colon. Lets the person know there is stool to be evacuated. Holds the stool until evacuation happens. When anything (gas or stool) comes into the rectum, sensors send a message to the brain. The brain then decides if the rectal contents can be released or not. If they can, the sphincters relax and the rectum contracts, expelling its contents. If the contents cannot be expelled, the sphincters contract and the rectum accommodates so that the sensation temporarily goes away. The anus is the last part of the digestive tract. It consists of the muscles that line the pelvis (pelvic floor muscles) and two other muscles called anal sphincters (internal and external). The pelvic floor muscle creates an angle between the rectum and the anus that stops stool from coming out when it is not supposed to. The anal sphincters provide fine control of stool. The internal sphincter is always tight, except when stool enters the rectum. It keeps us continent (not releasing stool) when we are asleep or otherwise unaware of the presence of stool. When we get an urge to defecate (go to the bathroom), we rely on our external sphincter to keep the stool in until we can get to the toilet. Accessory Digestive Organs Pancreas Among other functions, the pancreas is the chief factory for digestive enzymes that are secreted into the duodenum, the first segment of the small intestine. These enzymes break down protein, fats, and carbohydrates. Liver The liver has multiple functions, but two of its main functions within the digestive system are to make and secrete an important substance called bile and to process the blood coming from the small intestine containing the nutrients just absorbed. The liver purifies this blood of many impurities before traveling to the rest of the body. Gallbladder The gallbladder is a storage sac for excess bile. Bile made in the liver travels to the small intestine via the bile ducts. If the intestine doesn't need it, the bile travels into the gallbladder where it awaits the signal from the intestines that food is present. Bile serves two main purposes. First, it helps absorb fats in the diet and secondly, it carries waste from the liver that cannot go through the kidneys.

III. DISORDERS/DISEASES IN THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Appendicitis
Appendicitis is an inflammation of the appendix, a 3 1/2-inch-long tube of tissue that extends from the large intestine. No one is absolutely certain what the function of the appendix is. One thing we do know: We can live without it, without apparent consequences. Appendicitis is a medical emergency that requires prompt surgery to remove the appendix. Left untreated, an inflamed appendix will eventually burst, or perforate, spilling infectious materials into the abdominal cavity. This can lead to peritonitis, a serious inflammation of the abdominal cavity's lining (the peritoneum) that can be fatal unless it is treated quickly with strong antibiotics. What Causes Appendicitis? Appendicitis occurs when the appendix becomes blocked, often by stool, a foreign body, or cancer. Blockage may also occur from infection, since the appendix swells in response to any infection in the body.

What Are the Symptoms of Appendicitis? The classic symptoms of appendicitis include: Dull pain near the navel or the upper abdomen that becomes sharp as it moves to the lower right abdomen. This is usually the first sign. Loss of appetite Nausea and/or vomiting soon after abdominal pain begins Abdominal swelling Fever of 99 F to 102 F Inability to pass gas Almost half the time, other symptoms of appendicitis appear, including: Dull or sharp pain anywhere in the upper or lower abdomen, back, or rectum Painful urination Vomiting that precedes the abdominal pain Severe cramps Constipation or diarrhea with gas

ULCERS
There is no clear evidence to suggest that the stress of modern life or a steady diet of fast food causes ulcers in the stomach and small intestine, but they are nonetheless common in our society: About one out of every 10 Americans will suffer from the burning, gnawing abdominal pain of a peptic (or gastric) ulcer sometime in life. Peptic ulcers are holes or breaks in the protective lining of the duodenum (the upper part of the small intestine) or the stomach -- areas that come into contact with stomach acids and enzymes. Duodenal ulcers are more common than stomach ulcers. Comparatively rare are esophageal ulcers, which form in the esophagus -- or swallowing tube -- and are often a result of alcohol abuse. Other studies show that stomach ulcers are more likely to develop in elderly people. This may be because arthritis is prevalent in the elderly, and alleviating arthritis pain can mean taking daily doses of aspirin or ibuprofen. Another contributing factor may be that with advancing age the pylorus (the valve between the stomach and duodoneum) relaxes and allows excess bile (a compound produced in the liver to aid in digestion) to seep up into the stomach and erode the stomach lining. Also, for no known reason, people with type A blood are more likely to develop cancerous stomach ulcers. Duodenal ulcers tend to appear in people with type O blood, possibly because they do not produce the substance on the surface of blood cells that may protect the lining of the duodenum. Fortunately, peptic ulcers are relatively easy to treat; in many cases they are cured with antibiotics, antacids, and other drugs that reduce the amount of acid produced by the stomach. There are also a variety of self-help and alternative treatments that can aid in relieving pain and in healing ulcers. Still, the dangers associated with peptic ulcers -- such as anemia, profuse bleeding, and stomach cancer -- are serious, so ulcers should always be monitored by your doctor.

ULCERATIVE COLITIS
The symptoms of ulcerative colitis may include:

Diarrhea or rectal urgency. Some people may have diarrhea 10 to 20 times a day. The urge to go to the bathroom may wake you up at night. Rectal bleeding. Ulcerative colitis usually causes bloody diarrhea and mucus. You also may have rectal pain and an urgent need to empty your bowels. Abdominal (belly) pain, often described as cramping. Your abdomen may be sore when touched. Constipation. This symptom may develop depending on what part of the colon is affected. Constipation is much less common than diarrhea. Loss of appetite. Fever. In severe cases, fever or other symptoms that affect the entire body may develop. Weight loss. Ongoing (chronic) symptoms, such as diarrhea, can lead to weightloss. Too few red blood cells (anemia). Some people develop anemia because of low iron levels caused by bloody stools or intestinal inflammation. You also may have symptoms and complications outside the digestive tract, such as joint pain, eye problems, skin rash, or liver disease.

COLON CANCER
Colon cancer and cancer of the rectum usually begin as a small polyp. While most colon polyps are benign, some do become cancerous. Colon cancer symptoms may include a change in bowel habits or bleeding, but usually colon cancer strikes without symptoms. Thats why its important to get a colon cancer screening test, such as a colonoscopy. If the cancer is found early, the doctor can use surgery, radiation, and/or chemotherapy for effective treatment.
In its early stage, colorectal cancer usually produces no symptoms. The most likely warning signs include: Changes in bowel movements, including persistent constipation or diarrhea, a feeling of not being able to empty the bowel completely, an urgency to move the bowels, rectal cramping, or rectal bleeding Dark patches of blood in or on stool; or long, thin, "pencil stools" Abdominal discomfort or bloating Unexplained fatigue, loss of appetite, and/or weight loss Pelvic pain, which occurs at later stages of the disease

III. Muscular and Skeletal System Diseases

Following is a list of skeletal system diseases along with their causes and effects.

Bursitis: It's a disorder that causes pain in the body's joints especially shoulder and hip joints due to overactivity of an arm or leg. Bursitis mainly occurs due to inflammation of the bursa, small fluid-filled bags which act as lubricating surfaces for muscles to move over bones. Osteoporosis: Of the many human skeletal system diseases, osteoporosis is the most common disorder that results due to loss of bone tissue. It's more commonly observed in elderly people and in women, and occurs due to less calcium and phosphorous deposition in the bones.

Sprain: It's an extremely painful injury to a ligament or tissue that covers a joint. It results due to a sudden wrench that stretches or tears the tissues of the ligaments and causes swelling in the affected area. Spina Bifida: It's a spinal defect which is present at the time of childbirth. In this, the spinal cord does not develop properly and the vertebrae and skin are unable to shape themselves around it. It results from an error in the development of the embryo due to intake of alcohol, excessive medications or exposure to extreme heat, a month after a woman becomes pregnant.

Arthritis: It's a common joint disorder characterized by inflammation of the joints, pain, swelling, stiffness and tenderness in the swollen part. It may occur due to aging, injury, infection, mineral deficiency or hereditary factors. Arthritis is most commonly observed in old people as the cartilage covering the joints (to protect the bones from getting damaged or

ruptured due to friction) does not develop properly. Scoliosis: It's a skeletal system disease in which the person's spine is curved from side to side like a 's' shape. The disorder becomes apparent during adolescence and usually affects girls more than boys. Read more on scoliosis: causes, symptoms and treatment.

Osteomyelitis: It's a bone infection caused due to a certain strain of the Staphylococcus bacteria which is transported by the blood to the bones from infected areas. Osteomyelitis is characterized by severe pain in the infected bone, fever, chills, nausea and weakness. Talipes Equinovarus: Also called clubfoot, it's one out of many muscular skeletal system diseases present at the time of birth. It's a disorder in which the foot is bent downward and inward and so the person can walk only on the toes or sometimes the foot is bent upward and

outward and the person can use only the heel for walking. Tendinitis: Also called rheumatism, it's an inflammation or irritation of the tendon, involving stiffness or pain in the muscles or joints. Rickets: It's a skeletal system disease that causes bowed legs in children due to deficiency of vitamin D and calcium. Kyphosis: Also known as hunchback, it's a forward bending of the spine due to deformation of the bones in the upper part of the spine. Diseases that can lead to kyphosis are tuberculosis, syphilis, and rheumatoid arthritis.

Poliomyelitis: Often known as polio or infantile paralysis, it's an acute infection caused by a virus that may attack the nerve cells of the brain and spinal cord, causing paralysis.

Skeletal System (Parts, Function, Diseases and Disorder

Objectives:
a. Discuss the importance and function of Skeletal System. b. Point out the parts of Skeletal System. c. Enumerate the different diseases and disorder.

Learning Content:
The Skeletal System serves much important functions 1. It supports the body. 2. It protects the delicate organ in the body. 3. Bone serves as attachments for the skeletal muscles. 4. Bone for joints which makes motion possible. Introduction To Skeletal System Bones Its 206 bones form a rigid framework to which the softer tissues and organs of the body are attached. Vital organs are protected by the skeletal system. The brain is protected by the surrounding skull as the heart and lungs are encased by the sternum and rib cage. Bodily movement is carried out by the interaction of the muscular and skeletal systems. For this reason, they are often grouped together as the muscular-skeletal system. Muscles are connected to bones by tendons. Bones are connected to each other by ligaments. Where bones meet one another is typically called a joint. Muscles which cause movement of a joint are connected to two different bones and contract to pull them together. An example would be the contraction of the biceps and a relaxation of the triceps. This produces a bend at the elbow. The contraction of the triceps and relaxation of the biceps produces the effect of straightening the arm. Blood cells are produced by the marrow located in some bones. An average of 2.6 million red blood cells are produced each second by the bone marrow to replace those worn out and destroyed by the liver. Bones serve as a storage area for minerals such as calcium and phosphorus. When an excess is present in the blood, buildup will occur within the bones. When the supply of these minerals within the blood is low, it will be withdrawn from the bones to replenish the supply. A. Functions of Bone 1. Support. Provide a hard framework. 2. Protection of many vital organs. 3. Movement. Act as levers with skeletal muscles moving them. Joints control possible movements. 4. Mineral storage. Especially calcium and phosphate, critical minerals for cellular function. Continuous deposition and withdrawal. Exquisite control of Ca++ (calcium

ions) levels necessary for function of nerves, muscles, blood coagulation and other functions. Most of Ca++ in body in bones. Osteoclasts & osteoblasts controlled by hormones which regulate blood levels of Ca++. 5. Blood cell formation. Certain bones have active marrow. B. Structure 1. Compact-Dense outer layer, looks smooth and solid. Contains cylinder of concentric layers with central canals. a. Haversian system = circles of bone (lamella) with central canal (Haversian canal) b. Central canal contain blood vessels & nerves. Connected at right angles to network. c. Perforating small canals - blood vessels & nerves go through lamellar bone to supply osteocytes. Connect to periosteum. d. Osteocytes live in bone, maintain it. Live in holes called lacunae. Connect to each other and central canal via canaliculi, little canals. Pass nutrients, waste products 2. Spongy- honeycombed, open spaces. Same structure as compact but less regular. Withstand maximum stress with least weight. In bone interiors & weird weight bearing bones like head of femur. Not organized in lamella. Trabeculae are arranged along lines of stress. Osteocytes interconnected by canaliculi. Nutrients reach osteocytes by diffusing through the canaliculi from capillaries. Osteoporosis - More bone resorption than deposition, very weak bone.

Skeletal System
A. Axial skeleton Principal supportive structure of the body includes skull, vertebrae, sternum & ribs. Central column of the skeleton from which arms and legs & bones that help them hang. B. Appendicular skeleton Provides fairly freely movable frame for upper & lower limbs. Includes pectoral (shoulder) & pelvic (hip) girdles, arms, forearms, wrists, hands, thighs, legs & feet. Joints Bones -> framework; muscles -> power; joints provide mechanism that allows body to move A joint is where 2 adjacent bones or cartilages or combination thereof meet. Most joints movable, some not. General Structure 1. Articular cartilage 2. Joint (synovial) cavity 3. Articular capsule - external layer = fibrous capsule, inner layer is a synovial membrane

4. Synovial fluid-occupies all free spaces within the joint capsule, fluid derived by filtration from blood flowing thorough the capillaries in the synovial membrane 5. Reinforcing ligaments

Types of Bone Tissue

Bone cells are called osteocytes, and the matrix of the bone is made of calcium salts and collagen. The calcium salts give bones the strength for its supportive and protective functions. The function of osteocytes is to regulate the amount of calcium that is deposited in or removed from the bone matrix. Bone is an organ, it has its own blood supply and is made up of two types of tissue; compact and spongy bone. There are two types of bone tissue: compact and spongy. The names imply that the two types of differ in density, or how tightly the tissue is packed together. There are three types of cells that contribute to bone homeostasis. Osteoblasts are bone-forming cell, osteoclasts resorb or break down bone, and osteocytes are mature bone cells. An equilibrium between osteoblasts and osteoclasts maintains bone tissue. Compact bone consists of closely packed osteons or haversian systems. The osteon consists of a central canal called the osteonic (haversian) canal, which is surrounded by concentric rings (lamellae) of matrix. Between the rings of matrix, the bone cells (osteocytes) are located in spaces called lacunae. Small channels (canaliculi) radiate from the lacunae to the osteonic (haversian) canal to provide passageways through the hard matrix. In compact bone, the haversian systems are packed tightly together to form what appears to be a solid mass. The osteonic canals contain blood vessels that are parallel to the long axis of the bone. These blood vessels interconnect, by way of perforating canals, with vessels on the surface of the bone. Spongy (cancellous) bone is lighter and less dense than compact bone. Spongy bone consists of plates (trabeculae) and bars of bone adjacent to small, irregular cavities that contain red bone marrow. The canaliculi connect to the adjacent cavities, instead of a central haversian canal, to receive their blood supply. It may appear that the trabeculae are arranged in a haphazard manner, but they are organized to provide maximum strength similar to braces that are used to support a building. The trabeculae of spongy bone follow the lines of stress and can realign if the direction of stress change.