Chapter 25 Wave Optics Lecture 19

25.1 Coherence and Conditions for Interference

25.2 The Michelson Interferometer
25.3 Thin-Film Interference
25.4 Light through a Single-Slit: Qualitative Behavior
25.5 Double-Slit Interference: Youngs Experiment
25.6 Single-Slit Diffraction: Interference of Light frm a Single
Slit
25.7 Diffraction Gratings
25.8 Optical Resolution and Rayleigh Criterion
Wave Optics vs. Geometric Optics
When discussing image characteristics over
distances much greater than the wavelength,
geometric optics is extremely accurate
When dealing with sizes comparable to or smaller
than the wavelength, wave optics is required
Examples include interference effects and propagation
through small openings
Introduction
Interference
One property unique to waves is interference
Interference is a wave phenomenon
Interference of sound waves can be produced by two
speakers

Section 25.1
Constructive Interference
Require the phase difernece of 0,
2t, 4t .... or a path difference Ax given by
+
=
( )
0, 1, 2,... x m m m m A = = = =
Destructive Interference
Here the phase difference between the
two waves is t radians, 180, or /2

( )
1
0, 1, 2,...
2
x m m m m
| |
A = + = = =
|
\ .
+
=
Summary - Interference
If light waves are traveling from some point, then the
phase difference can be related to the path difference between
the two waves
The criterion for constructive interference is given by a path
difference Ax given by


Destructive interference will take place if the path difference Ax
is a half wavelength plus an integer times the wavelength



The inter m is called the order of the fringe
( )
0, 1, 2,... x m m m m A = = = =
( )
1
0, 1, 2,...
2
x m m m m
| |
A = + = = =
|
\ .
Summary- Interference Conditions
For constructive interference, x = m
For destructive interference, x = (m + )
m is an integer in both cases
If the interference is constructive, the light
intensity at the detector is large
Called a bright fringe
If the interference is destructive, the light
intensity at the detector is zero
Called a dark fringe

Section 25.2
Interference
Sunlight is composed of light containing a broad range
of frequencies and corresponding wavelengths
We often see different colors
separated out of sunlight by
refraction in rainbows
We also sometimes see various
colors from sunlight due to
constructive and destructive
interference phenomena on the
surface of DVDs or CDs
or in thin layers of oil or water
Michelson Interferometer
The Michelson
interferometer is based
on the interference of
reflected waves
Two reflecting mirrors
are mounted at right
angles
A third mirror is partially
reflecting
Called a beam splitter
Section 25.2
Michelson Interferometer, cont.
The incident light hits the beam splitter and is divided
into two waves
The waves reflect from the mirrors at the top and right
and recombine at the beam splitter
After being reflected again from the
beam splitter, portions of the waves
combine at the detector
The only difference between the two
waves is that they travel different
distances between their respective
mirrors and the beam splitter
The path length difference is
L = 2L
2
2L
1

Section 25.2
Michelson Interferometer, final
The path length
difference is related to the
wavelength of the light


If N is an integer, the two
waves are in phase and
produce constructive
interference
If N is a half-integer the
waves will produce
destructive interference



L
N
D

l
Section 25.2
Measuring Length with a Michelson
Interferometer
Use the light from a laser and adjust the mirror to give
constructive interference
This corresponds to one of the bright fringes
The mirror is then moved, changing the path length
The intensity changes from high to zero and back to high,
every time the path length changes by one wavelength
If the mirror moves through N bright fringes, the distance
d traveled by the mirror is (for round trip) or
N
d
2

Section 25.2
The accuracy of the measurement depends on the
accuracy with which the wavelength is known
Many laboratories use helium-neon lasers to make very
precise length measurements
= d N 2

=
He Ne
nm 632.99139822
When a light wave
passes from one
medium to another, the
waves must stay in
phase at the interface
The frequency must be
the same on both sides
of the interface
Section 25.3
Light Traveling in an Optical Medium (1)
Light Traveling in an Optical Medium (2)
We have seen that the wavelength of light changes when
traveling in an optical medium with index of refraction greater
than one

Taking with case 1 as a vacuum and case 2 as a
medium with index of refraction n, we have found out that we
can write



Remembering that v = f we can write the frequency f
n
of light
traveling in a medium as


So the frequency does not change !

n
v
c n

= =
/ ( / )
n
n
v c
f v v c f

= = = =
1 2
1 2
t
v v

A = =
n
f f =
Light Traveling in an Optical Medium (3)
So the frequency of light traveling in an optical medium with n >
1 is the same as the frequency of that light traveling in vacuum
We perceive color by frequency rather than wavelength
Thus placing an object under water does not change our
perception of the color of the object
Easy to demonstrate: take a colored object and put it in a jar of
water. Water has index of refraction n = 1.33. The object
appears to have the same color under water as in air
Phase Change and Reflection
When a light wave reflects from a surface it may be
inverted
Inversion corresponds to a phase change of 180
There is a phase change whenever the index of
refraction on the incident side is less than the index
of refraction of the opposite side
If the index of refraction is larger on the incident side
the reflected ray is not inverted and there is no
phase change

Section 25.3
Phase Change and Reflection, Diagram
Section 25.3
Phase Changes in a Thin Film
The total phase change in a thin film must be
accounted for
The phase difference due to the extra distance
traveled by the ray
Any phase change due to reflection
For a soap film on glass, n
air
< n
film
< n
glass

There are phase changes for both reflections at the
soap-film interfaces
The reflections at both the top and bottom surfaces
undergo a 180 phase change no phase change !
The nature of the interference is determine only by
the extra path length
Section 25.3
Thin-Film Interference (1)
Assume a thin soap film rests on a flat glass
surface (Fig. A and Fig. B)
The upper surface of the soap film is similar to
the beam splitter in the interferometer
It reflects part of the incoming light and allows the
rest to be transmitted into the soap layer after
refraction at the air-soap interface
Section 25.3
Thin-Film Interference (2)
The transmitted ray is partially reflected at the bottom
surface
The two outgoing rays meet the conditions for interference
They travel through different regions
One travels the extra distance through the soap film
They recombine when they leave the film
They are coherent because they originated from the same
source and initial ray
Section 25.3
Thin-Film Interference (3), n
air
< n
film
> n
air

Assume the soap bubble is
surrounded by air
There is a phase change at the top
of the bubble
There is no phase change at the
bottom of the bubble
Since only one wave undergoes a
phase change, the interference
conditions are
film
film
m
d constructive interference
n
m
d destructive interference
n

+

1
2
2
2


Section 25.3
Thin-Film Interference (4), White Light
Each color can interfere
constructively, but at
different angles
Blue will interfere
constructively at a
different angle than
red
When you look at the
soap film the white light
illuminates the film over
a range of angles
Section 25.3
Thin Film Interference (5)
When light travels from an optical medium with an index of refraction n
1
into
a second optical medium with index of refraction n
2
,
(1) The light can be transmitted through the boundary
no change of the phase of light
(2) The light can be reflected
If n
1
< n
2
, the phase of the reflected wave will be changed by or
If n
1
> n
2
then there will be no phase change
/ 2
t
Oil floating on water: The color seen corresponds to the
wavelength of light that is interfering constructively
n
2

n
1

n
1

n
2

Due to the phase change of 180
0
, the criterion for
constructive interference is given by



The minimum thickness t
min
that will produce contructive
interference corresponds to (for m=0)


Note that this result applies only to the case where we
have a material with index of refraction n and air on both
sides, like a soap bubble

min
4
air
t
n

=
( )
1
2 0, 1, 2,...
2
x m t m m m
| |
A = + = = = =
|
\ .
( )
min min
1
2 0 4 =
2 4 4
air
x m t m t t
n


| |
A = + = = = =
|
\ .
Thin Film Interference (6), n
air
< n
film
> n
air

The criterion for destructive interference is given by






The minimum thickness t
min
that will produce destructive
interference corresponds to (for m=1)


Note that this result applies only to the case where we
have a material with index of refraction n and air on both
sides, like a soap bubble
min
2
air
t
n

=
( )
2 , 1 0, 1, 2,... x m t m m m m A = = = = = =
1 1 1 2
2 2 2 1
/

/
v c n n
v c n n

= = =
2 2
, 1
air
air air
n
n n

=
= = =
1 2
1 2
t
v v

A = =
( )
min min
2 1 2 =
2 2
air
x m t m t t
n

A = = = = =
Thin Film Interference (7), n
air
< n
film
> n
air

Thin-Film Interference, n
air
< n
film
> n
air

Equations are





These equations apply whenever
n
air
< n
film
> n
(substance below the film)

=
| |
+
|
\ .
=
film
film
m
d constructive interference
n
m
d destructive interference
n
2
1
2
2
Section 25.3
Thin Film Interference (8) - Demo
The reflected wave undergoes a phase shift
of half a wavelength when it is reflected
because n
air
< n
The light that is transmitted has no phase
shift and continues to the back surface of the
film
At the back surface, again part of the
wave is transmitted and part of the wave is
reflected
The reflected light has no phase shift because n >
n
air
and travels back to the front surface of the film
The transmitted light has traveled a longer distance
than the originally reflected light and has a phase
shift given by the path length difference that is
twice the film thickness t


soap bubble
Phase Changes in a Thin Film, n
air
< n
film
< n
glass

For a soap film on glass, n
air
< n
film
< n
glass

There are phase changes for both reflections at the
soap-film interfaces
The reflections at both the top and bottom surfaces
undergo a 180 phase change no phase change
!
For n
air
< n
film
< n
(substance below the film)

Section 25.3

=
| |
+
|
\ .
=
film
film
m
d constructive interference
n
m
d destructive interference
n
2
1
2
2
Antireflection Coatings (1)
Nearly any flat piece of
glass may act like a
partially reflecting mirror
To avoid reductions in
intensity due to this
reflection, antireflective
coatings may be used
The coating makes a
lens appear slightly dark
in color when viewed in
reflected light

Section 25.3
Antireflective Coatings (2)
Many coatings are
made from MgF
2

n
MgF
2
= 1.38
There is a 180 phase
change at both
interfaces
Destructive interference
occurs when


Section 25.3

| |
+
|
\ .
= =
MgF MgF
m
d d
n n
2 2
1
2
2
4
The light transmitted through the
coating has no phase change: When it
is reflected from the lens, it will
undergo a phase change
the criterion for destructive interference
is

n=1
n=1.38 n=1.51
( )
1
2 0, 1, 2,...
2
air
coating
m t m m m
n

| |
+ = = = =
|
\ .
min
4
air
coating
t
n

=
Light reflected at the surface of
the coating will undergo a phase
change of half a wavelength
because n
air
< n
coating


Antireflective Coatings (3) more details
The criterion for destructive interference is given by



The minimum thickness t
min
that will produce destructive
interference corresponds to (for m=0)


Note that this result applies to the case where we have a
material with index of refraction n coated on a lens and
air on one side, like a coated lens.
min
4
air
t
n

=
( )
1
2 0, 1, 2,...
2
x m t m m m
| |
A = + = = = =
|
\ .
( )
min min
1
2 0 4 =
2 4 4
air
x m t m t t
n


| |
A = + = = = =
|
\ .
Antireflective Coatings (4) more details
Summary - Thin-Film Interference
For n
air
< n
film
< n
(substance below the film)





For n
air
< n
film
> n
(substance below the film)


Section 25.3

=
| |
+
|
\ .
=
film
film
m
d destructive interference
n
m
d costructive interference
n
2
1
2
2

=
| |
+
|
\ .
=
film
film
m
d constructive interference
n
m
d destructive interference
n
2
1
2
2
Light Through a Single Slit
Light passes through a slit or opening and then
illuminates a screen
As the width of the slit becomes closer to the
wavelength of the light, the intensity pattern on the
screen and additional maxima become noticeable
Section 25.4
Single-Slit Diffraction
Water wave example of
single-slit diffraction
All types of waves
undergo single-slit
diffraction
Water waves have a
wavelength easily
visible
Diffraction is the
bending or spreading of
a wave when it passes
through an opening
Section 25.4
Huygens Principle
It is useful to draw the
wave fronts and rays for
the incident and
diffracting waves
Huygens Principle
can be stated as all
points on a wave front
can be thought of as
new sources of
spherical waves
Section 25.4