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Metode Penelitian Paradigma Tradisional

Pertemuan IV MPK 1 Program S2 Reguler Dept. Ilmu Komunikasi FISIP UI

Babbie, Earl. (2008). The Basics of Social Research. CA: Thomson Wadsworth Creswell, John W. (2003). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. 2nd Ed. London: Sage Publ. Neuman, W. Lawrence. (2011). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. 7th Ed. Boston: Pearson Eduation, Inc. Hidayat, Dedy N. (2006). Meluruskan Dikotomi Penelitian Kualitatif Kuantitatif. Tesis Vol V/No. 3. Depok: FISIP - UI

References

Elements of Inquiry
Alternative Knowledge Claims Strategies of Inquiry Methods

POSTPOSITIVISM Determination Reductionism Empirical Observation and Measurement Theory verification

CONSTRUCTIVISM Understanding Multiple participant meaning Social and historical construction Theory generation

Approaches to Research
Qualitative Quantitative Mixed Methods

Design Processes of Research


Questions Theoretical lens Data collection Data analysis Write up Validation

ADVOCACY/PARTICIPATORY Political Empowerment Collaborative Change Oriented

PRAGMATISM Consequences of actions Problem centered Pluralistic Real world practice oriented

Elements of Inquiry

(Creswell, 2003: 5)

Alternative Knowledge Claims Positions


(Creswell, 2003: 6)

QUANTITATIVE Experimental designs Non experimental design (e.g. Survey)

QUALITATIVE

MIXED METHODS

Narratives Sequential Phenomenologies Concurent Ethnographies Transformative Grounded theory Case studies

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS Predetermined Instrument based questions Performance data, attitude data, observational data, and census data Statistical analysis

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS Emerging methods Open ended questions Interview data, observations data, document data, and audiovisual data Text and image analysis

MIXED METHODS RESEARCH METHODS Both predetermined and emerging methods Both open and closed ended questions Multiple forms of data drawing on all possibilities Statistical and text analysis

Alternative Strategies of Inquiry


(Creswell, 2003: 13)

Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Methods Procedure


(Creswell, 2003: 17)

Audience for and Use of Research Basic Applied Evaluation Action Social Impact

Purpose of Research Explore Describe Explain

Time Dimension in Research Cross Sectional Longitudinal Time Series Panel Cohort Case Study

Data Collection and Analysis Techniques Quantitative (Experiment; Survey; Non reactive: content analysis, secondary analysis, existing statistics) Qualitative (Field: ethnography, partipant observation; Historical comparative)

Units of Analysis
Satuan satuan yang akan diteliti karakteristiknya

Population
Totalitas dari units of analysis

Populasi Sampling Frame Sample

Sample
Sejumlah units analysis yang diambil dari populasi dan diasumsikan mewakili populasi

Totalitas individu warga DKI Jakarta Daftar nama warga di Kelurahan Individu yang dipilih secara acak

Sampling Frame
Populasi atau bagian dari populasi yang bisa diidentifikasi untuk pemilihan atau penarikan sampel

Dimensions of Social Research


(Neuman, 2006: 23)

Pengantar

Identify Population, determine sampling size, and sampling frame

Single stage
Single or multistage? Probability or non probability?

Multistage / Clustering Ideal when it is impossible or impractical to compile a list of elements composing the population Researcher obtain names of individuals within groups or clusters, and then samples within the clusters

Researcher has a direct access to names in the populations and can sample the people (and other elements) directly

Selecting the sample and sample size

Stratified or not?

From Population to Sample ... (Cresswell, 2003: 156 157)

Sampling Design

Purposive Sample (Non Probability) Judgmental Quota Accidental Convenience Snowball Deviant case

Non Purposive Sample (Probability) Simple Random Systematic Random Stratified Random Cluster Random

Probability Sample Random Systematic

Non Probability Sample Convenience Availability

Sampling Design
2011: 272)

(Lebih lanjut di Neuman,

The Selection Process of Individuals

Ditentukan oleh populasi, level of confidence dan confidence interval Contoh penentuan sampel size:
Sebuah kota di area Jabodetabekjur memiliki jumlah penduduk 1.300.000 jiwa. Jumlah penduduk yang memiliki hak pilih adalah 700.000 orang. Berapa sample size yang harus digunakan oleh pollster untuk mengetahui popularitas dan elektabilitas calon calon Walikota untuk kota tersebut? Sample size formula Contoh lainnya

Sample Size Formula

Survey Experiment Case Study

Quantitative
Survey
A survey design provides a quantitative or numeric description of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a population by studying a sample of that populations (Creswell, 2003: 153)

Qualitative
Researchers capture and discover meaning once they become immersed in the data Concepts are in the forms of themes, motifs, generalization, and taxonomies Measures are created in an ad hoc manner and are often specific to the individual setting or researcher Data are in the form of words and images from documents, observations, and transcripts Theory can be causal or non causal and is often inductive Research procedures are particular, and replication is very rare Analysis proceeds by extracting themes or generalizations from eveidences and organizing data to present a coherent, consistent picture

Experiment
An experiment aims to test the impact of a treatment (or an intervention) on an outcome, controlling for all other factors that might influence that outcome (creswell, 2003: 153154)

Case Study ...observe a small set intensely across time (Neuman, 2006: 42)

Researchers test hypotheses that are stated at the beginning Concepts are in the form of distinct variables Measures are systematically created before data collection and are standardized Data are in the forms of numbers from precise measurement Theory is largely causal and is deductive Precedures are standard and replication is frequent Analysis is proceeds by using statistics, tables, or charts and discussing how what they show relates to hypotheses

Metode Penelitian Arus Utama

Quantitative Vs. Qualitative

Behavior

Attitudes / Beliefs / Opinion

Characteristics

Expectations

Self classification

Knowledge

Survey

What is Asked in a Survey?


(Neuman, 2006: 273)

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6

Develop Hypothesis

Decide on type of survey

Write survey questions

Decide on response categories

Design lay out

Census
Plan how to record data Pilot test survey instrument Decide on target population Get sampling frame Decide on sample size

Sample

Select sample

Locate respondents

Conduct interviews

Carefully record data

Cross Sectional

Longitudinal

Enter data into computers

Recheck all data

Perform statistical analysis on data

Describe methods and findings in research report

Present findings to others for critiques and evaluation

Panel Survey

Cohort Survey

Trend Survey

Steps in the Process of Survey Research (Neuman, 2006: 277)

Survey

Panel Individu atau responden yang sama disurvey lebih dari satu kali sehingga memungkinkan kajian mengenai individu atau kelompok

Cohort Penggunaan data survey dari suatu populasi tertentu dengan mengamati perubahan pada suatu cohort. Sampel dari cohort terdiri dari individu atau responden yang berbeda

Trend Suatu pertanyaan penelitian dikaji melalui survey yang berulang kali dilakukan terhadap sampel yang berbeda dari suatu populasi

Panel Survey
Populasi sama, Sampel sama Perubahan Individu

Cohort Survey
Populasi Sama, Sub Populasi (Cohort) Sama, Sampel beda Perubahan Cohort

Trend Survey
Populasi Sama, Sampel Beda Perubahan Variabel

Longitudinal Survey

Longitudinal Survey

Panel Survey

Cohort Survey

Trend Survey

Retrospective
A

Recall Perbandingan dengan pengukuran saat itu

Follow Up

Desain cross sectional Perbandingan dengan secondary data topik yang sama

B A

Catch - Up

Cross sectional untuk topik yang sama Sampel yang sama dengan penelitian yang lalu

Longitudinal Survey

Panel Survey

Pembaca Majalah Berita berdasarkan Cohort (Age Effects)

Umur 18 21 22 25 26 30

1992 15 34 48

1996 12 32 44

2000 10 28 35

Analisis inter cohort differences . Pembaca majalah berita lebih banyak mereka yang berada dalam kelompok umur 26 30 tahun dibandingkan dengan kelompok umur yang lebih muda

Pembaca Majalah Berita berdasarkan Cohort (Cohort Effects)

Umur 18 21 22 25 26 30

1992 15 34 48

1996 12 32 44

2000 10 28 35

Intra cohort study. Pembaca majalah berita pada cohort meningkat pada tahun 1996 dan tahun 2000

Cohort = Kelompok orang atau satuan


analisis yang berada pada suatu ruang dan waktu (age group)

Cohort

Pembaca Majalah Berita berdasarka n Cohort (Period Effects)

Umur 18 21 22 25 26 30

1992 15 34 48

1996 12 32 44

2000 10 28 35

PANEL Studi klasik komunikasi The People Choice Observe the exact (Lazarsfeld, Berelson, & Gaudet) mewawancara same people at two or 600 orang responden selama bulan Mei 1940. more times hasil: Mereka yang sudah memiliki pilihan pada survey pertama tidak akan tertarik pada kampanye kandidat lain pada survey berikutnya. COHORT Observe people who shared an experience at two or more times TREND Observe different people at multiple times Studi tentang konsumsi alkohol pada kelompok sampel usia 18 tahun di tahun 1980, kemudian pada sampel usia 28 tahun pada tahun 1990, dan pada sampel usia 38 tahun pada tahun 2000. Studi Public Opinion mengenai pentingnya isu gender di Indonesia. Pada tahun 1970, 10% mengatakan penting. Tahun 1980, 30%. Tahun 1990, 40%. Variabilitas berubah.

Period Effects. Presentase majalah berita bervariasi tahun 1992,1996, dan 2000 pada masing masing cohort

Cohort

Contoh Panel, Cohort, dan Trend Survey (definition by Neuman, 2006: 42)

Self administered questionnaires

Interviews

Structured record reviews (financial, medical, or school)

Structured observations

Data Collection Forms

Experiment

Participants

Random

Non Random

Variables

Independent / Treatment Variables

Dependent / Response Variables

Experiment

PreExperiment True Experiment

Instrumentation & Materials

Customized

Procedures

Preexperiment

Quasi experiment

True experiment

Ex-postfacto / Natural

Field

Laboratory

Measures

Customized

Quasi Experiment

Experiment s Standard Form


(Creswell, 2003: 162)

Experiment

History effects

Efek peristiwa yang terjadi dalam periode eksperimen Efek perkembangan dalam diri subyek yang langsung terkait dengan atribut (variabel dependen) yang ingin diteliti Efek reaksi subyek terhadap proses eksperimen yang mempengaruhi penampilan mereka (mis. Reaksi pretest yang mempengaruhi posttest)

Pre - Experiment
Xtreatment O1

Maturation effects Testing effects

True Experiment
O1 Xtreatment Randomization O2controlgroup O11 O21

Instrumentation Efek perubahan karakteristik atau prosedur penggunaan effects instrumen dalam eksperimen Selection biases Statistical Regression efffects Mortality Interaction Bias dalam pemilihan subyek eksperimen Efek statistik kecenderungan mereka yang semula memperoleh skor tinggi untuk memperoleh skor yang mendekati rata rata pada skor berikutnya Perubahan jumlah subyek selama periode eksperimen Efek yang ditimbulkan oleh dua atau lebih faktor, antara berbagai sumber invaliditas ataupun sumber sumber invaliditas dengan treatment (mis. selection & history)

Quasi Experiment
O1 Xtreatment O2controlgroup O11 O21

Experimental Designs

Sources of Internal Invalidity in Experiment (Neuman, 2006)

One Shot Case Study One Group Pretest Posttest Static Group Comparison
O1

Mortality, maturation, history; No time order; No control group (methods of differences)

Pretest R Posttest Control Group

O1 O3

X X

O2 O4
Testingtreatment interaction effect

O2

Maturation, history; Testing, instrumentation, regression; No control group (methods of differences)

O1

Posttest Only R Control Group

X O2

Testing mortality interaction (in a long term expertiment

O1 O2

Mortality, maturation; Selection

Solomon Four Group

O1 O3

X X

O2 O4 O5 O6

Pre Experiment & Invalidity

True Experiment & Invalidity

Non Equivalent Control Group


O1 O3 X

History, maturarion, selection; Testing treatment interaction effect


O2 O4

Quasi Experiment & Invalidity

Case Study

Research that is an in-depth examination of extensive amount of information about very few units or cases for one period or across multiple periods of time ...involves the study of an issue explore through one or more cases within a bounded system (setting or context) Popular in psychology, medicine, law, political science Research questions: how or why Investigators has a little or no possibility to control the events Contemporary phenomenon in a real life context

Conceptual Validity Heuristic Impact Causal Mechanism Identifiication Ability to capture complexity and trace processes Calibration Holistic elaboration

What is Case Study?

Case Studys 6 Strength


2011: 42)

(Neuman,

Exploratory

Case Study
Single Case Single Level Analysis Single Case Multi Level Analysis Multi Cases Single Level Analysis Multi Cases Multi Level Analysis

Pengetahuan tentang obyek penelitian relatif sedikit Eksplorasi fenomena seperti kelompok atau lingkungan Ditujukan untuk merumuskan permasalahan penelitian lebih khusus untukdikaji lebih lanjut

Descriptive
Deskripsi sesuatu yang sudah terstruktur, fokus pada beberapa dimenasi Deskripsi komunitas, kelompok, atau situasi selengkap dan setepat mungkin Menggunakan ukuran spesifik yang berdasarkan pada angka

Explanatory
Dilakukan untuk mengkaji secara formal hubungan antar variabel

Case Study

Sifat Studi

(Neuman, 2000)

Contoh Desain Case Study


Explorative Single Case Unilevel Analysis Eksplorasi rasionalitas yang mendasari kehidupan sehari hari atau praktek bertani sebuah pertanian keluarga (family farm) Descriptive Deskripsi substantive rationality dan perbedaannya dengan formal rationality yang mendasari kegiatan bertani sebuah pertanian keluarga dan bagaimana rasionalitas itu diwujudkan sebagai respon atas situasi pasar yang dimunculkan oleh penetrasi kapitalisme dalam pertanian Explanative Eksplanasi proses bagaimana elemen substantive rationality telah mendorong sebuah pertanian keluarga untuk mengambil respons tertentu terhadap situasi pasar yang negatif maupun positif, dan yang menyebabkan pertanian keluarga tersebut mampu mempertahankan eksistensinya di tengah ekspansi kapitalisme dalam pertanian

Contoh Desain Case Study


Explorative Multi Cases multilevel Analysis Eksplorasi rasionalitas yang mendasari kehidupan sejumlah keluarga petani serta eksplorasi struktur hubungan hubungan sosial produk pertanian, dan pola intervensi negara dalam mekanisme pasar pertanian, dsb dimana keluarga pertani tersebut berada Descriptive Deskripsi struktur hubungan hubungan sosial pertanian dan struktur pasar yang tercipta setelah masuknya kapitalisme dalam pertanian, serta respons yang diberikan dua keluarga pertani yeoman (substantive rationality) dan dua keluarga petani yankee (formal rationality) Explanative Eksplanasi tentang bagaimana proses rasionalitas petani yeoman (substantive) dan yankee (formal), struktur hubungan sosial pertanian, struktur pasar produk pertanian, serta kebijakan pemerintah dalam pertanian, telah mempengaruhi eksistensi pertanian keluarga di tengah ekspansi kapitalisme ke sektor pertanian

Cross Sectional Sample Survey Treatment (stimulus) Analisis Data Tidak Ada Eksploratif Deskriptif Eksplanatif Measured variable across subject Ada

Laboratory Experiment

Case Study

Tidak Ada Eksploratif Deskriptif Eksplanatif Observed / measured variable w/in b/win subject Ada (kontinum) Melalui desain

Eksplanatif

Variabel Independen

Manipulated variable accross group of subject Ada (diskrit) Melalui desain dan analisis /manipulasi data Relatif homogen

Dimensi Waktu Pengontrolan extraneous variable

Tidak Ada Sebagian besar melalui analisis /manipulasi data Relatif heterogen

Penutup

Komposisi subyek dari segi extraneous variable

Relatif homogen

Perbandingan Karakteristik Umum

Generalisasi Deskriptif

Generalisasi

Konseptual/ Teoretikal

Kontekstual

Metode Penelitian Metode Pengumpulan Data Teknik Sampling Sample Size Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Validitas Eksternal (populasi sampel)

Validitas Internal (konsep indikator & teori korelasi var)

Validitas Eksternal (konteks empirik umum konteks penelitian)

Generalisasi Hasil Penelitian

Latihan

Karakteristik Paradigma Penelitian


(Dedy N. Hidayat, 2005)
Traditional Positivism/ Postpositivism They Objectivist Ilmu sosial seperti ilmu alam, gabungan deductive logic dengan pengamatan empiris untuk menemukan konfirmasi hukum sebab akibat yang memiliki explanative dan predictive power Construc t-ionism Constructi -vism Critical Construc ti-onism Critical Theories

Traditional Positivism/ Post positivism Nomothetic

Construction ism

Construct-ivism

Critical Constructionism Ideographic / nomothetic Reflexivity / Authenticity Ontological / educative authenticity Catalytic autheticity Tactical

Critical Theories

I / We Relativist Ilmu sosial sebagai analisis sistematis socially meaningful action melalui pengamatan langsung terperinci terhadap pelaku sosial dalam setting alamiah untuk memahami pelaku sosial menciptakan dan mengelola dunianya

You Realist Mendefinisikan ilmu sosial sebagai proses yang secara kritis mengungkap the real structures di balik iluasi, false need, yang dinampakkan dunia materi, dengan tujuan membentuk kesadaran sosial untuk melakukan transformasi sosial dan memperbaiki kondisi kehidupan mereka Objectivity External validity Internal validity Reliability

Nomothetic / Ideographic Transferability Trustworthiness Credibility Dependability

Ideographic

Ideographic / nomothetic Historical situatedness Enlightenment (conscience) Empowerment (action) Holistics

Quality Criteria Reflexivity / Authenticity Confirmation (subject)

Karakteristik & Quality Criteria authenticity Confirmation Confirmation Confirmation Confirmation Paradigma Penelitian(subject (Dedy (theory) N. Hidayat, (object) (peer inter
2005)
subjectivity) researcher)

Metode Paradigma Penelitian


(Dedy N. Hidayat, 2005)
Traditional Positivism/ Postpositivism Quantitative & qualitative (quantitative dominant) Survey, experiment, case study Constructionism Qualitative dominant Constructivism Qualitative Critical Constructionism Qualitative Critical Theories Qualitative

Survey, case study

Case study, ethnography, ethnomethodology Life histories, ethnographic, explorative dialogic analysis, discourse analysis

Case study, participatory action research CDA, ethnographic analysis, explorative dialogic analysis

Case study, participatory, action, and advocacy research Historical, comparative analysis, interpretative analysis, CDA

Statistic, comparative analysis, network function, content analysis

Interactional analysis, document / textual analysis, comparative analysis, etc.

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