AN EXAMINATION OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND LEADERSHIP PRACTICES

By Barbara A. Alston

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to H. Wayne Huizenga School of Business and Entrepreneurship Nova Southeastern University

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

2009

UMI Number: 3352390 Copyright 2009 by Alston, Barbara A All rights reserved

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ABSTRACT AN EXAMINATION OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND LEADERSHIP PRACTICES by Barbara A. Alston Emotional intelligence can be defined as a multifunctional array of interrelated emotional, personal and social abilities which influence ones overall ability to actively and effectively cope with demands and pressures (Bar-On & Parker, 2000). Dulewicz and Higgs (1999) define emotional intelligence as being aware of, and managing ones own feelings and emotions; being sensitive to, and influencing others; sustaining ones motivation; and balancing ones motivation and drive with intuitive, conscientious, and ethical behavior. Successful leadership today is about how well leaders manage themselves and how well they manage others. Successful leadership is not about intellectual ability or technical expertise; it is about personal characteristics and human qualities that include empathy and compassion, flexibility, and influence. Todays leaders must have the ability and flexibility to adapt to an ever-changing workforce, and its these human abilities that set apart successful leaders. Emotional intelligence has become as important as, if not more important than, intellectual quotient (IQ) and cognitive abilities. This studys hypotheses were tested with multiple regression analysis by regressing the four dimensions of emotional intelligence on LPI, the dependent variable. Only one of the emotional intelligence factors, the appraisal of emotion in self or others, is significantly related to leadership (LPI) (beta coefficient = .520 and p-value of .000). In addition, there is one demographic variable that is significantly related to LPI (beta coefficient =.094 and p-value of .033). Therefore, years of supervision is positively related to leadership. Today, successful leaders are defined by inspiring and motivating others, promoting a positive work environment, perceiving and understanding emotions, and fostering an organizational climate in which people turn challenging opportunities into successes. This investigation explored the relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership practices. This researcher used the Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SSEIT) (Schutte et al., 1998) to assess emotional intelligence of managers, and Kouzes and Posners (1995) Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) to measure leadership practices. Emotions play a key role in decision-making. This study supports the position that emotional stability and emotional intelligence are important factors for organizational leadership.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Many thanks and much appreciation to my family members and friends who both supported and encouraged me throughout this process. To my father for giving me the courage and the tenacity to pursue this endeavor as well as many others in my life. I love you dad! I would like to express my appreciation to the members of my committee: Dr. Bahaudin Mujtaba, chair; Dr. Barbara Dastoor; and Dr. Albert Williams. I am deeply indebted to Dr. Barbara Dastoor and sincerely grateful for your infinite patience, direction, support, wisdom, and guidance throughout you are my hero! Special thanks to Dr. Rick Rees for your initial guidance; may you forever rest in peace. And to my friend and colleague Dr. Claudette Chin-Loy for your much needed support throughout this entire process.

Table of Contents Page List of Tables ................................................................................................................... viii List of Figures .................................................................................................................... ix Chapter I. Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 1 Statement of the Problem ........................................................................................ 3 Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................... 3 Research Questions ................................................................................................. 4 Definition of Terms................................................................................................. 5 Limitations .............................................................................................................. 6 Summary ................................................................................................................. 6 II. Review of Literature....................................................................................................... 8 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 8 Emotional Intelligence ............................................................................................ 8 Emotions Defined ................................................................................................. 11 Intelligence Defined .............................................................................................. 12 Emotional Intelligence .......................................................................................... 13 Emotional Intelligence & Training ....................................................................... 18 Emotional Intelligence and Success...................................................................... 20 Measures of Emotional Intelligence ..................................................................... 23 Bar-On EQ-i .......................................................................................................... 23 MSCEIT ................................................................................................................ 25 The Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SSEIT) ............................ 26 Emotional Competence Inventory (ECI ) ............................................................. 27 Leadership ............................................................................................................. 27 Transformational Leadership ................................................................................ 28 Transformational Leadership, Effectiveness, & Success ...................................... 31 Measures of Leadership ........................................................................................ 32 Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) ....................................................... 32 MLQ and MLQ-Form 5x .......................................................................... 35 Emotional Intelligence and Leadership ................................................................ 36 Summary ............................................................................................................... 42 III. Methodology ............................................................................................................... 43 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 43 Population and Sample ......................................................................................... 43

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Chapter

Page

Variables and Measures ........................................................................................ 44 The Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SSEIT) ............................ 44 Demographic Variables ........................................................................................ 47 Research Question and Hypotheses ...................................................................... 48 Data Collection and Analysis................................................................................ 50 Summary ............................................................................................................... 53 IV. Analysis and Presentation of Findings ....................................................................... 54 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 54 Participants ............................................................................................................ 55 Factor Analysis ..................................................................................................... 57 Descriptive Statistics and Correlation Matrix ....................................................... 63 Hypotheses Testing ............................................................................................... 64 Results of Hypotheses Testing .............................................................................. 66 Summary ............................................................................................................... 68 V. Summary and Conclusions........................................................................................... 70 Discussion of the Findings .................................................................................... 70 Conclusions ........................................................................................................... 71 Managerial Implications ....................................................................................... 73 Limitations ............................................................................................................ 75 Implications for Future Research .......................................................................... 76 Summary ............................................................................................................... 78 Appendix A. The Assessing Emotions Scale: Internal Consistency, Means and Standard Deviations ..................................................................................................................................... 81 B. Survey Materials .......................................................................................................... 88

References Cited ............................................................................................................. 101 Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 113

vii

List of Tables Table Page

1. Five Elements of Emotional Intelligence ...................................................................... 18 2. Bar-On EQ-i .................................................................................................................. 24 3. MSCEIT: Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test ................................... 26 4. Five Practices and Ten Commitments of Exemplary Leadership ................................. 33 5. Summary of Studies on Leadership Style, Emotional Intelligence and Other Study Constructs ..................................................................................................................... 40 6. Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence .................................................................. 44 7. The Dimensions of the Independent and Dependent Measures .................................... 47 8. Demographic Characteristics of Survey Participants ................................................... 56 9. Rotated Component Matrix(a) ...................................................................................... 60 10. Descriptive Statistics, Reliabilities and Correlation Matrix ....................................... 64 11. Regression Analysis .................................................................................................... 65 12. Summary of Hypothesis Testing Results .................................................................... 68

viii

List of Figures Figure Page

1. Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Model ............................................................... 4 2. Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Model ............................................................. 48 3. Scree Plot (with Rotated Component Matrix) .............................................................. 59

ix

Chapter I Introduction Researchers recognize that leadership is an integral part of ones everyday existence as positive results continue to emerge from the literature on all three aspects of leadership, encompassed in Basss (1985) leadership paradigm, transformational, transactional and laissez-faire. One of the fascinating elements in the study of leadership is the unrelenting endeavor to discover the attributes that are specific to successful leadership. Technical experience and intellectual quotient (IQ) no longer are the only two measures of managerial success. Interpersonal skills also have become an essential component to effective leadership (Goleman, 1998b). For this reason, understanding the effects of ones emotional intelligence and the potential impact emotional intelligence has on leadership deserves attention. Emotional intelligence can be defined as a multifunctional array of interrelated emotional, personal, and social abilities which influence our overall ability to actively and effectively cope with demands and pressures (Bar-On & Parker, 2000). Dulewicz and Higgs (1999) define emotional intelligence as being aware of and managing ones own feelings and emotions; being sensitive to and influencing others; sustaining ones motivation; and balancing ones motivation and drive with intuitive, conscientious, and ethical behavior. Successful leadership today is about how well leaders manage themselves and how well they manage or deal with others. Successful leadership is not about intellectual ability or technical expertise; it is about personal characteristics and human qualities that include empathy and compassion, flexibility and influence. Todays leaders must have

2 the ability and flexibility to adapt to an ever changing workforce, and its these human abilities that set apart successful leaders. Emotional intelligence has become as important as, if not more important than, intellectual quotient (IQ) and cognitive abilities. Effective leadership is essential to an organizations success; hence, the ability to identify and define effective leadership is crucial. Conventional wisdom denotes technical expertise, superior performance, and established experience translated into effective leadership. Today, successful leaders are defined by inspiring and motivating others, promoting a positive work environment, perceiving and understanding emotions, fostering an organizational climate in which people turn challenging opportunities into successes, and so forth. Kouzes and Posner (1995, p. 40) characterize, true leaders tap into peoples hearts and minds, not merely their hands and wallets. Throughout their research of more than 20 years, Kouzes and Posner (2003, p. 13) found that credibility is the foundation of leadership. Their work lead to the development of a five-practice theory of leadership termed the Five Practices of Leadership. Kouzes and Posner (2003) believe that leadership can and should be learned, advocating that these five practices are common to all successful people in leadership positions. Each of the five practices contains two behavioral descriptors designed to define the actions or commitments necessary to convey exemplary leadership: 1. Model the way by 1) finding ones voice and 2) setting the example. 2. Inspire a shared vision by 1) envisioning the future and 2) enlisting others. 3. Challenge the process by 1) searching for opportunities and 2) experimenting and taking risks.

3 4. Enable others to act by 1) fostering collaboration and 2) strengthening others. 5. Encourage the heart by 1) recognizing contributions and 2) celebrating the values and victories. Both the five practices as well as behavioral descriptors are further defined in Chapter II of this paper. Statement of the Problem Although there has been a substantial amount of research on leadership and emotional intelligence as separate constructs, limited research has been conducted on the relationship and/or linkage between emotional intelligence and the three different aspects of leadership style, specifically in the human resources field. Palmer, Walls, Burgess, and Stough (2001) explored the relationship between emotional intelligence and effective leadership. Sivanathan and Fekken (2002) explored the association of emotional intelligence and moral reasoning to leadership style and effectiveness. Also, Mandell and Pherwani (2003) examined the predictive relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership. Previous research indicates a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and effective leaders (Caruso & Salovey, 2004; Goleman, 1998a, 1998b; Palmer et al., 2001). Kerr, Garvin, Heaton, and Boyle (2005) found that emotional intelligence scores were a strong predictor of leadership effectiveness. While there have been a few studies in academia, the retail sector, and manufacturing, there still is a need for further research on the two constructs in the area of human resource professionals. Purpose of the Study The framework for this study is based on Salovey and Mayers (1990) and

4 Golemans (1998a, 1998b) approaches to emotional intelligence and the constructs of leadership practices as defined by Kouzes and Posners (1995) leadership practices inventory (LPI). The purpose of this research is to examine the relationship of emotional intelligence to leadership amongst human resource professionals. In this study, there are four factors that define emotional intelligence: 1) the appraisal of emotion in self and others, 2) the expression of emotion, 3) the regulation of emotion in self and others, and 4) the utilization of emotion in problem solving, the independent variables. Transformational leadership is the dependent variable. The model outlined in Figure 1 depicts the relationship among the variables.

Independent Variables
The Appraisal of Emotion in Self and Others The Expression of Emotion The Regulation of Emotion in Self and Others The Utilization of Emotion in Problem Solving

Dependent Variable

Leadership

Figure 1. Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Model.

Research Questions This research proposes to examine the relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership practices. The following research question will be explored: Is

5 there a relationship between leaders emotional intelligence (the appraisal of emotion in self and others, the expression of emotion, the regulation of emotion in self and others, and the utilization of emotion in problem solving) and leadership practices (challenging the process, inspiring a shared vision, enabling others to act, modeling the way and encouraging the heart)? Definition of Terms Emotional intelligence Although there are many definitions of emotional intelligence, the basis of this study utilizes Golemans (1998a, p. 317) definition of emotional intelligence: The capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in our relationships. Leadership Leadership is defined as a process of social interaction where performance outcomes are strongly influenced by the leaders ability to influence the behavior of their followers (Humphrey, 2002). Five practices of leadership Kouzes and Posner (2003) believe that leadership can and should be learned, advocating these five practices are common to all successful people in leadership positions. Each of the five practices contains two behavioral descriptors designed to define the actions or commitments necessary to convey exemplary leadership: 1) Model the way by finding ones voice and setting the example, 2) inspire a shared vision by envisioning the future and enlisting others, 3) challenge the process by searching for opportunities and experimenting and taking risks, 4) enable others to act by fostering collaboration and strengthening others, and 5) encourage the heart by recognizing contributions and celebrating the values and victories.

6 Transformational leadership Transformational leaders are described as leaders who improve followers accomplishments and success by influencing their values and needs. Transformational leaders change their followers attitudes, beliefs, and values to align them with the attitudes, beliefs, and values of the organization. Transformational leaders guide their followers towards self development and higher levels of success (Bass, 1997). Limitations 1) This study will be limited to the managers self assessment of emotional intelligence. Self report responses are affected by the participants biases. 2) This study will be limited to the managers self assessment of leadership: Again, responses are affected by the participants biases. 3) This study will be limited to a sample of managers in a human resource capacity. Summary One of the fascinating elements in the study of leadership is the unrelenting endeavor to discover the attributes that are specific to successful leadership. Technical experience and intellectual quotient (IQ) no longer are the only two measures of managerial success. Interpersonal skills also have become an essential component to effective leadership (Goleman, 1998b). Successful leadership today is about how well leaders manage themselves and how well they manage or deal with others. Successful leadership is about personal characteristics and human qualities that include empathy and compassion, flexibility and influence. It is these personal characteristics and human qualities that are encompassed in the definition of emotional intelligence. Emotional

7 intelligence can be defined as a multifunctional array of interrelated emotional, personal, and social abilities which influence ones overall ability to actively and effectively cope with demands and pressures (Bar-On & Parker, 2000). Goleman (1998b) proposes that emotional intelligence plays a substantial role in leadership. Therefore, understanding the effects of ones emotional intelligence and the potential impact emotional intelligence has on leadership is explored in this study. Chapter I developed the basis and importance for the study of emotional intelligence and leadership, statement of the problem, purpose of the study, research questions, and a definition of the terms as well as limitations of the study. The remainder of this study consists of the following four chapters: Chapter II, a review of the literature relevant to this study; Chapter III consists of the research methodology, with a description of the research surveys that were used; Chapter IV offers an analysis and detailed presentation of the data; and finally, Chapter V summarizes the research and its findings, states the conclusions and implications as well as recommendations for further research.

Chapter II Review of Literature Introduction The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationships between the four factors of emotional intelligence and leadership practices. Chapter II reviews the literature in the following order: emotional intelligence, leadership, then the two togetheremotional intelligence and leadership. Emotional Intelligence Leban and Zulauf (2004) examined the linkage between emotional intelligence, transformational leadership, and performance, and found several significant linkages between emotional intelligence abilities and transformational leadership style. Overall, emotional intelligence and the ability to understand emotions were related significantly to the inspirational motivation component of Basss (1985) transformational leadership model. In addition, the strategic use of emotional intelligence was related significantly to the idealized influence and individual consideration components of transformational leadership. Duckett and MacFarlane (2003) show a strong linkage between the theory of emotional intelligence and transformational leadership. Their results demonstrate a high level of commonality between transformational leadership and emotional intelligence leadership profiles and success. Mandell and Pherwani (2003) examined the predictive relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership style, and examined gender differences in the relationship between the two. Using regression analysis they found a

9 significant linear relationship between transformational leadership style and emotional intelligence, suggesting that transformational leadership style of managers could be predicted from their emotional intelligence scores. However, they found no significant interaction between gender and emotional intelligence in predicting transformational leadership style. They did find, however, that women managers scored significantly higher than men managers in emotional intelligence. Additional findings show males are as transformational in their leadership styles as females (Mandell & Pherwani). Gardner and Stough (2002) investigated whether emotional intelligence measured by the Swinburne University Emotional Intelligence Test (SUEIT) predicted leadership style measured by Basss (1985) Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ). Results supported a strong relationship between transformational leadership and overall emotional intelligence. This study provides strong evidence for the usefulness of emotional intelligence in identifying effective leaders (Gardner & Stough, 2002). The results indicate that two SUEIT dimensions (the ability to identify and understand the emotions of others and the ability to manage positive and negative emotions within themselves and with others) stimulate effective leadership styles. Examining the association of emotional intelligence and moral reasoning to leadership styles and effectiveness, Sivanathan and Fekken (2002) revealed that leaders who reported higher levels of emotional intelligence were perceived by their followers as higher in transformational leadership and were perceived as more effective than those with lower scores of emotional intelligence. Palmer et al. (2001) provide empirical evidence for relationships between the components of both emotional intelligence and effective leadership with several

10 significant correlations between transformational leadership and emotional intelligence. Specifically, inspirational motivation and individualized consideration of transformational leadership were significantly correlated with the ability to monitor and the ability to manage emotions in oneself and others. The transformational component charisma correlated significantly with the ability to monitor emotions within oneself and others. Finally, individualized consideration was positively correlated with the ability to monitor and the ability to manage emotions. Ashkanasy and Dasborough (2003) conducted a classroom study where emotion concepts were introduced and incorporated into an undergraduate leadership course that was designed to help students value the need for advanced leadership skills in todays workplace. The authors predicted that students with high emotional intelligence would perform better in a leadership course. Students completed the Wong and Law (2002) self report measure of emotional intelligence as well as the Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, and Sitarenios (2003) MSCEIT, which was optional. Students also completed a leadership training package (LTP) while using relevant theory and research evidence to justify the contents of their packages, in addition to a leadership process reflection paper and final two-hour exam. Using descriptive statistics, results supported emotional intelligence being related to course performance (evident only in the MSCEIT), and performance in the LPT was related to the students understanding of emotions as displayed in their answer on the exam question on this topic. Students who took the MSCEIT scored higher in the self report measure of emotional intelligence and were more knowledgeable about emotions. This study establishes that teaching about emotions and emotional intelligence can affect performance.

11 Investigating the relationship of managerial emotional intelligence levels and a rating of leadership effectiveness, Kerr et al. (2005) found that emotional intelligence scores were a strong predictor of leadership effectiveness. This study involved the MSCEIT and subordinate ratings of supervisor performance in a manufacturing organization. Correlation analysis was used to measure the relationship between emotional intelligence and the employees ratings of supervisor effectiveness. Douglas, Frink, and Ferris (2004) studied the relationship of students emotional intelligence to conscientiousness and performance, and asked if conscientiousness and performance are higher for those who are high in emotional intelligence. Bar-Ons (1997) emotional quotient inventory was used to assess emotional intelligence, the self report conscientiousness scale NEO-PI personality inventory (McCrae & Costa, 1987) was used to measure conscientiousness, while exam scores and peer ratings measured the students performance. Hierarchical moderated regression analysis demonstrated that the relationship is positive for individuals high in emotional intelligence. Emotions Defined To effectively discuss the notion of emotional intelligence, there must be a general understanding of emotions as well as intelligence as separate concepts. Emotions are usually viewed as structured reactions, crossing many psychological subsystems, including the physiological, cognitive, motivational and experiential systems (Pope & Singer, 1990, p. 186). A persons emotions usually surface in response to an internal or external event. These emotions typically have a positive or negative meaning for the individual. Leeper (1948, p. 17) implies emotions are primarily poignant forces; they are processes which arouse, sustain, and direct activity. Emotions generally are recognized

12 as an awakened reaction to circumstance or situations (Ekman, 2007). M. George (2006) suggests that emotions and moods are underlying, fundamental elements of behavior. The level of intensity differentiates moods from emotions. Accordingly, moods tend to be low intensity, all encompassing, and not specifically coupled with an event, whereas emotions are high intensity and specifically tied to an event or incident. Emotions can be valuable in guiding ones attention to critical situations, assisting in making decisions, and facilitating certain types of natural conscious or unconscious processes (J. M. George, 2000). Emotional knowledge is defined as understanding both the determinants and consequences of moods and emotions, and how they evolve and change over time (J. M. George, p. 1037). Intelligence Defined Wechsler, Thorndike, Binet, and others led the way in psychometric studies measuring the concept of intelligence (Fancher, 1985). Wechsler (1958, p. 7) defines intelligence as the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment. Wechslers definition broadly encompasses what most individuals think of as intelligence (Pope & Singer, 1990). General intelligence is defined as the ability to gain fundamental knowledge and use that knowledge in different situations. The two basic underlying assumptions are 1) individuals are born with predetermined potential intelligence, and 2) one can measure general intelligence (Gottfredson, 1998). Gottfredson deems intelligence as measured by IQ tests is the single most effective predictor known of individual performance at school and on the job (p. 24). In addition, she suggests that higher levels of general intelligence contribute to the prediction of individual performance.

13 M. George (2006) deems rational intelligence as an inefficient means to arrive at a decision, as it is a very slow process that requires a large amount of thinking. Intuition, described as a quiet voice from the depth of our consciousness (M. George, p. 426), is much faster, involving a very small amount of energy and open from bias which can alter rational thinking. M. George further defines intelligence itself as using what you know in the right way, at the right time, in the right place, with the right intention (p. 430). Emotional Intelligence The early definition of social intelligence influenced the way emotional intelligence was later conceptualized. Contemporary theorists like Peter Salovey and John Mayer originally viewed emotional intelligence as part of social intelligence (1990, p. 189), which suggests that both concepts are related and in all, represent interrelated components of the same construct. (Bar-On, 2006, p. 1) Emotional intelligence also embraces inner thoughts and feelings that influence performance which may or may not be related to social skills (M. George, 2006). Essentially, emotional intelligence illustrates the skill to successfully link emotions and reasoning, using emotions to aid reasoning intelligently about emotions (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). Emotions play an important role in understanding leadership and in being a good leader (Humphrey, 2002). Pope and Singer (1990, p. 189) define emotional intelligence as the subset of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor ones own and others feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and use this information to guide ones thinking and actions. Goleman (1998a, p. 317) identifies emotional intelligence as the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for

14 motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in our relationships. Goleman (1998a) recognized emotional aptitude as competencies that blend feeling and thought. Increasingly, organizations are recognizing the need for emotionally intelligent individuals within the organization to ensure long-term success for the company. Emotional intelligence is recognized as more than a collection of professional abilities. It is a set of mental abilities that involves understanding, managing, perceiving, and using a persons emotions. Salovey and Mayer (1990) first used the expression emotional intelligence, describing the model of intelligence as recognizing and managing the emotions of others as well as oneself. John D. Mayer and Peter Salovey (1990, p. 189) define emotional intelligence as the ability to monitor ones own and others feelings, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide ones thinking and action. Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso (2004) further define emotional intelligence as the capacity to reason about emotions to enhance thinking. It includes the ability to accurately perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions as to promote emotional and intellectual growth. (p. 197) An analysis of competence models for millions of employees in a variety of companies worldwide illustrated emotional competencies counted twice as much as intellectual quotient (IQ) and expertise (Goleman, 1998b). Not only can emotional intelligence be developed (Covey, 2004), emotional intelligence should progress and mature with age (Mayer et al., 2004).

15 Poon and Fatt (2002) conducted a study of emotional intelligence among local and foreign undergraduates, and determined foreign undergraduates have higher emotional intelligence scores. The Emotional Intelligence IQ Test developed by John Mayer, Peter Salovey, and David Caruso (2002) was used to measure emotional intelligence. T-tests and multiple regression results showed that males have higher emotional intelligence scores than females in this study (Poon & Fatt). M. George (2006) believes that emotional intelligence can influence and shape ones ability to foster and develop relationships as well as affect ones decision-making capacity. Recognizing feelings and controlling emotions are described as the core competencies of emotional intelligence. Individuals that are emotionally intelligent can work together when there is conflict to understand one another and each others views, moving forward together towards a solution rather than against one another and damaging the relationship. Emotional intelligence is necessary to work through this process. Emotional intelligence can be seen as a type of social intelligence; however, emotional intelligence actually is a more focused concept that can be defined as the processing of emotions and knowledge-related information (Grewal & Salovey, 2005). As referenced in their recent work in emotional intelligence, Grewal and Salovey outlined neurologist Antonio R. Damasios evidence that emotion and reason are inseparable, that without feelings, the decisions people make may not be in their best interest. Hence, people often focus on the logical alternative pros and cons of the alternatives they face.

16 Salovey and Mayer (2002) propose a four branch model of emotional intelligence that emphasize four domains of related skills: 1) the ability to perceive/identify emotions, 2) the ability to use emotions to facilitate thinking and reasoning, 3) the ability to understand emotions, and 4) the ability to manage emotions in both oneself and others. This model proposes that individuals vary in these skills and that these variances contain consequences for individuals in everyday life (Grewal & Salovey, 2005). Research suggests that the four aspects are positively related to each other (J. M. George, 2000; Mayer, DiPaolo, & Salovey, 1990; Mayer & Salovey, 1997). Individuals vary in their ability to manage their own emotions when faced with challenges and solving problems. Moods and emotions such as emotional swings, positive emotion, and also various moods such as anxiety and depression delicately yet methodically shape some of the components and strategies involved in problem solving. Individuals with emotional intelligence may be more creative in arriving at potential alternatives to problems and more likely to incorporate emotional considerations when deciding among those alternatives (Pope & Singer, 1990). Empathy, characterized by the capacity to understand anothers emotions and to re-experience those emotions oneself, is said to be a distinguishing attribute of emotional intelligence (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). There has been an abundance of overlap between the concepts involved in emotional intelligence (Bar-On & Parker, 2000). Goleman (1998a) identifies five basic emotional and social competencies to emotional intelligence: 1) Self awareness knowing what one is feeling, having a realistic appraisal of ones own abilities, and having a grounded sense of self assurance and poise.

17 2) Self regulation handling emotions so that they assist rather than impede a situation, recovering quickly, and bouncing back from emotional stress. 3) Motivation the internal inspiration that sets initiative in motion and steers one towards their objectives. 4) Empathy the ability to develop a connection and affinity with a diverse group of people, an awareness of what people are feeling. 5) Social skills the ability to read social situations and handle emotions in relationships, to interrelate effortlessly while persuading and leading for collaborations and teamwork. Additionally, Covey (2004) proposes there are five commonly accepted crucial elements of emotional intelligence: self-awareness, personal motivation, self regulation, empathy, and social skills. Self awareness includes the ability to ruminate of ones own life and use that insight to enhance ones own abilities. Personal motivation encompasses what people are passionate about, their dreams, personal standards, morals, aspirations, and so forth. Self regulation is the capacity to control and direct oneself toward ones aspirations. Empathy deals with the identification with and understanding of another's situation, feelings, and motives. Finally, social skills include a group of skills which people need to interact and communicate with others. Table 1 summarizes the five commonly accepted crucial elements of emotional intelligence as defined by Covey.

18 Table 1 Five Elements of Emotional Intelligence Component Self-Awareness Personal Motivation Self-Regulation Empathy Social Skills

Characteristics

Personal reflection What others are passionate about To control and direct oneself Understanding of others feelings & motives Group of skills needed to communicate with others

Emotional Intelligence & Training The information that emotional intelligence functions on is considered emotional knowledge, which can be taught and developed within individuals, thereby improving emotional intelligence (Mayer et al., 2004). Many practitioners and scholars believe that emotional intelligence can be improved upon through development and training programs (Cherniss & Caplan, 2001; Clark, Callister, & Wallace, 2003; Kerr et al., 2005; Sosik & Megerian, 1999; Sy & Cote, 2004). In 1991, American Express Financial Advisors (AEFA) initially designed an emotional intelligence program to help their financial advisors handle the emotional reactions that they experienced selling life insurance (Cherniss & Caplan, 2001). There are three versions of this program in place today to train advisors, managers, sales consultants, and so forth. Studies were conducted on two versions of the program, and findings suggest that 1) advisors who receive the training generate more sales revenue; 2) when vice presidents and their direct reports received emotional intelligence training,

19 their advisors generated 11% more growth in sales revenue during a 15-month timeframe; and 3) when regional management teams are trained, their advisors generate more revenue than advisors who were not trained in other regions (Cherniss & Caplan). AEFA estimated an additional $200 million in sales revenue was generated as a result of this training (Cherniss & Caplan). Mayer, Perkins, Caruso, and Salovey (2001) examined the relationship between emotional giftedness and emotional intelligence, and found those with higher emotional intelligence were better able to recognize their own and others emotion and apply that information to steer their actions. Consequently, the authors state that it is then conceivable to expect that one could increase a persons level of emotional functioning by teaching individuals about emotional intelligence and emotional reasoning. Positive results in the literature also support the importance of a managers level of emotional intelligence in the training and development process (Kerr et al., 2005). Organizations should encourage and support training programs regarding aspects of emotional intelligence/emotional quotient, transformational leadership, and performance. Doing so will allow team members to learn shared leadership skills on the job, gain emotion-based skills to enhance and improve self-learning, develop leaders as mentors, and assess and develop emotional competencies throughout the organization (Sosik & Megerian, 1999). Rozell, Pettijohn, and Parker (2001) explored emotional intelligence as a predictor of performance, proposing that the declaration of viability will lead to the creation and use of an assessment tool to be used in the selection process of managers as well as the formation of management improvement and development programs for organizations.

20 Rozell et al. propose emotional intelligence may identify those skills that are necessary components to success, therefore pin-pointing those that are lacking in managers that need to be developed in order to effectively generate improved performance in the workplace. Results indicate that emotional intelligence may have an association and connection to success, hence inferring that emotional intelligence should be integrated into management development programs. A managers awareness and understanding of ones own emotions and ability to effectively handle others emotions may influence the overall success of that individual within the organization (Rozell et al., 2001). By measuring emotional intelligence skills, organizations should be able to identify appropriate candidates to train and develop for future leadership positions (Vrab, 2007). Emotional Intelligence and Success Using the MEIS, Lam and Kirby (2002) investigated whether higher levels of emotional intelligence would explain increases in individual performance over and above general intelligence levels. They examined the relationships between general intelligence, emotional intelligence, and individual-based performance. Results suggest that overall emotional intelligence contributed to individual performance over and above the level attributable to general intelligence. Mayer et al. (2004) suggest that emotional intelligence increases with age. As it increases, so do amounts of relatedness, academic accomplishments, and the ability to convey inspiring and motivating thoughts. Conversely, as emotional intelligence deteriorates, drug use and deviant behavior rises. Someone with high emotional intelligence can more easily recognize, understand, and manage emotions.

21 W. Chen, Jacobs, and Spencer (1998) have shown emotional intelligence is attributable to close to 90% of success in leadership positions. Goleman (1998a, p. 34) asserts, For star performance in all jobs, in every field, emotional competence is twice as important as purely cognitive abilities. Knowing that emotional competencies encompass two thirds or more of the elements of star performance, Golemans (1998a, 1998b) findings support that developing emotional intelligence competencies in existing employees, or finding individuals that possess these skills, only will enhance an organizations bottom line. The primary responsibility of the project manager within an organization is to achieve project objectives through cross-functional teams. William V. Leban (2003) investigated the linkages between leadership style, emotional intelligence, and the success of complex projects. Using the MLQ Form 5X to measure leadership, the MSCEIT to measure emotional intelligence, Perrows Non-Routine Activities and Souders Project Complexity Items and Project Performance Questions to measure project success, the author found the type of leadership style used by a project manager and his or her emotional intelligence abilities do increase the probability of successfully completing complex projects. In addition, this study revealed there are several linkages between leadership style and emotional intelligence. The ability to address underlying feelings and emotions is essential to effective leadership (Mayer & Caruso, 2002). Higgs (2004) explored the association of emotional intelligence and performance ratings of call center agents. Higgs (2004) suggests an array of both skills and characteristic relationships be present within the framework of effective performance. Overall, the results suggest a robust relationship between emotional

22 intelligence and individual performance. In addition, there was exploratory evidence suggesting that organizations can achieve overall improved overall performance if the emotional intelligence elements (self awareness, interpersonal sensitivity, motivation, emotional resilience, and conscientiousness) are included in their selection criteria. Sy, Tram, and OHara (2006) examined the interaction effect among managers emotional intelligence and employees emotional intelligence on job satisfaction and performance in the food service industry. They predicted that employees emotional intelligence is positively related to their job satisfaction and job performance. They also examined the influence of managers emotional intelligence on employees work-related outcomes. Results show that employees with higher emotional intelligence scores have higher job satisfaction and higher job performance than employees with lower scores. This studys new contribution to the literature is that managers emotional intelligence is more positively related to job satisfaction for employees with low emotional intelligence than for employees with high emotional intelligence. Using Mayer, Salovey, and Carusos (1999) emotional intelligence test, MSCEIT, Kerr et al. (2005) investigated the relationship between managerial emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness. Overall results indicate an individuals emotional intelligence is a key determinant to effective leadership. The emotional intelligence of the supervisor is strongly associated to employee perceptions of supervisor success. With the pace of business accelerating, information increasingly more available, markets becoming more global, and competition intensifying, todays markets are increasingly more complex. These multifaceted organizations are devising more responsive configurations to meet their needs, hence, the matrix structure (Sy & Cote,

23 2004). The matrix structure exists in organizations where employees report to multiple managers for different aspects of the business. It is grid-like with various dimensions, allowing a company to address an assortment of business dimensions using various command structures (Davis & Lawrence, 1977). Sy and Cote identify four interpersonal challenges: misaligned goals, undefined roles and responsibilities, untimely and lowquality decision-making, and silo-focused employees that impede matrix performance and propose that emotionally intelligent employees experience better performance within matrix organizations. Moreover, the decision-making process in matrix organizations is delegated to the individuals with the most information as opposed to the top managers (Sy & Cote). Measures of Emotional Intelligence Several measures of emotional intelligence are used rather widely and reported in the recent literature. Each of these surveys measures a persons general level of emotional intelligence, pinpointing areas of strength as well as areas of opportunity. The surveys are discussed below. Bar-On EQ-i The EQ-i was originally constructed in the early 1980s as an investigational instrument to analyze a concept of emotional and social functioning. The thought was that results gained from researching a diverse population in varied settings would enlighten researchers in emotionally and socially competent behavior as well as the fundamental concepts around emotional and social intelligence. Todays EQ-i, published in 1997, is a self-report measure of emotionally and socially competent behavior that presents an assessment of emotional and social intelligence. As the first test of emotional

24 intelligence published by a psychological test publisher, the EQ-i measures assertiveness, interpersonal effectiveness, empathy, impulse control, social responsibility, and reality testing. Taking 30 40 minutes to complete, it is comprised of 133 items, using a fivepoint Likert scale extending from 1 = very seldom or not true of me to 5 = very often true of me or true of me appropriate for persons 17 years of age and older. The EQ-i delivers a total EQ score and five EQ composite scale scores containing 15 subscale scores (Bar-On & Parker, 2000), as outlined in Table 2.

Table 2 Bar-On EQ-i 5 Composite Scales Intrapersonal EQ Interpersonal EQ Stress Management EQ Adaptability EQ General Mood EQ 15 Subscales Self regard, emotional self awareness, assertiveness, independence, and self actualization Comprising empathy, social responsibility, and interpersonal relationships Stress tolerance and impulse control Comprising reality testing, flexibility, and problem solving Comprising optimism and happiness

The total EQ score or the five scale scores typically are used in the analysis. Average to above average scores indicate an emotionally intelligent, emotionally healthy individual. The higher the score, the more positive is the prediction for overall general success.

25 Reliability estimates have focused on internal consistent and test-retest stability. The average Cronbachs alpha coefficients range from a low of .69 to a high of .86 for all of the subscales, with an average overall internal consistency coefficient of .76. Testretest reliability refers to the constancy of an instrument over time. Anchored in one study, the EQ-is average stability coefficient was .85 after 1 month and .75 after 4 months (Bar-On, 1997). Over the past 17 years, nine types of validity studies have been conducted in more than six countries (predictive, discriminant, divergent, criterion-group, validity, content, face, construct, and convergent validity), demonstrating good estimates of validity (Bar-On, 1997). MSCEIT The MSCEIT is an ability-based measure of emotional intelligence that identifies a leaders fundamental leadership skills. The model brings forth a means for one to formalize, implement, and execute strategic plans that integrate emotions and emotional relationships within an organization (Mayer & Caruso, 2002). The MSCEIT consists of a 141-item scale that separates emotional intelligence into four parts termed branches of skills and abilities: 1) perceive emotion, 2) facilitate thought, 3) understand emotion, and 4) manage emotion. The order of the branches signifies the extent to which the skill or ability is inclusive of a persons complete personality, accurately translating the emotional indicators in ones tone of voice, emotional gestures in facial expressions, and so forth. The MSCEIT contains eight tasks with two tasks assigned to each of the four branches of abilities (previously described) that comprise emotional intelligence. Each branch is measured by a separate method as outlined and defined in Table 3 below (Mayer et al., 2004).

26 Table 3 MSCEIT: Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test Measured Title Through Definition Branch 1 Perceiving Emotions Faces Participants are asked to identify the emotions in faces. 2 3 Using Emotions to Facilitate Thought Understanding Emotions Sensations Changes Participants are asked to compare emotions to sensory stimuli. Ones ability is tested to recognize under what circumstances lessen or increases emotional intensity. Participants are asked how they would respond to hypothetical situations either by maintaining or changing their feelings.

Managing Emotions

Emotion Management

The Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SSEIT) The SSEIT, sometimes referred to in the literature as the Assessing Emotions Scale or the Self-Report Emotional Intelligence test, is a self-report measure of emotional intelligence containing 33 items. Developed by Schutte et al. (1998), the SSEIT measures the four facets of emotional intelligence as defined by Salovey and Mayer (1990): 1) the appraisal of emotion in self and others, 2) the expression of emotion, 3) the regulation of emotion in self and others, and 4) the utilization of emotion in problem solving. The SSEIT focuses on average or usual emotional intelligence. In addition, four factor analytic studies identified a four factor solution for the 33 items listed in the Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence Test as perception of emotions, social skills or managing

27 others emotions, utilizing emotions, and managing emotions in self (Ciarrochi, Chan, & Bajar, 2001). Based on the results of a principal components analysis of a group of items representing branches (Salovey & Mayer, 1990), Schutte et al. (1998) recommended using total scores on the SSEIT to determine a total emotional intelligence score. Emotional Competence Inventory (ECI ) The ECI 2.0 test is based on emotional intelligence competencies identified by Goleman (1998b). Goleman and Boyatzis (2002) designed this 360-degree tool to assess the emotional and social competencies of individuals in organizations. Through self reports, this tool considers the observations, validation, and reliability of emotional quotient (EQ) as a measurable element of organizational performance and effective leadership. Leadership Leadership is defined as a process of social interaction where performance outcomes are strongly influenced by the leaders ability to influence the behavior of their followers (Humphrey, 2002). Horners (1997) definition of leadership includes the behaviors, traits, and qualities of a leader. Gardner (1990, p. 38) writes, Leadership is the accomplishment of a group purpose, which is furthered not only by effective leaders but also innovators, entrepreneurs, and thinkers; by the availability of resources; by questions of value and social cohesion. Gardner poses that leadership is not necessarily the work of one person, the leader, but rather the result of the work of a variety of members of the group. It is the skill of the leader that sets the direction to motivate and move the group forward and also promotes group members contributions (i.e.,

28 knowledge, skills, social interaction, etc.) to the whole. Burns (1978) introduced the constructs of transformational and transactional leadership as constructs at opposite ends of the spectrum. Early empirical studies revealed that both transformational and transactional variables could act independently of one another; hence, demonstrating a minimum of two separate leadership constructs (Avolio, Bass, & Jung, 1999). Kouzes and Posner (1997) define leadership as a set of behaviors that anyone in a leadership capacity can be taught and become skilled at to achieve excellence. Kouzes and Posner (2002) define leadership as a relationship that is built from a foundation of trust which enables leaders and followers to seize opportunities and take risks to effect change within an organization. Leaders must first change themselves before they can effectively stimulate change within the organization (Covey & Gulledge, 1994). Leadership is about practice; leaders who can boost their understanding of the role and impact of emotions in the workplace can effectively instill meaning and influence into an organizations management structure. A manager who can accurately and clearly think about emotions often may be better able than a manager who cannot to foresee, deal with, and effectively manage change (Mayer & Caruso, 2002). Transformational Leadership Basss (1985) leadership model identifies and defines the components of transformational leadership. Transformational leaders improve followers accomplishments and success by influencing their values and needs, motivating them to accomplish more than they considered possible. Transformational leaders change their followers attitudes, beliefs, and values to align them with the attitudes, beliefs, and values of the organization. Transformational leaders guide their followers towards self

29 development and higher levels of success. Basss fundamental theory of transformational leadership includes four dimensions: charisma, inspiration, individualized consideration, and intellectual stimulation. Inspirational motivation is the capacity to formulate and communicate an alluring vision of the future and impart that vision with confidence and zeal (Bass, 1997). The vision addresses a higher level of needs of followers in addition to proffering challenge and meaning. Leaders demonstrate a robust influence and a sense of purpose; they instill self respect in their followers (Bass, 1990). Leaders can be perceived as more inspirational if leaders provide a rational viewpoint and reliable data based on facts to support an alluring vision. Inspiring leaders support and persuade followers to believe their endeavors will be productive and rewarding (Felfe, Tartler, & Leipmann, 2004). Intellectual stimulation refers to persuading followers to think creatively, to reframe difficult situations, and to encourage innovative solutions (Bass, 1997), encouraging employees to use new methods and tactics to long-standing challenges (Dubinsky, Yammarino, Jolson, & Spangler, 1995; Felfe et al., 2004). Individualized consideration involves a cluster of behaviors and activities to enhance employee performance. Leaders coach their subordinates by providing the necessary resources and guidance to accomplish a task. They are attentive to their followers and accepting of individual differences and aspirations (Bass, 1997). They recognize and consider the exclusive needs and concerns of each employee (Dubinsky et al., 1995). Additionally, these leaders provide mentoring, coaching, and counseling to their subordinates (Dubinsky et al.). Subordinates may need rational persuasion from a leader prior to carrying out a task; therefore, rational persuasion may be linked to

30 individualized consideration when a subordinates need for purpose and comprehension is fulfilled through the leaders coaching (Felfe et al., 2004). Idealized influence is concerned with being respected, trusted, and admired, functioning as a role model, symbolizing high moral standards, and displaying high performance. Leaders exhibiting idealized influence articulate their beliefs, offer their most important values, and would speak out on difficult issues (Bass, 1997). They also earn trust, self assurance, and support of followers by taking personal risk and being consistent in their actions (Felfe et al., 2004). Transformational leaders advocate, encourage, and support individual development while concomitantly shaping solid relationships with their followers (Horner, 1997). Transformational leaders demonstrate and define the need for change, cultivate a future vision, and marshal follower commitment to achieve exceptional results (Spreitzer, Perttula, & Xin, 2005). In study after empirical study, researchers have found transformational leadership consistently is related to leadership effectiveness (Bryman, 1992; Lowe, Kroeck, & Sivasubramaniam, 1996). Followers of transformational leaders are more motivated to perform over and above what is expected and demonstrate reverence, loyalty, and confidence toward their leader, thus performing beyond the expectations of the organization (Spreitzer et al.). In addition to the attention to current needs, transformational leaders also focus on the future needs of the employee and the organization, both short-term and long-term goals as well as long-term issues (Dubinsky et al., 1995; Kotter, 1990). Transformational leadership theory assesses behaviors that secure followers by engaging them in the process and focusing on their needs.

31 Accordingly, effective leaders then have the ability to improve their leadership effectiveness, their followers ability, and organizational success (Cook, 2006). Bass (1998) believes transformational leaders motivate followers to show extra effort, a greater drive towards self-actualization, and the greater good in general. In addition, transformational leadership is more attractive from an organizational perspective as it improves employee satisfaction, trust, and commitment (Barling, Slater, & Kelloway, 2000) Transformational Leadership, Effectiveness, & Success Transformational leadership consists of four factors: 1) intellectual stimulation, 2) individualized consideration, 3) inspirational motivation, and 4) charisma (Bass & Avolio, 2000). Studying two samples of leaders in Asia, Europe, and North America, Spreitzer et al. (2005) demonstrated transformational leadership positively related to effectiveness, supporting prior studies showing this relationship. The six dimensions of transformational leadership used in this study, the ability of a leader to communicate a vision, devise an appropriate model, promote group objectives, create high performance expectation, and provide intellectual inspiration, was important in evaluating leadership effectiveness. Although leaders with traditional values viewed task oriented dimensions of transformational leadership as less significant to effectiveness, this research proposes that individuals can advance toward a better appreciation of what effective leadership looks like by identifying individual cultural values of the population. Felfe et al. (2004) found that leaders in German organizations exhibit transformational behaviors that positively influence organizational commitment and job satisfaction. The approach that a manager uses to make a request of a follower is crucial,

32 as it may lead to a stronger commitment to the organization and its objectives, standards, and ideals (Charbonneau, 2004). In addition, transformational leaders are believed to be adept and efficient, and at the same time subordinates are likely to demonstrate extra effort (Felfe et al.). Dubinsky et al. (1995) examined a variety of job-related responses of salespeople to assess the effect of transformational leadership in a sales environment. Salespeople and their managers responded to questionnaires that included the following variables: job satisfaction, commitment, role conflict, role ambiguity, job stress, burnout, salesperson extra effort, and performance. Correlation analysis revealed transformational leadership was significantly related to several work outcomes; however, its effects did not go beyond the corresponding relationships between transactional leadership and the same work outcomes. Measures of Leadership Leadership practices inventory (LIP). Kouzes and Posner (2002) identified 225 dissimilar qualities and characteristics that were consolidated and categorized into 20 specific attributes for the purpose of identifying successful leaders. Subsequently, shorter surveys were distributed in order to deduce leadership commonalities amongst survey respondents. Through these case studies, surveys, and interviews, Kouzes and Posner identified five practices common to exceptional leadership experiences. These commonalities were classified into five leadership practices, each containing two basic strategies. Each of the five practices contains two behavioral descriptors designed to define the actions or commitments necessary to convey exemplary leadership.

33

Table 4 Five Practices and Ten Commitments of Exemplary Leadership Five Practices Ten Commitments Model The Way Find Your Voice Set the Example Inspire a Shared Vision Envision the Future Enlist Others Challenge the Process Search for Opportunities Experiment and Take Risks Enable Others to Act Foster Collaboration Strengthen Others Encourage the Heart Recognize Contributions Celebrate the Values and Victories
From Leadership Practices Inventory, Facilitators Guide, by J. Kouzes & B. Posner, 2003, San Francisco: Pfeiffer.

Table 4 details Kouzes and Posners (2003) Five Practices and Ten Commitments of Exemplary Leadership. Throughout their research of more than 20 years, they found that credibility is the foundation of leadership (Kouzes & Posner, 2003, p. 13). Their work led to the development of a five-dimension theory of leadership termed the Five Practices of Leadership. Kouzes and Posner believe that leadership can and should be learned, advocating these five practices are common to all successful people in leadership positions. Early on, Kouzes and Posner asked thousands of people to name past distinguished leaders whom they admired most. Although there were many others, Martin

34 Luther King and Abraham Lincoln made the top of the list most often. Evaluating the top chosen admired leaders, Kouzes and Posner (2002) found at least one commonality; they were historical leaders with strong values who were passionate about something they believed in. Strong leaders must have clear values and be firm in what they believe. These values motivate and guide followers to action, consequently modeling the way. Kouzes and Posner (2002) state that one needs to find his or her inner voice and set the example in order to become a credible leader. A strong leader is passionate around long-term performance and the ability to be forward looking, setting a clear vision of the future while enlisting others. This vision must have depth and meaning in order for others to follow. As the level of a leaders responsibility increases, the more proactive and forward-thinking one must be, hence, inspiring a shared vision (Kouzes & Posner, 2002). Kouzes and Posner (2002) describe four essentials that are vital elements to sustaining personal-best leadership experiences: seize the initiative, make challenge meaningful, innovate and create, and look outward for new ideas. By challenging the process, a good leader is searching for opportunities to change and grow and improve. Effective leaders use these four essentials to experiment and take risks to transform uncertainty into positive results. In order to achieve and sustain high performance, collaboration is key. Effectively enabling others to act requires leaders to create a climate of trust, facilitate positive interdependence and support face to face interactions (Kouzes & Posner, 2002, p. 243). Trust is the essential element in the most effective leadership situations, as individuals pay attention to people they trust and allow their influence. As a leader, allowing others

35 to take ownership and responsibility for their teams success strengthens others by improving their confidence in their abilities. Leaders must intentionally let go to enable others to find their way to ultimately strengthen, grow, and progress. Encouraging the heart begins with the ability to recognize a good job and to outwardly appreciate others for a job well done. Thanking and praising employees or individuals publicly for encouraging and nurturing a mutual regard for their accomplishments encourages individuals to give their personal best. It is important to recognize individual contributions to effectively get results. Outstanding leaders focus on four essential components to effectively motivate their employees: focus on clear standards, expect the best, pay attention, and personalize recognition (Kouzes & Posner, 2003). MLQ and MLQ-Form 5x. The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), as originally developed by Bass (1985), included nine dimensions: five transformational scales, three transactional scales, and laissez-faire. The latest version, the MLQ 5x (Bass & Avolio, 1995), is comprised of 45 items and includes 3 additional scales: extra effort, effectiveness, and satisfaction with the leader. Available in both self-rater and 360-degree format, the 360-degree instrument consists of two parts: one measurement is a selfassessment of leaders leadership style; the second measurement is a subordinate, boss and/or peers view and perception of their immediate subordinate, and boss and/or peers attributes and behaviors. Both contain identical scales; however, one instrument refers to self whereas the other instrument refers to the supervisor.

36 Emotional Intelligence and Leadership A review of the literature on the relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership behavior discloses a number of empirical studies have been conducted on this relationship: Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee (2002); Gardner and Stough (2000); Barling et al. (2000); and Palmer et al. (2001), to name a few. Goleman et al. assert it is the level of a leaders understanding of the powerful role emotions play in the workplace that separates the best leaders from the rest. The higher one goes in an organization, technical skills and cognitive ability become less important while emotional intelligence becomes increasingly so. It is competence in emotional intelligence that distinguishes top performers in leadership (Goleman, 1998a, 1998b). Leaders that demonstrate more emotional intelligence than their peers outperform and advance quicker in their careers (Bar-On & Parker, 2000; Higgs & Rowland, 2002). J. M. George (2000) deems not only are feelings an integral part of leadership, it is the multiplicity of mood and emotion that influences leadership effectiveness. Leaders are obviously human beings with the full range of emotions potentially available to them (M. George, 2006, p. 1032). J. M. George (2000) proposes emotional intelligence may contribute to leaders foresight in their organization by using their emotions to boost their thought process regarding internal challenges and opportunities. Leaders will be better equipped to use positive emotions to facilitate improvements and influence followers so that they are receptive to change and supportive of the leader. In addition, leaders high in emotional intelligence will have the ability to manage their emotions and followers so that followers are secure and optimistic about where they are going and their personal contribution to the organization. Vrab (2007) posits that individuals with strong emotional intelligence

37 skills assert higher levels of transformational leadership proficiency, consequently leading to higher performance. Studying a sample of 194 professors from universities in Taiwan, J. K. Chen and Chen (2008) examined the relationship of personal traits (thought, emotions, and behavior) and leadership style to innovative operations. Factor analysis and correlation analysis revealed that leadership style has a significant relationship to innovative operations. In addition, personal traits have a considerable positive relationship to innovative operations. Higgs (2003) studied possible linkages between emotional intelligence and leadership by developing a framework to uncover a potential relationship between the concepts of both. Reviewing the literature, this study found an emerging school (Higgs, 2003, p. 277) of leadership. Along with these new concepts, leadership is being seen as an amalgamation of personal characteristics and areas of competence. Regression analysis showed a relationship with elements of emotional intelligence and leadership, specifically; cognitive abilities and knowledge were related positively to strategic leadership, intellectual leadership, and political leadership. Leaders lead through a combination of logical decision-making and feeling. Depending upon the situation, it may require more emotional intelligence and less logical decision-making or vice versa (Mayer & Caruso, 2002). Barbuto and Burbach (2006) tested the relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership, and found evidence consistent with previous studies that demonstrated positive considerable relationships between the two (Barling et al., 2000; Leban & Zulauf, 2004; Vrab, 2007).

38 Sosik and Megerian (1999) found four junctions between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership, and suggest these components are necessary both to create and to maintain strong emotional relationships with followers: 1) Adherence to professional standards of behavior and interaction, which relates to idealized influence or charisma 2) Motivation, which is related to the inspirational motivation component of transformational leadership 3) Intellectual stimulation 4) Individual focus on others, which is related to individualized attention Using Bar-Ons (1997) emotional quotient inventory, Brown, Bryant, and Reilly (2006) examined the probability of relationships between emotional intelligence, leadership, and desired outcomes. Although results of the study confirmed previous studies of transformational leadership predicting organizational outcomes (Avolio & Bass, 1997), there was no evidence to support the relationship between emotional intelligence and desired outcomes nor was there evidence to support a relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership. The authors make clear it is impossible to explain the precise reason for dissimilar outcomes to previous studies noted, however, they do attribute methodological differences as a possibility. Sosik and Megerian (1999) extend the literature by examining the relationships among emotional quotient (EQ), transformational leadership, and managerial performance. Results of the study imply that self-awareness may offer individuals greater perceived control over interpersonal experiences and outcomes in their life. In addition,

39 the study reports that transformational leaders who are self-aware benefit from high levels of self-efficacy and self confidence, and also provide clear direction for followers. Rahim and Psenicka (2005) investigated the relationships of two components of emotional intelligence, empathy and social skills, to leader effectiveness. Results indicate that empathy was a mediator of the relationship between social skills and leader effectiveness in the United States. In order to improve their own effectiveness, managers must develop, use, and improve upon their social skills and empathy as a leader in the organization. Based on a review of the literature, it has been argued that emotional intelligence is necessary for measuring, selecting, and developing managers. It is assumed that the rudiments of emotional intelligence are among the important attributes required for effective leaders (Dulewicz & Higgs, 2003). It also is assumed that emotional intelligence is related to actual leadership performance (Rosete & Ciarrochi, 2005). Vrab (2007) rated 60 front line managers at a South African insurance company, examining the relationship between emotional intelligence skills and leadership behavior. Correlation analysis revealed a significant relationship between emotional intelligence skills and all the outcomes of leadership. More specifically, a significant positive relationship exists between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership. J. M. George (2000) suggests that moods and emotions (feelings) are a fundamental factor in the leadership process. The ability to recognize and deal with these feelings in oneself and others plays a major part in successful leadership within an organization. J. M. George points to four major aspects of emotional intelligence: appraisal and expression of emotion, knowledge about emotions, use of emotions to

40 enhance cognitive processes, and management of emotions. In addition, there are five critical elements to effective leadership: Development of collective goals and objectives; instilling in others an appreciation of the importance of work activities; generating and maintaining enthusiasm, confidence, optimism, cooperation, and trust; encouraging flexibility in decision making and change; and establishing and maintaining a meaningful identity for an organization. (J. M. George, p. 1027) Table 5 summarizes key points in the research on emotional intelligence and leadership style. It generally supports a positive relationship between the two so that one strengthens the other in the relationship.

Table 5 Summary of Studies on Leadership Style, Emotional Intelligence and Other Study Constructs
Authors J. K. Chen and Chen (2008) Purpose of Study To examine the relationship of personal traits (thought, emotions and behavior) and leadership style to innovative operations. Variables Independent: Personal traits (thought, emotions and behavior) & Leadership Style Dependent: Innovative Operations Results Results show that leadership style has a significant relationship to innovative operations. In addition, personal traits (thought, emotions and behavior) are positively related to innovative operation. The results of this study support a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership.

Vrab (2007)

To investigate the relationship of first-line managers emotional skills and leadership behavior.

Independent: Emotional Intelligence Skills Dependent: Leadership Behavior

41
Authors Barbuto and Burbach (2006) Purpose of Study To explore the relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership. Variables Independent: Emotional Intelligence Dependent: Transformational Leadership Results Emotional intelligence shared positive relationships with transformational leadership. Several correlations reinforce the role of emotional intelligence in leadership. Higher levels of emotional intelligence were associated with higher leadership effectiveness. Regression results show that emotional intelligence was positively related to effective leadership. There are a number of positive linkages between emotional intelligence abilities and transformational leadership style.

Rosete and Ciarrochi (2005)

To investigate the relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness.

Independent: Emotional Intelligence Dependent: Leadership Effectiveness

Leban and Zulauf (2004)

To determine whether project managers emotional intelligence contributes to their leadership style and subsequent project performance. To examine the relationship between store managers performance and Emotional Quotient profiles.

Independent: Emotional Intelligence Dependent: Leadership Style & Project Performance

Duckett and MacFarlane (2003)

Independent: Transformational Leadership & Leader Success Dependent: Emotional Quotient

A high level of commonality between Transformational Leadership and Emotional Quotient leadership profiles demonstrate a positive relationship, thus confirming previous studies. There are significant relationships between transformational leadership and emotional intelligence. Regression analysis suggested that transformational leadership could be predicted from emotional intelligence scores.

Mandell and Pherwani (2003)

To study the predictive relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership style.

Independent: Emotional Intelligence Dependent: Transformational Leadership

42
Authors Gardner and Stough (2002) Purpose of Study To investigate whether emotional intelligence predicts transformational, transactional, and/or laissez-faire leadership styles. Variables Independent: Emotional Intelligence Dependent: Transformational Transactional & Laissezfaire Leadership Styles Independent: Emotional Intelligence & Moral Reasoning Dependent: Transformational Leadership Independent: Emotional Intelligence Dependent: Effective leadership Results Results supported a strong positive relationship between transformational leadership and overall emotional intelligence.

Sivanathan and Fekken (2002)

To explore the association of emotional intelligence and moral reasoning to leadership styles and effectiveness.

Transformational leadership behaviors were positively related to emotional intelligence and leader effectiveness.

Palmer et al. (2001)

To explore the relationship between emotional intelligence and effective leadership.

Significant positive relationships were found between selected components of transformational leadership and emotional intelligence subscales.

Summary This chapter has reviewed the literature on emotional intelligence and transformational leadership. Overall, research findings indicate that transformational leadership and emotional intelligence are positively related. In addition, a variety of measures of transformational leadership and emotional intelligence have been employed. The strongest measures include Bar-On EQi, Mayer-Salovey-Carusos Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT), The Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SSEIT), and the Emotional Competencies Inventory (ECI 2.0). Chapter III presents the population and sample, time frame, variables and measures, demographic variables, research questions and hypotheses, and, finally, data collection, analysis, and presentation techniques.

Chapter III Methodology Introduction This investigation explored the relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership practices. This chapter describes the method to study the relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership practices, and presents the hypotheses emanating from the review of the literature in Chapter II. This chapter focuses on the research method and design employed to analyze the relationships among independent variables, leadership practices, and the factors of emotional intelligence. Chapter III focuses on the following components: population and sample, variables and measures, research questions and hypotheses, and, finally, data collection, analysis, and presentation techniques. Population and Sample The population for this study includes human resource professionals who work in a Fortune 500 company that provides human resource services, including payroll services, to other businesses. This organization has numerous offices and print centers across the United States, employing over 12,000 people. The population for this study includes supervisors, assistant managers, managers, regional managers, and directors in various departments across the company. The better understanding individuals have of their own levels of emotional intelligence, the better equipped they are to become better leaders within their organizations. A sample of several hundred human resource professionals was taken from this population.

43

44 Variables and Measures This researcher used the SSEIT, Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence Test, (Schutte et al., 1998) to assess emotional intelligence of managers, and Kouzes and Posners (1995) Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) to measure leadership practices. She also collected data on demographic characteristics of the respondents. The Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SSEIT) Developed by Schutte et al. (1998), the SSEIT measures the four facets of emotional intelligence as defined by Salovey and Mayer (1990): 1) the appraisal of emotion in self and others, 2) the expression of emotion, 3) the regulation of emotion in self and others, and 4) the utilization of emotion in problem solving. These factors were described in detail in Chapter II. Table 6 provides a definition of each of the four factors.

Table 6 Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence Four Factors The Appraisal of Emotion in Self and Others The Expression of Emotion The Regulation of Emotion in Self and Others The Utilization of Emotion in Problem Solving Construct Definition Verbal and nonverbal appraisal of emotion Verbal and nonverbal expression of emotion Using emotion to motivate Using emotion to motivate as part of the utilization of emotions

45 The SSEIT also is referred to as the Assessing Emotions Scale or the Self-Report Emotional Intelligence test. It is a self report measure of emotional intelligence containing 33 items. The SSEIT focuses on average or usual emotional intelligence. Based on the results of a principal component analysis (Salovey & Mayer, 1990), researchers identified a strong one factor or first factor dimension for emotional intelligence. Schutte et al. (1998), therefore, recommend using the scale as assessing one factor by totaling all 33 items on the SSEIT to get a one factor/dimension for emotional intelligence. Taking only 5 minutes to complete, the survey is comprised of 33 items, using a 5-point Likert scale extending from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. Total scales scores are computed by reverse coding items 5, 28, and 33, and then a final summation of all items. Total scores typically range from 33 165. High scores on all items collectively indicate high levels of emotional intelligence (Schutte et al., in press). The SSEIT has been used in over 200 publications listed in the PsycINFO database (Schutte et al., in press). In the development of this assessment, the internal consistency was measured by Cronbachs alpha as .90 (Schutte et al., 1998). Researchers also reported a 2-week test-retest reliability for total scale scores of .78. A detailed analysis of validity estimates are described in Appendix A (derived from Schutte et al., in press). Cronbachs alpha will be used to test the reliability of several questions measuring the latent factor. Kouzes and Posners Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) This study used the 30-item Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) developed by Kouzes and Posner (1995). LPI measures leadership practices as demonstrated in the

46 literature review in Chapter II. According to its developers, LPI can be used to assess transformational leadership behaviors. Researchers have found the LPI can be used to measure both transformational and transactional leadership, which have been suggested to be underlying dimensions of leadership approaches (Fields & Herold, 1997). Completing over 1,000 case studies followed by 38 in-depth interviews, Kouzes and Posners (1995) LPI emerged. Using qualitative findings, Kouzes and Posner (1995) developed the LPI scale items. Kouzes and Posner (1995) examined the LPIs psychometric properties (reliability and validity) when they developed the scale. They reported that 1) the LPI is internally reliable; 2) the six statements pertaining to each leadership practice are highly correlated with one another; 3) test-retest reliability is high (the scores from one administration of the LPI to another within a short time span and without any significant intervening event are consistent and stable); 4) the five scales are generally independent (the five scales corresponding to the five leadership practices do not all measure the same phenomenon, each measures a different practice, as it should); and 5) the LPI has both face validity and predictive validity. Face validity means that the results make sense to people. The words and phrases look like they are describing leadership practices. Predictive validity means that the results are significantly correlated with various performance measures and can be used to make predictions about leadership effectiveness. The dimensions and construct definitions of Schutte et al.s (1998) SSEIT and Kouzes and Posners (1995) LPI are summarized in Table 7.

47 Table 7 The Dimensions of the Independent and Dependent Measures SSEIT Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence Test Independent variables The Appraisal of Emotion in Self and Others The Expression of Emotion The Regulation of Emotion in Self and Others The Utilization of Emotion in Problem Solving Construct definition Verbal and nonverbal appraisal of emotion Verbal and nonverbal expression of emotion Using emotion to motivate Using emotion to motivate as part of the utilization of emotions LPI Leadership Practices Dependent variable Leadership Construct definition Challenging the process, inspiring a shared vision, enabling others to act, modeling the way and encouraging the heart.

Note. Permission was granted to reproduce and use the SSEIT as well as the LPI in this dissertation (see Appendix B).

Demographic Variables Demographic variables may influence levels of emotional intelligence and leadership (Mayer et al., 2002). Hence, demographic data was entered into the regression equation as a first step in order to hold their effects constant (control variables). Then the emotional intelligence dimensions identified during the factor analysis process were entered as independent variables with leadership dependent. The number of dependent

48 variables (leadership) also was determined by factor analysis. Demographic data including gender, age, education, and years of leadership experience were solicited on the questionnaire. Research Question and Hypotheses The research question and hypotheses are based on the following research model as depicted in Figure 2.

Independent Variables
The Appraisal of Emotion in Self and Others The Expression of Emotion The Regulation of Emotion in Self and Others The Utilization of Emotion in Problem Solving

Dependent Variable

Leadership

Figure 2. Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Model

This research examined the relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership practices. As demonstrated in the review of the literature, researchers have consistently reported, with only a few exceptions, that emotional intelligence is positively related to transformational leadership. Thus, the overarching research question is as follows: Is there a positive relationship between the four factors of leaders emotional intelligence: 1) the appraisal of emotion in self and others, 2) the expression of emotion, 3) the regulation of emotion in self and others, and 4) the utilization of emotion in

49 problem solving and leadership practices (challenging the process, inspiring a shared vision, enabling others to act, modeling the way, and encouraging the heart) among human resources leaders? Two scales were used to measure the variables. The first scale, the LPI, measured leadership competencies. The second scale, the SSEIT, measured the leaders level of emotional intelligence. A demographic survey captured leaders relatable information, such as age, gender, level of education, and years of leadership experience. The hypotheses that follow proposed that emotional intelligence was related positively to leadership practices. The hypotheses are based on previous research findings that support positive relationships between emotional intelligence and leadership practices (Barbuto & Burbach, 2006; J. K. Chen & Chen, 2008; Duckett & MacFarlane, 2003; Gardner & Stough, 2002; Leban & Zulauf, 2004; Mandell & Pherwani, 2003; Palmer et al., 2001; Rosete & Ciarrochi, 2005; Sivanathan & Fekken, 2002; Vrab, 2007). Factor analysis identified the number of dimensions for both scales. Therefore, the number of LPI dimensions cannot be specified before the factor analysis results. Accordingly, the following hypotheses utilized the dimensions identified in previous research for emotional intelligence. The four factors of emotional intelligence, as assessed by the SSEIT, are the independent variables, and leadership is the dependent variable. The research question is expanded with related hypotheses stated in the null and alternate forms below. H01: The appraisal of emotion in self or others is negatively related or not related to leadership.

50 H11: The appraisal of emotion in self or others is positively related to leadership. H02: The expression of emotion is negatively related or not related to leadership. H12: H03: The expression of emotion is positively related to leadership. The regulation of emotion in self and others is negatively related or not related to leadership. H13: The regulation of emotion in self and others is positively related to leadership. H04: The utilization of emotion in problem solving is negatively related or not related to leadership. H14: The utilization of emotion in problem solving is positively related to leadership. Data Collection and Analysis The constructs depicted in the research model in Figure 2 include four factors of emotional intelligence (the appraisal of emotion in self and others, the expression of emotion, the regulation of emotion in self and others, and the utilization of emotion in problem solving) and leadership. The survey instrument contained an initial section on demographic information and the two measures described previously. The introduction letter, directions for completing the surveys, the demographic survey, and the two scales appear in Appendix B. The survey was distributed to managers in human resources working for a Fortune 500 company. They were emailed to the participants email address along with a cover

51 letter introducing and explaining the purpose of the study, stressing the confidentiality of responses and enlisting the response of the participant. The first step in data analysis was to perform a factor analysis and then the means, standard deviations, and a correlation matrix. To further define, factor analysis is used to uncover components or dimensions of a set of variables. It can be assumed that the observed variables are linear combinations of certain unobservable factors. Some factor(s) are assumed to be common to other factor(s), as others are assumed to be unique (Kim & Mueller, 1978). Accordingly, the unique factors do not contribute to the covariance, the measure of association between the variables. Factor analysis can be used for any number of reasons to include reducing a sizable amount of variables to a lesser number of factors for modeling intentions. One can validate an index or scale by revealing that its essential items load on the same factor, dropping proposed index items which cross load on more than one factor, or to identify clusters of outliers. Factor analysis also is used to create a set of factors used as uncorrelated variables used in multico-linearity with multiple regression. Factor analysis extracts a set of factors from the data set and then orders that set of factors in proportion of the variance to the original data set, giving the researcher a remaining subset of factors which are kept and used for further consideration in the research. The next step is to analyze the remaining subset of factors using an orthogonal rotation method to interpret the relevant factors. Varimax (normalized) rotation, developed by Kaiser (1958), is a common method of orthogonal rotation and is used in this research (Kim & Mueller, 1978). Varimax rotation simplifies each column of the factor matrix, maximizing the variance of squared loadings for each variable in the

52 pattern matrix. Varimax rotation simplifies the interpretation of the variables as each original factor tends to be associated with a small number of factors, representing a small number of variables. In this study, factor analysis (principal components) with varimax rotation assessed the underlying dimensions of the LPI and also the SSEIT. An additional consideration regarding the LPI is the possibility that the LPI may be considered as a single transformational leadership factor or as two highly correlated factors, as some previous research indicates (Chang, 2005). A non-parametric measure of the correlation between two variables, Pearson correlation measures the degree of association between two variables. Correlation coefficient measures the strength of a linear relationship between two variables (Brightman & Schneider, 1994), and can vary 1 to +1. A positive value implies a positive association, whereas a negative value implies a negative association or inverse relationship. The correlation indicates how two variables move together in a straight line (Aczel & Sounderpandian, 2006). Pearson correlation is used in this study to measure the degree of association between emotional intelligence and leadership. Multiple regression is used in this research to test all hypotheses. Basically, simple regression analysis computes a statistical expression relating one or more predictor variables to the dependant variable (Brightman & Schneider, 1994). The term multiple regression was first used by Pearson and Lee (1908) and employed to learn more about the relationship between independent and dependent variables. Multiple regression allows researchers to explore the question, what is the best predictor of and implies there is more than one predictor variable (Aczel & Sounderpandian, 2006). This research

53 explores what is the best predictor of leadership when compared to the factors of emotional intelligence. Summary Chapter III presented the methodology for this study, exploring the relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership practices. The following areas were discussed: population and sample, variables and measures, research question and hypotheses, data collection and analysis, and summary. Research on the relationship of emotional intelligence and leadership competencies in human resources is valuable. The better understanding individuals have of their own emotional intelligence levels, the better equipped they are to become better leaders within their organizations.

Chapter IV Analysis and Presentation of Findings Introduction This study explored the relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership practices as defined by Salovey and Mayers (1990) and Golemans (1998a, 1998b) approaches to emotional intelligence and leadership practices as defined by Kouzes and Posners (1995) leadership practices inventory (LPI). The results from this study on emotional intelligence and leadership practices, as measured by the Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SSEIT) (Schutte et al., 1998) and Kouzes and Posners (1995) Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI), respectively, appear in this chapter. Statistical analysis utilized Excel and SPSS software. First, participants information is presented, followed by the analysis and results, and, finally, results are applied to the hypotheses. The overarching research question in this study is as follows: Is there a positive relationship between transformational leadership practices and leaders emotional intelligence? This chapter presents the statistical examination resulting from responses to the surveys and questionnaires in this research. Varimax Rotation with Kaiser Normalization was used for exploratory factor analysis to identify the underlying dimensions of the LPI and the SSEIT to determine the number of factors and to assess the construct validity of the two scales. Means and standard deviations for the four emotional intelligence dimensions and for the LPI, the independent variable, also are presented. Pearson correlation coefficients were computed to evaluate the relationship between all variables. Finally, all hypotheses are tested with multiple regression with LPI dependent.

54

55 The first section of Chapter IV describes demographic characteristics of participants in this study, the data collection process, as well as response rate. The next section presents factor analysis to identify the underlying facts of the LPI and the SSEIT. The third section displays the results of regression analyses and hypotheses testing. Participants Participants in this study included 225 professionals in human resources from a Fortune 500 corporation. The returned responses totaled 151; 4 responses were removed as a result of incomplete data. Accordingly, 147 responses were analyzed in this study. The total response rate was 65.3%, comprised of 59 males (40%) and 88 females (60%). Further defined, the response rate between men and women to the total number (225) of participants selected in this study was 26.12% and 39.18%, respectively. While the ages of employees ranged from 20 years to over 66 years, the bulk of respondents were between the ages of 26 and 45 years (70%). The majority of respondents (81.6%) fell between the Some College and Bachelors Degree categories (see Table 8). Finally, there were eight categories of managerial experience to choose from; the bulk of leadership experience (61.8%) ranged between 3 to 15 years. It should be noted that a small portion of respondents (less than 10%) were professionals, however, not in human resources. Table 8 details the demographic characteristics of the participants regarding age, gender, education, and years of supervisory or management experience:

56 Table 8 Demographic Characteristics of Survey Participants

Which age category do you fall into?
Frequency 26 to 30 31 to 35 36 to 40 41 to 45 46 to 50 51 to 55 56 to 60 61 to 65 66 or older 19 24 28 32 12 18 9 4 1 Percent 12.9 16.3 19.0 21.8 8.2 12.2 6.1 2.7 0.7 Cumulative percent 12.9 29.3 48.3 70.1 78.2 90.5 96.6 99.3 100.0

What gender are you?

Frequency Male Female 59 88 Percent 40.1 59.9 Cumulative percent 40.1 100.0

What is the highest level of education you have attained?

Frequency Less than high school grad High school grad Vocational/Technical school Some college Associate's degree Bachelor's degree Master's degree Doctoral degree 1 11 1 37 18 65 8 6 Percent 0.7 7.5 0.7 25.2 12.2 44.2 5.4 4.1 Cumulative percent 0.7 8.2 8.8 34.0 46.3 90.5 95.9 100.0

How many years have you supervised/managed/led at least one or more persons in a supervisory capacity over the duration of your working career?
Frequency Less than 1 year 1 to 2 years 3 to 5 years 6 to 10 years 11 to 15 years 16 to 20 years 21 to 25 years More than 25 years N=147 6 15 23 35 33 15 10 10 Percent 4.1 10.2 15.6 23.8 22.4 10.2 6.8 6.8 Cumulative percent 4.1 14.3 29.9 53.7 76.2 86.4 93.2 100.0

57 Factor Analysis Exploratory factor analysis identified the underlying dimensions of the LPI and the SSEIT to determine the number of dimensions within each measure and to identify the items that assess each factor. The five dimensions of the LPI proposed by Kouzes and Posner (1995) could not be identified with factor analysis. After examining the various factor solutions, the decision was made to use all of the LPI items as a single scale. All 30 items in the LPI were used to assess leadership practices, so in the data analysis the mean of each respondent was used as the score for leadership practices, just as was done for each scale in the emotional intelligence scale. This resulted in having one dependent variable. For the SSEIT factor analysis, Varimax Rotation with Kaiser Normalization yielded a five-factor solution from which four factors were used in data analysis. When the number of factors was not specified, factor analysis yielded 10 components. For the emotional intelligence scale, Varimax Rotation with Kaiser Normalization resulted in the five factors depicted in Table 9. The first four factors correspond to the four dimensions of emotional intelligence identified by Ciarrochi et al. (as cited in Schutte et al., in press). This was determined by looking at the items that loaded on each factor and comparing the items to those in SSEIT. The four dimensions are described as the Perception of Emotions, Managing Emotions in Self, Managing Others Emotions (or social skills), and Utilizing Emotions. Based on these dimensions (Ciarrochi et al., 2001), the subscales are comprised as follows: Perception of Emotion, items 5, 9, 15, 18, 19, 22, 25, 29, 32, and 33; Managing Own Emotions, items 2, 3, 10, 12, 14, 21, 23, 28, and 31; Managing Others Emotions, items, 1, 4, 11, 13, 16, 24, 26, and 30; and finally, Utilization of Emotion, items 6, 7, 8, 17, 20, and 27. Total scales scores were computed

58 by reverse coding items 5, 28, and 33 and then a final summation of all items. High scores on all items collectively indicate high levels of emotional intelligence (Schutte et al., in press). The first factor corresponds to Perception of Emotions. The second component corresponds to Managing Others Emotions. The third component matched most items in Managing Own Emotions. The fourth factor corresponds to Utilization of Emotions, with three items loading on the factor rather than six. The fifth factor was dropped for several reasons. The first four factors correspond to the four factors identified by Ciarrochi et al. (as cited in Schutte et al., in press). The scree plot (see Figure 3), also used to identify the number of dimensions, shows that four factors are adequate as the remaining factors are not very different from each other, as depicted by a fairly straight line after the first four. Although this dimension is somewhat subjective, there are not firmly established and widely accepted norms to determine the number of factors to include in a measure.

59

Scree Plot
8

Eigenvalue

0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33

Component Number

Figure 3. Scree plot (with rotated component matrix). The rotated component matrix appears in Table 9.

60

Table 9 Rotated Component Matrix(a)

Component 1 29 25 18 I know what other people are feeling just by looking at them. I am aware of the non verbal messages other people send. By looking at their facial expressions, I recognize the emotions people are experiencing. I can tell how people are feeling by listening to the tone of their voice. I am aware of the non verbal messages I send to others. I know why my emotions change. I am aware of my emotions as I experience them. I find it hard to understand the non verbal messages of other people. I compliment others when they have done something well. I like to share my emotions with others. When another person tells me about an important event in his or her life, I almost feel as though I experienced this event myself. I arrange events others enjoy. I help other people feel better when they are down. 0.767 0.745 0.679 2 0.077 0.063 0.094 3 0.017 0.259 0.112 4 -0.023 -0.059 0.113 5 -0.018 -0.144 -0.024

32 15 19 9 5 24 11 26

0.650 0.561 0.529 0.496 -0.443 -0.070 0.105 0.217

0.282 0.086 0.010 0.247 0.024 0.670 0.645 0.559

-0.113 0.441 0.212 0.416 -0.173 -0.003 0.013 0.191

0.246 -0.173 0.356 0.018 0.279 -0.180 0.219 -0.122

-0.105 0.083 -0.074 0.010 0.369 -0.274 0.268 0.288

13 30

0.118 0.372

0.553 0.552

0.034 0.033

0.250 0.095

-0.013 -0.012

61

Component 1 8 31 6 Emotions are one of the things that make my life worth living. I use good moods to help myself keep trying in the face of obstacles. Some of the major events of my life have led me to re evaluate what is important and not important. I seek out activities that make me happy. I motivate myself by imagining a good outcome to tasks I take on. I present myself in a way that makes a good impression on others. When I experience a positive emotion, I know how to make it last. I easily recognize my emotions as I experience them. I know when to speak about my personal problems to others. When I feel a change in emotions, I tend to come up with new ideas. I have control over my emotions. Other people find it easy to confide in me. When I am in a positive mood, I am able to come up with new ideas. When I am in a positive mood, solving problems is easy for me. I expect that I will do well on most things I try. 0.168 0.044 -0.083 2 0.537 0.476 0.429 3 0.143 0.373 0.276 4 0.221 0.430 -0.137 5 0.285 0.098 -0.232

14 23 16 12 22 1 27 21 4 20 17 3

0.142 0.060 0.138 0.158 0.430 0.044 0.068 0.202 0.162 0.017 0.033 0.139

0.386 0.260 0.101 0.341 0.054 -0.217 0.268 -0.212 0.181 0.123 0.177 -0.193

0.060 0.643 0.643 0.570 0.520 0.519 0.467 0.446 0.349 0.059 0.194 0.329

0.263 0.154 0.077 0.216 0.028 0.085 0.371 0.076 0.039 0.813 0.733 0.439

-0.217 0.030 -0.044 -0.161 -0.252 -0.043 0.212 -0.396 0.045 -0.029 -0.093 -0.308

62

Component 1 28 33 7 10 2 When I am faced with a challenge, I give up because I believe I will fail. It is difficult for me to understand why people feel the way they do. When my mood changes, I see new possibilities. I expect good things to happen. When I am faced with obstacles, I remember times I faced similar obstacles and overcame them. Note. Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization. a. Rotation converged in 14 iterations. * column one question numbers correspond with questions from the SSEIT, The Assessing Emotions Scale (Schutte et al., in press) -0.012 -0.302 -0.041 -0.011 0.076 2 0.109 -0.102 -0.008 0.109 0.410 3 -0.023 -0.013 0.214 0.404 0.165 4 -0.078 -0.172 0.383 0.091 0.024 5 0.573 0.532 0.518 -0.445 -0.412

Descriptive Statistics and Correlation Matrix The means for LPI and the four emotional intelligence factors, along with the standard deviations and reliability estimates, appear with the correlation matrix in Table 10. Reliability estimates examine the internal consistency of the scales used using Cronbachs alpha. The results indicate all scales but one have a high degree of internal consistency, since the alpha values were higher than the level of acceptability, suggested by Nunnallys (1978) criterion in exploratory research of .70. The first, second, and third emotional intelligence factors had reliability coefficients of .82, .76, and .74, respectively. The fourth emotional intelligence factor had a reliability coefficient of.64, and was included in the analysis because it represented the distinct factorutilization of emotion. Table 10 presents the means and standard deviations for the four emotional intelligence dimensions and for the LPI, the independent variable, and the correlation matrix. The LPI is positively and significantly correlated with each dimension of emotional intelligence, ranging from 0.24 to 0.34. Since the correlation coefficients for LPI and the four factors are relatively low, there is only a relatively low concern for collinearity between the independent and dependent variables. In addition, all emotional intelligence dimensions are positively related to one another, as expected, since they are all dimensions of the construct, emotional intelligence. Since there is some collinearity among the emotional intelligence dimensions, this indicates that in the regression equation, the research could have used all EI items combined into one variable. However, the four interpretable factors were used as separate independent variables.

63

64 Table 10 Descriptive Statistics, Reliabilities and Correlation Matrix

Descriptive Statistics and Correlation Matrix with Reliabilities on the Diagonal
Perception of Emotions

Mean

Standard Deviation

LPI

Other's Emotions

Emotions Self

Utilization

LPI (dependent) Perception of Emotions Other's Emotions Emotions Self Utilization

Pearson Correlation Pearson Correlation Pearson Correlation Pearson Correlation Pearson Correlation

6.78

0.81

0.92

3.63

0.51

0.26***

0.82

3.81

0.53

0.34**

0.42***

0.76

3.90

0.51

0.26***

0.49***

0.39***

0.74

4.21

0.59

0.24**

0.27***

0.25***

.422***

0.64

** Correlation is significant at the .01 level (2-tailed) *** Correlation is significant at the .001 level (2-tailed)

Hypotheses Testing The hypotheses were tested with multiple regression by regressing the four dimensions of emotional intelligence on LPI, dependent. The four demographic variables were also entered into the regression to hold their effects constant. The results appear in Table 11. The regression analysis yielded an F of 5.00 (p < .001), R2 of .225 (p < .001). The significant F value implies that the model is good; however, the R2 indicates that just under 25% of the variation in leadership practices is explained by variations in the emotional intelligence dimensions and the demographic variables. Only one of the emotional intelligence factors, the appraisal of emotion in self or others, is significantly

65 related to leadership (LPI) (beta coefficient = .520 and p-value of .000). In addition, there is one demographic variable that is significantly related to LPI (beta coefficient =.094 and p-value of .033). Therefore, years of supervision is positively related to leadership. The intercept term has a beta coefficient of 3.35 with a p-value of .000, implying that there are other factors that can explain LPI, including empathy (Salovey & Mayer, 1990) and/or gender differences (Mandell & Pherwani, 2003).

Table 11 Regression Analysis

Model Summary Std. Error of the Model 1 R .474
a

R Square .225

Adjusted R Square .180

Estimate .73571

ANOVA Model 1 Regression Residual Total Sum of Squares 21.650 74.696 96.346 df

Mean Square 8 138 146 2.706 .541

F 5.000

Sig. .000
a

a. Predictors: (Constant), utilization, highest level of education, gender, age category. Perception of emotions, others' emotions, emotions self, years of supervisory experience. b. Dependent Variable: LPI dependent

66

Coefficients Unstandardized Coefficients Model 1 (Constant) Which age category do you fall into? What gender are you? What is the highest level of education you have attained? How many years have you supervised/managed/led at least one or more persons in a supervisory capacity over the duration of your working career? Perception of Emotions Appraisal: Self & Others Emotions Managing Own Emotions Utilization of Emotion in Problem Solving .132 .520 .122 .144 .094 -.060 B 3.352 .013 -.178

Standardized Coefficients Beta t 4.782 .031 -.108 .330 -1.325 Sig. .000 .742 .187

Std. Error .701 .040 .134

.043

-.107

-1.387

.168

.044

.205

2.158

.033

.145 .140 .150 .116

.082 .340 .077 .104

.908 3.719 .815 1.244

.365 .000 .417 .216

a. Dependent Variable: LPI dependent

Results of Hypotheses Testing This research evaluated one overarching research question: Is there a positive relationship between leadership practices and the four factors of leaders emotional intelligence: 1) the appraisal of emotion in self and others, 2) the expression of emotion, 3) the regulation of emotion in self and others, and 4) the utilization of emotion in

67 problem solving among human resources professionals? While the emotional intelligence dimensions all are positively correlated, regression results show that, in the presence of demographic measures and three other emotional intelligence factors, only one is significant. The regression results are applied to the four hypotheses as follows (see Table 12): H01: The appraisal of emotion in self or others is negatively related or not related to leadership. H11: The appraisal of emotion in self or others is positively related to leadership. The null hypothesis is rejected. The results in Table 11 show that the t value for appraisal of emotion in self or others is 3.72 and is significant (p < .001). This EI dimension is positively related to LPI. H02: The expression of emotion is negatively related or not related to leadership. H12: The expression of emotion is positively related to leadership.

The null hypothesis cannot be rejected. The results in Table 11 show that the t value for expression of emotion is .815 and is not significant (p = .417). H03: The regulation of emotion in self and others is negatively related or not related to leadership. H13: The regulation of emotion in self and others is positively related to leadership. The null hypothesis cannot be rejected. The results in Table 11 show that the t value is .908 and is not significant (p = .365).

68 H04: The utilization of emotion in problem solving is negatively related or not related to leadership. H14: The utilization of emotion in problem solving is positively related to leadership. The null hypothesis cannot be rejected; there is no relationship between LPI and utilization of emotions. The results in Table 11 show that the t value for this variable (t = 1.24) is not significant (p-value = .216 ). Table 12 summarizes the results of hypotheses testing.

Table 12 Summary of Hypothesis Testing Results Results of Hypotheses H1: The appraisal of emotion in self or others is negatively related or not related to leadership. H2: The expression of emotion is negatively related or not related to leadership. H3: The regulation of emotion in self and others is negatively related or not elated to leadership. H4: The utilization of emotion in problem solving is negatively related or not elated to leadership.

Statistical Significance Reject the null.

Null cannot be rejected.

Null cannot be rejected.

Null cannot be rejected.

Summary The purpose of this research was to examine the relationship of emotional intelligence to leadership, amongst human resource professionals. This chapter offered an

69 analysis and detailed presentation of the data and answered the research question as well as the four hypotheses proposed at the beginning of this study. Chapter V summarizes the research and its findings and states the conclusions and implications as well as recommendations for further research.

Chapter V Summary and Conclusions Discussion of the Findings The objective of this study was to empirically ascertain if there was a positive relationship between human resource professionals emotional intelligence and their leadership practices. The results of empirically testing the hypotheses are summarized in Table 12. Researchers recognize that leadership is an integral part of everyday existence; therefore, discovering the attributes that are specific to successful leadership then becomes the unrelenting endeavor. Interpersonal skills have become an essential component to effective leadership (Goleman, 1998b). Leaders today must have the ability and flexibility to adapt to an ever-changing workforce. These human abilities, including emotional intellect, set people apart as successful leaders. Emotional intelligence has become as important as, if not more important than, intellectual quotient (IQ) and cognitive abilities. Results from Lam and Kirbys (2002) study show that overall emotional intelligence contributed to individual performance over and above the level attributable to general intelligence. A large body of research signifies that effective leaders repeatedly use their emotional intelligence competencies to drive leadership performance, thereby moving their organizations forward (Cherniss & Caplan, 2001; Goleman, 1998a; Mayer et al., 2004). Cherniss and Caplan suggest leaders with high degrees of emotional intelligence will generate greater outcomes for organizations than leaders with lower levels of emotional intelligence. Palmer et al. (2001) provided empirical evidence for relationships

70

71 between the components of both emotional intelligence and effective leadership with several significant correlations between transformational leadership and emotional intelligence. Kerr et al. (2005) found that emotional intelligence scores were a strong predictor of leadership effectiveness. Rozell et al. (2001) explored emotional intelligence as a predictor of performance, proposing that the declaration of viability will lead to the creation and use of an assessment tool to be used in the selection process of managers as well as the formation of management improvement and development programs for organizations. Rozell et al. found emotional intelligence may identify those skills that are necessary components to success, therefore pinpointing those that are lacking in managers that need to be developed in order to effectively generate improved performance in the workplace. Additionally, Golemans (1998a) findings support that developing emotional intelligence competencies in existing employees, or finding individuals that possess these skills, only will enhance an organizations bottom line. Few studies, however, have been conducted to determine the outcomes of emotional intelligence on human resource managers, and they were the focus of this study. Conclusions Companies are continuously searching for strategies to strengthen leadership abilities in the organization. Today, organizations are searching both inside and outside the firm in order to maintain a competitive advantage. The research question presented at the beginning of this dissertation questioned whether there was empirical evidence to substantiate or support the surmised relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership. The first, second, and third emotional intelligence factors had reliability coefficients of .82, .76, and .74, respectively. The fourth emotional intelligence factor had

72 a reliability coefficient of .64 and was included in the analysis because it represented the distinct factorutilization of emotion. Multiple regression analysis supported the conclusion that there is a positive relationship between one dimension of emotional intelligence: the appraisal of emotion in self or others and leadership. This means that in the presence of the other three factors and the demographic items, only that dimension is significantly related to LPI. The results in Table 11 show that the t value for appraisal of emotion in self or others is 3.72 and is significant (p < .001). There is one demographic variable, years of supervision, that is significant (p-value = .033). Therefore, years of supervision is positively related to leadership. The demographic variables were used as control variables. Although other researchers concluded emotional intelligence has a negative, minimal, or no effect on leadership effectiveness (Buford, 2001; Collins, 2001; Schulte, 2002), evidence from this study further supports and confirms there is a link. All emotional intelligence dimensions in this study are positively correlated, and regression results show that in the presence of demographic measures and three other emotional intelligence factors, the appraisal of emotion in self or others is significant. Gardner and Stoughs (2002) investigation of emotional intelligence and leadership also revealed a strong relationship and provide strong evidence of two SUEIT dimensions: 1) the ability to identify and understand emotions of others, and 2) the ability to manage positive and negative emotions within themselves and with others to stimulate effective leadership styles. Sosik and Megerian (1999) extend the literature by confirming that self-awareness may offer individuals greater perceived control over interpersonal experiences and outcomes in their life. This

73 study reports that transformational leaders who are self-aware benefit from high levels of self-efficacy and self confidence and provide clear direction for followers. The bulk of the literature suggests there is a strong relationship between emotional intelligence and leader effectiveness. Leban and Zulauf (2004) examined the linkage between emotional intelligence, transformational leadership, and performance, and found several significant linkages between emotional intelligence abilities and transformational leadership style. Overall, emotional intelligence and the ability to understand emotions were related significantly to the inspirational motivation component of Basss (1985) transformational leadership model. Additionally, the strategic use of emotional intelligence was related significantly to the idealized influence and individual consideration components of transformational leadership. Mayer and Caruso (2002) assert that although emotional intelligence is an important ability, emotional intelligence is only one facet that coexists with other strengths and weaknesses. Furthermore, although other researchers do not assert that emotional intelligence is the most important facet to effective leadership, emotional intelligence is an important facet to overall leadership effectiveness. Duckett and MacFarlane (2003) also show a strong linkage between the theory of emotional intelligence and transformational leadership. Their results demonstrate a high level of commonality between transformational leadership and emotional intelligence leadership profiles and success. Managerial Implications Effective leaders use their emotional intelligence to not only manage themselves but to effectively manage and direct others within the organization as well as the

74 organization itself. The results of this study suggest that emotional intelligence has a significant effect on leadership; therefore, higher levels of emotional intelligence could help improve leadership performance and leadership effectiveness. Emotional intelligence can be improved upon with training and development. Therefore, training programs within the organization could have a positive effect on leadership and leadership performance, hence driving the organization to organizational success. Emotional intelligence also is considered and functions as emotional knowledge, and knowledge can be taught and developed within individuals, thereby improving emotional intelligence (Mayer et al., 2004). Many practitioners and scholars believe that emotional intelligence can be improved upon through development and training programs (Cherniss & Caplan, 2001; Clark et al., 2003; Kerr et al., 2005; Sosik & Megerian, 1999; Sy & Cote, 2004). Therefore, for leaders already employed in the organization, companies can focus on creating or gearing training and development programs toward improving levels of existing leaders emotional intelligence. Additionally, organizations should encourage and support training programs regarding aspects of emotional intelligence/emotional quotient, transformational leadership, and performance. Doing so will allow team members to learn shared leadership skills on the job, gain emotion-based skills to enhance and improve selflearning, develop leaders as mentors, and assess and develop emotional competencies throughout the organization (Sosik & Megerian, 1999). This study provides important information for leaders not only in human resources but in countless industries, which can be used in designing strategies to improve desired organizational outcomes, for example, reduced turnover, employee

75 commitment, job satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behavior. Since it is difficult to assess a leaders level of emotional intelligence during the interview process, it would behoove organizations to create an assessment tool that focuses on an applicants knowledge, skills. and abilities (KSAs) to include a measure of emotional intelligence to increase the probability of successful person/job fit for the organization. Effective selection of employees in a leadership role involves using criteria and predictors of job performance. Limitations Self appraisals were used in this study, which often create an immediate concern because individuals frequently have difficulty rating their behavior accurately. Some underestimate themselves, some overrate themselves, and relatively few rate themselves with accuracy. Self appraisals cannot control the possibility of a participant having an exaggerated or overstated view of himself or herself, nor can self appraisals control participants giving perceived desirable answers versus the most truthful answers. Bradberry and Greaves (2003) assert individuals can minimize self rating bias by developing self report tests. Results of a multi-rater survey may have yielded different results. Schutte et al. (1998) suggested the scale may not be appropriate for use in individuals who present themselves in a socially desirable manner. Respondents, who see themselves as socially desirable may perceive answers to questions on the SSEIT as more socially desirable. Determining this characteristic in individuals that may be chosen in ones population of study may prove to be difficult.

76 Job-related interruptions could have influenced the quality of responses, as most leaders completed questionnaires while at their place of employment. In addition, some leaders were hesitant to complete questionnaires for various reasons which may have influenced their coworkers responses. In addition, a larger sample size might have yielded different factor analysis results, as the LPI has 30 items and the SSEIT has 33 items. Implications for Future Research This study explored the relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership practices of human resource professionals. The intent for this study was to contribute further to the theory around emotional intelligence and leadership and its application in the organization. Today, the overall concept of emotional intelligence is somewhat unfamiliar in the business world. The contribution this study makes is important in that it allows future researchers with additional evidence to support the relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership. Based on the results of this study, the following are recommendations for future research: 1) Qualitatively investigate the concept of emotional intelligence. Research indicates that emotional intelligence is difficult to measure quantitatively (Dulewicz & Higgs, 2000). Exploring emotional intelligence and leadership from a different angle may positively contribute to the body of research around emotional intelligence. 2) Ascertain if the construct of emotional intelligence is an inimitable measure. Emotional intelligence is defined in this research as four factors: 1) the

77 appraisal of emotion in self and others, 2) the expression of emotion, 3) the regulation of emotion in self and others, and 4) the utilization of emotion in problem solving. Further research could determine if emotional intelligence itself is a distinctive measure (Weinberger, 2003). 3) Explore the degree of emotional intelligence in leaders and their followers from the employees perspective. 4) Demographics must be explored further to ascertain the disparity of emotional intelligence levels in men and women. 5) Demographic characteristics could be explored to the degree in which demographic combinations such as education, years of managerial experience, and/or gender and age could influence leadership. 6) Further research also should focus on emotional intelligence and leadership in other fields, such as the service industry, retail, or financial institutions to name a few. 7) Research needs to be conducted to see if there is a positive link between leaders emotional intelligence and desired organizational outcomes, for example, reduced turnover, employee commitment, job satisfaction, organizational citizenship behavior, and high value human resource (HR) practice. 8) Future research could examine larger samples of age groups and/or work teams. Geographical regions also could be included. 9) Future researchers could explore which individual factors of emotional intelligence had the greatest impact on leadership effectiveness.

78 10) Future studies could be analyzed using other statistical techniques, such as meta-analysis, hierarchical regression, and so forth. 11) Research also should be conducted on emotional intelligence training programs and its effects on leadership success (Martin, 2008). Many practitioners and scholars believe that emotional intelligence can be improved upon through development and training programs (Cherniss & Caplan, 2001; Clark et al., 2003; Kerr et al., 2005; Sosik & Megerian, 1999; Sy & Cote, 2004). Improving ones level of emotional intelligence is the foundation of Golemans (1998a, 1998b) efforts. In addition, research has determined that emotional intelligence can be developed through a sustained effort (Dulewicz & Higgs, 2000). Summary This study explored the relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership practices as measured by SSEIT (Schutte et al., 1998) and LPI (Kouzes & Posner, 1995). Exploratory factor analysis identified the underlying dimensions of the LPI and the SSEIT to determine the number of factors and to assess the construct validity of the two scales. Mean and standard deviations for the four emotional intelligence dimensions were computed as were Pearson correlation coefficients to evaluate the relationship between all variables. Finally, all hypotheses were tested with multiple regression analysis with LPI dependent. The five dimensions of the LPI proposed by Kouzes & Posner (1995) could not be identified with factor analyses; therefore after examining the various factor solutions, the decision was made to use all of the LPI items as a single scale. Varimax rotation with

79 Kaiser Normalization yielded a 5-factor solution from which four factors were used in the data analysis. Reliability estimates examined the internal consistency of the scales used using Cronbachs alpha. The results indicate all scales but one have a high degree of internal consistency, since the alpha values were higher than the level of acceptability as suggested by Nunnallys (1978) criterion in exploratory research of .70. The first, second, and third emotional intelligence factors had reliability coefficients of .82, .76, and .74, respectively. The fourth emotional intelligence factor had a reliability coefficient of .64 and was included in the analysis because it represented the distinct factorutilization of emotion. The LPI is positively and significantly correlated with each dimension of emotional intelligence, ranging from 0.24 to 0.34. Since the correlation coefficients for LPI and the four factors are relatively low, there is only a relatively low concern for colinearity between the independent and dependent variables. The hypotheses were tested with multiple regression analysis by regressing the four dimensions of emotional intelligence on LPI, the dependent variable. Only one of the emotional intelligence factors, the appraisal of emotion in self or others, is significantly related to leadership (LPI) (beta coefficient = .520 and p-value of .000). In addition, there is one demographic variable that is significantly related to LPI (beta coefficient =.094 and p-value of .033). Therefore, years of supervision is positively related to leadership. While the emotional intelligence dimensions all are positively correlated, regression results show that, in the presence of demographic measures and three other emotional intelligence factors, only one is significantthe appraisal of emotion in self and others.

80 This study provides important information for professionals not only in human resources but in countless industries, which can be used in designing strategies to improve desired organizational outcomes, for example, reduced turnover, employee commitment, job satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behavior. Future replications of the nature of this study in addition to empirical substantiation would determine the significance of recommendations beyond the limits of human resource professionals. Emotions play a key role in decision-making. This study supports the position that emotional stability and emotional intelligence are important factors for organizational leadership.

81

Appendix A

The Assessing Emotions Scale: Internal Consistency, Means and Standard Deviations

82

Table A1 Internal Consistency, Means and Standard Deviations for the Assessing Emotions Scale Author Sample Country of Data Collection Abraham, 2000 Austin, Saklofske, Huang, & McKenney, 2004 Bastian, Burns, & Nettelbeck, 2005 Brackett & Mayer, 2003 Brown & Schutte, 2006 Carmeli, 2003 Carmeli & Josman, 2006 Charbonneau & Nicol, 2002 Ciarrochi, Chan, & Bajgar, 2000 Clyne & Blampied, 2004 79 customer service employees 500 university students United States Canada

Scale Alpha .89 .84

Mean

SD

* *

** **

246 university students

Australia

.89

123.80

12.50

207 university students 167 university students 98 senior managers 215 employees 134 adolescents 131 adolescents 11 women with binge eating disorder undergoing treatment

United States Australia Israel Israel Canada Australia New Zealand

.93 .85 .90 .83 .84 .84 ***

123.42 126.51 122.43 126.39 124.41 120.45 113.40 at pre, 122.50 at post

14.52 11.61 12.21 12.21 14.52 13.86 19.50 12.44

83

Author Depape, Hakim-Larson, Voelker, Page, & Jackson, 2006 Guastello & Guastello, 2003 Guastello & Guastello, 2003 Guastello & Guastello, 2003 Liau, Liau, Teoh, & Liau, 2003 Newcombe & Ashkanasy, 2002 Ogiska-Bulik, 2005 Pau & Croucher, 2003 Riley & Schutte, 2003

Sample 125 university students

Country of Data Collection Canada

Scale Alpha .85

Mean 127.78

SD 12.38

566 university students 465 mothers of university students 401 fathers of university students 203 adolescents 537 university business students

United States United States United States Malaysia Australia

.78 .86 .83 .76 .88 *** .90 ***

122.27 122.41 117.66 132.08 94.57**** 123.58 117.54 121.54

** ** * 11.14 13.60 15.15 14.90 17.18

330 human service professionals Poland 223 university students 141 community members and students 258 female university students United States Australia

Saklofske, Austin, Galloway, & Davidson, 2007 Saklofske et al., 2007 Saklofske et al, 2007

Canada

***

123.96

14.40

104 male university students 362 university students

Canada Canada

*** .90

119.29 *

12.66 **

84

Author Schutte & Malouff, 2002

Sample 49 university students in emotional intelligence training program 103 university students in a control condition 40 retail employees

Country of Data Collection United States

Scale Alpha ***

Mean 126.88 at pre, 134.05 at post

SD 14.39 15.49

Schutte & Malouff, 2002

United States

***

130.79 at pre, 131.35 at post 130.00

13.73 18.14 14.99

Schutte, Malouff, Simunek, McKenley, & Hollander, 2002 Schutte et al., 2002 Schutte et al., 2002 Schutte, Malouff, Hall, Haggerty, Cooper, Golden, & Dornheim, 1998 Schutte et al., 1998 Schutte, Malouff, Bobik, Coston, Greeson, Jedlicka, Rhodes & Wendorf, 2001 Schutte et al., 2001 Schutte et al., 2001

United States

***

50 students and employees 47 students and employees 346 community members and university students

United States United States United States

*** *** .90

133.46 131.17 128.86

14.62 14.37 15.57

32 university students 24 university students

United States United States .87 *** * 126.88 ** 12.18

37 teaching interns 77 community members and university students

United States United States

*** ***

142.51 132.84

9.46 12.37

85

Author Schutte et al., 2001

Sample 38 employees and university students 43 community members and university students 37 married employees 276 university students 226 prospective university students 165 male and female university students 293 male university students 518 female university students 18 customer service employees 275 university students

Country of Data Collection United States

Scale Alpha ***

Mean 131.61

SD 14.23

Schutte et al., 2001

United States

***

131.56

15.67

Schutte et al., 2001 Scott, Ciarrochi, & Deane, 2004 Sjberg, 2001

United States Australia Sweden

*** *** .79

121.13 122.10 *

13.18 12.87 **

Thingujam & Ram, 2000

India

.89

**

Thingujam & Ram, 2000 Thingujam & Ram, 2000 Totterdell & Holman, 2003 Van Rooy, Alonso, & Viswesvaran, 2005 Wing, Schutte & Byrne, 2006

India India United Kingdom United States

*** *** .89 .87

121.69 126.43 127.39 129.46

13.84 14.78 13.66 14.21

175 community members and university students

Australia

.88

**

86

Author Yurtsever, 2003 Yurtsever, 2003 Yurtsever, 2003

Sample 71 university students 78 university students 94 university lecturers

Country of Data Collection Turkey Turkey Turkey United States

Scale Alpha .95 .94 .95 ***

Mean * * * 128.60

SD ** ** ** 11.25

Zizzi, Deaner, & Hirschhorn, 2003 61 baseball players

* Means not provided in article. **SD not provided in article. ***Alpha not provided in article. ****Scale scores in this study were reported as a low score indicating high emotional intelligence. To allow comparison with other sample means, the sample mean was converted so that a high score indicates higher emotional intelligence. From The Assessing Emotional Intelligence Scale, by N. S. Schutte, J. M. Malouff, & N. Bhullar, in press, To be published in The Assessment of Emotional Intelligence, Springer Publishing.

87

Table A2 Means and Standard Deviations for Males and Females on the Assessing Emotions Scale Author Sample Male N Male Male SD Female N Mean Charbonneau & Canadian adolescents 72 121.77 15.81 62 Nicol, 2002 Ciarrochi et al., 2001 Pau & Croucher, 2003 Saklofske et al., 2003 Saklofske et al., 2007 Schutte et al., 1998 Van Rooy et al., 2005 Australian adolescents British dental students Canadian university students Canadian university students United States adults United States university students 73 103 119 104 111 59 115.00 115.10 121.70 119.29 124.78 127.15 * 16.37 13.83 12.66 16.52 12.82 58 110 235 258 218 216

Female Mean 127.38 126.72 119.82 124.25 123.96 130.94 130.09

Female SD 13.53 * 13.05 13.22 14.40 15.09 14.53

* SD not provided in article. From The Assessing Emotional Intelligence Scale, by N. S. Schutte, J. M. Malouff, & N. Bhullar, in press, To be published in The Assessment of Emotional Intelligence, Springer Publishing.

88

Appendix B

Survey Materials

89 COVER LETTER Thank you in advance for your cooperation and involvement with this research study examining the relationship between emotional intelligence competencies and leadership practices. My name is Barbara A. Alston. I am a Doctoral candidate with NOVA Southeastern University located at 3301 College Avenue, Fort Lauderdale-Davie, Florida 33314. The title of my research is An Examination of the Relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Practices. The purpose of this research is to examine the relationship of emotional intelligence to leadership practices. I selected you for this study because you are a leader in the area of Human Resources. The better understanding we have of our own emotional intelligence levels, the better equipped we are to become better leaders within our own organizations. Remember, your participation in this study will remain confidential. And again, I thank you for your participation. Sincerely, Barbara A. Alston Barbara A. Alston

90 DIRECTIONS FOR SURVEY COMPLETION Please find the information necessary for you to complete the three surveys below. Thank you again for your participation in this research study. 1. 2. There is no particular order in which the surveys need to be filled out, you decide. Please answer the Demographic Survey by marking the appropriate blank line, one answer per question. The Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) includes explicit instructions within the first few pages of the survey itself. Please follow those instructions thoroughly and completely. The Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SSEIT) includes explicit instructions within the first page of the survey itself. Please follow those instructions thoroughly and completely.

3.

4.

If you should have any questions I can be reached at balston@nova.edu. Thank you again!

Barbara A. Alston Barbara A. Alston

91 DEMOGRAPHIC SURVEY

Please specify your age range by checking the appropriate box: Age Range 20-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 51-55 56-60 61-65 66+ Please specify your gender: Gender Male Female

Please specify the highest level of education you have completed: Education GED or High School Diploma Associates Degree Bachelor's Degree Master's Degree Doctorate Other Please Describe

Please specify the total numbers of years you have supervised/managed/lead at least one or more persons in a supervisory capacity over the duration of your working career: Leadership Experience <1 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26+

92

93

SSEIT The Assessing Emotions Scale Directions: Each of the following items asks you about your emotions or reactions associated with emotions. After deciding whether a statement is generally true for you, use the 5-point scale to respond to the statement. Please circle the 1 if you strongly disagree that this is like you, the 2 if you somewhat disagree that this is like you, 3 if you neither agree nor disagree that this is like you, the 4 if you somewhat agree that this is like you, and the 5 if you strongly agree that this is like you.

There are no right or wrong answers. Please give the response that best describes you. 1 = strongly disagree 2 = somewhat disagree 3 = neither agree nor disagree 4 = somewhat agree 5 = strongly agree

1. I know when to speak about my personal problems to others. 2. When I am faced with obstacles, I remember times I faced similar obstacles and overcame them. 3. I expect that I will do well on most things I try. 4. Other people find it easy to confide in me. 5. I find it hard to understand the non-verbal messages of other people. 6. Some of the major events of my life have led me to re-evaluate what is important and not important. 7. When my mood changes, I see new possibilities. 8. Emotions are one of the things that make my life worth living. 9. I am aware of my emotions as I experience them. 10. I expect good things to happen.

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

94 11. I like to share my emotions with others. 12. When I experience a positive emotion, I know how to make it last. 13. I arrange events others enjoy. 14. I seek out activities that make me happy. 15. I am aware of the non-verbal messages I send to others. 16. I present myself in a way that makes a good impression on others. 17. When I am in a positive mood, solving problems is easy for me. 18. By looking at their facial expressions, I recognize the emotions people are experiencing. 19. I know why my emotions change. 20. When I am in a positive mood, I am able to come up with new ideas. 21. I have control over my emotions. 22. I easily recognize my emotions as I experience them. 23. I motivate myself by imagining a good outcome to tasks I take on. 24. I compliment others when they have done something well. 25. I am aware of the non-verbal messages other people send. 26. When another person tells me about an important event in his or her life, I almost feel as though I experienced this event myself. 27. When I feel a change in emotions, I tend to come up with new ideas. 28. When I am faced with a challenge, I give up because I believe I will fail. 29. I know what other people are feeling just by looking at them. 1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

95 30. I help other people feel better when they are down. 31. I use good moods to help myself keep trying in the face of obstacles. 32. I can tell how people are feeling by listening to the tone of their voice. 33. It is difficult for me to understand why people feel the way they do. 1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

96

97

98

99

100

101 References Cited Aczel, A. D., & Sounderpandian, J. (2006). Complete business statistics (6th ed.). New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Ashkanasy, N. M., & Dasborough, M. T. (2003). Emotional awareness and emotional intelligence in leadership teaching. Journal of Education for Business, 79(1), 1822. Avolio, B. J., & Bass, B. M. (1997). The full range of leadership development manual. Redwood City, CA: Mind Garden. Avolio, B. J., Bass, B. M., & Jung, D. I. (1999). Re-examining the components of transformational and transactional leadership using the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 72, 441462. Barbuto, J. E., & Burbach, M. E. (2006). The emotional intelligence of transformational leaders: A field study of elected officials. The Journal of Social Psychology, 146(1), 51-64. Barling, J., Slater, F., & Kelloway, E. K. (2000). Transformational leadership and emotional intelligence: An exploratory study. Leadership and Organizational Journal, 21(3), 157-161. Bar-On, R. (1997). Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i): Technical manual. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Multi-Health Systems. Bar-On, R. (2006). The Bar-On model of emotional intelligence. Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations Issues in Emotional Intelligence. Retrieved May 15, 2008, from http://www.eiconsortium.org

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