Lecture Notes in Prepared by:

ZOOL101A- General Zoology Michael V. Lu, DVM

TABLE OF CONTENTS
UNIT 1 1
Chapter 1. An Introduction 2
Chapter 2. The Chemistry of Living Matter 11
Chapter 3. Cells 18
Chapter 4. Tissues 25
UNIT 2 29
Chapter 5. The Integumentary System 30
Chapter 6. The Skeletal System 35
Chapter 7. The Muscular System 39
Chapter 8. The Digestive System 44
Chapter 9. The Respiratory System 48
Chapter 10. The Circulatory System 53
Chapter 11. The Urinary System 57
Chapter 12. The Reproductive System 59
Chapter 13. The Nervous System 64
Chapter 14. The Endocrine System 68
UNIT 3 72
Taxonomy 73
References 74

Unit 1
The first chapter of Unit 1, the introduction, discusses the definition of zoology. It explains the scientific method, a method
scientists use to get to the bottom of things. It shows a brief history of zoological life. It also discusses characteristics that living things
have in common. It then differentiates animals from other living things and compares animals to plants. Chapter 1 also includes
discussions on the importance of studying zoology, as well as some of the different branches that fall under this scope of study.
Finally, it mentions important scientists whose contributions make up the basis of what we know about animals today.
Chapter 2 deals with the chemical make-up of organisms. It starts with subatomic particles then discusses different types of
atoms. It also includes discussion in bonds formed between atoms and molecules and compounds formed by these bonds. Finally, it
discusses the four major types of organic compounds: carbohydrates, proteins, fats, and nucleic acids.
Chapter 3 is concerned with the cell and structures that are commonly seen in them. It also discusses the ways the cell divides to
produce daughter cells with either a diploid or haploid number of chromosomes and their significance.
The last chapter of Unit 1, Chapter 4, deals with the major types of tissues formed by cells: epithelial, connective, muscular, and
nervous. It also discusses where some of these tissues may be found.

Chapter 1: An Introduction
Zoology is the scientific study of animal life.
Animals differ from one another in size, structure, manner of life, and other features and over the years, man has accumulated
tremendous amounts of information about them. Yet, we have so much more to learn about them. Zoology will enrich your own life by
helping you understand the fascinating diversity of creatures that share this planet with us.
But, before we go into any actual study of any animal, it is first essential for us to understand this definition of zoology. What do
we mean by “scientific”? What are the characteristics of living things? What constitutes life? What are animals? What differentiates
them from other living things?
Science
Science is a process for evaluating experimental and observed knowledge (the scientific method), a global community of
scholars, and the organized body of knowledge gained by this process and carried by this community (and others). Natural sciences
study nature; social sciences study human beings and society. The basic commitment of science is to collect objective data (facts that
are observable and measurable) and then reach conclusions and formulate generalizations by analyzing such data.
Scientists collect data either by observation or by controlled experimentation. When collecting data by observation, scientist
must ensure that the data are as free as possible of subjective bias, recorded and analyzed instrumentally when possible, and extensive
enough so that such factors as range of variability can be defined, preferably statistically.
When collecting data by experimentation, scientists begin by asking questions, which they then try to answer. A testable question
is called a hypothesis. Hypotheses are often tested by means of a controlled experiment, in which one or more experimental groups are
compared with one or more control groups, under conditions that are held standard except for one factor, the variable. The number of
organisms used is important: an experiment based on only a few test organisms is apt to be non-predictive and unreliable.
Upon reaching a conclusion, the scientist tries to form a generalization and compares this generalization to others. A
generalization that represents a cohesive statement of principle is known as a theory. It should be pointed out that no matter how firm
the database upon which a scientific theory rests, the theory must always remain subject to revision in the light of additional data.
The Scientific Method
“Scientific” study involves a system that scientists use to get to the bottom of things. The observation of living things has
generated a lot of questions about them. How they came to be? How are plants constructed? How do animals move? Why are animals
and plants important? Scientists answer these and other questions by using an experiment-based process called the scientific method.
The scientific method is a systematic way to describe and explain phenomena based on observing, comparing, reasoning,
predicting, testing concluding, and interpreting. This is what science is all about. Rather than just being a set of facts that describe and
explain the universe, science is a dynamic process wherein the excitement lies in the intriguing observations and carefully crafted
experiments devised to help us learn more about the world around us.
The scientific method begins with observations that prompt us to ask the cause of these observations. These causal questions lie
at the heart of the scientific method. Science is fundamentally about finding answers to these kinds of questions. To find answers to
these questions, scientists use past experiences, ideas, and observations to propose hypotheses that may produce predictions. To
determine if these predictions are accurate, scientists perform experiments. If the experimental results match the predictions of a
hypothesis, the hypothesis is accepted; if they don’t, the hypothesis is rejected. The effect of this is to make scientific progress by
revealing answers piece by piece.
By testing a single hypothesis, a scientist has not ruled out other possible causes for an observation. To do so, he would have to
devise alternative hypotheses, make predictions for them, and obtain experimental results to compare with the predictions. By this
process, he may be able to reject all his hypotheses. Either way, he makes progress by testing several hypotheses, not just one.
Although the scientific method is a powerful tool for answering some kinds of question, it is not foolproof. Most experiments do
not distinguish other possible interpretations. Most of the time it is impossible to recreate conditions in the laboratory or consider all
factors that influence the occurrence of events.
Any conclusion marks an end to the scientific method for a particular experiment but it seldom ends the process of scientific
inquiry. To the curious scientific mind, a conclusion is never the final answer. There is always something more to study, something
new to learn.

A Short History of Animal Life

Although it is impossible to replicate conditions that happened billions of years ago, scientists through experimentation and
deductive reasoning have come up with theories regarding the origin of life.
The most ancient rocks found to date occur in western Australia and are about 4.2 billion years old. The oldest well-preserved
fossils known to date are unicellular prokaryotes buried in silt that became the 3.4 billion-year-old sedimentary strata of the Fig Tree
Group formation in South Africa.
The earliest organic molecules probably formed abiotically, at a time when oxygen was lacking in the atmosphere. The heat of
thermal springs may well have provided the first bonding energy for generating organic molecules and the first molecular or cellular
unit that could be considered living in the sense of reproducing itself and taking up additional materials as nutrients from the
environment. The sun provided an enduring and reliable flow of free energy for early organisms to tap. The simplest modern
organisms that carry on photosynthesis are indeed prokaryotes, mostly known as cyanophytes (blue-green algae). When eukaryotic
cells evolved, some are thought to have acquired as internal symbionts cyanophytes that survived ingestion to become chloroplasts of
these new autotrophic organisms.
 The entire period from 3.5 to 1 billion years ago may be referred to as the “age of blue-green algae” because during their long
reign the blue-greens not only flourished but changed forever the composition of the earth’s atmosphere. They gave off great
quantities of oxygen gas as waste product of photosynthesis.
Cells with nuclei first appear in sedimentary strata about 1.5 billion years old. The 1 billion-year-old Bitter Springs Formation of
Australia contains beautifully preserved green algae (chlorophytes) showing nuclei and even nuclear division. To date, no evidence of
multi-cellular life (other than algae) has been found in rocks other than about 700 million years. The best-preserved fossil assemblage
of this age comes from the Ediacara Hills of Australia and includes a variety of soft-bodied metazoans: jellyfish, corals, segmented
worms, together with a number of puzzling forms of unknown affinities. The scarcity of fossiliferous strata older than this seems to
have been caused by a series of Precambrian glaciations that deeply eroded most continental surfaces.

The Paleozoic Era.

The Paleozoic Era spans 370 million years, from the beginning of the Cambrian Period to the end of the Permian Period.
At the beginning of the Cambrian Period, a remarkable proliferation and diversification of invertebrate life took place within
what appears to have been only a few million years. As a result, all of today’s major animal phyla, and several long extinct ones, are
present in rocks of that age. The cause of this proliferation and diversification remains obscure. For one thing, the build-up of
atmospheric O2 may have reached the concentrations necessary for this gas to diffuse downward throughout water masses so that
bottom-dwelling creatures could begin to flourish. Then too, perhaps the extensive erosion caused by Precambrian glaciations raised
marine concentrations of dissolved minerals, especially calcium, to some critical threshold necessary for the optimal functioning of
nerves and muscles and the deposition of shells and skeletons.
Over the ensuing 75 million years of the Ordovician Period, invertebrates and multi-cellular plants colonized the land, and
vertebrate fishes appeared. During the Silurian Period, the first jawed fishes appeared and so flourished that the 50 million years of the
ensuing Devonian Period are known as the “age of the fishes.” Amphibian fossils first appeared in rocks of later Devonian age, as the
earliest land vertebrates. These animals characterized the 65 million-year Carboniferous Period (sometimes called the “age of
amphibians”) but declined during the 50 million years of cooling and drying climates that marked the Permian Period. Reptiles, which
diverged from early amphibian stock during the Carboniferous, were not so disadvantaged by these changes and began to proliferate
and spread.
Towards the end of the Paleozoic, drifting continents caused by expanding seafloors collided to form a supercontinent we call
Pangaea. The continental collisions that ended the Paleozoic obliterated intervening marine habitats, allowed the terrestrial biota of
previously isolated land masses to come into competition, and triggered a period of mountain building that affected climate and
drained continental seas. Nearly half the known families of animal life became extinct.

The Mesozoic Era.

The Mesozoic is known as the “age of reptiles” for these became the dominant vertebrates and diversified into many forms,
including the largest creatures that have ever walked the earth, marine species as massive as whales, and the most spectacular animals
ever to soar the skies. The geographic spread of reptiles was facilitated by the fact that the land they so successfully invaded was the
“one world” of Pangaea.
The Jurassic Period saw the advent of birds and mammals and the start of the breakup of Pangaea, carrying terrestrial organisms
apart, to new climates and destinies. The drifting continents fragmented further during the Cretaceous Period, while reptiles continued
to dominate the earth. Then something catastrophic took place: almost suddenly some 25 percent of all existing animal families
disappeared, not only the dinosaurs and other still-successful reptilian groups, but a wide variety of marine invertebrates from giant
ammonites (a type of mollusk) down to microscopic zooplankton. So far as we can tell, no Mesozoic land animal with a body mass
over 25 kg survived into the Cenozoic.
In various parts of the world a thin layer of clay rich in iridium (an element common in meteorites) and soot separates a rich
fossil record from a very sparse fossil record marking the onset of the Cenozoic Era. This suggests that a large meteorite impacted the
earth, ejecting into the stratosphere such an enormous amount of particulate matter that months of darkness ensued, with plummeting
temperatures and suppression of photosynthesis. Soot may have come from fire storms caused as continent-wide forests were ignited
by the passage through the atmosphere of such a massive extraterrestrial object. Smoke from such fire storms would have intensified
and prolonged the crisis of darkness and cold. Many animals would die of starvation or cold during the long darkness.
Surprisingly, it appears that such mass extinction events have occurred with a periodicity of about 26 million years for as far
back as such events can be traced. Scientists have come up with possible explanations why such events are so regular. If our sun, like
many stars, is one of a binary pair, it may have a small companion star (already named “Nemesis”) with an orbit so eccentric that it
passes through the solar system only once in 26 million years, towing a mass of comets collected from the dense Oort comet cloud
that lies beyond Pluto. Alternatively, the unidentified celestial object may be a planet with a less far-flung orbit, which intersects
Earth’s orbit only every 26 million years with its gravitational train of comets. Either way, this unknown celestial object may not be
readily found, for it should now be at about its farthest point from the sun, not due to return for another 13 million years.
 Time Era Periods and Epochs
Scale Cenozoic Tertiary
whales carnivores humans horses elephants

65
Cretaceous
primitive mammals
crocodiles
13 turtles snakes dinosaurs
5 Jurassic toothed birds
Mesozoic plesiosaurs winged reptiles ichthyosaurs insects
18 Triassic
0
ammonites

23
0
Permian
28 primitive reptiles
0
C
arboniferous
34 blastoids amphibians
5 crinoids sharks
Devonian bony fishes scorpions

40 sea stars, etc lobefins arachnids

5
42 Paleozoic Silurian cystoids placoderms limulus
5 Ordovician
ostracoderms
coelenterates
50 mollusks eurypterids
0 echinoderms
Cambrian

brachiopods trilobites
60 crustaceans annelids
0
Proterozic
Archeozoic protozoans sponges
Fig. 1.1. Distribution of major animal groups in the geologic record. Solid curving lines commence at
time when each group first appeared, with broken lines indicating presumed earlier origins. Lines
terminating with a  indicate when certain groups became extinct.; those ending in an arrow indicate
that the group contains modern descendants. The time scale is in millions of years. (Modified from
Jessop, 1995)

The most profound effect of mass extinctions is that the survivors proliferate in a depopulated world providing opportunity for a
great variety of genetic variants. Under these circumstances, evolution of a new biota can take place quite rapidly until the
environment is again “saturated” with enough different life forms to maintain stable ecosystems over long periods of time. However, if
a mass extinction is excessively severe, little may remain from which new forms can evolve.

The Cenozoic Era.

The past 65 million years have witnessed the explosive proliferation of birds and mammals. Hominid (human-like) fossils
(mostly found in Africa) have been dated at an age of about 3 million years (Australopithecus afarensis), 1.7 million years (Homo
habilis), and 1.5 million years for Homo erectus, with skulls transitional to Homo sapiens dating from 250,000 to 350,000 years ago.
 Although we have named ourselves “wise man,” to most of the living world we are catastrophe personified, for countless animal
and plant species have diminished into endangerment or extinction as Homo sapiens has proliferated. Awareness and concern can still
turn the tide, if we really are wise enough to conserve our biological heritage and guard ourselves, too, from extinction.

Characteristics of Living Things

Living things have common themes that separate them from non-living things. All living things have organization, undergo
metabolism, growth and reproduction, respond and adapt to changes in the environment.
Organization.
All living things are made up of cells. Some organisms are
made up of only one cell (unicellular) while others are made up
of more than one (multi-cellular). In multi-cellular organisms,
each cell has specific functions and specific roles in keeping the
organism alive. Even within cells, specific structures have their
own functions and roles. Even beyond the organism level, we
find that organisms often group themselves into populations.
Populations of different species make up a community which is
part of an ecosystem which makes up the biosphere.
Metabolism.
All living things undergo metabolism. Metabolism is the
collective term for all the essential biochemical processes that go
on inside the body. Digestion, respiration, photosynthesis, and
the elimination of waste materials are only some of the processes
constantly in progress. There are two phases of metabolism.
Anabolism is the constructive or building up phase while
catabolism is the destructive or breaking down phase.
Growth.
Living things grow and develop. Growth involves increase
in size (increase in the number of cells for multi-cellular
animals) and development involves change in shape and form.
Reproduction.
Living things reproduce. Reproduction is necessary for the
perpetuation of the species. Reproduction can be asexual (single
parent) or sexual (recombination of genes from two interacting
parents).
Irritability / Responsiveness.
Irritability is defined as the ability of an organism to
respond to stimuli. The stimulus may be simple, such as in
bacteria moving away from or toward a heat source. It may be
complex i.e. a bird responding to a complicated series of signals
in a courtship ritual.
Adaptation.
Adaptation is the ability of an organism to change in
response to the environment. The process of changing to
promote survival includes: adaptability of the individual
organism in direct response to some specific challenge and
mutability (alteration) of genes and chromosomes producing a
range of variability in offspring. Each species, whether plant or
animal, exhibits an adaptation to the environment distinct from
other animals.

Animals
Living things are classified on the basis of evolutionary relationships that exist among them. Modern scientists usually recognize
five major kingdoms that represent all known species of living things. The table below shows the five kingdoms and the major
differences that exist between them.
Kingdom Type of Cell Cell Organelles Cellular Organization Representative
Monera Prokaryotic No membrane around Unicellular and/or Blue-green
organelles, no plastids, colonial algae, bacteria
no mitochondria
Protista Eukaryotic All cell organelles Unicellular and/or Protozoa
colonial
Plantae Eukaryotic Present but cells Multicellular with Higher plants
with walls simpler tissues
Fungi Eukaryotic Lack plastids and Syncytial Mushrooms,
photosynthetic molds
pigments
Animalia Eukaryotic Lack plastids and Multicellular with Any animal
without walls photosynthetic tissues
pigments
Table 1.1. Characteristics of five kingdoms (Modified from Storer et al, 6th Ed., 1979)
 Plants vs. Animals.
Although the basic unit of structure and function of both plants and animals is the eukaryotic cell and plant and animal cells are
so much alike as to strongly suggest a common ancestor, there are two salient points of difference: (1) animal cells lack chloroplasts;
and (2) animal cells are not enclosed in cell walls.
Other differences are noted in the table below.
Animals Plants
Mode of Heterotrophic (do not photosynthesize, Autotrophic (carry out photo synthesis,
nutrition lack chloroplasts) contain chloroplasts)
Extent of Determinate Indeterminate
Growth
Cell Wall Absent Made up of cellulose, rigid, inert
Nervous Present in most Absent
System
Mobility Mostly mobile Mostly immobile
Primary Food Glycogen (multiply branched glucose Starch (unbranched glucose chain),
Reserve chain), saturated fats unsaturated oils
CO2 and nitrogenous wastes, kidneys O2 from photosynthesis, CO2 from
Waste
needed in most animals metabolism, kidneys not needed since
Products
nitrogenous wastes not generated
Table 1.2. Some major differences between animals and plants (Modified from Glinoga)
Importance of Zoology
Animals are very important to people. Understanding how they function enables one to make wise decisions about many things
that affect the individual, family, and the community. The use of organism to produce consumer needs is called biotechnology. Use of
bacteria to turn milk into cheese or the use of live yeast to make bread rise are techniques of biotechnology. Farming, pest control,
livestock management, nutrition, food processing, and food preservation also involve biotechnology. Animals provide us with food,
non-edible economic products, biomedical products, research material. They also have ecological, aesthetic, and affectional value.
Food. Research.
Livestock, game, fish, shellfish, honey, eggs, dairy Laboratory animals are used to create animal models of
products, exotic fare such as insects, grubs, and highly relished human diseases and their treatment.
Palolo worms are just some examples of animals and animal
products that we eat to nourish our bodies.
Ecological Value.
Animals are essential parts of the food chain Plant eaters
Transport and Labor. (herbivores) are a source of food for carnivores (meat eaters) and
Horses, donkeys, llamas, camels, dogs, oxen, buffalos, and omnivores (plant and meat eaters). They are also essential for the
elephants are all still used in different parts of the world for pollination of most flowers and as agents of biocontrol.
transport and labor.
Aesthetic Value.
Non-edible Economic Products. Animals have been subjects and inspirations for works of
Leather, down, fur, silk, wool, ivory, limestone, chalk have arts, from cave paintings to present day creations. Some cultures
various uses as clothing, shoes, accessories and ornaments. revere totem animals and cultivate in themselves the positive
attributes they perceive in animals.
Biomedical Products.
Affectional Value.
We use venom from snakes to make anti-venom. Pig heart
valves may be used to replace diseased human heart valves. Pets and residents in wildlife parks fulfill various non-
Insulin and antibodies for protective inoculation against various economic human needs. They are even used by some
diseases are of animal origin. psychotherapists in their work with patients.

Branches of Zoology
Since zoology presents a wide range of topics, scientists often choose a specific category to study. Some zoologists, for example,
devote their time to studying animals belonging to one particular taxonomic group. Others study one or more aspects of animal
structure, function, or behavior, often using a comparative approach. Here are only a few of the branches of science that fall under the
scientific study of animal life.
Taxonomy – classification and naming of plants and animals Zoology – animal life
Botany – plant life Protozoology – animals that are basically unicellular
Helminthology – worms (mainly parasitic) Cytology – cell structures and function
Entomology – insects Histology – microscopic structure of tissues
Parasitology – organisms that live and subsist on or in other Gross anatomy – non-microscopic structures of organisms
organisms Embryology – growth and development of the new individual
Ichthyology – fishes Physiology – living processes or functions within organisms
Herpetology – amphibians and reptiles Nutrition – use and conversion of food substances
Ornithology – birds Genetics – hereditary traits and their transmission
Biochemistry – chemical compounds and processes in living Ecology – relationships between biotic (living) and abiotic
organisms (physicochemical) environments
Molecular biology – molecules and processes in cells

Important Contributors to Zoology

Our present knowledge about this subject is based on previous works of past scientists. Zoology would not be as advanced as it is
today if not for the great pioneers of the science. Here are only some of the scientists who contributed greatly to the scientific study of
living things.
Aristotle, 350 B.C. – description of plants and animals and Rudolf Virchow, 1855 – stressed the role of the cell in
theories of hereditary production and evolution pathology and stated that all cells came from pre-existing cells
“Omni cellulae e cullula”
Robert Hooke, 1665 – coined the term “cell” describing the
texture of cork using magnifying lenses Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace, 1859 – foundations of
modern theory of evolution
Anton von Leeuwenhoek, 1667 – microscopic discovery of
bacteria, protozoa and spermatozoa Louis Pasteur, 1860 – conclusive experimental refutation of the
theory of spontaneous generation
Carolus Linnaeus, 1735 – basis for modern classification of
living things; binomial nomenclature Gregor Mendel, 1865 – foundations of genetics
Matthias Schleiden (a botanist) and Theodor Schwann (a James Watson and Francis Crick, 1953 – discovered the
zoologist), 1839 – put forth the thesis that cells were the units of structure of DNA
structure in plants and animals.

Fig. 1.3. Gregor Mendel Fig. 1.2. Carolus Linnaeus

Chapter 2. The Chemistry of Living Matter

Matter is made up of elements, substances which cannot be broken down by ordinary chemical means into simpler particles.
Each element is a collection of a particular kind of discrete particle matter called the atom. An atom is the smallest unit of an element
that retains the chemical properties of that element.
Subatomic Particles.
Atoms are made up of even smaller, subatomic particles: the proton, the neutron, and the electron. Protons have positive charges,
electrons are negatively charged, and neutrons are neutral.
Each element has a different number of protons. The atomic number is a count of the number of protons in the elemental atom.
Oxygen, for example, has 8 protons therefore its atomic number is 8. Carbon has 6. Hydrogen has 1. Nitrogen has 7.
Generally, atoms have approximately the same number of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Each proton or neutron has a mass of
about 1.7x10-24 gram. For convenience, this mass is defined as 1 atomic mass or 1 Dalton. The mass of an electron is about 1/2000 that
of a proton, so it is often disregarded when considering atomic mass. The protons and neutrons form the nucleus while electrons travel
at the speed of light orbiting the nucleus. The atomic mass of an element is the number of protons plus neutrons in each nucleus.
Isotopes.
Atoms with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons are called isotopes. Two isotopes of ordinary hydrogen
(1 proton, 0 neutrons) are deuterium (1 proton, 1 neutron) and tritium (1 proton, 2 neutrons). Isotopes share the same atomic number
but differ in atomic mass, the sum of the atom’s protons and neutrons. Thus, all hydrogen isotopes have the atomic number 1, but
atomic masses of 1, 2, and 3, respectively. Isotopes with extra neutrons are often unstable and undergo radioactive decay at typical and
predictable rates, giving off subatomic nuclear particles until they reach stability. Tritium, with a half-life of 12.5 years, is very useful
in biological research as a radioactive tag that allows hydrogen-containing compounds to be traced through metabolic pathways.
Ions.
Atoms with the same number of protons but different number of electrons form ions. NaCl (sodium chloride, table salt) when in
water, dissolves and separates into its constituent ions, Na + and Cl-. The Na ion is positively charged because one of its electrons has
been “kidnapped” by the Cl ion. Na+ then, has 11 protons, 11 neutrons, and only 10 electrons. Cl- on the other hand, has 17 protons, 17
neutrons, but 18 electrons, making it negatively charged. Positively charged ions are called cations and negatively charged ions are
called anions.
Chemical Bonds.
Following the octet rule, the innermost
shell, or the lowest quantum level, for any atom
never contains more than two electrons. Each
shell external to this innermost shell may contain
up to eight electrons. The number of electrons in
the outermost shell determines the combining
power (valence) of an atom. If the outermost
shell contains eight electrons, (or in the case of
He, 2 electrons in the outermost shell) the atom
will be unable to bond with any other atom and
the element is said to be inert.
Atoms with less than eight electrons in the
outermost shell form bonds with other atoms to
saturate this shell. There are three major kinds of
chemical bonds: covalent bonds, ionic bonds,
and hydrogen bonds. Covalent bonds involve the
sharing of electrons. The two atoms both lack
electrons in their outer shells. They fill up the
vacancies by sharing a pair of electrons. Ionic
bonds involve the transfer of electrons from one
atom to another so the atom either loses or gains
electrons. Hydrogen bonds form relatively weaker bonds between polar molecules or polarized side groups of non-polar molecules.
They are important in maintaining the shape of macromolecules aiding in the performance of their biological functions.
A molecule consists of two or more atoms joined by bonds. The atoms composing a molecule may be the same (O2, H2) or
different (H2O, CH4). A molecule composed of different atoms is called a compound.
Electrolytes.
The combination of water with a chemical compound dissolved in it is called a solution. A compound that dissociates into anions
and cations when dissolved in water forms a solution which will conduct an electric current. Hence, any chemical compound which
will dissociate into ions in water is called an electrolyte. Electrolytes are described as strong or weak, depending on how completely
ionize. Strong electrolytes ionize completely; weak electrolytes ionize slightly.
Acids, Bases, and Salts.
The hydrogen ion H+ is one of the most important ions in living organisms. The hydrogen atom contains a single electron. When
this electron is completely transferred to another atom (not just shared with another as in covalent bonds), only the hydrogen nucleus
(essentially a single proton) remains. Any compound that releases H + ions (protons) when dissolved in solution is called an acid. An
acid is classified as strong or weak depending on the extent to which the acid molecule is dissociated in solution. Examples of strong
acids that dissociate completely in water are hydrochloric acid (HCl) and nitric acid (HNO 3). Weak acids such as carbonic acid
(H2CO3) dissociate only slightly.
A base, or alkali, is a compound that releases OH- ions or accepts hydrogen ions in solution. Examples are caustic soda (NaOH)
and ammonia water (NH4OH) which are common household chemicals.
 Acids and bases, when concentrated, are severe irritants and will burn the skin and the delicate covering of the eyes and mouth.
A salt is a compound resulting from the chemical interaction of an acid and a base. For example, common salt, sodium chloride
(NaCl), is formed by the interaction of hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH). In water, the HCl dissociates into H+
and Cl- ions, the hydroxide reacts with H+ to form water and Na+ and Cl- remain as a dissolved form of salt. This reaction is shown in
the following equation:
HCl + NaOH  NaCl + H2O
acid base salt water

Hydrogen Concentration (pH).

pH means “potential hydrogen” where pH indicates neutrality. Pure water if fully ionized to H+ and OH- would potentially yield a
molar concentration of 107 H+ and 107 OH- (i.e. pH 7). A mildly acidic solution if fully ionized would yield 10 6 H+ and 108 OH- and
would be designated “pH 6” and so forth.
With few exceptions, living systems do not tolerate strongly acidic or alkaline conditions, and their vital processes must take
place within a range from pH 6 to pH 8. Saliva has a pH of 6.8. Gastric juice is the most acid substance in the body (pH 1.6). The pH
of human blood must remain between 7.35 to 7.45. If human blood plasma merely becomes neutral, pH 7, this seemingly harmless
deviation actually would represent a life threatening acidosis. This slightly basic range is zealously guarded by buffers that can
neutralize excess H+ and OH-.
description pH examples
14 NaOH, lye
very basic 13 oven cleaner
12 hair remover
11 ammonia
10 soap, milk of magnesia
weakly basic 9 chlorine bleach, phosphate detergent
8 seawater, egg white
neutral 7 pure water
6 urine, milk, saliva
weakly acidic 5 black coffee, rain water
4 tomatoes, grapes
3 vinegar, wine, soft drinks, beer, orange juice, pickles
2 lemon juice, lime juice
very acidic 1 stomach acid
0 HCl, battery acid
Table 2.1. The pH of some solutions.

Buffers.
The hydrogen ion concentration in the extra-cellular fluid (ECF) must be regulated so that the metabolic reactions within the
cells will not be adversely affected by a constantly changing hydrogen ion concentration (pH) to which they are extremely sensitive.
To maintain pH within physiologic limits, there are certain substances that tend to compensate for any change in the pH when acids or
alkalis are produced in metabolic reactions or are added to the body fluids. These are called buffers. A buffer is a mixture of slightly
ionized weak acid and its completely ionized salt. In such a system, added H+ combine with the anion of the salt to form
undisassociated acid, and added OH- combines with H+ to form water. The most important buffers in the blood and other body fluids
are bicarbonates and phosphates. For example, blood contains carbonate buffers made up of salts sodium and potassium bicarbonate
(NaHCO3 and KHCO3) and of the weak carbonic acid (H2CO3). If a strong acid, such as HCl, enters the blood, the salts of the buffer
convert it to a weak acid which cannot lower the pH as much as HCl can:
NaHCO3 + HCl  NaCl + H2CO3
sodium
hydrochlori sodium carbonic
bicarbonat
c acid chloride acid
e

On the other hand, if a strong base, such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH) enters the blood, the carbonic acid will neutralize it:
 H2CO3 + NaOH  NaHCO3 + H2O
carbonic sodium sodium
water
acid hydroxide bicarbonate

Water.
Water is the predominant
chemical component of living
organisms. It makes up from 60 –
90% of the protoplasm. Its unique
physical properties, which include
the ability to solvate a wide range
of organic and inorganic molecules,
derive from water’s dipolar
structure and exceptional capacity for forming hydrogen bonds. An excellent nucleophile, water is a reactant or product in many
metabolic reactions. Water has a slight propensity to dissociate into hydroxide ions and protons.
A water molecule is an irregular, slightly skewed tetrahedron with oxygen at its center. The two hydrogen atoms and the
unshared electrons of the remaining orbitals occupy the corners of the tetrahedron. Water is a dipole, a molecule with electrical charge
distributed asymmetrically about its structure. The strongly electronegative oxygen atom pulls electrons away from the hydrogen
nuclei, leaving them with partial positive charge while its two unshared electron pairs constitute a region of local negative charge. This
enables water to dissolve large quantities of charged compounds such as salts.
Organic Compounds
Of the 92 naturally occurring elements, 16 can be found in living things, and only 4 make up 99% of living matter. These
elements are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. In the study of animals, we will mostly be concerned with organic compounds,
that is, compounds that always contain carbon and hydrogen. Four of the most important organic matters are carbohydrates, proteins,
lipids, and nucleic acids.
Carbohydrates.
Glucose and other simple sugars (monosaccharides), as well as their polymers
(polysaccharides), are called carbohydrates. Carbohydrates generally contain one oxygen and
2 hydrogen atoms for every carbon. For example, glucose and fructose consist of six carbon
atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms, and 6 oxygen atoms, and have the formula C6H12O6. Galactose,
mannose, and many other monomers have this same formula, differing only in the
arrangement of the elements. Common carbohydrates having different chemical formulas
include ribose, xylose, arabinose, and ribose (C5H10O5); deoxyribose (C5H10O4); glucuronic
acid and galacturonic acid (C6H12O7); and rhamnose (C6H12O5).
Carbohydrates are synthesized from H2O and CO2 by plants through photosynthesis (a
Fig. 2.5. The molecular structure of process on which all life depends because it is the starting point in the formation of food).
fructose (left) and glucose (right). They provide much of the immediate or ultimate food for animals and are much used by
humans (food, fabrics, wood, paper, etc.). The main role of carbohydrates in the protoplasm is
to serve as a source of chemical energy.
Monosaccharides are the end product in the digestion of carbohydrates. Over 200 are known but most important are glucose,
fructose, and galactose. Except immediately after a meal, glucose is the only monosaccharide present in significant quantities in the
blood and interstitial fluids of man and animals. There are two reasons for this:
1. Usually 80% to 100% of the monosaccharides absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract is glucose, and only rarely is more
than 20% of these fructose and galactose together.
2. Within less than an hour after absorption from the gut, essentially all the fructose and galactose will have entered the cells
and been converted into glucose.
These 3 monosaccharides form disaccharides in the following manner:
- glucose and fructose form sucrose (cane sugar)
- glucose and galactose form lactose (milk sugar)
- glucose and glucose form maltose
The polysaccharide typical in animals is glycogen. It is commonly stored in vertebrate liver and can be reconverted into glucose
for transport by the blood.
 Proteins.

A protein consists of one or more polypeptides and may also include sugars or other kinds of small molecules. A polypeptide is
a chain of amino acids linked together by carbon-nitrogen bonds called peptide bonds. They contain C, H, O, N, and usually S.
Most abundant of organic materials in animal protoplasm are the proteins. They function as enzymes, components of cell
membranes, contractile elements of muscle, hormones, receptors on the cell surface and within the cell, antibodies, buffers, oxygen
carriers (hemoglobin) and oxygen storers (myoglobin), blood constituents (albumin – most abundant), blood clotting factors, sources
of energy, and as important components of intracellular fabric of connective tissue.
There are basically 20 amino acids that form all kinds of proteins found in living things. Ten are classified as essential amino
acids, meaning those that cannot be synthesized in the body and must be supplied in the diet in adequate quantities. Deficiency will
result in a negative nitrogen balance with loss of weight and arrest of growth. The other ten are classified as non-essential amino acids,
meaning they can be synthesized by the body.
Essential Amino Acids
Phenylalanine arginine isoleucine methionine
valine threonine leucine
tryptophan histidine lysine
Non-essential Amino Acids
alanine glutamine praline cysteine
asparagine glutamic acid serine
aspartic acid glycine tyrosine
Table 2.2. Essential and non-essential amino acids.

Pepsin II and gastricin (pepsin I) are the most important peptic enzymes of the stomach; they are most active at a pH of 2 to 3
and completely inactive at a pH of 5. Pepsin is capable of digesting collagen. They break down proteins into proteoses, peptones and
polypeptides. These are then hydrolyzed by pancreatic enzymes trypsin and chymotrypsin into dipeptides and smaller polypeptides.
Dipeptidases and aminopolypeptidases in the epithelial cells of the small intestine are responsible for the hydrolysis of peptides into
amino acids.
Lipids.
Unlike other bio-logical polymers, lipids are not defined by specific, repeating, monomeric subunits. Rather, they are defined by
their water-repellant property. The only common structural theme shared by all lipids is a large proportion of non-polar hydrocarbon
groups. These hydrocarbon groups are often made from polymers of two-carbon compound called acetate.
Lipids are fats and other related substances. They are insoluble in H 2O but soluble in organic liquids like ether, chloroform, and
acetone. Three types of lipids generally exist in animals: neutral fats, phospholipids, and sterols.
Neutral Fats. of the molecular organization of tissues especially membranes
(e.g. Lecithin is an important phospolipid of nerve membrane).
Neutral fats (triglycerides) are composed of a glycerol and three
molecules of fatty acids. Neutral fats make up the major fuel of Sterols.
animals.
Sterols are complex alcohols which have fat-like properties.
Phospholipids. Cholesterol, the most common sterol in animal tissue, is a
component of cell membranes. Cholesterol can also undergo
Phospholipids (where one of the three fatty acids is replaced by
rearrangement to form such substances as sex hormones and bile
phosphoric acid and an organic base) is an important component
acids.

Fats are emulsified in the small intestines by bile acids and broken down into glycerol and fatty acids by enteric and pancreatic
lipases.
Nucleic Acids.
The most complex biological polymers are nucleic acids The two most common nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acids and
ribonucleic acids. DNA and RNA are polymers made up of repeated units called nucleotides; nucleotides are composed of: a sugar, a
nitrogenous base, and a phosphate group.
 DNA RNA
Sugar deoxyribose ribose
Nitrogenous base
Purine Adenine (A) Adenine (A)
Guanine (G) Guanine (G)
Pyrimidine Cytosine (C) Cytosine (C)
Thymine (T) Uracil (U)
Table 2.3. Differences between molecules of DNA and RNA.

Nucleic acids are unique because they can replicate themselves. Furthermore, DNA can make RNA, which guides the assembly
of proteins. Nucleic acids form the molecular foundation for every living organism.

Chapter 3. Cells
After atoms and molecules, the next higher level of complexity in living organisms includes cells and their components. All
living things are made up of cells. Some cell components occur in all living cells, while others occur only in the cells of leaves, roots,
or other parts of plants. Depending on their components, cells can divide, grow, transport substance, secrete substances, or harvest
energy from organic molecules. Most types of cells also contain genetic material that controls the activities of the cell. This genetic
material is inherited by new cells after cell division.
The Cell Theory
The modern version states that:
- Cells are the morphological and physiological units of all living things.
- The properties of a given organism depend on those of its individual cells.
- Cells originate only from other cells, and continuity is maintained through the genetic material.
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
All living species are composed of eukaryotic or prokaryotic cells. The differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are:
Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell
nuclear membrane absent present
chromosomes usually singular, ring-shaped, multiple, not ring-shaped,
consisting only of DNA, without consisting of DNA together with
associated proteins, and lack attached proteins and have
centromeres centromeres
organelles membrane-bound organelles are membrane-bound organelles are
absent present in the cytoplasm
size diameter seldom exceeds 2 μm diameter typically 20 μm or more
capacity to lacks the capacity to differentiate great capacity to differentiate in
differentiate into specialized tissues in multi- structure w/in multi-cellular
cellular organisms bodies
organisms occurs only as bacteria and makes up bodies of protists, fungi,
cyanophytes (blue-green algae) plants, and animals
Fig. 3.1. Differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

Structures Found in the Cell

Looking through a light microscope, the only animal cell structures that can be seen are the nucleus, the cytoplasm, and the cell
membrane. In plants cells, these structures can also be seen in addition to the cell wall. Other organelles can only be seen through an
electron microscope. Organelles are usually membrane-bound structures inside the cytoplasm that have specific metabolic functions.
These organelles float in the hyaloplasm. The hyaloplasm, or cytosol, is the clear, aqueous medium that bathes all cytoplasmic bodies
and serves as a reservoir of solutes and water.
Organelles that are common in plants and animals include the cell membrane, the nucleus, nucleoli, endoplasmic reticulum,
ribosomes, golgi apparatus, mitochondria, and microbodies. Organelles that can only be seen in plants include the cell wall, central
vacuole, and plastids.
Substances inside the cytoplasm that do not have metabolic roles are called inclusion bodies. Inclusion bodies are passive, often
very temporary materials such as pigments, secretory granules, and aggregates of stored proteins, lipids, or carbohydrates, which can
be utilized by the cell in its life processes.
 Cell Membrane.
The cell membrane may also be called the plasma membrane, plasmalemma, or cytolemma. It is selectively permeable,
depending on the lipid content of the membrane, allowing entry of certain molecules into the cytoplasm while disallowing others. The
cell membrane also contains pumps which regulate the ion concentrations within the cell and its immediate vicinity. It contains a
variety of enzymes and has specific receptor sites which mediate important cell functions such as endocytosis, phagocytosis, antigen
recognition, and antibody production. Hormone-triggered cellular events also depend on specific surface receptors.

Fig. 3.1. The phospholipid bi-layer that makes up the

cell membrane.

The cell membrane is composed of phospholipids and proteins.

Phospholipids form the basic structure of the membrane referred to as bi-
layer, two parallel layers with their hydrophilic heads facing the aquaeous
medium on the membrane surface and their hydrophobic tails facing the
interior of the membrane. Proteins partially or completely penetrate the
phospholipids bi-layer and are responsible for functional properties of the
membrane.
You may also find other structures on or near the cellular surface.
Microvilli are finger-like projections of the plasma membrane that
increase the surface area for absorption. Desmosomes are oval disks with
anchoring fibrils that lie just within the plasma membranes of epithelial
cells subject to being stretched. Gap junctions are hollow “pipes” formed
by a ring of six dumbbell-shaped protein subunits that penetrate the
plasma membrane of certain tissues and allow free flow of materials from
cell to cell. Cilia and flagella are motile fibrils that protrude from the
surface of certain types of cells, being covered by an extension off the
plasma membrane.
The Nucleus.
The nucleus is usually the most conspicuous organelle in a cell. It contains most of a cell’s DNA, which occurs with proteins in
thread-like chromosomes. The nucleus is surrounded by two membranes, together called the nuclear envelope. The outer membrane is
continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum. The inner and outer nuclear membranes are separated by a space of 20-40 nm, except
where they fuse to form pores in the envelope. These nuclear pores are small circular openings, 30-100 nm in diameter, bordered by
proteins that probably influence the passage of molecules between the nucleus and the rest of the cell. Inside the nucleus is a smaller
structure, the nucleolus, which serves as the site for the synthesis of ribosomal RNA (rRNA).
 Fig. 3.2. The different organelles
found in the cytoplasm

Microfilaments and Microtubules.

Microfilaments are thread-like aggregates of protein molecules that serve to maintain cell shape, bring about changes in cell
shape, and allow cells to contract. Microtubules are hollow tubules, much stouter than microfilaments, made of a unique protein,
tubulin. They too, can maintain cell shape, and also serve as spindle fibers that separate the chromosomes during cell division.
Centrioles.
Centrioles occur as a single pair of tin can-shaped organelles in the cells of animals, fungi, and certain lower plants. During cell
division the pair separate, move to opposite ends of the cell, and produce spindle fibers that separate the chromosomes.
Ribosomes.
Ribosomes are organelles that serve as the site for the biosynthesis of large varieties of proteins destined either for extra- or
intra-cellular use. Ribosomes are either attached to membranes or move freely in the cytosol (the semi-fluid matrix between
organelles). The number of ribosomes varies among cell types and in different stages of cell development. They are especially
abundant in dividing cells because these cells make large amounts of protein.
Endoplasmic Reticulum.
The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of channels or tubules which constitutes the bulk of the endo-membrane system. It is
continuous with the nuclear membrane. Two regions of ER can be distinguished in electron micrographs. One region is called the
rough ER because the many ribosomes attached to it give it a rough appearance.
In contrast, the other region is called the smooth ER because it has no ribosomes attached to it. The smooth ER, in most cells,
makes up the terminal portions of rough ER. It gives rise to transfer vesicles that carry substances synthesized within the rough ER to
other location, especially the golgi complex. Functions of the smooth ER include:
- Steroid hormone synthesis in the testicular interstitial - Lipid resynthesis in the intestinal absorptive cells
cells, cells of the corpus luteum, and cells of the - Release and capture of Ca++ ions in striated muscle
adrenal cortex cells
- Synthesis of complex lipids and drug detoxification in - Concentration of Cl- ions in gastric parietal cells
hepatocytes

Golgi Complex.

Fig. 3.3. The process of exocytosis.

 A Golgi complex (Golgi apparatus) is usually two-sided, with one
side facing the smooth ER and one side facing the plasma membrane.
They receive material from the smooth ER, either through direct
connections or in vesicles released by the ER. These vesicles contain
proteins, lipids, and other substances, which are often chemically
modified in the golgi bodies and then sorted into separate packets. These
packets eventually move to the edge of the golgi bodies near the outer
face, where the golgi body membrane is pinched off into another vesicle.
This vesicle moves to the plasma membrane or to other sites in the cell.
Vesicles that move to the plasma membrane are secretory vesicles,
because they fuse with plasma membrane and secrete their contents to the
exterior of the cell. This type of secretion is called exocytosis.
Endocytosis, the reverse process, involves taking substances into the cell.
Pinocytosis is a type of endocytosis that involves taking up of liquids and
diluted substances. Phagocytosis, another type of endocytosis, involves
taking in of larger substances even bacteria.

Microbodies.
The smallest membrane bound organelles in a cell are called microbodies. These tiny organelles are often associated with
membranes of the ER, but they may also be closely associated with chloroplast and mitochondria. Different types of microbodies have
specific enzymes for certain metabolic pathways. Two of the most important kinds of microbodies are lysosomes and peroxisomes.
Lysosomes are involved in the hydrolysis of foreign (hetero-phagosomes) or intracellular sub-stances (autophagosomes) using
hydrolytic enzymes. These enzymes
also serve to digest aging organelles or sometimes liberate their enzymes en masse, causing “cell suicide” (autodigestion). They are
not present in plants.
Peroxisomes are the major sites of oxygen utilization within the cell and are particularly rich in catalase which converts toxic
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), formed during certain metabolic processes, into harmless water and oxygen.
Mitochondria.
Fig. 3.5. The mitochondria.
Many of the reactions of aerobic respiration are catalyzed by enzymes bound to
mitochondrial membranes. The chief function of the mitochondria is to supply
energy to the cell through cellular respiration, thus earning the distinction of being
the “powerhouse of the cell”. A cell may contain several hundred mitochondria,
usually depending on the energy requirement of a cell. Dividing cells and cells that
are metabolically active need large amounts of energy and usually have the largest
numbers of mitochondria.
Vacuoles.
Vacuoles are membranous sacs that enclose a variety of substances, often for only
temporary storage.

Cell Division
There are two types of cell division that occur in living things depending on the type of cell: mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis occurs
in body cells (soma cells) while meiosis occurs only in sex cells (egg cells and sperm cells).
Mitosis.
 Fig. 3.6. The different stages of mitosis.

Mitosis is the type of cell division resulting in equal number of chromosomes. This ensures genetic equality of the daughter
cells. It occurs in embryonic development, growth, repair of injury, and in replacement of body covering at molting.
Four phases comprise the mitotic division: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. In prophase, genetic material becomes
evident as distinct chromosomes that shorten, thicken, and stain deeply. Towards the end of prophase the nuclear membrane and the
nucleolus disappear. In metaphase, chromosomes lie radially in an equatorial plate and separate. In anaphase, halved chromosomes
move toward their respective poles. Telophase is marked by the end of polar movement, formation of nuclear membrane and the
formation of cell membrane across the former plane of the equatorial plate.

prophase metaphase anaphase telophase

chromosomes DNA complex coils arranged in a line along centromeres divide, chromosomes reach the
(chromatids attached to the median plane, chromatids move toward general location of the
one another by centromeres attached to opposite poles centrioles
centromeres) and spindle fibers
becomes easily stained
nucleolus disappears during late absent absent reappears
prophase
nuclear disappears during late absent absent reforms around each group
membrane prophase of chromosomes
centrioles and migrates to opposite spindle fibers attached spindle fibers shorten spindle fibers disappear
spindle fibers poles, forms spindle fibers to centromeres of pulling chromatids
chromatids
cellular intact intact intact indents at the point of the
membrane equatorial plane dividing the
cytolasm into two
Table 3.1. Comparison between stages of mitosis.

The period between cell divisions wherein the cell builds up genetic material to start another cycle is called interphase. It is
divided into three phases.
Phase
Gap1 (G1) usually lasts 8 hrs or longer depending on the type of cell and level of
nutrition; characterized by growth of daughter cells by undergoing internal
chemical changes in preparation for DNA replication
Synthesis (S) typically lasts about 8 hrs; period of DNA replication or synthesis
Gap2 (G2) usually lasts 5 hrs; beginning of active mitosis, replication of organelles
Table 3.2. Description of the phases of interphase.

Meiosis. In meiosis, cell division results in the reduction of chromosomal number to haploid (half the normal number of
chromosomes) set. Daughter cells (egg and sperm cells) unite during fertilization carrying genes from both parents to provide the
correct number of chromosomes. Although both types of cell division involves the same phase (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and
telophase), meiotic cell division consists of two successive cell division named meiosis I and meiosis II.
Meiosis I.
In prophase I, the members of each chromosome pair come together (synapsis). This is essential for the orderly separation of
the two members of each chromosome pair in the ensuing anaphase. Crossing-over may occur at this phase. Crossing over is
the exchange in position of one part of one strand of chromosomes with the equivalent part of the other strand. During the
metaphase I, the centromeres do not divide so during anaphase, the two members of each homologous chromosomes pair are
separated. Meiosis I is often called the “reductional phase” because at its end each daughter cell contains only one member of
each chromosome pair, although each chromosome still consists of two DNA molecules, or chromatids, held together by the
undivided centromere.
Meiosis II.
Depending on the species, meiosis II may begin at once or be delayed. In either case, DNA replication does not occur. When
meiosis II starts, the chromosomes move to the midline of the new spindle. The centromeres finally divideand one of the two
chromatids of each chromosome passes to each daughter cell. The result is four haploid cells with each chromosome now
consisting of only one DNA molecule.

Fig. 3.6. Gametogenesis (spermatogenesis and oogenesis) and Meiosis.

Chapter 4. Tissues
 The bodies of multi-cellular organisms, particularly animals, are organized on the basis of tissues, organs, and organ systems.
Organ systems are composed of organs, which are in turn composed of tissues. Tissues are
aggregates of cells that are usually similar in both structure and function. The study of the
structures and functions of tissues is called histology.
Tissues are divided into four major categories: epithelial, connective, muscular, and
nervous. During embryonic development, three germ layers differentiate into the four
major categories of tissues by a process called histogenesis. The three germ layers are the
ectoderm (outer), mesoderm (middle), and endoderm (innermost).
Epithelial tissues differentiate from all three germ layers. Connective and muscular
tissues differentiate from the mesoderm and nervous tissues differentiate from the
ectoderm.
Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissue forms the covering or lining of all free body surfaces, both external
and internal. The chief functions of epithelial tissues are: protection, absorption, secretion,
and excretion. Epithelial tissues are avascular (lack blood vessels). Nutrition and waste
removal are provided by the network of blood vessels in underlying connective tissues.
In general, epithelial cells are attached to a specialized structure called basement
membrane which serves as an anchor for the inner side of cells affording protection to the
underlying connective tissues.
Unique structures along the lateral surface of epithelial cells, called intercellular
junctions, play essential functional roles in various kinds of epithelial tissues. Three
distinct types of junctions have been identified. Tight junctions govern permeability. Gap
junctions make intercellular communication possible by exchange of chemical substances.
Desmosomes or adhering junctions provide strong mechanical linkage between cells,
thereby preventing tissue disruption from stretching.
Cells composing epithelial tissues are classified according to their shape,
Fig. 4.1. Types of epithelial tissues.
arrangement of cell layers, and function.
Classification as to shape:

1. Squamous – flat and often serve as a protective layer. 3. Columnar – tall and often rectangular. They line ducts
2. Cuboidal – resembling small cubes. They are found in five such as the urethra and are found in mucus-secreting
regions of the body as lining tissues for ducts, secretory tissues, mucosa of the stomach, bile ducts, villi of the
glands, renal tubules, germinal coveings of the ovaries, and intestines, uterine tubes, and upper respiratory tract.
pigmented layer of the retina of the eye.

Classification as to arrangement of cell layers:

1. Simple – arrangement has one layer. 4. Transitional – consists of several layers of closely
2. Stratified – arrangement has multiple layers. packed, soft, pliable, and easily stretched cells. When the
3. Pseudo-stratified – arrangement seems to consist of several surface is stretched, the cells are flat but they appear saw-
layers but is actually a single layer with all cells resting on the toothed when relaxed. They line the renal pelvis of the
basement membrane. kidneys, the ureters, the urinary bladder, and the upper
part of the urethra.
Classification as to function:

1. Mucous membrane – serve four general functions:
protection, support for associated structures, absorption
of nutrients into the body, and secretion of mucus
enzymes, and salts. They line the digestive, respiratory,
urinary, and reproductive tracts.
2. Glandular epithelium – arise as involutions of
epithelial cells, specializing in synthesizing and
secreting certain special compounds. They are found in
sweat glands, sebaceous glands, glands of the
alimentary tract, pancreas, mammary glands, and large
salivary glands.
3. Endothelium – serve as lining epithelium of lymphatic
vessels, blood vessels and the lining of the heart
(endocardium).

Connective Tissue
 The second major division of tissues, connective tissues, which include the connective tissue proper and a number of specialized
connective tissues, perform many functions including support and nourishment for other tissues, packing material in spaces between
organs, and defense for the body by phagocytosis and antibody production.
Connective tissues have fewer cells that are set apart due to an abundance of intercellular substances or ground substances that
contain fibers except in blood. The ground substance may be fluid, gelatinous, or solid. Solid ground substances are often called
matrix.
General functions of connective tissues include:

1. Binding tissues and organs 3. Storage of fats (in adipose tissue) and 5. Play a significant role in the repair or
2. Mechanical support certain minerals (calcium in bones) healing of wounds, particularly the
4. Exchange of metabolites between blood loose connective tissues
and tissue (lymph) 6. Protection against infection

The Connective Tissue Proper

1. Loose connective tissue – fibers are loosely arranged in a meshwork
a. Areolar tissue – most widely distribute connective tissue which is pliable and crossed by many delicate threads. The
tissue resists tearing and is somewhat elastic.
b. Adipose tissue – specialized connective tissue with fat-containing cells. Since fat is a poor conductor of heat, adipose
tissue protects the body from excessive heat loss or excessive rise in temperature.
c. Reticular – form the network of lymphoid tissue, the liver, and the bone marrow.
2. Dense connective tissue – has compact or loosely packed fibers
a. Dense regular – fibers are arranged in parallel bundles (tendons, white ligaments, fascia, aponeuroses).
b. Dense irregular – fibers are closely interwoven in a random way (dermis of the skin, capsules of organs, tendon
sheaths).
Specialized Connective Tissue
1. Cartilage – tissue whose intercellular substances contain fibers, firm but pliable in consistency. Cells of cartilage, called
chondrocytes, are large and rounded with spherical nuclei and are clustered in small cavities called lacunae. Cartilages are
covered with a dense connective tissue called the perichondrium. Since cartilages are avascular, chondrocytes are nourished
by diffusion through the matrix of substances from perichondrial blood vessels.
a. Hyaline cartilage – somewhat elastic, semi-transparent with an opalescent bluish-gray tint. They are found in the nose,
larynx, trachea, bronchi, ends of ribs, and surfaces of bones.
b. Elastic cartilage – yellowish with greater opacity, flexibility, and elasticity. They are found in the external ear, walls of
external auditory and eustachian tubes, and epiglottis.
c. Fibro-cartilage – most resistant type. They are found in the intervertebral disks, in the pubis synthesis, in the
mandibular joints and in sites of attachment of certain tendons to bones. This type of cartilage has no perichondrium.
2. Bone – firm tissue formed by the impregnation of intercellular material with organic salts. It is a living tissue supplied by
blood vessels and nerves and is constantly being remodeled. The two types of bones are compact, forming the dense outer
layer, and cancellous or spongy, forming the inner, lighter tissue.
3. Dentin – closely related to bone. The crown of the tooth is covered by enamel, the hardest substance in the body. Enamel is
secreted onto the dentin by epithelial cells of the enamel organ. Dentin resembles bone but is harder and denser.
4. Blood and Hematopoetic Tissue – red bone marrow is the blood-forming (hematopoetic) tissue. Blood is a fluid tissue
circulating through the body, carrying nutrients to cells and removing waste products. Solid or formeed elements of the
blood are: red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes), and blood platelets (thrombocytes).
5. Lymphoid Tissue – found in lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, and tonsils. Reticular tissue forms its framework, and
lymphocytes lie within the reticular tissue. Lymphoid tissue plays a role in immunity.
Muscular Tissue
Muscular tissues are primary tissues of motion responsible for locomotion and movement of the different parts of the body. They
are composed of muscle fibers and intercellular substances (loose areolar connective tissue).
Three Types of Muscle Tissue
1. Skeletal muscle – striated, voluntary – muscle has cross-striations and can be controlled at will.
 2. Smooth muscle – non-striated, involuntary – without striations and is under the control of the autonomic nervous system.
3. Cardiac muscle – striated, involuntary – found exclusively in the heart.

Fig. 4.2 Types of muscle tissue. From left: skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle.

Nervous Tissue
The fourth type of tissue, nervous tissue, is divided into two categories: nervous tissue proper (neurons) and accessory cells
(neuroglia). Nervous tissue is the most highly organized tissue in the body initiating, controlling, and coordinating the body’s ability to
adapt to its environment. In nervous tissue proper, the specialized conducting cells are neurons, linked together to form nerve
pathways. A neuron is composed of dendrites, a cell body (soma), and an axon.

Fig. 4.3. A typical neuron with dendrites, a body, and an axon.