The Science in Society Review C12

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Vol 12 | Lent 2011 | University of Cambridge
A Production of The Triple Helix
The Science in Society Review

The International Journal of Science, Society and Law
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Music and the Mind: Can Music Help Those with Autism? Marine Littering: The Black Peril of the Sea What Makes A Pretty Face?: The Biological Basis of Beauty
to / Lis e
Ga
Caffeinated Youth
Regulation of Energy Drinks in Question
Thursday 20th January, 7.30-9.30pm, McCrum Lecture Theatre, Benet Street (behind The Eagle)
The Science of Risk: When Science goes wrong, whos to blame?
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EXECUTIVE MANAGEMENT TEAM Chief Executive Officer Bharat Kilaru Executive Editor-in-Chief Dayan Li Chief Production Officer Chikaodili Okaneme Executive Director of E-Publishing Zain Pasha Executive Director of Science Policy Karen Hong Chief Operations Officer, North America Jennifer Ong Chief Operations Officer, Europe Francesca Day Chief Operations Officer, Asia Felix Chew Chief Financial Officer Jim Snyder Chief Marketing Officer Mounica Yanamandala GLOBAL LITERARY AND PRODUCTION Senior Literary Editors Dhruba Banerjee Victoria Phan Robert Qi Linda Xia Angela Yu Senior Production Editors Darwin Chan Annie Chen Frankey Chung Adam Esmail Indra Ekmanis Mabel Seah Robert Tinkle Jovian Yu
BOARD OF DIRECTORS Chairman Kevin Hwang Erwin Wang Kalil Abdullah Melissa Matarese Joel Gabre Manisha Bhattacharya Julia Piper TRIPLE HELIX CHAPTERS North America Chapters Arizona State University Brown University Carnegie Mellon University Cornell University Dartmouth College Georgetown University Georgia Institute of Technology Harvard University Johns Hopkins University Massachusetts Institute of Technology Northwestern University Ohio State University University of California, Berkeley University of California, San Diego University of Chicago University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill University of Pennsylvania Yale University Europe Chapters Cambridge University University College London Asia Chapters National University of Singapore Peking University Hong Kong University Australia Chapters University of Melbourne University of Sydney Monash University
THE TRIPLE HELIX

A global forum for science in society
The Triple Helix, Inc. is the worlds largest completely student-run organization dedicated to taking an interdisciplinary approach toward evaluating the true impact of historical and modern advances in science. Work with tomorrows leaders Our international operations unite talented undergraduates with a drive for excellence at over 25 top universities around the world. Imagine your readership Bring fresh perspectives and your own analysis to our academic journal, The Science in Society Review, which publishes International Features across all of our chapters. Reach our global audience The E-publishing division showcases the latest in scientific breakthroughs and policy developments through editorials and multimedia presentations. Catalyze change and shape the future Our new Science Policy Division will engage students, academic institutions, public leaders, and the community in discussion and debate about the most pressing and complex issues that face our world today. All of the students involved in The Triple Helix understand that the fast pace of scientific innovation only further underscores the importance of examining the ethical, economic, social, and legal implications of new ideas and technologies only then can we completely understand how they will change our everyday lives, and perhaps even the norms of our society. Come join us!
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Hollie Barker sxc.hu
The sound of music
A look at how music therapy affects children with autism
PD, Council for Genetic Responsibility (US)
16
All rights reserved
The science and ethics of patenting gene sequences

Micah Burke sxc.hu
Cooking the books
Inspecting past cases and ways to combat fraudulent science
Cambridge Editorials
4 5 A Fresh Frontier for NASA Science and Religion: The Ongoing Conflict? Matthew Munton Tim Middleton
International Features
6 9 12 Music and the Mind: Can Music Benefit Those with Autism? Mental Health Relief Efforts in Haiti: Are We Learning From the Past? The Great Disjoint of Language and Intelligence Elizabeth Aguila, CMU Theresa Lii, Brown Koh Wanzi, NUS
Cover Article
14 Caffeinated Youth: Regulation of Energy Drinks in Question Margaret Kim, CMU
Cambridge Articles
16 Your Genes Belong To Us 18 21 24 26 Gengshi Chen Amanda Wilson Thomas Gizbert Colin Stoneking James Scott-Brown Marine Litter: The Black Peril of the Sea What Makes A Pretty Face?: The Biological Basis of Beauty Hoaxing, Forging, Trimming and Cooking: The Cases and Causes of Scientific Fraud Harnessing the Cognitive Surplus
Back Cover: Blue: To Sign a Contract by shho, stock.xchng. sxc.hu. Red: Overpopulation Event. The Triple Helix, Cambridge. Green: Explanation by Harrison Keely, stock.xchng. sxc.hu. Purple: To Sign a Contract by shho, stock.xchng. sxc.hu.
CAMBRIDGE
INSIDE TTH
Message from the Managing Editor

Welcome to the twelfth edition of The Science in Society Review. This issue explores some interesting topics, including the patenting of gene sequences and the causes and prevention of marine littering. We have been thrilled with the input from the writers, editors and the production team and we wish to thank them all for their hard work. We also wish to thank everyone who participated this term in our events and outreach teams. This term is going to offer more opportunities for you to get involved in exploring science in society. I am happy to announce that we are establishing two new discussion groups in science policy and in the history and philosophy of science. They will provide a forum to students to discuss these topics and express their own views in an informal atmosphere. With the help of the School of Clinical Medicine, we are also organising a Science in Society Conference for sixth form students exploring inequalities in world health. We will also continue to organise our sucessful panel debates, outreach workshops and, of course, The Science in Society Review. I hope you will enjoy this issue and be inspired to join us. Adam Esmail, Managing Editor The Triple Helix, University of Cambridge.
STAFF AT CAMBRIDGE
EXECUTIVE BOARD Executive Chair: Francesca Day (St. Catharines) Managing Editor: Adam Esmail (Fitzwilliam) Founding President, Executive Vice President: James Shepherd (Caius) Executive Vice President: Hannah Price (Queens) Junior Treasurer: Claire Drurey (Corpus Christi) Division leaders also sit on the Executive Board LITERARY TEAM Editor-in-Chief: Kate Wiles (Trinity) Assistant Editor-In-Chief: Colin Stoneking (Emmanuel) Associate Editors: Javier Korban (Homerton), Naomi Penfold (Girton), David Loew (St. Edmunds), Maria Bolgova (Caius), Rok Nezic (Jesus), Emma Richardson (Trinity), OUTREACH Head of Outreach: Lottie Siegler (Caius), Outreach Team: Emma Richardson (Trinity), Gaylen Sinclair (Newnham), Graeme Sneddon (Homerton), Jeongjae Lee (Trinity) EVENTS Events Director: Tara Finegan (Jesus) Assisstant Events Director: Colin Stoneking (Emmanuel) Publicity Officer: Theresa Lii (Pembroke) Sponorship Directors: Keshav Thirumalai (Jesus), Anna Kosinska (Magdalene) Events Co-ordinators: Reuben Binns (Kings), Rosie Olliver (Clare), Alexander McCracken (Jesus), Yun Huang (Caius), Jue Xiang (Selwyn), Haseeb Ahmed (Magdalene) PRODUCTION Senior Producton Editor: Adam Esmail (Fitzwilliam) Production Editors: Matthew Jackson (Downing), James Scott-Brown (Trinity), Rosy Southwell (Jesus), Emmy Tsang (Churchill)
Teach First Skills Session

Teach First give graduates the opportunity to make a difference to disadvantaged pupils, while gaining the skills necessary to become effective and inspirational teachers and leaders. Just 16% of pupils who are eligible for free school meals progress to university, in comparison to 96% of young people educated in independent schools. Teach First believes that effective teachers have the power to address these inequalities. Successful applicants to the Leadership Development Programme will spend two years teaching in a school facing challenging circumstances, with full support and training from Teach First. During the first year they will work towards gaining a PGCE (professional qualification) and have the opportunity to work towards a Masters in their second year. In addition, they will benefit from exceptional leadership training, and receive a salary from their school. Members of the Triple Helix Executive Committee are going to attend a Teach First skills session on Learning to Lead, which is only a taster of the full Leadership Development Programme. The session looks at the basics of leadership skills and what it takes to become an effective and inspirational leader in any field. We wish to thank Teach First for their support for The Triple Helix. Teach First positions for scientists are still open for 2011. For more information go to www.teachfirst.org.uk.
ACADEMIC ADVISORY BOARD Dr David Summers Prof Peter Littlewood Dr Edward Tanner Dr Peter Wothers Dr Andrew Bell (Senior Treasurer)
SENIOR REVIEWERS Dr Bob Butcher Dr Richard Hayward Prof Christopher Howe Dr Alex Piotrowski Dr Martyn Symmons Prof Simon Baron-Cohen Dr Peter Campbell Dr Gos Micklem Dr David Barnes (British Antarctic Survey) Dr Peter Lawrence Dr Steven Murdoch Professor David Perrett (University of St. Andrews)
GRADUATE REVIEWERS Ruoran Li (Queens) Christopher White (Darwin) Andrew Degnan (Pembroke) Mark Caine (Selwyn) Carmen Lefevre (University of St. Andrews)
2 THE TRIPLE HELIX Lent 2011
2011, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
INSIDE TTH
Message from the CEO

Dear Reader, The Triple Helix is a completely unique organization, created and run entirely by undergraduates devoted to creating a global forum for science in society. What at first appears a focused interest is actually an eclectic vision that ventures to present ideas from students studying medicine, law, math, politics, and so much more. With more than 20 chapters across the world and more than 1,000 students from a wide range of disciplines, The Triple Helix offers a truly unique presentation of academic passion. Before you look through The Science in Society Review issue awaiting you, I hope to share with you my insight into the level of work behind every word. The articles in the following pages are derived from an outstanding level of editorial and literary commitment. As you read the following pieces, we hope you will come to appreciate the truly professional level of work that goes into every paragraph. And it is with that same dedication to improvement that every division of The Triple Helix creates progress everyday. Sincerely, Bharat Kilaru CEO, The Triple Helix, Inc.
Triple Helix Events, Lent 2011

The Science of Risk - When Science goes wrong, whos to blame?
Thursday 20th January - 7.30 - 9.30pm - McCrum Lecture Theatre, Benet Street (behind The Eagle) The panel to include: Professor David Spielhalter - Professor of Risk, University of Cambridge Dr Tony Wilson -- Entrepreneur in Consulancy Services, Chartered Marketer Dr David Whitehouse - Science Journalist, Author and BBC Online Science Editor
Geoengineering - Playing God with the planet

February - Date and Venue TBC
Science without borders - Hopkins Legacy - In conjuction with the Dept. of Biochemistry
Late February - Date and Venue TBC To keep up to date with our events, join our facebook group The Triple Helix, Cambridge and our website at www.camtriplehelix.com. Keep a lookout for our posters too! Interested in looking at science past the textbooks? Enjoy thinking outside the box? Exciting ideas to contribute? Contact our Events Director, Tara at: eventsdirector@camtriplehelix.com
THE TRIPLE HELIX Lent 2011 3
CAMBRIDGE EDITORIALS
The Fresh Frontiers of NASA

Matthew Munton
ew legislation, signed by President Obama, is set to rejuvenate NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) and give it a new lease of life and fresh thinking. NASA has had many successes over the past years, including spectacular photographs of Saturn by the Cassini-Huygens probe and the exploration of the Martian landscape by the Mars Exploration Rovers, but none of them has had the same impact as did the 1966 Moon landing. People across the globe waited with anticipation as the Apollo 11 Lunar lander, the Eagle, touched down on the surface of the Moon [1,2]. This event captured the imagination of many young people and inspired them to become the next generation of astronauts and scientists. The NASA Authorisation Act 2010, signed on October 11th, will change the way that NASA conducts its missions and will pave the way for future missions that will rival Apollo in terms of its public enthusiasm [3,4]. In some ways, the Act will actually postpone the number of high-profile space missions. The Space Shuttle will be retired once it has completed its remaining launches in early 2011 and NASAs Constellation program will be terminated [5]. The Constellation program was envisaged as a way of returning astronauts to the Moon in a similar manner to the Apollo missions with very little in the way of new and innovative thinking, instead relying on older styles of technology [6]. Although this could have been as exciting as the Moon landings, it was behind schedule and severely underfunded: even with large budget increases it would have been unlikely to land astronauts on the Moon before 2030 [7-10]. The end of both Constellation and the Space Shuttle missions means that NASA will not have any craft of its own to launch crews so will be reliant on Russian craft for this purpose [7]. At first this may appear to be a bleak future for NASA but this is in fact one of the major changes introduced by the NASA authorisation act. Instead of flying its own craft to carry astronauts, NASA has $1.3 billion to spend on developing companies that will design and build rockets and capsules for the purpose of lifting astronauts into orbit [9]. Commercial launch vehicles have been used for years to carry most of NASAs satellites into orbit but now they will be used for astronauts as well. NASA will set standards and tests for these craft to ensure that they are built to an appropriate safety standard for human use.
References
1. Current Missions: Cassini, NASA, US Gov. [Online Newspage]. URL: http:// www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/cassini/main/index.html 2. Current Missions: Mars Exploration Rovers, NASA, US Gov. [Online Newspage]. URL: http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/mer/index.html 3. President Signs NASA authorization act, NASA Images, US Gov. 2010 Oct 11. URL: http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery/image_feature_1779.html 4. Weaver, D. NASA Administrator Thanks President Obama and Congress for Agencys New Direction Support. NASA, US Gov. 2010 Oct 11. URL: http:// www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2010/oct/HQ_10-255_Admiistrator_President_ Auth_Act_1011.html 5. Fiscal Year 2011 Budget Estimates. NASA, US Gov. [Online PDF]. 2010 Feb 1. URL: http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/420990main_FY_201_%20Budget_Overview_1_ Feb_2010.pdf 6. Current Missions: Constellation Program, NASA, US Gov. [Online Newspage].
In the long term, this will create a competitive market for launch vehicles suitable for humans and help to accelerate development of new designs of vehicle. Information learned from the Constellation program will be used to aid the research and development of heavylift rocket systems for future missions to the Moon, Mars and beyond. This type of rocket will be able lift large craft into space and could be used for deep-space exploration, taking astronauts or probes further and faster into the solar system [11]. In addition, NASA will work with industry to create a technology development and testing program that will work on various technologies such as automated and autonomous docking, closed-loop life support systems, inspace propulsion methods and in-orbit propellant transfers [12]. NASAs budget allows for $3.1 billion and $7.8 billion to be spent over five years on the heavy-lift vehicles and technology development respectively [5]. It is hoped that this investment will begin to reverse the decades of underfunding in aerospace technology and ideas [7]. In anticipation of future manned missions further out in the solar system, NASA will be spending $3 billion over five years on robotic precursor missions. These will involve sending robotic probes to locations such as the Moon, Mars and near-Earth objects such as asteroids to demonstrate new technologies and scout these locations both for hazards and for resources for future manned missions [5,7,9]. The passing of this new legislation has ended NASAs immediate ambitions to get into space and forced it to take a step back and refocus its priorities. This is a positive step because instead of rushing to recreate the Moon landings they will now have the funding and time to design safe and efficient spacecraft meaning that, when NASA does send manned missions further into the solar system, the astronauts will be well prepared for it with reliable equipment. It will be this preparation and innovation that will make future missions successful and change science-fiction fantasies into reality. Endeavours such as these are vital to ensure a continued high public profile for space programs and can only serve to inspire a new generation of scientists as to what is possible if we put our minds to it. Matthew Munton is a first year student studying Physical Natural Sciences at Jesus College.
URL: http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/main/index.html 7. http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/421063main_Joint_Statement-2-1.pdf 8. Bolden, C., Holdren J. P. Launching a New Era in Space Exploration. NASA, US Gov. [Online PDF}. URL: http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/420994main_2011_ Budget_Administrator_Remarks.pdf 9. Factsheet: A Bold New Approach for Space Exploration and Discovery. NASA, US Gov. [Online PDF]. URL: http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/421064main_NASA_ OSTP_Joint_Fact_Sheet_FINAL_2020.pdf 10. RemarksbyLoriGarverforOSTPR&DBudgetRollout, NASA, US. Gov. [Online PDF] 2010. URL: http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/421331main_Remarks_by_ Lori_Garver_for_OSTP.pdf 11. Amos, J. Obama signs Nasa up to new future. BBC News [Online]. 11 Oct 2010. URL: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-11518049 12. Factsheet: NASA. The White House, US Gov. {Online]. 2010 Feb 1. URL: http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/factsheet_department_nasa/
CAMBRIDGE EDITORIALS
Science and Religion: The Ongoing Conflict?

Tim Middleton
n the 2nd September 2010 the headline on the front page of The Times read: Stephen Hawking: God did not create Universe [1]. It was certainly attentiongrabbing, but is the national press providing an accurate coverage of the relationship between science and religion? Dr Fraser Watts, Reader in Theology and Science at Cambridge University, says that the debate is portrayed in a biased way. He thinks the media make a tacit assumption that science and religion are necessarily incompatible. Consequently, devout religious believers are made to think that they must reject good science, whilst those who value the natural sciences are forced into an atheist worldview. But this neednt be the case. The notion of incompa]tibility stems partly from the assumption that there is a link between science and atheism, as championed by Richard Dawkins. Alister McGrath, Professor of Historical Theology at Oxford University, says that Dawkins jump from science to atheism lacks the rigorous evidential basis that one might expect from an advocate of the scientific method. Rather, Professor McGrath argues that the scientific method is incapable of adjudicating the God-hypothesis, either positively or negatively [2]. Indeed, the fact that many professional scientists are religious believers would suggest that there isnt a conflict at all. For example, the national group Christians in Science seeks to advertise compatibility [3]. Stephen J Gould, an eminent evolutionary biologist of the twentieth century and an atheist, once said: either half my colleagues are enormously stupid, or else the science of Darwinism is fully compatible with religious beliefs and equally compatible with atheism [2]. According to Gould, compatibility is clearly an intellectually defensible position. Another mistaken assumption is that the scientific revolution of the seventeenth century was a result of rising secularisation, implying that up until this point scientific endeavour had been hampered by religion. However, religious bodies were responsible for the majority of the funding supplied to scientific research in medieval universities. What is more, the motivation to study science invariably arose from belief in God. Johannes Kepler, a key figure in the scientific revolution, described himself as a priest of nature, believing that he was on a quest to uncover the beauty of Gods creation. Furthermore, it is impossible to conduct science without holding underlying values. Science today assumes a powerful position in our society because it provides tangible benefits, such as medical treatments for disease and technological innovations. This desire to continually improve our quality of life underpins the scientific enterprise. But in
References
1. Devlin H, Gledhill R. Stephen Hawking: God did not create Universe. The Times 2010 Sep 2. Front Page. 2. McGrath A. Has Science killed God? Faraday Paper 9. Faraday Institute for Science and Religion 2007 Apr; URL: http://www.st-edmunds.cam.ac.uk/ faraday/Papers.php 3. Christians in Science Website [Online]. 2009; URL: http://www.cis.org.uk/
the seventeenth century, religion was the source of many of the fundamental presuppositions of science: the idea that nature is governed by immutable mathematical laws, and that these are worth studying, came from religion [4].
The scientific method is incapable of adjudicating the God-hypothesis.

So how are we to understand the relationship between science and religion today? The Reverend Dr John Polkinghorne, previously a theoretical particle physicist for twenty-five years, explains that both [science and religion] are concerned with the search for truth through motivated belief. He says the idea that one side or the other must achieve total victory in the debate fails to recognise the complementary relationship [5]. It is therefore helpful to view science as a description of the Universe, and religion as an interpretation. In this sense, then, science and religion, far from being in conflict, are actually mutually reinforcing perspectives; different facets of a holistic worldview. According to Dr Watts, science cant say everything worth saying; for example, it cant answer questions about existence or morality. Similarly, however, God shouldnt be invoked to fill the gaps in science just because our current understanding is incomplete. So what does this leave people thinking? Eurostat, the part of the European Commission tasked with producing statistics on the European Union, reported in 2005 that 38% of the UK believes in God, 40% believe in some form of spirit or life force and 20% believe in neither [6]. These statistics indicate that a large number of people are confused, agnostic or apathetic towards religion. Dr Watts suggests that we need much better research on forms of non-religiousness; lots would like to be religious but feel it is not intellectually respectable, he says. This is precisely the problem. Science should never be a barrier to religious belief. It is the responsibility of the media to avoid continually portraying science and religion as polar opposites. Tim Middleton is a third year student studying Geology at Jesus College.
about 4. Harrison P. Religion and the Origins of Modern Science. Talk given at Christians in Science Conference, London 2010. 5. Polkinghorne J. The Science and Religion Debate an Introduction. Faraday Paper 1. Faraday Institute for Science and Religion 2007 Apr; URL: http://www. st-edmunds.cam.ac.uk/faraday/Papers.php 6. Eurobarometer Poll by Eurostat [Online]. 2005 Jun; URL: http://ec.europa.eu/ public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_225_report_en.pdf
CMU
Music and the Mind: Can Music Benefit Those with Autism?
Elizabeth Aguila
shley is a child who was diagnosed with pervasive developmental disorder (PDD), which is part of the autism spectrum, when she was 21 months old. When her mother and grandmother tried to get her attention from the television by calling her name, she would not look up. When they banged around pots and pans, she still did not respond. At 21 months, Ashley still hadnt learned how to speak and only grunted. One of Ashleys psychologists suggested that she take part in music therapy in which she would listen to Mozarts music for several hours per day for several weeks. One day, when her parents were driving home from a therapy session, Ashley spoke her first words, I want cookie. Ever since then, Ashley has been making even more progress, and today, like every normal 10-yearold girl she loves Hannah Montana and High School Musical, and can now use language to interact with others [1]. Ashley is one example of the fact that people have always had a significant relationship with music. Its presence in every culture is an indication of its universality [2]. Using music as a method of healing began after World War I and World War II when community musicians went to hospitals to play music for veterans suffering from physical and emotional trauma. When doctors noticed that patients responded positively - physically, cognitively and emotionally - to the music, they asked the hospital to hire musicians to play for the patients. Soon it was clear that these musicians required more training before entering hospitals, such as how to interact with and how to perform music to benefit the patients. Due to patients positive responses to the music, the field of music therapy was born in 1940. To train musicians for therapy, Michigan State University founded the first music therapy degree program in 1944. The World Health Organization (WHO) first recognized music as a form of therapy in 1996. As an increasing number of people studied and became 6 THE TRIPLE HELIX Lent 2011
music therapists, the American Music Therapy Association (AMTA) was founded almost fifty-four years later, in 1998 [3]. Today, there are more than 70 colleges and universities that have degree programs for music therapy. Thanks to modern technology and interdisciplinary researchers, the field of music therapy has been growing to incorporate many fields such as neuroscience, cognitive science, brain imaging, and psychology [4]. Over the years, different types of music therapy have been developed. In Music Therapy: An Introduction, Jacqueline Peters describes that music therapy is a planned, goal-directed process of interaction and intervention, based on assessment and evaluation of individual clients specific needs, strengths, weaknesses...to influence positive changes in an individuals condition, skills, thoughts, feelings, and behaviors [5]. In other words, music therapists use the ways the mind and body are stimulated when patients listen to and perform music. Music therapy promotes one-to-one interaction, creating a relationship between the music therapist and the patient. There are five main types of music therapy. First, is receptive music therapy, in which the client listens to live or recorded music. Second, is compositional music therapy, in which the client creates music. Improvisational music therapy is when the therapist guides the client to spontaneously create music. Recreative music therapy is when the client learns to play an instrument, and activity music therapy is when the therapist sets up musical games [6]. Autism is a lifelong developmental disability. It is often referred to as ASD, or autism spectrum disorder. People with autism have three main types of impairment: difficulty with social communication, social interaction, and social imagination. Social communication impairment involves limited speech and difficulty in understanding facial expressions, tone of voice, and sarcasm. Autistic individuals may also have difficulty with social interaction, and find it hard to recognize and understand peoples emotions and implicit social cues, thus impairing Reproduced from [17] their ability to form relationships
CMU
with others. Finally, a defect in social imagination makes it the researchers did not statistically analyze their data [10]. difficult for people to understand and predict others behavior, In the study of how music therapy improves behavioral understand abstract ideas, predict what can happen next, and abnormalities of autism, Griggs-Drane and Wheeler, a music prepare for change and plan for the future. Unfortunately, therapist and educational consultant, respectively, in the people with autism often have difficulty with these tasks [7]. Richmond Hospital Education Program, performed a study The theory behind music therapy is that since people in 1997 with a blind, female adolescent with autism. The have an innate affinity for music, they should continue to client was asked to listen to music, sing with music, and respond to it even after physical, cognitive, or emotional play instruments to decrease her self-destructive behavior. disabilities. One such disability, as seen with Ashley that The study did show a decrease in her destructive behavior benefits from music therapy is [11]. Finally, for the treatment autism. The National Autistic of the communicative abnorSociety claims that case studmalities of autism, researchers When her mother and ies have shown music can Miller and Toca did melodic grandmother tried to get her stimulate and develop more intonation therapy with a threemeaningful and playful comyear-old, nonverbal male with attention from the television munication in people with autism. The music therapist by calling her name, she autism. They also claim that sang to the child while tapping since people with autism often the rhythm of the words on would not look up. When they have idiosyncratic and avoidthe boys body. The goal of banged around pots and pans, ant styles of communication, the therapy was to increase music therapy can encourage the patients understanding of she still did not look up. more self-awareness and othera spoken language. This 1979 awareness, leading to more study claimed that the child social interactions [8]. began speaking words during Most of the research investigating the effect of different and outside the therapy sessions [12]. However, researchtypes of music therapy on autistic individuals has been in the ers did not include a qualitative analysis of changes in the form of case studies. Case studies can be categorized based childs communication. on what aspect of autism therapists are trying to improve. Although many case studies have shown social, behavThere can be music therapy treatment based on the social, ioral, or communicative improvement in people with autism behavioral, and communicative abnormalities of autism. after music therapy, many of these case studies lack sufficient One case study used musical interaction therapy to improve statistical analysis or generalizability. Several researchers the socializations, reciprocal interactions, and eye contact including Accordino, Comer, and Heller, researchers at Princbetween an autistic three-year-old child and his mother. eton University, who wrote an article examining the current The results showed that after music therapy, the child had research on music therapy with individuals with autism, increased eye contact and initiations of involvement with have already criticized the use of case studies to show that the mother [9]. Researchers Starr and Zenker also studied music therapy is successful in treating people with autism. how keyboard sharing during music therapy increased In their article, they state that although case studies provide socializing skills of a five-year-old boy with autism. The significant details about particular patients and their responses therapy increased the boys eye contact to music therapy, these studies cannot be generalized during sessions. However, [13]. Music therapists argue, however, that case studies are only appropriate to show the effectiveness of music therapy for autistic individuals because treatments are individual and specific to each client. But Accordino, Comer, and Heller respond by stating that researchers can account for the differences between individuals in therapy through solid empirical designs, which, before 2006, had not occurred in this field. They also claim that it is important for researchers to monitor changes occurring during therapy and outside of therapy. This is because many of the case studies described have claimed that the music therapy improved certain behaviors in individuals with autism, but they failed to analyze possible external factors such as environment outside the therapy sessions or aging and Reproduced from [18]
2011, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved. THE TRIPLE HELIX Lent 2011 7
CMU
development, as possible reasons for patients improvements [14]. A few studies that have investigated the effect of music therapy on people with autism have tried to use more subjects. For instance, researchers Gold, Voracken, and Wigram, from Sogn og Fjordane University College in Norway, in 2004, did a meta-analysis of 11 empirical investigations of music therapy and they determined there was a significant effect on the outcomes [15]. Also, in 2007, Boso et al., a group of researchers from the University of Pavia in Italy, studied the effect of long-term interactive music therapy on young adults with severe autism. They acknowledged the fact that there is insufficient data about the potential effects of music therapy in autism, and therefore they tried to investigate whether interactive music therapy could enhance behavior of eight young adults with severe autism. Their results stated that after 52 weeks of music therapy, all subjects showed improvement. Unlike the case studies described before, they used statistical analyses and also studied potential external reasons for the subjects improvements, therefore providing more thorough support for the beneficial effects of music therapy [16]. Although there have been many case studies supporting
Although there have been many case studies supporting the belief that music therapy positively effects people with autism, there is still a large need for empirical investigations on music therapys impact on individuals with autism.
the belief that music therapy positively affects people with autism, there is still a large need for empirical investigations on music therapys impact on individuals with autism. Perhaps this can be accomplished by merging several different fields including music cognition, psychology, neuroscience, and music therapy. There may also be a stronger Reproduced from [19] understanding of music therapys effects if researchers studied why certain aspects of music can lead to any type of behavioral changes at the basic level. If we had a greater understanding of musics effects on normal subjects, we may be able to build on this knowledge to not only determine whether or not music therapy has an effect on people with autism, but also why. Understanding the mechanism through which music influences us may help us improve current therapies and widen the scope of music therapy to other neurological disorders. Also, if we can answer these questions, perhaps we can also expand the knowledge as to how music therapy can enrich a patients quality of life. Elizabeth Aguila is a senior studying in Biology and Psychology at Carnegie Mellon University.
References
1. Eiserike, J. Music Benefits Children with Autism, TherapyTimes.com, 2008 [cited 2010 Aug 16]. URL: http://www.therapytimes.com/content=0402J8 4C48968486404040441 2. Mary Louise Serafine, Music as Cognition: The Development of Thought in Sound, New York: Columbia University Press, 1988. 3. American Music Therapy Association. Frequently Asked Questions About Music Therapy: What is the history of music therapy as a health care profession? 1999. [cited 2010 Apr 22]. URL: http://www.musictherapy.org/faqs.html 4. Music Therapy [cited 2010 Jun 3]. URL: http://www.cancer.org/docroot/eto/ content/eto_5_3x_music_therapy.asp 5. Peters, J.S. Music therapy: An introduction (2nd ed.), 2000. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas Publishers Ltd., Page 2. 6. Accordino, R., Comer, R., and W.B. Heller (2006). Searching for musics potential: A critical examination of research on music therapy with individuals with autism. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 1(1), 101-115. Doi: 10.016/j. rasd.2006.08.002 7. Autism: What Is It? [cited 2010 Apr 20]. URL: http://www.nas.org.uk/nas/jsp/ polopoly.jsp?d=211 8. Bell, E. Music Therapy, The National Autistic Society. 2009 [cited 2010 Apr 10]. URL: http://www.nas.org.uk/nas/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d=528&a=3348 9. Wimpory, D., Chadwick, P., and Nash, S. (1995). Brief report: Musical interaction therapy for children with autism: An evaluative case study with twoyear follow-up. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 25, 541-552.
10. Starr, E., and Zenker, E. (1998). Understanding autism in the context of music therapy: Bridging theory and practice. Canadian Journal of Music Therapy, 6, 1-19. 11. Griggs-Drane, E.R., and Wheeler, J.J. (1997). The use of functional assessment procedures and individualized schedules in the treatment of autism: Recommendations for music therapists. Music Therapy Perspectives, 15, 87-93. 12. Miller, S.B. and Toca, J.M. (1979). Adapted melodic intonation therapy: A case study of an experimental language program for an autistic child. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 40, 201-203. 13. Accordino et al., 2006. 14. Accordino et al., 2006. 15. Gold, C., Voracke, M., and Wigram, T. (2004). Effects of music therapy for children and adolescents with psychopathology: A meta-analysis. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 1054-1063. 16. Boso, M., Emanuele, E., Minazzi, V., Abbamonte M., and Politi P. (2007). Effect of long-term interactive music therapy on behavior profile and musical skills in young adults with severe autism. Journal of alternative and complementary medicine, 13(7), 709-712. 17.CC-BY-NC-ND, Wellcome Images, AS0000079F09. Available from: http:// images.wellcome.ac.uk 18. PD. Available from: http://clipart-for-free.blogspot.com/2008/07/music-noteclipart-and-music-related.html/ 19. CC-BY-NC-ND, Wellcome Images, AS0000079F11. Available from: http:// images.wellcome.ac.uk
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Mental Health Relief Efforts in Haiti: Are We Learning From the Past?
Theresa Lii
sychological first aid may not always be helpful. In Crazy Like Us: The Globalization of the American Psyche, Ethan Watters argues that in the wake of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, the influx of Western mental health specialists did more harm than good [1]. Western psychiatric definitions of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) displaced indigenous beliefs about psychological trauma, which may have undermined the traditional resilience, coping, and survival strategies of these coastal communities. Since then, a number of medical anthropologists and mental health providers have second-guessed Western psychiatrys attempt at providing mental health relief efforts in countries affected by the tsunami [1]. Fast forward to January 12th, 2010, when a magnitude-7.0 earthquake hit Port-au-Prince, Haiti. Humanitarian relief efforts came swiftly, providing search-and-rescue Reproduced from [13] teams, food and water supplies, security forces, and emergency medical care. According to Richard Mollica, a Harvard professor who researches mental health responses to disasters, in the coming months there will be hundreds of organizationsbig, little and smalldoing mental health work in Haiti [2]. However, he warns, they will all have their own agenda, and their own donors, and their own goals [2]. Good intentions abound, to be sure, but are relief efforts paying attention to cultural differences surrounding mental health in Haiti? So far, the answer appears to be a tentative yes. Psychological Aftershocks: What to Expect In the aftermath of the earthquake, mental health providers have tended to two groups of survivors. The first group includes Haitians with pre-existing psychiatric conditions who are vulnerable to losing access to care, medication, and familial support. The second group includes people from the general population who have developed psychological issues as a result of acute trauma and prolonged stress. Although this article will focus on mental health interventions for the latter group, it is important to keep in mind how the plight of the former group
is affected by the attitudes underlying these interventions. For Haitians who develop trauma-related mental illnesses, symptoms may not completely match those set forth by Western psychiatric diagnostic manuals. Research conducted by Dr. Mathieu Bermingham, a Haitian-American psychiatrist, suggests that for Haitians, mental health problems such as depression or anxiety might manifest as vague aches and pains that have no apparent physical cause [3]. This form of psychological distresstermed dpression mentale in Haitian Creoleis the closest analogue to depression as understood in Western psychiatry [4]. Although mental health providers are likely to encounter patients with symptoms that match those of PTSD, they should avoid overlooking culture-bound expressions of mental distress.
Pushing for Cultural Sensitivity Not wanting to repeat the cultural clumsiness exhibited in the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami relief efforts, many organizations swiftly issued cultural guidelines for providing mental health services in Haiti. The New Paltz Institute for Disaster Mental Health distributed a Tip Sheet on Haitian Culture for all foreign mental health specialists working in Haiti [5]. In a similar measure, the International Medical Corps published Brief Mental Health Guidelines for First Responders in Haiti [6]. The World Health Organization (WHO) commissioned a 20-page literature review on mental health in Haiti, which addresses topics such as family and gender relations, traditional forms of healing, and traditional explanatory models of mental illness [4]. The Mental Health and Psychosocial Support Network published the paper on its website and, in a description that bluntly underscores its purpose, recommended that all non-Haitians providing mental health support should read the paper to avoid faux pas, harm or simply ineffective programming [7]. The number of such publications demonstrates that mental health providers are being strongly advised to respect cultural
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contexts in order to provide the most effective care. ting rules and routines, Newton and about holding help by William Blake. children Reproducedto from [9] Not only are mental health workers encouraged to them feel safe [9]. familiarize themselves with Haitian culture, they are also In addition to providing broader, more practical forms expected to exercise caution and humility. This is because of support, mental health interventions are also expected Western psychiatric treatment strategies may not necessar- to tackle the social determinants of mental health, such as ily be effective in all situations. food security, housing, and For instance, the International employment. Haitian paNot only are mental health Medical Corps guidelines retients may expect a concrete mind mental health workers plan of action at the end of workers encouraged to that not wanting to talk does any encounter, suggests the familiarize themselves with not equal denial and debriefWHO-commissioned literaing may not be therapeutic or ture review [4]. Neutrality Haitian culture, they are also appropriate for children [6]. and lack of feedback may be expected to exercise caution In addition, Haitians may not seen as a waste of their time. accept psychotherapy because Concrete action could include and humility. This is because solving personal problems assisting with practical needs Western psychiatric treatment is viewed as a family or relifor food and clothing [4]. In gious matter, so they may not essence, mental health workers strategies may not necessarily be willing to disclose intimate or in Haiti may need to double be effective in all situations. domestic problems to strangers as social workers in order to or professionals [4]. have the greatest impact on the In addition to respecting sopopulations mental health. In cial boundaries, Haitian culture particular, creating employexperts are also encouraging the incorporation of traditional ment opportunities and re-integrating individuals back into healing methods and spiritual explanations. Many Haitian society may be a potent mental health intervention in itself. Vodou healing rituals, for example, involve feeding and carDr. Raphal suggested that an alternative solution to ing for the spirits of ancestors that live within the sick and transcultural Haitian psychiatry is occupational therapy, injured who, in turn, benefit from these rituals by receiving where individuals can engage in a productive life that helps nourishing food and extra attention [4]. According to Dr. them in their recovery [8]. Helping earthquake survivors Frantz Raphal, those intervening (in Haiti) must be brought feel reconnected with their communities through meaningful to rethink practices in psychiatry and mental health accord- work can reduce the likelihood of mental health problems ing to a vision of integration, notably cohabitation between farther down the road. One of the things that you see in an Creole and Western medicine in clinical interventions [8]. environment like (Haiti) is the loss of the sense of the future, In the concluding paragraphs of the WHO-commissioned and that is one of the most traumatic aspects, argues Dr. review, the authors suggest that mental health specialists Thomas Insel of the National Institute of Mental Health [10]. should avoid an either/or stance that forces patients to Addressing social needs such as housing and employment choose between biomedicine and traditional healing [4]. can help restore that sense of the future. Instead, they should work collaboratively with families and community leaders to achieve psychological healing. A Practical Approach In contrast to the situation after the 2004 tsunami, many mental health interventions in Haiti are addressing mental health in a broader scope. For instance, Leah James describes the psychosocial support that she and her team provide in a group setting: we outline basic coping strategies for both kids and adults, she writes [9]. We talk about prayer and about social support and about talking to children about the earthquake, about set-
Reproduced from [14]
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Finding Strength in Numbers needs of Haitians until institutional support systems can be The earthquake effectively wiped out Haitis institutional rebuilt. In addition, these community gatherings provide an support system for mental health. What little remains of this environment that fosters social exchange between isolated system can be found in two psychiatric triage tents outside survivors. If held consistently and regularly, these meetthe collapsed Mars and Kline ings can reestablish a sense of Psychiatric Center, the countrys community for Haitians who only hospital for acute mental have lost their familial ties in In contrast to the situation illness [11]. In the absence of any the earthquake. after the 2004 tsunami, many institutional or governmental framework, it would be wise to Have We Learned From the mental health interventions invest in informal social networks Past? in Haiti are addressing mental that, according to Dr. Raphal, Mental health providers are already very strong in trained in the United States health in a broader scope. Haitian culture [8]. and Western European nations Addressing mental health have been encouraged from issues in a community-like setall sides to exercise cultural ting is already proving to be an effective strategy. Leah sensitivity and caution in diagnosing PTSD in Haiti earthJames illustrates the Haitians positive response to a group quake victims. This is a great departure from the mindset counseling session. of many mental health From the back (of Reproduced from [15] teams who rushed into the crowd), she Indian Ocean coastal writes, a tall man communities in 2004 and Reproduced announces that even administered treatment with clean water for PTSD without conthere will still be psysidering cultural factors chological and emoin mental illness. Untional problems...and derstanding a cultures groups like this can unique reactions to help. Others agree, devastating events and and the focus of the trauma allows Western yelling shifts. Now interventionists to prothere is ardent agreevide better aid, more ment about need for effectively for trauma more groups [9]. victims. By combining This enthusiasm the desire to reach out for group counselto fellow humans with a ing is supported by respect for their societal the observations of influences and cultural Marie Pierre-Victor, a social worker who oversees the mental traditions, we take a step towards providing the best huhealth portion of a Boston clinic that provides assistance to manitarian effort possible. Haitian immigrants. She found that most survivors dont like to talk one on one, but are eager to talk in a group [12]. Theresa Lii is a junior studying Neuroscience at Brown Mental health interventions in Haiti should harness this University. She is currently spending a year studying Part II cohesive energy, and use it to build a social support system Neuroscience at Pembroke College, University of Cambridge. that will remain strong enough to meet the mental health
References
1. Watters E. Crazy Like Us: The Globalization of the American Psyche. Free Press; 2010. 2. Spiegel A. Mental Health Disaster Relief Not Always Clear Cut. NPR: National Public [cited 2010 Mar 1]. URL:http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story. php?storyId=122981850 3. Johnson C. Realizing Haitians Other Needs. The Boston Globe. Available at: URL: http://www.boston.com/news/health/articles/2010/03/01/boston_providers_ try_to_meet_haitian_victims_psychological_needs/ 4. Kirmayer L. Mental Health in Haiti: A Literature Review. Commissioned by the World Health Organization. 2010 Feb 1. URL:www.iawg.net/Mental%20 Health%20in%20Haiti%20-%20A%20Literature%20Review%20_WHO_.pdf 5. State University of New York, New Paltz Institute for Disaster Mental Health. Tip Sheet on Haitian Culture. Available at: URL:www.rhin.org/UPLOAD/ Hatian%20Culture%20tip%20sheet-IDMH.pdf 6. International Medical Corps. Brief Mental Health Guidelines. Available at: URL:http://www.imcworldwide.org/Page.aspx?pid=1064 7. Culture and Mental Health in Haiti: A Literature Review. Mental Health and Psychosocial Support Network. Available at: URL:http://www. psychosocialnetwork.net/groups/153/upload/mental_health_in_haiti_a_literature_ review/view_resource/ 8. Jaimes A, Lecomte Y, Raphal F. Haiti-Quebec-Canada: Towards a Partnership in Mental Health. Mental Health and Haitian Communities. Available at: URL:http://www.haitisantementale.ca/article.php3?id_article=12&lang=en 9. James L. Not Too Soon for Mental Health Care in Port-au-Prince. The Huffington Post. URL:http://www.huffingtonpost.com/leah-james/not-too-soonfor-mental-h_b_513863.html 10. National Institute of Health. Health Concerns in Haiti: Infectious Disease and Mental Health Perspective. NIH Radio. Available at> URL:http://www.nih.gov/ news/radio/feb2010/20100204Haiti.htm. 11. Sontag D. In Haiti, Mental Health System Is in Collapse. The New York Times. URL: http://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/20/world/americas/20haiti.html 12. Walker A. Tending to the shaken. The Boston Globe. Available at: URL:http:// boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/articles/2010/03/15/tending_to_the_shaken/. 13. Talia Frenkel/American Red Cross [image online]. In: UPhoto Gallery: 2010 Haiti Earthquake. 2010 Jan 16 [cited 2010 Oct 10]; Available from: http://www. state.gov/r/pa/ei/pix/wha/haitiquake/index.htm 14. Nurse comforting [image online]. In: UPhoto Gallery: 2010 Haiti Earthquake. 2010 Jan 21 [cited 2010 Oct 10]; Available from: http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/pix/ wha/haitiquake/index.htm 15. Children pray [image online]. In: First Primary School at Epicenter of Haiti Earthquake Officially Opens for New School Year. 2010 August 25 [cited 2010 Oct 10]; Available from: http://geneva.usmission.gov/2010/08/27/haiti-school-digicel/
NUS
The Great Disjoint of Language and Intelligence

Koh Wanzi
stunning variety of languages has evolved in the world since the birth of civilization, with some forming a unique cornerstone of many cultures. To date, there has still not been an accurate census of the exact number of languages in the world. Street surveys throw up numbers in the several hundreds, while the Ethnologue organization, generally accepted to have the most extensive list thus far, catalogues an astounding 6809 distinct languages [1]. The study of the acquisition and mastery of any language offers fascinating insights into our neural circuitry and specific regions of the brain, as well as our cognitive processes. This has unfortunately led to equating linguistic ability with intelligence; but this article will try to dispel this notion, setting them up instead as two independent domains. This essay, however, seeks to set aside the diversity of languages and view them in a single unifying light for their role in cognition. Furthermore, this article proposes a need for education policy to be updated in line with new theories of cognition in the interests of students who might be unfairly penalized for simply lacking linguistic flair. Linguistic Theories: Mould or Clock? Of great interest is the exact nature of the relationship between language and thought. In the field of linguistic theory most theories can be classified in between two general categories at opposite ends of the spectrum. They are commonly referred to as mould theories and cloak theories. Mould theories hypothesize that language is a mould in terms of which thought categories are cast while cloak theories theorize that language is a cloak conforming to the customary categories of thought of its speakers [2]. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, proposed by American linguists Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf, belongs to the category of a mould theory. This theory consists of two closely associated conceptslinguistic determinism and linguistic relativity. Linguistic determinism holds that our thoughts are determined and constrained entirely by language, while the concept of linguistic relativity proposes that different languages will cause people to think and perceive the world differently. Experiments conducted with bilingual Japanese women living in America have provided interesting evidence. These women had American husbands, and spoke Japanese only when they met each other. Meeting twice with a bilingual Japanese interviewer, the first session was conducted in Japanese, while the second in English. Though questions asked both times were exactly the same, the answers given varied and seemed to depend on the language used instead of having the same answers in different languages as might be expected. In a particularly striking example, one woman said in Japanese that when her wishes conflicted with those of her familys, it was a time of great unhappiness. However, her response to the same question in English was, [I] do what I want [3]. Proponents of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis argue that this disparity can be accounted for by linguistic determinism and relativity, 12 THE TRIPLE HELIX Lent 2011
whereby the womens thoughts and perception of the world were dependent on the language spoken. However, these results present severe limitations as this experiment is unable to account for countless other confounding factors occurring in the period between interviews that could have caused different responses and shaped the womens views.
[There is] a need for education policy to be updated in line with new theories of cognition
In sharp juxtaposition with the Sapir-Whorf advocates are the cloak theorists; their argument of universalism is the polar opposite of the Whorfian conjecture. It is best illustrated using the Neo-Classical idea that language is the dress of thought. This theory has at its core the assumption that the same thought can be expressed exactly in a variety of ways. Therefore, it should theoretically be possible to express an idea in one language, and then precisely translate it to any other, putting paid to the phrase lost in translation. In contrast, the Whorfian hypothesis emphasizes the difficulty of translation between languages, since some languages have words that have no exact translation as a single word in another language. For example, the Portuguese geram means unbearably cute, while the German word schaudenfreude means pleasure at the misfortune of others. Whorf argued for this difference in translations as evidence that speakers of different languages viewed the world through different prisms carved by their native language. For instance, in a translation of the English language to Apache, the sentence, he invites people to a feast translates roughly as, he, or somebody, goes for the eaters of cooked food [3]. While the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis might seem to invalidate the cloak theory of universalism through these counter examples, it is guilty of several flaws. The problem of translating directly from one language to another might seemingly strengthen the argument, but upon closer inspection it actually undermines the theory of linguistic determinism. When non-speakers of the German language come across the word weltschmerz, used to represent the feeling of world weariness felt when recognizing the disparity between reality and an idealized world, they readily identify with the feeling. They are not impeded by their inability to speak German to recognize the feeling the word conveys, as they should if the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis holds true. This is testament to the existence of a system rich mental expression that transcends the boundaries of language. The idea that language is only a subset of our vast mental vocabulary forms the cornerstone of the book The Deeper Meaning of Liff by Douglas Adams. The book contains examples of unconventional words, for example elecelleration, that is, the mistaken notion that
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the more often, or harder, you press an elevator button, the faster it will arrive [4]. There exist other such actions or emotions that are as yet nameless, but the fact that they are not in our vocabulary does not preclude our noticing and feeling them. A more nuanced view of the extreme versions of the mould and cloak theories is thus required. Mentalese as a Common Mental Language A more moderate view of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is the first step towards a new understanding of the relationship between language and thought. Instead of rigidly assuming that thinking is restricted to the straitjacket of language, it is important to recognize the potential for language to influence rather than determine thinking. In his book The Language Instinct, Stephen Pinker extends the idea of a rich mental world that language can never entirely encompass. Pinker proposes a form of mental language that he terms mentalese, a kind of internal language we all possess, and which we convey to others by means of language as a vessel. Pinker references cases of languageless adultsdeaf people who by force of circumstance or otherwise, have been isolated from the verbal world. This is where the extreme form of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is refuted. If thought is confined by language, it would make sense to conclude that the reverse is also true, that without language there can be no thought. However, these deaf adults display ability to process and learn things, and are not impeded from thinking in the cognitive sense of the word [5]. It could thus be said that language serves as a conductor of mentalese, albeit a dynamic vessel whose potential to influence cannot be entirely discounted. Implications for Education Policy A particular medical condition provides a striking illustration of how different language and intelligence are in the brain. In children with Williams syndrome, which is accompanied by varying degrees of mental retardation, early medical observers had noted the friendly and loquacious nature of their subjects and their unusual command of language [in speech]. Despite this, a vast majority of adults with Williams syndrome possess only rudimentary skills in reading, writing, and arithmetic. In a study conducted at The Salk Institute for Biological Studies and the UCSD School of Medicine, researchers sought differential assessment of specific domains of function to isolate language from cognitive performance. Subjects with Williams syndrome were contrasted with those with Down syndrome and matched for age, sex, and mental function on IQ measures. The study noted the equivalent cognitive impairment of subjects with both conditions, stating that they are markedly impaired on a range of purely cognitive tasks such as conservation, concept formation, and problem solving. However, amid the background of general cognitive impairment, Williams syndrome children differed from their Down syndrome counterparts in their ability to express language. The study
References
1. Linguistic Society of America [homepage on internet]. Washington, DC: The Society [cited 2010 Mar 2]. Available from: http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-faqshowmany.cfm 2. Chandler, Daniel. The act of writing: a media theory approach. University of Wales; 1995. 3. Alchin N. Theory of knowledge. John Murray; 2002. 4. Adams D, Lloyd J. The deeper meaning of liff. 2nd ed. Pan books;1992.
cites the spontaneous and fluent speech of an 18 year old Williams syndrome adolescent with an IQ of 49. She was said to show great facility with language, being able even to weave vivid stories of imaginary events and compose lyrics to a love song. Yet in another stark example of the unusual dissociation of language from other cognitive functions, she has the academic skills of a first-grader and requires a baby-sitter for supervision [6]. The evidenced lack of a correlation between language ability and intelligence also has serious practical implications for education. Singapores Minister Mentor Lee Kuan Yew said recently that he had come to see the error of the Republics method of implementation of bilingual education policy which requires students to have almost equal proficiency in both their first language and mother tongue. Because, he said, it is not possible to master two languages at the same level, Singapores method of teaching Mandarin to English-speaking children using Mandarin itself turned generations away from the language [7]. It is important for education policy makers to realize the lack of a link between language mastery and intelligence. If this gap in association is not recognized, children who possess mathematical or scientific aptitude but lack linguistic flair might be unfairly marginalized in the education system. For example, in the GCE O level examination at the end of secondary education in Singapore, the final score is computed based on the grade of one language subject and five others from distinct subject groups. In this system, even if a student scores a top grade of A1 in the other five subjects, a poor grade in the languages could still pull the overall score down enough to deny the student entry into top schools. While this observation in no way seeks to undermine the importance of all-rounded education and performance, language research could someday persuade legislators to tweak the system so that it is more accommodating to students of varying abilities. This disproportionate language ability despite obvious mental impediments ties in with Pinkers theory of mentalese as an entirely separate domain of thought and cognition. When this rich mental world is sometimes hidden by the cloak of expression that we call language, it can be underappreciated. Simply put, language can act as a vessel, albeit an unsatisfactory one, that holds and transports as best it can this vivid mental landscape in which exists an infinite number of emotions and concepts, countless of which have not yet had a name put to them. This mental world is larger than language itself. Intelligence and cognitive abilities remain similarly in a separate domain, perhaps tied intricately with mentalese, the native language of the brain. As we grow more knowledgeable about these findings, it will be important for education policy to evolve alongside them. Furthermore, this could be the first step in developing more accurate measures of cognitive ability. Koh Wanzi is a second-year student studying Life Sciences and English Literature at the National University of Singapore.
5. Pinker S. The language instinct. London: Penguin Books; 1994. 6. Bellugi U, Wang PP, Jernigan TJ. Williams syndrome: an unusual neuropsychological profile. In: Atypical cognitive deficits in developmental disorders: implications for brain function. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 1994. 7. Au Yong, J. Bilingual policy difficult. The Straits Times. 2009 November 3. Available from: http://www.straitstimes.com/Breaking%2BNews/Singapore/Story/ STIStory_449691.html [cited 2010 16 Feb].
CMU
Caffeinated Youth: Regulation of Energy Drinks in Question

Margaret Kim
nergy drinks are the star of the beverage industry; no such products existed 15 years ago, but today, they have conquered the drink market. Since the debut of Red Bull in 1997, more than 500 new energy drinks have been rushed into the beverage market, establishing the 5.7 billion dollar drink industry by 2006 with an annual growth of 55% in the United States alone [1,2]. Despite the recession, the sales of a new form of concentrated energy beverage the so called energy shots have been undefeatable, with sales expected to double each year to about $700 millions [3]. With the rise of the caffeinated beverage industry, it became common to see supermarket and convenient stores dedicating an entire aisle of the beverage section to these energy drinks. What makes energy drinks so popular? As the name implies, the consumption of energy drinks is intended to give quick energy to people. Energy drinks can be described as part soft drink and part nutritional supplement. Like many soft drinks, the main source of this energy comes from both caffeine and sugar. In addition, energy drink companies claim that other components are added to enhance the nutritional value and boost the energy power in the body. These components include ephedrine, taurine, ginseng, B-vitamins, guarana seed, carnitine, inositol, and ginkgo biloba ingredients known to be stimulants of the nervous system or a type of amino acids that helps boost metabolism [4]. However, the rise of energy drinks came with concerns. Energy drinks are especially popular among young adults, the prime advertising targets of drink companies. Research has reflected that youth are more susceptible to misuse and the commercial message lacks the potential negative health effect of energy drinks. As a result, scientists claim the need for regulation of these energy drinks. The Growing Presence on College Campus The popularity of energy drinks has especially penetrated into college campuses, where students are in particular demand for quick energy. Through usage of energy drinks, students seek assistance for lack of sleep, physical activities, late night partying, and studying for exams and projects. It is common to see a line of students holding some type of energy drink at the convenient store during final exam season. But to many students, drinking an energy drink is not a seasonal use, but a regular habit. An engineering student from Carnegie Mellon University stated I habitually 14 THE TRIPLE HELIX Lent 2011
grab an energy drink at the convenient store to be alert in my morning class. A survey of 496 college students conducted by the Department of Nutrition and Dietetics of East Carolina University reported that 51% of students drink more than one energy drink each month. Out of the energy drink users, the most common reasons for use were to overcome insufficient sleep (67%), to increase energy (64%), to drink with alcohol while partying (54%), to study for finals or projects (50%), to drive for a long period of time (45%), and to treat a hangover (17%) [1]. The Marketing Energy Drink Energy drink companies understand the busy lifestyle of the college student; they know the competitive nature of classes and common motto of college students to study hard and play hard. As a result, companies spend millions of dollars to cater to young adults and college students. These products are advertised as a natural performance enhancer for studying and additional activities enjoyed by many young adults. Red Bull claims to be a functional beverage that Reproduced from [8] improves performance, increases concentration and reaction speed, increases endurance, stimulates metabolism, appropriate for sports, driving, and leisure activities [1,5]. Many products appeal to the young adult culture. For example, Rockstar derived its name from a popular music called party like a rock star, while Monsters slogan is to unleash the beast, targeting the youths desire for glorification and wildness. Energy drink companies sponsor athletes, sporting events, nightclub, and music bands. In addition, many advertisements push their consumers toward sex appeal. In extreme cases, the products are promoted with an image of drug usage; cocaine energy drink has been marketed as a legal alternative to the class A drug, while Blow is a white powdered energy drink mix that comes in a package that portrays the image of using cocaine [1]. These rigorous marketing techniques establish a distinct image of energy drinking among students. One study shows that energy drink consumptions have been associated with a toxic jock identity and masculinity among college undergraduates [6]. Such identity is associated with risk-taking behavior such as drinking, sexual risk-taking, delinquency, and interpersonal violence [6]. Surprisingly, a survey of 795 undergraduate students indicates that the measure of masculinity and risk-taking behaviors has a positive relationship with the frequency of energy drink consumption [7].
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The Potential Health Effect and Call for Regulation This image of energy drinks among youth is even more problematic because of the potential health-effect that consumption may cause. Although the energy drink companies are boasting about the amount of energy the product will provide, scientists claim that they ignore the potential effects of their product. Dr. Roland Griffiths, a professor of psychiatry and neuroscience at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, voiced his concern about energy drinks inadequate labeling and the advertisements as a natural performance enhancer. Such messages are targeted toward young adults, who are less tolerant to caffeine, and may result in consumption with negative consequences. Griffiths stated many of these drinks do not label the caffeine content, while some energy drinks contain as much caffeine as found in 14 cans of soda [8]. Commonly reported cases of consequences of consumption were caffeine intoxication and overdose which include symptoms such as nervousness, anxiety, restlessness, insomnia, gastrointestinal upset, tremore, tachycardia, and psychomotor agitation [9]. In the long term, overconsumption may result in caffeine dependence and withdrawal [9]. What is also concerning is the fact that mixing caffeine with different stimulants has not been proven to be completely safe [9]. Shockingly, in a few cases, consumption of energy drinks has been linked to death. In these cases, the individual was either performing a rigorous physical activity or consuming alcohol while drinking the energy drink. According to The Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse and Violence Prevention, three people died in Sweden after drinking Red Bull: two had mixed Red Bull with alcohol, and the third drank it after an exercise session [10]. In 2008 in Florida, a sixteen-year old student died after consuming alcohol and energy drinks at a party [10]. Despite such a dangerous link between alcohol and energy drinks, an increasing number of college students are consuming energy drinks with alcohol. In the East Carolina survey, out of 496 college students, 27% of students reported mixing energy drinks and alcohol, 49% of students consumed more than three energy drinks per occasion [1]. Griffiths claims that when energy drinks and alcohols are consumed together, the symptoms of alcohol intoxication are not as evident, increasing the potential for alcohol-related accident and abuse. A different survey of college students indicated that compared to those who consumed alcohol alone, students who consumed alcohol mixed with energy drinks had a significantly higher frequency of alcohol-related consequences including becoming the offender or victim of sexual assault, getting involved in drunk driving, or being injured [9]. Such high concern for the potential health and
References
1. Malinauskas, Brenda M., A survey of energy drink consumption patterns among college students. Nutritional Journal page 2007 Oct 6. 2. Boyle M, Castillo VD: Monster on the loose. Fortune 2006;154: 116-122. 3. Neuman, William. Energy Shots Stimulate Power Sales, New York Times. 2009 Jul 10. 4. Watson, Stephanie, How does Energy Drink Works? [Online] TLC Cooking. 2010 Apr 10. Available from: http://recipes.howstuffworks.com/energy-drink.htm. 5. Benefits of Red Bull. Red Bull USA. 10 April 2010. http://www.redbullusa.com/ cs/Satellite/en_US/Red-Bull-Home/Products/011242746208542. 6. Miller Kathleen PhD. Energy Drinks, Race, and Problems behaviors among college students. J Adolesc Health. 2008 November; 43(5): 490-497. 7. Miller Katheleen PhD. Wired: Energy Drinks, Jock Identity, Masculine Norms, and Risk Taking. J Am Coll Health. 2008; 56(5): 481-489. 8. PD, NIDA for Teens, National Institute on Drug Abuse, US Gov. [Blog]
safety issues related with energy drink and alcohol lead the Food and Drug Administration to doubt the safety and legality of nearly 30 manufactures of caffeinated alcoholic beverages in 2009 [11]. The Challenge of Regulation Because of this ongoing problem with energy drink consumption, several countries have begun regulating the sales of energy drinks. Energy drinks in the European Union require a high caffeine content label, while those in Canada need to indicate the danger of consumption with alcohol [9]. Norway and France have restricted the sale of energy drinks, while Denmark has prohibited the sale [9]. The regulation of energy drinks in United States has been difficult for numerous reasons. First, energy drinks are generally marketed as dietary supplements rather than food [8]. Although the FDA regulates the caffeine contents of soft-drinks, which are considered food, to 71 mg per 12 fluid ounces, there is no limit prescribed for energy drinks, because they are considered as dietary supplements [8]. Second, caffeine is a natural compound widely consumed for years in coffee and tea [9]. The spokespersons of American Beverage Association pointed out that most energy drinks contain the same or less amount of caffeine than a cup of brewed coffee [8]. They argue that if labels are required on energy drinks, brewed coffee should be subjected to labeling as well [8]. They stated, Energy drinks can be part of a balanced lifestyle when consumed sensibly. Regulating consumer products has always been a complicated subject. Not surprisingly, the questions posed on energy drinks resemble those of cigarettes and alcohol. Abuse of cigarettes and alcohol has been identified with negative health consequences. As a result, they have been involved in a never-ending debate on the regulation of areas such as advertising, labeling, and sales to minors. The questions related to energy drinks are comparable: is it acceptable for energy drink companies to capitalize on youth culture which may result in dangerous consequences? Or is it a matter of consumer choice? Like other cases, it is difficult to answer in black and white and the dangers and regulation of energy drinks are still in heated controversy. However, the popularity and misuse of energy drinks indicate that minors and young adults are more potentially subjected to dangerous consumption. Our society is in need of education about daily consumption and encouragement of responsible drinking behavior. Margaret Kim is a senior studying Chemistry/Biological Science and Business at Carnegie Mellon University.
Available from: http://teens.drugabuse.gov/blog/wp-content/uploads/2010/03/ energy-molecule.gif 9. Doheny, Kathleen. Energy Drinks: Hazardous to Your Health? WebMD Health News. 2008 Sep 24. URL: http://www.webmd.com/food-recipes/ news/20080924/energy-drinks-hazardous-to-your-health 10. Griffiths, Roland R. Caffeinated Energy DrinksA Growing Problem. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2009 Jan 1; 99(1-3):1-10. 11. Kapner, Daniel Ari. Ephedra and energy Drinks on College Campus. Infofacts Resources. The Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse and Violence Prevention. 2003 Jul. URL: http://www.higheredcenter.org. 12. Herndon, Michael. FDA to Look Into Safety of Caffeinated Alcoholic Beverages Agency Sends Letters to Nearlt 30 Manufacturers. FDA News Release. 2009 Nov 13. URL: http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/ PressAnnouncements/ucm190427.htm
CAMBRIDGE
Your Genes Belong To Us

Gengshi Chen
DNA should be treated as the physical embodiment of nature

veloping a product. In return for disclosing the details of an invention and paying a maintenance fee, the patentee receives a 20-year monopoly over the patented product or process [4]. This argument has an appreciable value when considering inventions such as Tetra Pak or SuperGlue. However, is the patenting of human genes a step too far? Do gene patents deprive the public of cost-effective health care, and what impact do they have on research in public institutions and competing companies? The history of the British patent system as we know it today started in the 19th century, when the granting of patents became independent of the crown and turned into a regulatory matter for the state. With the passage of the Patent act in 1977, patent rights became an integrated part of British law. It is worth noting that patents are country-specific, and the laws regulating them vary from country to country [4]. Generally, US patent laws are more liberal in the consideration of patentable matters than the European equivalent, allowing more gene patents to be approved [5]. The European Patents Office (EPO), an intergovernmental patent approval organisation, has 3 main criteria for the patentability of an 16 THE TRIPLE HELIX Lent 2011
The association of BRCA1 with breast and ovarian cancer was discovered in 1994 by Mark Skolnick, founder of Myriad Genetics. He patented the gene and was granted a monopoly for the use of the gene in genetic testing, gene therapy, protein replacement therapy and the screening of drugs for cancer therapy [7]. In 1995, BRCA2, a related gene, was discovered and the patent rights were purchased by Myriad Genetics. The patents have allowed Myriad to, in effect, control the research and genetics testing of the BRCA genes in the US [8]. The BRCA1 and BRCA2 patents were approved by the EPO in 2001 and 2003 respectively, but cover a more restricted scope of rights than the US patents [1,9]. A law suit filed by the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) resulted in the invalidation of the BRCA gene patents in March 2010 at the US District Court for the Southern District of New York. The court decision taken by Judge Sweet was based on the argument that the isolated DNA is not markedly different from the natural state and that DNA should be treated as the physical embodiment of nature. In other words, although DNA is a chemical molecule, it should not simply be treated as other chemical compounds, since it also carries information and knowledge, which is not patentable. This is the first time an American court has found it unlawful to patent genes, a decision which could lead to the invalidation of 18.5% of the current patents of human genes [5,8].
Gengshi Chen
enae Girard, a 39-year-old woman living in the US, had to pay a staggering $3200 for a single genetic test for the BRCA gene associated with breast and ovarian cancer, only to find that she was unable to request a second opinion upon receiving the positive test result. After consulting with doctors, Ms Girard was advised to have her ovaries surgically removed in order to diminish the 60% risk of developing ovarian cancer indicated by the genetic test. Because Myriad Genetics, which holds a patent on the BRCA genes, is the only laboratory to provide the genetic test, Ms Girard had to undergo the life-changing surgery without knowing for certain whether it was absolutely necessary [1]. Ms Girard is only one of tens of thousands of women in this situation, left with no choice but to accept the outcome of a single indeterministic genetic test result, which in addition is subject to human errors in the test laboratory. Other companies are unable to provide an alternative method of diagnosis because the gene in question is protected under patent laws [2]. Currently 20% of human genes are owned by individual biotechnology companies and research labs, making it illegal for others to carry out diagnosis and therapy, and limiting research using those genes [1,3]. The underlying principles of patents are to promote openness of publically beneficial findings, and to reward investors for the capital endowed in innovating and de-
invention: it has to be new, be susceptible to industrial application and involve an inventive step. In addition, the Biotech Patent Directive adopted in 1998 by the EPO contains further criteria and restrictions to clarify the patentability of biotechnological matters [6].
CAMBRIDGE
Opponents to human gene patenting are concerned in principle by the action of owning genes DNA is intrinsic and not an invention. The patents monopolise the gene test market and inhibit competition-derived reduction of health care costs. The revenue of Myriad Genetics in 2009 was $326 million, most of which came from their BRACAnalysis gene test [8]. Another problem arising from the nature of the monopolised market is that patients are prevented from receiving a second opinion on their test results. The intellectual property rights allow the patent holder to deny licensing the usage of the gene for the development of alternative diagnostic tests, in order to retain their monopoly of the test market. Critics also argue that the current patent system (especially in the US) is unfair, because it allows a gene to be patented before a working product has been developed. Moreover, even if only a single function of a gene is understood at the time of patenting, the patent may cover all other functions of the gene yet to be discovered. This is something that has become increasingly significant as we discover the complexity of gene function and regulation [4]. One of the main arguments against gene patenting is that it stifles research, prevents scientific advances and stops unlikely that competitors are using these free licences, since new products developed with the gene may be under the protection of the existing patent, allowing Myriad to claim royalties on their research [12]. Other organisations, such as the not-for-profit Cancer Research UK, take a similar approach by granting free licences to all reputable research labs, and in doing so preventing research on the gene in question from becoming stagnant [11]. On the other side of the debate are supporters of gene patenting, who argue that patents are needed to provide an incentive for capitalists to invest in research. Due to the long process between the initial discovery of a gene and the commercialisation of the final diagnostic or therapeutic product, gene patenting is needed in addition to product patenting in order to drive initial research. A major problem with ending gene patenting is the risk of increased secrecy in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries as well as in academia, which would hinder research and result in wasteful research duplications. Gene patenting allows academics to publish their research openly, enabling further development [8,13]. The controversy of human gene patenting has been difficult to solve, partly due to the complexity of genetic material in terms of its function and regulation. New findings are constantly revealed, making it difficult for the law and ethics to keep up to speed with patentability criteria and case law. All gene sequence patents were granted prior to the completion of the first draft of the human genome project in 2000 by which time all human genome sequences became publically available [14]. The 20-year validity of patents means that the last gene sequence patent is going to expire in 2020, effectively solving the dilemma [8]. However, scientific advances continuously generate new uses and applications of already sequenced genes, such as genetic tests and drug screen targets, which may well be patentable. The scientific society and the general public should continue the debate in order to influence the way EPO and other patent offices are building up case law for the patentability of human genes, striving to achieve a balance between the incentive to invest in research, scientific progress and fair health care services. Gengshi Chen is a second year student studying Natural Sciences at Selwyn College.
A major problem with ending gene patenting is the risk of increased secrecy
the development of new therapies. To limit the extent of this effect, there are research exemption rules in the patent laws of many European countries and in the US, which allow pure research to use patented genes without the need for a licence [10]. Hundreds of research papers on patented genes such as the BRCA genes prove that the concept works; researchers are making use of the exemption rule [8]. To further reduce the research dampening effect, some biotechnology companies provide subsidised licensing to research labs [11]. In a statement by Myriad Genetics, the company said, It is important for us to point out that research activities with the patented technologies are not limited in any way by Myriad and are encouraged through subsidised costs for testing from the company to researchers. Although this might encourage research on patented genes in non-profit labs, it is
References
1.The New York Times [online]. 2009 May 12 [cited 2010 Oct 24] Available from: http://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/13/health/13patent.html 2. Australian Broadcasting Corporation Transcripts. 2009 Sep 29 [cited 2010 Oct 28] Available from: ULR: http://www.abc.net.au/lateline/content/2008/s2700099. htm 3. Young D. ACLU, Other Groups File Suit to Challenge BRCA Patents. BIOWORLD Today 2009 May 14; 20(92) 4. Bently L, Sherman B. Intellectual Property Law. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2001 5. Kaufman R J, Storey H M. Ruling against BRCA gene patent now on appeal; At issue is district court finding that isolated DNA constitutes unpatentable subject matter. The National Law Journal 2010 Aug 16: 32(49) 6. The European Patent Office [online]. 2010 Jul 7 [cited 2010 Oct 18] Available from: ULR: http://www.epo.org/topics/issues/biotechnology.html 7. Shattuck-Eidens et al., Myriad Genetics Inc. et al., 1997. Linked breast cancer and ovarian cancer susceptibility gene. US patent 5,693,473. 8. Flam F. The case for and against the patenting of genes. The Philadelphia Inquirer 2010 Jun 21; sect. E01 9. The EPO patent only covers the fragment of BRCA gene sequence used as a probe in the genetic test, whereas the US equivalent covers the DNA sequence
of the entire BRCA gene. Therefore a licence is not needed in Europe in order to develop a new BRCA gene tests using an alternative fragments of the BRCA gene: Diagnostic Testing and the Ethics of Patenting DNA [online]. 2010 December 5 Available from: http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/diagnostic-testingand-the-ethics-of-patenting-709 10. Hemphill T A. Gene patents, the anticommons, and the biotechnology industry. Research-Technology Management 2010 Sep 1;53(5) 11. The independent [online]. Threat to breast cancer testing after controversial patent ruling. 2008 Sec 4 [cited 2010 Oct 28]; Available from: ULR: http://www. independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/health-news/threat-to-breastcancer-testing-after-controversial-patent-ruling-1050586.html 12. Irish Times [online]. Cashing in on your genes. 2010 May 28 [cited 2010 Oct 28]; Available from: ULR:http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/ innovation/2010/0528/1224270972712.html 13. Nature [online]. Europe to pay royalties for cancer gene. 2008 Dec 2 [cited 2010 Oct 28]; Available from: http://www.nature.com/news/2008/081202/ full/456556a.html 14. Initial sequencing and analysis of the human genome [online]. 2010 November 30 Available from: http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v409/n6822/ full/409860a0.html
CAMBRIDGE
Marine Litter: The Black Peril of the Sea

Amanda Wilson
hilst recently visiting an area in the North Pacific, Miriam Goldstein, a graduate student from The Scripps Research Institute reported that a jar of seawater can be so full of plastic pieces it looks like a snow globe [1]! Ocean currents cause plastic debris to accumulate in both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. These patches illustrate the extent of the problem. Densities as high as 334,271 items per square kilometre have been recorded [1]. Not only is wildlife directly harmed by entanglement and ingestion of litter fragments but debris is believed to act as a vector for invasive species [3,4]. The United Nations Environment Programme recently called marine litter a global challenge [5]. Why should society accept this challenge and how can it do so?
Densities as high as 334,271 items per square kilometre have been recorded.
Marine litter is believed to come from four main sources, with the majority of marine litter entering oceans directly from public sources [2]. Public litter includes items such as plastic bottles, aluminium cans, food wrappers, cigarette butts and golf balls [2]. The remains of helium balloons from balloon races are also frequently among this litter [2]. The second highest source of litter is the fishing industry, with items such as fishing line, rope, cord, floats and hooks being found. Many of these items are lost to the sea accidentally, making it a more difficult problem to eradicate. Sewage related debris makes the third largest contribution to marine litter around the UK. In some cases, toilets are used as wet bins, with debris entering the sea from sewage pipes. Britain has around 20,000 emergency storm overflow pipes that carry raw sewage and rainwater to the sea, but some of these are continually used, releasing items such as sanitary towels, tampon applicators, condoms and cotton buds to the sea [2]. Cotton buds alone contribute to 70% of the sewage related debris found on our beaches, possibly because they are so thin that they are not removed by sewage filtering systems [2]. Binning plastic items is the only way to be confident that they will not end up in the oceans. The final major source of marine litter is the shipping industry, which contributes items such as oil drums, strapping bands and crates to our oceans [2]. In addition to these sources, there is a large amount of litter that cannot be easily sourced, frequently because it is broken into microscopic pieces [2]. Marine litter from these four sources has been shown to have several key consequences. One such direct consequence is the entanglement and death of marine organisms. These litter items are said to continue ghost fishing - accidentally entangling organisms 18 THE TRIPLE HELIX Lent 2011
in fishing line, net and rope. Post mortem examinations on 30 baleen whales stranded on the Scottish coast since 1990 concluded that 16 of these died from entanglement in creel lines and other ropes [6]. Fortunately, conservationists sometimes reach stranded animals and are able to disentangle them, but this is both a difficult and dangerous job. Entanglement is believed to be a huge risk to turtle species, all seven of which are included on the IUCN Red List of endangered species [7]. Seabirds also suffer entanglement when they dive or swim into litter whilst foraging. Images of entangled seals are particularly disturbing, because as the seal grows, the string or rope becomes progressively embedded in the animals flesh, restricting its breathing and ability to forage [8]. In 2002, a scientist from the Sea Fisheries Institute, showed that of the Cape Fur Seals harvested on the South African coast, approximately 84 seals per year suffer entanglement, representing 0.1% of the harvest [9]. Not only can litter entangle marine life, it can also be fatal when ingested. Marine organisms often mistake litter for food items or have a low discrimination rate when feeding [10]. Upon ingestion, litter can block the passage of food, causing starvation [11]. Large plastic pieces have also been shown to cause inflammatory lesions in the intestines of Albatross chicks [11]. Plastics can sequester man-made toxins from seawater, and some debris already harbours toxins when deposited. For example, some plastics contain PBDE, a flame retardant. Amongst other consequences, PBDE has been shown to affect the neurological and hormonal functions of marine life, hence influencing reproductive capacity [12]. Chemicals found on plastics, such as DDT and other chlorinated hydrocarbons, have been shown to cause low steroid production and a delayed reproduction in several species; for example ringneck doves [13]. Bioaccumulation of toxins can occur on moving up the food chain occasionally concluding with human consumption. Evidence of ingestion by marine life is extensive. For
Guillemot that has suffered from entanglement. Amanda Wilson 2010
CAMBRIDGE
Marine litter on one of Britains beaches. Amanda Wilson 2010
example, in 2005, a minke whale washed ashore in Northern France was found to have 800 grams of plastic bags in its digestive system approximately one bin liner full [14]. In 1985, a study of fulmars in the Netherlands showed that, on average, each bird had 12 items of litter in its stomach [14]. In fact, 80% of plastic washed ashore on the Dutch coast has peck marks characteristic of those made by seabirds [16]. In 2002, scientists from the University of Valencia found that 43 of 54 juvenile loggerhead turtles had debris in their gastrointestinal tract, possibly because these animals have a very low discrimination rate when feeding [10]. Additionally, the consequences of the many microscopic plastic pieces in the sea are largely unknown, but they have been shown to be ingested by barnacles, lugworms and amphipods, and it is likely that this ingestion is not without consequences [17].
Entanglement is believed to be a huge risk to turtle species

Marine litter is also capable of indirectly influencing species richness and biodiversity by transporting potentially invasive species to new areas [18]. Invasive species are species not native to a particular area that can exclude native species by depleting limiting resources. Well-known examples have shown that invasive species can have dramatic effects on native species. One such example is the decline in red squirrel populations in Britain because of the introduced grey squirrel that delivers squirrel pox to native red squirrels whilst being more tolerant of the disease. The durability, high abundance and buoyancy of much
marine litter make it particularly suitable as a vector for invasive species [19]. Man-made debris is capable of harbouring species, as demonstrated by a plastic strapping band, found on Adelaide Island, Antarctic Peninsula, shown to be the home to 10 species, including sponges, bryozoans, polychaete worms, a mollusc and a hydroid [4]. On several beaches in the Seychelles, more than 60% of the debris was shown to contain potentially invasive species in 2006 [20]. In 2002, David Barnes from the British Antarctica Survey estimated that man-made debris has doubled the spread of invasive species to subtropical regions compared to the spread promoted by natural materials and more than tripled the spread to subpolar and polar regions [21]. He has described marine litter as a commercial jet airliner for invasive species, allowing unlimited travel [18]. With so much litter already in the oceans, financial support for investigation into suitable removal methods is required. Currently several methods are used for removing floating debris from the sea. The US Army Corps of Engineers typically remove 90 tonnes of debris from San Francisco Bay shipping lanes every month, because of the threat that they pose to seaplanes [22]. It is unknown whether removal involves trawling for debris but this would be counterproductive since it would also unavoidably remove marine organisms. In the Tres Palmas Marine Reserve, Puerto Rico, debris is removed from reefs by snorkelling, tow-boarding and scuba-diving [23]. Although this is effective on a small scale, it is impractical on larger scales and equipment is costly. Manual removal is considered to be the most environmental method because, unlike machine collection, it does not remove organisms from the environment [2]. In Britain manual removal using gloves and litter pickers is popular and several environmental charities regularly
CAMBRIDGE
organise beach clean-up events. These events also entice community involvement, whilst also improving awareness of the issue. Governments have important roles to play in the mission to decrease marine litter. Alongside environmental charities, governments can assist in providing funding for investigation into removal methods. They are also responsible for ensuring littering laws are enforced and carry appropriate penalties [22]. The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 1973/1978) is one intergovernmental initiative that has proved successful in reducing marine pollution from ships. Amongst other outcomes of this convention, plastic disposal at sea is now prohibited [25].
It is hoped that society will be able to assist scientists in turning the tide on marine litter.
What can society do to decrease the damage on wildlife from marine litter? Prevention is the key [24]! Society should continue in its effort to reduce the amount of waste produced and attempt to reuse and recycle existing items where possible. Furthermore, by supporting beach clean-up events and other environmental debris removal methods, it is hoped that society will be able to assist conservationists in turning the tide on marine litter [2]. Because of the cost, impracticalities and time-consuming nature of removing floating debris, there is an urgent need to promote prevention! Amanda Wilson is a third year student studying Biological Natural Sciences at St Catharines College. She is also a volunteer beach clean-up and litter survey event organiser for the Marine Conservation Society.
References
1. Kaiser J. The Dirt on Ocean Garbage Patches. Science. 2010 June; 328:1506 2. The Marine Conservation Society [Online Homepage]. [Cited 2010 Oct 22]. Available from: URL: http://www.mcsuk.org 3. Derraik JGB. The pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: a review. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 2002 Sept; 44:842-852. 4. Barnes DKA, Fraser KPP. Rafting by five phyla on man-made flotsam in the Southern Ocean. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 2003 Nov; 262: 289-291. 5. Marine Litter: A Global Challenge [Online]. 2009 Apr [cited 2010 Oct 22]. Available from: URL: http://www.unep.org/pdf/unep_marine_litter-a_global_ challenge.pdf 6. Northridge S, Cargill A, Coram A, Mandleberg L, Calderan S, Reid B. Entanglement of minke whales in Scottish waters; an investigation into occurrence, causes and mitigation. Final Report to Scottish Government. 2010 June. 7. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species [Online Homepage]. [Cited 2010 Oct 22]. Available from: URL: http://www.iucnredlist.org/ 8. Weisskopf M. Plastic reaps a grim harvest in the oceans of the world (plastic trash kills and maims marine life). 1988. Smithsonian 18:58 9. Shaughnessy PD. Entanglement of Cape Fur Seals with Man-made Objects. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 1980; 11: 332-336. 10. Toms J, Guitart R, Mateo R, Raga JA. Marine debris ingestion in loggerhead sea turtles, Caretta caretta, from the Western Mediterranean. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 2002; 44:211-216. 11. Fry MD, Fefer SI, Sileo L. Ingestion of plastic debris by Laysan Albatrosses and Wedge-tailed Shearwaters in the Hawaiian Islands. Marine Pollution Bulletin. Jun 1987; 18:339-343. 12. Todd PA, Ong X, Ming Chou L. Impacts of pollution on marine life in Southeast Asia. Biodiversity and Conservation. 2010; 19:1063-1082. 13. Peakall DB. p,p-DDT: effect on calcium metabolism and concentration of estradiol in the blood. Science. 1970 May; 168:592-594. 14. Mauger G, Kerleau F, Robin JP, Dubois B, De JF. Marine debris obstructing stomach of a young minke whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata) stranded in
A product of Britains sewage system- cotton bud found washed ashore entangled in cord and human hair. Amanda Wilson 2010.
Evidence of organisms living on plastic. Amanda Wilson 2010. Normandy, France. 8th American Cetacean Society. International conference (Poster) 2002. 15. Franeker JA. Plastic ingestion in the North Atlantic fulmar. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 1985; 16:367-369. 16. Cade GC. Seabirds and floating plastic debris. Marine Pollution Bulletin 2002; 44:1294-1295. 17. Thompson RC, Olsen Y, Mitchell RP, Davis A, Rowland SJ, John AWG, McGonigle D, Russell AE. Lost at sea: Where is all the plastic? Science 2004; 304:838. 18. Barnes DKA. Human Rubbish Assists Alien Invasions of Seas. Directions in Science 2002; 1:107-112. 19. Gregory MR. Environmental implications of plastic debris in marine settings - entanglement, ingestion, smothering, hangers-on, hitch-hiking and alien invasions. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 2009; 364:2013-2025. 20. Barnes DKA, Galgani F, Thompson RC, Barlaz M. Accumulation and fragmentation of plastic debris in global environments. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 2009. 364:1985-1998. 21. Barnes DKA. Biodiversity: Invasions by marine life on plastic debris. Nature 2002; 416:808-809. 22. Debris collection onsite after Bay Bridge struck [Online]. 2007 Nov 7 [cited 2010 Oct 24]. Available from: URL: http://www.spn.usace.army.mil/newsrelease/ newsrelease_11_07_07.html 23. Coral Reef Protection through Marine Debris Removal at Reserva Marina Tres Palmas [Online]. 2009 Sep 7 [cited 2010 Oct 24]. URL: http://trespalmascoral. blogspot.com/2008/09/coral-reef-protection-through-marine.html 24. Jeftic L, Sheavly S, Adler E. Marine Litter: a global challenge. United Nations Environment Programme 2009. 25. International Maritime Organisation [Online]. [Cited 2010 Nov 19]. Available from: http://www.imo.org/About/Conventions/ListOfConventions/Pages/ International-Convention-for-the-Prevention-of-Pollution-from-Ships-(MARPOL). aspx
CAMBRIDGE
What Makes a Pretty Face?: The Biological Basis of Beauty

Thomas Gizbert
oet and philosophical essayist Kahlil Gibran wrote in the early 20th century, Beauty is not in the face; beauty is a light in the heart [1]. However, a number of recent studies are building a scientific case against this statement, claiming that beauty resides not in the heart, but in the evolution of elements of the face and brain. The emerging discipline of evolutionary psychology is based on the idea that not only have our physical traits been shaped by our adaptation to our ancestral environment, but our behaviour and preferences have likewise been shaped by natural selection [2]. This has led to many studies investigating the evolutionary reasons for the human concept of beauty, and their results are often surprising. Mostly, these studies examine whether a particular trait for example symmetry, colour, and facial hair is correlated with perceived attractiveness, and in doing so they focus on the biological and evolutionary reasons why some faces are commonly judged to be more attractive than others. They show that despite the old adage beauty is in the eye of the beholder, there are a number of traits which are generally and cross-culturally perceived as more attractive than others. However, this approach has come under much criticism not only methodologically, but also from those who argue that attractiveness should be studied as a cultural concept only, or those who argue that it should not be studied at all [3].
Rosy Southwell 2010
Beauty resides not in the heart, but in the evolution of elements of the face and brain.
Studies of human beauty are not new: Pythagoras put forward a theory that physical beauty derived from the sub-
Fuller lips, smaller chins and noses, and larger foreheads are all examples of child-like features that men find attractive in women. Reproduced from [13].
jects proportions and the golden ratio in the sixth century BC, and fields as diverse as art, sociology, and cosmetic surgery have also addressed the subject [1]. However, the evolutionary psychological approach is unique, in that it proposes a scientific basis couched in evolutionary logic for why we perceive certain markers to be more attractive than others. Its practitioners argue that the features that men and women find attractive are biological signals of a good-quality mate. One of the predictions that evolutionary psychologists make regarding mate choice regards age preference. Due to the fact that womens reproductive fitness is more influenced by age, men will be pickier about their partners ages, tending to go for younger or younger-looking women. In a 2002 study, de Sousa Campos et al. showed that the number of responses to womens personal ads decreased with the advertisers age, while responses to mens increased [4]. D. Jones, in his 1995 study Sexual Selection, Physical Attractiveness, and Facial Neoteny, returned similar results, showing that men prefer women who possess youthful features, including large eyes, small noses, and full lips. More surprisingly, a collection of photographs of models faces were analysed for eye width, nose length, and lip height, and on the basis of these measurements were calculated to have similar facial dimensions to girls aged between 6.8 and 7.4 years. Jones states that a by-product of the human
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ated with good health in males, too much masculinisation leads to increased perception of dominance, unfriendliness, and other negative traits. Furthermore, women prefer different levels of masculinisation depending on where they are in their menstrual cycle; a more masculine face is preferred when conception risk is high. The fact that the beholders concept of beauty changes as a result of biological mechanisms emphasises the idea that beauty is itself a psychological construct. The researchers write When viewed from this perspective, male facial beauty may be an evaluative feeling evoked by attributes that were more important in a hunter-gatherer era than todays environment [7]. Indeed, men who women rate higher for attractiveness tend to have above-average semen quality (that is, sperm count, morphology, and mobility), lending weight to the hypothesis that attractive features are those which advertise a good choice of mate in genetic and biological terms, in both males and females [8]. Not only does the face provide information about the ability of a potential mate to reproduce, but also it can provide information about health; poor health in a parent might
A composite of faces with high (left) and low (right) levels of oestrogen. Reproduced from [6].
From left to right: a composite average of male faces; a composite of the faces preferred by women at the low-risk part of their menstrual cycle; a composite of the faces preferred by the women at the high-risk phase of their cycle. Reproduced from [7].
Symmetrical men are quicker to copulate in romantic relationships.

mean that offspring survival rates are lowered, due either to poor development in the womb or while breastfeeding due to malnutrition, or because a parent in low health is less likely to be able to provide for offspring. One of the ways in which facial features signify health is through colour and texture. Jones et al. (2004) found that young men with attractive faces have skin that looks healthier; in this study, subjects rated photos of mens faces for attractiveness, and photos of a small area of cheek skin for perceived skin health. The two correlated strongly, suggesting that attractiveness is partially affected by skin colour and texture [9]. Another measure of health is facial symmetry. Evolutionary psychologists point out that bilateral symmetry is difficult to maintain, and stresses during development such as illness or malnutrition can cause asymmetrical growth, making symmetry a good marker for overall health. And indeed members of both sexes perceive symmetrical faces to be more attractive than asymmetrical ones [3]. Thornhill et al. (1995) found that an increase in levels of symmetry in males is also correlated with an increased incidence of female orgasm in their sexual partners. Furthermore, symmetrical men are quicker to copulate in romantic relationships. The authors of the study write: Our findings suggest that human female orgasm is designed to retain sperm of men of high developmental stability, and perhaps the sperm of men who are facially attractive and large in body size [10]. These new revelations about the adaptive purposes of certain facial features have led some to theorise that sexual selection is among the evolutionary pressures which have led humans to look and act the way they do: humans have their distinctive features for the same reason that peacocks have their large tails. Biologist R. A. Fisher termed this pattern of
males attraction to markers of youthful fecundity may be an attraction to adult females presenting markers of youth to an exaggerated or supernormal degree [5]. Facial markers which indicate hormone levels often affect how attractive a face is perceived to be. Law Smith et al. (2006) found that women with greater oestrogen levels are generally considered to be more feminine, attractive, and healthy, with fuller lips and smaller lower jaws. As high levels of oestrogen correlate with high fertility in women, this might mean that as with youth these features are attractive because they are indications of a good mate in biological and evolutionary terms. An interesting note is that women who wear makeup are similarly seen to be more feminine, attractive, and healthy; perhaps this means that
A more masculine face is preferred when conception risk is high.

makeup mimics high levels of oestrogen. Law Smith et al. write that The use of make-up may compensate for or mask cues indicating low hormone levels, making perceivers unable to form attributions based on natural hormonal cues [6]. Just as a high level of oestrogen is correlated with attractiveness in women, high levels of testosterone, the male sex hormone, are linked to attractiveness in men--but not in the same way. Johnston et al. (2001) suggested that while women do prefer male faces which have markers of masculinity a broader jaw, a pronounced brow, and jutting cheekbones and that these characteristics are also associ22 THE TRIPLE HELIX Lent 2011
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selection the runaway effect. In this model, a certain trait ceases to be selected for due to any benefits it might incur for the bearer, and instead it is selected for simply because the selection is self-reinforcing. For example, any rebellious peahen which showed a preference for shorter tail length would not be able to pass on this preference, as any male Once I began working on what makes faces attractive, the reactions my work received from fellow academics and others really surprised me: some people argued that human beauty should not be studied; most questioned whether it could be studied at all [1]. Apart from criticisms of Darwinian theory and evolutionary psychology in particular, criticisms of the very concept of beauty abound. Naomi Wolfs book The Beauty Myth, for example, argues that the concept of beauty and attractiveness has been perpetuated in order to keep women in their place, while social anthropologists and other social scientists tend to emphasise the interpersonal interaction aspect to attractiveness, while minimising any objective element to it [12]. In philosophy, as in other arts disciplines, the maxim seems to stay beauty is in the eye of the beholder [1]. The question thus arises of why the evolution of facial attractiveness is worth studying. One answer deals itself with the cultural effects of beauty: Viren Swami and Adrian Furnham write in The Psychology of Physical Attraction that understanding beauty from a scientific point of view will enable us better to deal with some of the effects of beauty, especially where the excessive pursuit of beauty becomes detrimental, damaging, even pathological [1]. In a society in which women look up to airbrushed supermodels as archetypes of physical attractiveness and cosmetic surgery provides the means to alter ones appearance to order, understanding the psychology of beauty seems more important than ever before. David Perrett gives another answer: that it would be beneficial to move beauty from the exclusive domain of philosophy, poetry, and art and towards psychology and science. He states that it is the evolving human mind which perceives and prefers... perhaps one day we will learn that what we find attractive in nature and art reflects, in part, what we are attracted to in humans [3]. It seems that this expanding field will not stop growing in the foreseeable future. As more traits not just facial, but in body and behaviour are found to correlate with attractiveness, our picture of the biological basis of beauty will become more filled out, perhaps to the point where it can compete with the widely-held cultural view of individual, subjective aesthetics. This exciting new discipline is pushing the boundaries of what science can and cannot tell us about the way we see the world around us, telling us that beauty is not in the eye, but in the specific adapted cognitive modules of the beholder. Thomas Gizbert is a third year student studying Biological Anthropology at St. Catharines College.
References
7. Johnston VS, Hagel R, Franklin M, Fink B, Grammer K. Male facial attractiveness: evidence for hormone-mediated adaptive design. Evolution and Human Behavior 2001 July;22(4):251-267. 8. Soler C, Nez M, Gutirrez R, Nez J, Medina P, Sancho M, lvarez J, Nez A. Facial attractiveness in men provides clues to semen quality. Evolution and Human Behavior 2003 May;24(3):199-207. 9. Jones BC, Little AC, Burt DM, Perrett DI. When facial attractiveness is only skin deep. Perception 2004;33(5):569-76. 10. Thornhill R, Gangestad SW, Comer R. Human female orgasm and mate fluctuating asymmetry. Animal Behaviour 1995;50(6):1601-1615. 11. Barrett D. Supernormal Stimuli: How Primal Urges Overran Their Evolutionary Purpose. New York: W. W. Norton & Company; 2010. 12. Wolf N. The Beauty Myth: How Images of Beauty Are Used Against Women. New York: HarperCollins Publishers; 2002. 13. Johnston VS, Franklin M. Is Beauty in the Eye of the Beholder? Ethology and Sociobiology 1993 May 5;14:183-199.
Humans have their distinctive features for the same reason that peacocks have their large tails
offspring she had would have shorter tails, and thus be less successful at mating. This causes males to be saddled with longer and longer tails, until the costs of growing the tail any more outweigh the benefits [2]. An example of this type of selection in humans might be in neoteny the retention of child-like or baby-like features. Foetal and baby chimpanzees, for instance, have much shorter faces, are less hairy, and generally look more like humans. This has led some to theorise that human appearance is a result of intense sexual selection for neoteny that we have evolved to look like baby chimpanzees perhaps due to the greater fitness advantage held by women who have younger-looking features [11]. Despite all of the advances made in the field of evolutionary psychology of mate choice and facial attractiveness, there remain some who resist the idea that this area of study can shed light on the human aesthetic. David Perrett, a psychologist at the University of St. Andrews, writes that
Baby chimpanzees (left) have facial and body proportions that more closely resemble those that humans retain throughout life than does the ault chimp (right). Reproduced from [11].
1. Swami V, Furnham A. The Psychology of Physical Attraction. London: Routledge; 2008. 2. Cartwright J. Evolution and Human Behaviour. 2nd ed. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan; 2008. 3. Perrett D. In Your Face: The New Science of Human Attraction. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan; 2010. 4. de Sousa Campos L, Otta E, de Oliveira Siqueira. Sex differences in mate selection strategies: Content analyses and responses to personal advertisements in Brazil. Evolution and Human Behavior 2002 Sept;23(5):395-406. 5. Jones D. Sexual Selection, Physical Attractiveness, and Facial Neoteny: Crosscultural Evidence and Implications. Current Anthropology 1995 Dec;36(5):723-748. 6. Law Smith MJ, Perrett DI, Jones BC, Cornwell RE, Moore FR, Feinberg DR, Boothroyd LG, Durrani SJ, Stirrat MR, Whiten S, Pitman RM, Hillier SG. Facial appearance is a cue to oestrogen levels in women. Proc Biol Sci 2006 Jan 22;273(1583):135140.
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Hoaxing, Forging, Trimming and Cooking: The Cases and Causes of Scientific Fraud
Colin Stoneking
There are several species of impositions that have been practised in science, which are but little known, except to the initiated, and which it may perhaps be possible to render quite intelligible to ordinary understandings. These may be classed under the heads of hoaxing, forging, trimming, and cooking.
Charles Babbage, Reflections on the decline of science in England, and on some of its causes (1830) Institutes of Health (NIH): misconduct consists of fabrication, falsification or plagiarism (FFP) [5].
oo Suk Hwang, at the height of his career as a stem-cell researcher, was described as the national treasure of Korean science - a stamp was even issued to commemorate his research. Jan Hendrik Schn, an experimental physicist, was described as having magical hands and had an uncanny knack for getting spectacular results. These scientists had two things in common: one was amazing scientific success, making them stars in their respective fields, the other was that they were both guilty of fraud. Hwangs claim to fame was human cloning. In 2004, he reported coaxing donated egg cells to develop into embryos using nuclear transfer (the same process used to clone Dolly the sheep), and then harvesting human embryonic stem cells when the embryos were five to six days old [2]. Previously, human cloning had never been convincingly demonstrated and was thought to be extremely difficult, due to the sensitivity of primate cells. Later, he claimed the creation of 11 genetically distinct human embryonic stem cell lines, which would have been a key step forwards for stem cell therapy. However, no cloned stem cell lines actually existed. Schn reportedly induced stable superconductivity in a plastic - labelled Plastic Fantastic by the media - and went on to claim a string of experimental firsts, including in 2001 the first molecular-scale transistor [3]. This had the potential to revolutionise modern technology, shrinking transistors by several orders of magnitude. However, none of these results were real; Schn had been making up data since his PhD days. Both scientists became prominent in the media when their misconduct was finally discovered - Schns in 2002, Hwangs in 2006 [3,4]. More recently, the misconduct of Marc Hauser, evolutionary biologist at Harvard, has been brought to light, and scientific fraud is again under the media spotlight. Hauser was found responsible for eight instances of scientific misconduct by an internal university investigation. He had been regarded as one of the stars of the study of human and animal cognition. So far, three of his papers have been identified as faulty, and the reliability of his other results remains undetermined. How widespread is fraud? What drives scientists to commit it? In order to begin, it is first necessary to clarify what scientific fraud, or misconduct, means. In the UK and USA, the standard working definition of scientific misconduct is provided by the policies of the research councils, the National Science Foundation (NSF) and the National 24 THE TRIPLE HELIX Lent 2011
Misconduct consists of fabrication, falsification or plagiarism.

Both fabrication (invention of data) and falsification (altering data or tampering with experimental procedure) have the same effect: misrepresentation of research results. Plagiarism, where the work of another is misappropriated, inflicts damage on a different level, namely the proper attribution of credit. This is severely harmful because credit and authorship motivate a great part of research, and have legal implications within intellectual property law. However, it can be argued that the F-words are more serious. The entire enterprise of scientific research fundamentally depends on the integrity of those involved; without the ability to trust in others findings, there is no basis for further progress. As with Hwang and Schn, when fraud is used to invent new findings it diverts the attention and the resources of other specialists in the field. The resulting waste of time and money is unbounded. Indeed, several independent labs spent years trying to replicate one of Schns setups, attempting to make an organic crystal behave as a transistor [3]. If fraudulent findings make it into established theory, they can delay progress for decades. The Piltdown man forgery (consisting of a human skull with an orangutan jaw) warped the mainstream view of human evolution for 40 years, and the fraudulent work of physiologist Eric Poehlman was still cited even after he was jailed for falsifying federal grant applications [6]. In this way, cases of research misconduct can easily damage public perceptions of science. As Babbages treatise on the state of science in 19th century England shows, misconduct is not a new problem. Although the high-profile cases mentioned above provide useful examples, they cannot indicate the full extent of fraud in the scientific community. Are these cases isolated, or are they just the tip of the iceberg? A direct way to answer this question is to consider the proportion of submitted papers which are found to be fraudulent. In one example, 8 out of 800 papers submitted to The Journal of Cell Biology turned out to contain images
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that had been improperly digitally manipulated [6]. The findings from surveys distributed to scientists have also been striking. A meta-analysis performed in 2009 found that, averaging over 7 different surveys, 1.97% of participants admitted that they fabricated or falsified research data, or altered or modified results to improve the outcome [7]. Overall, the findings from surveys and case reports demonstrate that misconduct is more widespread than one would expect, particularly when the inherent underestimation in such reports is considered. How alarmed should we be? To understand this prevalence of misconduct, let us examine the motives behind it. One of the few comprehensive accounts of the factors behind scientific fraud was given by Dr. David Goodstein, who, as vice provost of Caltech, laid out a set of institutional guidelines for handling cases of scientific fraud and since then became an expert on the subject. He argues that three motivating factors underlie all cases of fraud, based on his assessment of particular cases [8]. triggered when experimental results are not expected to be fully reproducible - lowered standards of reproducibility automatically result in reduced accountability. Goodstein argues that this is a particular feature of the biological sciences, grounded in biological variability - the inherent differences between organisms or biological preparations that cause them to behave differently under identical experimental conditions. However, it can be argued that in every field, issues with reproducibility can be found if one looks hard enough. There is always the potential to label errors as systematic when they are in fact random, subsequently biasing the reported results. In summary, Goodsteins three motivations for fraud are very unspecific. That is, there is no smoking gun to be found by examining the situation of a scientist suspected of fraud. Rather, they have the same habits and are under the same pressures as all other members of the scientific community. Goodsteins three fraud factors: 1. Career pressure; 2. Prior conviction of what the outcome of an experiment should be; 3. Low expectations of reproducibility.
Data are massaged, modified or made up entirely until they conform.

First of all, career pressure plays a role, and seems to be a much stronger factor than any potential monetary gain. The second motivating factor is widespread, but not ubiquitous: it is the prior expectation of an experimental outcome. While one might reasonably expect an experiment to confirm a hypothesis, if the expectation becomes a conviction it can lead researchers to take short-cuts when interpreting results - no longer relying impartially on experiments, but rather on their preconceived version of scientific fact. This leads to fabrication and falsification: data are massaged, modified or made up entirely until they conform. Alternatively, fraud may be committed simply to mask poor experimentation, or to bring a study into line with previous results. This typically proceeds by subtle falsification - the data are tidied up, trimmed or cooked, in Babbages terms [1]. Even scientific luminaries are not immune to this sort of behaviour. Newton himself is thought to have misreported the result of an experiment which would have disproved his assertion that it was impossible to construct an achromatic (multi-wavelength) lens [3]. A key point is that fraudsters never seem to force through, by misrepresentation, a conclusion they believe to be false they are not anarchists lobbing bombs against the foundations of their fields. As Goodstein puts it, scientific fraud is always a transgression against the methods of science, never purposely against the body of knowledge [8]. The final motivating factor, according to Goodstein, is
References
1. Babbage, C. Reflections on the decline of science in England, and on some of its causes 1830. 2. Hwang, WS et al. Evidence of a pluripotent human embryonic stem cell line derived from a cloned blastocyst 2004 Mar 12;303(5664):1669-74 3. Reich, ES. Plastic Fantastic: how the biggest fraud in physics shook the scientific world Palgrave Macmillan 2009. 4. Cyranoski, D. Verdict: Hwangs human stem cells were all fakes Nature 2006; 439:122.
The findings so far are good grounds for concern. A wide range of studies have shown fraud to be present at a low level in science, and a lack of detection means that the true extent is almost certainly higher. Examining the motives for misconduct has shown that there is no distinct factor in the research environment which separates fraudsters from more ethical scientists. Ultimately, the only certain knowledge of fraudulent behaviour rests with the individual concerned. However, fraud can at least be impeded, if not rendered entirely impossible. The cases of Schn and Hwang provide one clear example: the life of a fraudster can be made much more difficult if his or her community demands access to full data, such that consistency and reproducibility can be evaluated. More attempts to replicate work and more vocal questioning when such attempts fail would hasten the detection of fraud, costly though these measures may be in terms of lost time and resources. In the cases presented here, the selfregulating process of replication worked eventually. But the damage remains, both from these instances and from those yet to be discovered. Colin Stoneking is a second year student studying natural sciences at Emmanuel College. He is also the incoming Events Director of The Triple Helix Cambridge Chapter.
5. Title 45, US Code of Federal Regulations (C.F.R.) Part 689. Available from: http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=ecfr&tpl=/ecfrbrowse/ Title45/45cfr689_main_02.tpl 6. Steneck, NH. Fostering integrity in research: definitions, current knowledge, and future directions Sci. Eng. Ethics 2006; 12:53. 7. Fanelli, D. How many scientists fabricate and falsify research? A systematic review and meta-analysis of survey data PLoS One 4(5):e573 (2009). 8. Goodstein, D. Conduct and misconduct in science [Online] 2002 [cited 2010 October 17] URL: http://www.its.caltech.edu/~dg/conduct_art.html.
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Harnessing the Cognitive Surplus

James Scott-Brown
ow do you spend your free time? If you were an average American, you would spend 20 hours a week watching television, and another 3 hours playing games [1]. Clay Shirky has written about how, after the Second World War, enormous changes in society occurred, so that society forced onto an enormous number of its citizens the requirement to manage something they had never had to manage before--free time, creating a vast cognitive surplus [2]. How can this surplus be effectively exploited? One approach is to take advantage of peoples leisure time and enjoyment of computer games to solve real problems, by creating games in which players complete tasks that computers cannot yet. This has been done for the problems of image tagging (the ESP Game/Google Image Labeler), locating objects in images (Peekaboom), collecting commonsense facts (Verbosity), predicting protein folding (Foldit) and improving the design of electronic circuits (funSAT). Alternatively, mundane but essential tasks can be modified to have useful side-effects (reCAPTCHA).
Reproduced from [13]
are completed. reCAPTCHA has been an enormous success: by September 2008, it was being used by more than 40,000 websites, and had transcribed over 440 million words [5].
Both reCAPTCHA and the GWAP games are very easy to learn
Von Ahm has also developed a series of what he calls Games With a Purpose (GWAP) [6,7]. Several of them award points for agreeing with other players: in the ESP Game and popVideo, a group of players see the same image or video, and must submit keywords that could describe it; in Matchin, players are presented with a pair of images, and asked which one they prefer; in Squigl, players are shown an image and must draw an outline around a named object. Others rely on describing an object to a partner, and understanding their description: in TagTune, players describe what they hear to their partner and, based upon each others descriptions, guess whether they are listening to the same tune; in Verbosity one player has to describe a word by what it is is a type of, looks like, is about the same size as, is the opposite of and is a kind of while the other has to guess what it is [8]. By collecting human responses to questions, these games teach the computer specific facts, either about the meaning of words (Verbosity) or about particular images, videos, or pieces of music. All of them are useful in some way: tagging media with keywords allows search engines to produce more relevant results; the facts collected by Verbosity may be useful for Artificial Intelligence and Natural Language Processing projects; and by rating how attractive images are, Matchin could lead to computer systems that select the prettiest images to present to users. The main reason that these games are fun is that players must try to guess what other players are thinking. In the ESP game, for example, users are told which of their suggested tags matched those of their partner, which can influence their future suggestions. By adding this social interaction, boring tasks like tagging images or music are made fun. Additionally, users are actively encouraged to refer their friends to the site by bonus points. The competitive element extends beyond recruiting friends, as at the end
By September 2008, reCAPTCHA... transcribed over 440 million words.

The work of Luis von Ahn is a good example of harnessing the human cognitive surplus using both approaches. He began by developing the CAPTCHA (Completely Automated Public Turing test to tell Computers and Humans Apart), which distinguishes humans from computers by asking them to complete a task, usually typing letters from a distorted image. This allows websites to prevent computer programs from automatically creating multiple accounts, sending large numbers of spam messages, or making many attempts to guess a users password. The initial paper describing CAPTCHA suggested that, as well as helping to distinguish between computers and humans, the tests could encourage work on improved text recognition algorithms, jokingly saying that this was how lazy cryptographers do AI; however, the time humans spent completing them was wasted [3]. A subsequent refinement, reCAPTCHA, uses the process of completing a CAPTCHA to decipher words in scanned documents that are too distorted or smudged to be recognised by a computer [4]. This is done by presenting the user with images of two words simultaneously: an unknown word, and a known control word selected randomly from a list of more than 100,000. If a user types the control word correctly, they are assumed to be human, and their attempt at typing the unknown word is recorded. Once three people have provided the same response to the unknown word image, they are assumed to be correct, and their transcription is added to the list of control words. Thus, the number of transcribed words increases as reCAPTCHAs 26 THE TRIPLE HELIX Lent 2011
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proteins structure to produce more likely (i.e. lower energy) structures. Since it is not immediately obvious how to interpret or alter the protein structures, help is provided by a series of in-game tutorials. A separate wiki explains the relevant biochemistry, in-game controls and strategies [10]. Most of the top players in Foldit have had no more than high-school teaching in biology, yet in a major protein-folding competition they predicted structures better than all fully automated programs, and about as well as professional biochemists [11,12]. In particular, humans are better than computers at selecting more promising starting points, and performing major restructuring to escape from energy local minima (e.g. rearranging the core of proteins to create space to bury a previously outwards-pointing hydrophobic residue, or changing hydrogen bonding in beta-sheets). Players can thus produce better predictions of protein structures, which are important not only to the understanding of basic biological processes, but also to the rational design of drugs targeting specific proteins in disease. So why do people choose to play these games? Perhaps they are enticed by invitations to contribute to science (Foldit) or claims that Youre helping the world become a better place . . . youre training computers to solve problems for humans all over the world (GWAP) - which the games do fulfill. When Foldit players were asked their motivation for playing, about 40% of answers referred to the scientific purpose of Foldit; 35% to a feeling of immersion in a task; 20% to a feeling of achievement; and the remainder to social involvement in the game [11]. Players of the more casual GWAP games are likely to be motivated less by the higher purpose of the games, and more by a sense of fun and competitiveness. Together, GWAP and Foldit have shown that people can be persuaded to perform useful tasks that cannot be automated, by presenting them in the context of a game, with rules, goals, and scores. In this way, otherwise idle minds can achieve what computers cannot. James Scott-Brown is a first year student studying Natural Sciences at Trinity College.
A screenshot of Foldit in action Reproduced from [14]
of each game, players are told how many more points they need to match the days high-score, encouraging them to start another game. Players who receive specific numbers of points are awarded skill levels, and those with the highest scores appear on a leaderboard. During a game, continual encouragement to play on is provided by a sound playing
Humans are better than computers at selecting more promising starting points
(and, in some games, motivating text appearing) whenever a match occurs. Fixed time limits for each game maintain interest, forcing players to think quickly, so that the games are more challenging - and hence fun. One player apparently claimed that the ESP game was like crack: arguably, with its flashing lights and beeping noises, the game has more in common with a casino [9]. Both reCAPTCHA and the GWAP games are very easy to learn - it takes just seconds to read and understand the rules - which has surely contributed to their success. However, such simplicity is not essential, and many players have been attracted to the much more complicated game Foldit, in which players attempt to manipulate predicted
References
1.US Bureau of Labor Statistics American Time Use Survey 2009, Tables A-2 and 11 2. Clay Shirky. Gin, Television, and Social Surplus. Talk given by Clay Shirky at the Web 2.0 conference, 2008 Apr 23. Transcript available from: http://www. herecomeseverybody.org/2008/04/looking-for-the-mouse.html 2. reCAPTCHA: Stop Spam, Read Books [Online Homepage]. http://www. google.com/recaptcha 3. Von Ahn et al. CAPTCHA: Using Hard AI Problems For Security. Proceedings of Eurocrypt 2003; 2656:294-311 4. reCAPTCHA: Stop Spam, Read Books. http://www.google.com/recaptcha 5. Von Ahn et al. reCAPTCHA: human-based character recognition via Web security measures. Science 2008; 321(5895):1465-8. 6. Gwap.com [Online Homepage]. Available from: http://gwap.com 7. Von Ahn and Dabbish. Designing Games With a Purpose. Communications of the ACM 2008; 51(8):58-67
8. This is similar to Burgeners 20Q game, in which users train a neural network, so that it is able to distinguish between objects by asking fewer than 20 questions. 20Q.net Inc. [Online Homepage] http://20q.net 9. Thompson, Clive. For Certain Tasks, the Cortex Still Beats the CPU. Wired Magazine. Issue 15.07. Accessible from: http://www.wired.com/techbiz/it/ magazine/15-07/ff_humancomp 10. Foldit wiki. [Online Homepage] http://foldit.wikia.com/wiki/FoldIt_Wiki 11. Cooper et al. Predicting protein structures with a multiplayer online game. Nature 466(7307):756. Supplementary Figure 3 shows the biochemical experience of players; Supplementary Figure 4 shows motivations for playing the game 12. CASP8 Results. Available from: http://fold.it/portal/node/729520 13. Google. Generated from: http://www.google.com/recaptcha/learnmore 14. CC-BY-SA, Ducey, Wikicommons. Available from: http://commons.wikimedia. org/wiki/File:Foldit_1236616893.png
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Opportunities - Lent 2011

Discussion Groups
Starting this term, The Triple Helix will be running two informal discussion groups, exploring science policy and the history and philosophy of science. They are open to everyone and no prior knowledge of the subject is needed. These groups will provide an opportunity to explore a range of topics within science in society, and express your own opinions, in a relaxed atmosphere with no commitment. If you are interested in attending, contact president@camtriplehelix.com.
Outreach
This will be an exciting term for The Triple Helix Outreach, with many opportunities for you to bring science in society to the wider community. Firstly, there will be an Outreach workshop on 27th January for Year 10 and 11 pupils. Volunteers will support the pupils in debating a current issue in science and the impact it could have on society. We will also be putting our new e-mentoring scheme into action this term. School pupils aged 16 or over will have the opportunity to write articles on a topic of their choice related to science and society and e-mail it to our outreach team, who give them constructive feedback on their work. We hope to publish the best articles on our website. By running this e-mentoring scheme we aim to encourage school-age students to explore the scientific issues that interest them in depth and consider their social implications. The scheme will also give pupils valuable writing experience. Last but not least, on March 19th we will be running the Science in Society conference, a day-long event for sixth form students with an interest in medicine. Students will hear talks from speakers on healthcare issues both in the UK and overseas, have the opportunity to have their questions answered and take part in an interactive session with the outreach team. We need people to make these projects happen. By volunteering, you will not only help inspire school pupils to think about science in society, but will also build your communication and teamwork skills, and see your workshop ideas come to life. If you are interested in volunteering for one of our workshops or our conference, e-mail: outreachdirector@camtriplehelix.com.
Committee Positions Open

Are you interested in furthering your interest in science in society, while developing your skills in science communication, critical analysis and leadership? The Triple Helix is looking for committed, enthusiastic people to join our committee. See http://www.camtriplehelix.com/get_involved for details of available positions.
AAAS Annual Meeting 2011 Washington, DC

Francesca Day, the Executive Chair, and Tara Finegan, the Events Director, are going to present each of their posters in the AAAS Annual Meeting 2011 in Washington, DC, as well as attending The Triple Helix Annual Conference this February. We wish them well, along with Theresa Lii and James Shepherd who will be joining them. We wish to thank the following for providing funds to make this possible:
St. Catharines College Jesus College Pembroke College
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The Triple Helix Cambridge would like to sincerely thank the following for their generous and continued support: Colleges (University of Cambridge) Groups (University of Cambridge)
Gonville and Caius Trinity St Johns Queens Churchill Christs Emmanuel Robinson Professor Adrian K Dixon
Master of St Edmunds College
Individuals
The School of Physical Sciences The School of Biological Sciences The School of Clinical Medicine The University Chemical Laboratory MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology The Department of History and Philosophy of Science The Cavendish Laboratory
Professor Paul Luzio
Master of Peterhouse
Development Studies Association Company of Biologists The Royal Society of Chemistry
Groups (External)
Positions for Scientists still open for 2011
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ASU Berkeley Brown Cambridge CMU Cornell Dartmouth Georgetown Harvard JHU Northwestern NUS Penn UChicago UCL

UChicago UCL UNC Chapel Hill University of Melbourne UCSD Yale

Vol 12 | Lent 2011 | University of Cambridge

A Production of The Triple Helix

The Science in Society Review

The Science of Risk: When Science goes wrong, whos to blame?

THE TRIPLE HELIX

Hollie Barker sxc.hu

The sound of music

A look at how music therapy affects children with autism

PD, Council for Genetic Responsibility (US)

All rights reserved

The science and ethics of patenting gene sequences

Cooking the books

Inspecting past cases and ways to combat fraudulent science

Message from the Managing Editor

Teach First Skills Session

2 THE TRIPLE HELIX Lent 2011

2011, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.

Message from the CEO

Triple Helix Events, Lent 2011

Geoengineering - Playing God with the planet

2011, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.

THE TRIPLE HELIX Lent 2011 3

The Fresh Frontiers of NASA

4 THE TRIPLE HELIX Lent 2011

2011, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.

Science and Religion: The Ongoing Conflict?

The scientific method is incapable of adjudicating the God-hypothesis.

2011, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.

THE TRIPLE HELIX Lent 2011 5

8 THE TRIPLE HELIX Lent 2011

2011, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.

THE TRIPLE HELIX Lent 2011 9

Reproduced from [14]

10 THE TRIPLE HELIX Lent 2011

2011, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.

2011, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.

THE TRIPLE HELIX Lent 2011 11

The Great Disjoint of Language and Intelligence

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THE TRIPLE HELIX Lent 2011 13

Caffeinated Youth: Regulation of Energy Drinks in Question

2011, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.

THE TRIPLE HELIX Lent 2011 15

Your Genes Belong To Us

DNA should be treated as the physical embodiment of nature

2011, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.

THE TRIPLE HELIX Lent 2011 17

Marine Litter: The Black Peril of the Sea

Guillemot that has suffered from entanglement. Amanda Wilson 2010

2011, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.

Entanglement is believed to be a huge risk to turtle species

20 THE TRIPLE HELIX Lent 2011

2011, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.

What Makes a Pretty Face?: The Biological Basis of Beauty

Rosy Southwell 2010

2011, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.

Symmetrical men are quicker to copulate in romantic relationships.

A more masculine face is preferred when conception risk is high.

2011, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.

THE TRIPLE HELIX Lent 2011 23

Misconduct consists of fabrication, falsification or plagiarism.

Data are massaged, modified or made up entirely until they conform.