Q.1.a. Explain the types of research.

Meaning and Definition of Research Research in simplified terms means searching for the facts searching for the replies to the various queries and also for the solutions to the various problems. Research is an inquiry or an investigation with a specific purpose to fulfill, it helps in clearing the various doubtful concepts and tries to solve or explain the various unexplained procedures or phenomenon. According to the encyclopaedia of social science, research can be explained as the manipulation of generalizing to extend, connect or verify knowledge. The features that a good research procedure must possess are 1. Should be systematic in nature. 2. Should be logical. 3. Should be empirical and replicable in nature. 4. Should be according to plans. 5. Should be according to the rules and the assumptions should not be based on the false bases or judgments. 6. Should be relevant to what is required. 7. Procedure should be reproducible in nature. 8. Controlled movement of the research procedure. Types of Research 1. Pure research a. Also called as the fundamental or the theoretical research. b. Is basic and original. c. Can lead to the discovery of a new theory. d. Can result in the development or refinement of a theory that already exists. e. Helps in getting knowledge without thinking formally of implementing it in practice based on the honesty, love and integrity of the researcher for discovering the truth. 2. Applied research a. Based on the concept of the pure research. b. Is problem oriented. c. Helps in finding results or solutions for real life problems. d. Provides evidence of usefulness to society. e. Helps in testing empirical content of a theory. f. Utilizes and helps in developing the techniques that can be used for basic research. g. Helps in testing the validity of a theory but under some conditions. h. Provides data that can lead to the acceleration of the process of generalization. 3. Exploratory research a. Involves exploring a general aspect. b. Includes studying of a problem, about which nothing or a very little is known. c. Follows a very formal approach of research. d. Helps in exploring new ideas. e. Helps in gathering information to study a specific problem very minutely.

f. Helps in knowing the feasibility in attempting a study. 4. Descriptive research a. Simplest form of research. b. More specific in nature and working than exploratory research. c. It involves a mutual effort. d. Helps in identifying various features of a problem. e. Restricted to the problems that are describable and not arguable and the problems in which valid standards can be developed for standards. f. Existing theories can be easily put under test by empirical observations. g. Underlines factors that may lead to experimental research. h. It consumes a lot of time. i. It is not directed by hypothesis. 5. Diagnostic study a. Quite similar to the descriptive research. b. Identifies the causes of the problems and then solutions for these problems. c. Related to causal relations. d. It is directed by hypothesis. e. Can be done only where knowledge is advanced. 6. Evaluation study a. Form of applied research. b. Studies the development project. c. Gives access to social or economical programmes. d. Studies the quality and also the quantity of an activity.

Q.1.b) What is the significance of Research in Social and Business Sciences? According to a famous Hudson Maxim, All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry, and inquiry leads to invention. It brings out the significance of research, increased amounts of which makes progress possible. Research encourages scientific and inductive thinking, besides promoting the development of logical habits of thinking and organization. The role of research in applied economics in the context of an economy or business is greatly increasing in modern times. The increasingly complex nature of government and business has raised the use of research in solving operational problems. Research assumes significant role in formulation of economic policy, for both the government and business. It provides the basis for almost all government policies of an economic system. Government budget formulation, for example, depends particularly on the analysis of needs and desires of the people, and the availability of revenues, which requires research. Research helps to formulate alternative policies, in addition to examining the consequences of these alternatives. Thus, research also facilitates the decision making of policymakers, although in itself it is not a part of research. In the process, research also helps in the proper allocation of a countrys scare resources. Research is also necessary for collecting information on the social and economic structure of an economy to understand the process of change occurring in the country. Collection of statistical information though not a routine task, involves various research problems. Therefore, large staff of research technicians or experts is engaged by the government

these days to undertake this work. Thus, research as a tool of government economic policy formulation involves three distinct stages of operation which are as follows: Investigation of economic structure through continual compilation of facts Diagnoses of events that are taking place and the analysis of the forces underlying them; The prognosis, i.e., the prediction of future developments

Research also assumes a significant role in solving various operational and planning problems associated with business and industry. In several ways, operations research, market research, and motivational research are vital and their results assist in taking business decisions. Market research is refers to the investigation of the structure and development of a market for the formulation of efficient policies relating to purchases, production and sales. Operational research relates to the application of logical, mathematical, and analytical techniques to find solution to business problems such as cost minimization or profit maximization, or the optimization problems. Motivational research helps to determine why people behave in the manner they do with respect to market characteristics. More specifically, it is concerned with the analyzing the motivations underlying consumer behaviour. All these researches are very useful for business and industry, which are responsible for business decision making. Research is equally important to social scientist for analyzing social relationships and seeking explanations to various social problems. It gives intellectual satisfaction of knowing things for the sake of knowledge. It also possesses practical utility for the social scientist to gain knowledge so as to be able to do something better or in a more efficient manner. This, research in social sciences is concerned with both knowledge for its own sake, and knowledge for what it can contribute to solve practical problems.

Q.2. What is meant by validity? How does it differ from reliability and what are its types? 2. Validity A measurement scale may be considered to be valid if it effectively measures a specific property or characteristic that it intends to measure. The question of validity does not arise in the case of measurement of physical characteristics such as length, weight and height. This is because the

measurement is direct and can be done through standard measuring devices. On the other hand, the measurement of abstract characteristics such as motivation and attitudes is more indirect and therefore poses the problem of validity. In such cases, there must be some evidence to prove that the measurement scale actually measures what it is supposed to measure. Such evidence is generally gathered through the application of statistical techniques.

Reliability This refers to the ability of a measuring scale to provide consistent and accurate results. To give a simple example, a weighing machine may be said to be reliable if the same reading is given every time the same object is weighed. There are two dimensions of reliability stability and equivalence or non-variability. Stability refers to consistency of results with repeated measurements of the same object, as in the weighing machine example. Non variability refers to consistency at a given point of time among different investigators and samples of items

Validity and Reliability Reliability and validity are closely interlinked. A measuring instrument that is valid is always reliable, but the reverse is not true. That is, an instrument that is reliable is not always valid. However, an instrument that is not valid may or may not be reliable and an instrument that is not reliable is never valid.

Types of Validity 1. Content validity: This type of validity may be of two types a) Face validity and b) Sampling validity. Face validity is determined through a subjective evaluation of a measuring scale. For example, a researcher may develop a scale to measure consumer attitudes towards a brand and pretest the scale among a few experts. If the experts are satisfied with the scale, the researcher may conclude that the scale has face validity. However, the limitation of this type of validity is that it is determined by opinions, rather than through a statistical method. Sampling validity refers to how representative the content of the measuring instrument is. In other words, the measuring instruments content must be representative of the content universe of the characteristic being measured. 2. Predictive validity: This type of validity refers to the extent to which one behavior can be predicted based on another, based on the association between the results yielded by the measuring instrument and the eventual outcome. 3. Construct validity: A construct is a conceptual equation that is developed by the researcher based on theoretical reasoning. Various kinds of relationships may be perceived by the researcher between a variable under study and other variables. These relationships must be tested in order to determine

the construct validity of a measuring instrument. The instrument may be considered to have construct validity only if the expected relationships are found to be true.

Q.3.a.Why Literature survey is important in research Survey of existing literature: Published literatures are economical source of study for the purpose of hypothesis generation and problem definition. A large variety of published and unpublished data is available through books and journals, newspapers and periodicals, government publications and individual research projects as well as data collected by trade associations.

Importance of Literature Survey An exploratory study is concerned with an area of subject matter in which explicit hypothesis have not yet been formulated. The researchers task then is to review the available material with an eye on the possibilities of developing hypothesis from it. In some areas of the subject matter, hypothesis may have been stated by previous research workers. The researcher has to take stock of these various hypotheses with a view to evaluating their usefulness for further research and to consider whether they suggest any new hypothesis. Sociological journals, economic reviews, the bulletin of abstracts of current social sciences research, directory of doctoral dissertation accepted by universities etc afford a rich store of valuable clues. In addition to these general sources, some governmental agencies and voluntary organizations publish listings of summaries of research in their special fields of service. Professional organizations, research groups and voluntary organizations are a constant source of information about unpublished works in their special fields.

Q.3.b)Criteria of Good Research Problem Horton and Hunt have given following characteristics of scientific research: 1. Verifiable evidence: That is factual observations which other observers can see and check. 2. Accuracy: That is describing what really exists. It means truth or correctness of a statement or describing things exactly as they are and avoiding jumping to unwarranted conclusions either by exaggeration or fantasizing. 3. Precision: That is making it as exact as necessary, or giving exact number or measurement. This avoids colourful literature and vague meanings.

4. Systematization: That is attempting to find all the relevant data, or collecting data in a systematic and organized way so that the conclusions drawn are reliable. Data based on casual recollections are generally incomplete and give unreliable judgments and conclusions. 5. Objectivity: That is free being from all biases and vested interests. It means observation is unaffected by the observers values, beliefs and preferences to the extent possible and he is able to see and accept facts as they are, not as he might wish them to be. 6. Recording: That is jotting down complete details as quickly as possible. Since human memory is fallible, all data collected are recorded. 7. Controlling conditions: That is controlling all variables except one and then attempting to examine what happens when that variable is varied. This is the basic technique in all scientific experimentation allowing one variable to vary while holding all other variables constant. 8. Training investigators: That is imparting necessary knowledge to investigators to make them understand what to look for, how to interpret in and avoid inaccurate data collection.

Q4.Explain the procedure for Testing Hypothesis. Procedure for Testing Hypothesis Testing a hypothesis means to tell whether or not the hypothesis seems to be valid. In hypothesis testing the main question is: whether the null hypothesis or not to accept the null hypothesis? Procedure for hypothesis testing refers to all those steps that we undertake for making a choice between the two actions i.e., rejection and acceptance of a null hypothesis. The various steps involved in hypothesis testing are as follows: i)Making a Formal Statement The step consists in making a formal statement of the null hypothesis (Ho) and also of the alternative hypothesis (Ha). This means that hypothesis should clearly state, considering the nature of the research problem. For instance, Mr. Mohan of the Civil Engineering Department wants to test the load bearing capacity of an old bridge which must be more than 10 tons, in that case he can state his hypothesis as under: Null hypothesis HO: =10 tons Alternative hypothesis Ha: >10 tons Take another example. The average score in an aptitude test administered at the national level is 80. To evaluate a states education system, the average score of 100 of the states students selected on the random basis was 75. The state wants to know if there is a significance difference between the local scores and the national scores. In such a situation the hypothesis may be state as under:

Null hypothesis HO: =80 Alternative hypothesis Ha: 80 The formulation of hypothesis is an important step which must be accomplished with due care in accordance with the object and nature of the problem under consideration. It also indicates whether we should use a tailed test or a two tailed test. If Ha is of the type greater than, we use alone tailed test, but when Ha is of the type whether greater or smaller then we use a two-tailed test. ii) Selecting a Significant Level The hypothesis is tested on a pre-determined level of significance and such the same should have specified. Generally, in practice, either 5% level or Research Methodology 1% level is adopted for the purpose. The factors that affect the level of significance are:
The magnitude of the difference between sample ; The size of the sample; The variability of measurements within samples; Whether the hypothesis is directional or non directional (A directional hypothesis is one which predicts the direction of the difference between, say, means). In brief, the level of significance must be adequate in the context of the purpose and nature of enquiry.

iii) Deciding the Distribution to Use After deciding the level of significance, the next step in hypothesis testing is to determine the appropriate sampling distribution. The choice generally remains between distribution and the t distribution. The rules for selecting the correct distribution are similar to those which we have stated earlier in the context of estimation. iv) Selecting A Random Sample & Computing An Appropriate Value Another step is to select a random sample(S) and compute an appropriate value from the sample data concerning the test statistic utilizing the relevant distribution. In other words, draw a sample to furnish empirical data. v) Calculation of the Probability One has then to calculate the probability that the sample result would diverge as widely as it has from expectations, if the null hypothesis were in fact true. vi)Comparing the Probability Yet another step consists in comparing the probability thus calculated with the specified value for , the significance level. If the calculated probability is equal to smaller than value in case of one tailed test (and /2 in case of two-tailed test), then reject the null hypothesis (i.e. accept the alternative hypothesis), but if the probability is greater then accept the null hypothesis. In case we reject H0 we run a risk of (at most level of significance) committing an error of type I, but if we accept H0, then we run some risk of committing error type II.

5.a. Explain the components of a research design. The Various Components of research Design are as follows : i) Dependent and Independent variables: A magnitude that varies is known as a variable. The concept may assume different quantitative values, like height, weight, income, etc. Qualitative variables are not quantifiable in the strictest sense of objectivity. However, the qualitative phenomena may also be quantified in terms of the presence or absence of the attribute considered. Phenomena that assume different values quantitatively even in decimal points are known as continuous variables. But, all variables need not be continuous. Values that can be expressed only in integer values are called non-continuous variables. In statistical term, they are also known as discrete variable. For example, age is a continuous variable; where as the number of children is a non-continuous variable. When changes in one variable depends upon the changes in one or more other variables, it is known as a dependent or endogenous variable, and the variables that cause the changes in the dependent variable are known as the independent or explanatory or exogenous variables. For example, if demand depends upon price, then demand is a dependent variable, while price is the independent variable. And if, more variables determine demand, like income and prices of substitute commodity, then demand also depends upon them in addition to the own price. Then, demand is a dependent variable which is determined by the independent variables like own price, income and price of substitute. ii)Extraneous variable: The independent variables which are not directly related to the purpose of the study but affect the dependent variable are known as extraneous variables. For instance, assume that a researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is relationship between childrens school performance and their self-concepts, in which case the latter is an independent variable and the former, the dependent variable. In this context, intelligence may also influence the school performance. However, since it is not directly related to the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it would be known as an extraneous variable. The influence caused by the extraneous variable on the dependent variable is technically called as an experimental error. Therefore, a research study should always be framed in such a manner that the dependent variable completely influences the change in the independent variable and any other extraneous variable or variables. iii) Control: One of the most important features of a good research design is to minimize the effect of extraneous variable. Technically, the term control is used when a researcher designs the study in such a manner that it minimizes the effects of extraneous independent variables. The term control is used in experimental research to reflect the restrain in experimental conditions. iv)Confounded relationship: The relationship between dependent and independent variables is said to be confounded by an extraneous variable, when the dependent variable is not free from its effects.

5. b) Briefly Explain the different Types of Research Designs?

The research design is the plan and structure of the investigation that will enable one to answer the research question. It is a comprehensive master plan of the research study to be undertaken, giving a general statement of the methods to be used. The function of a research design is to ensure that requisite data in accordance with the problem at hand is collected accurately and economically. It is a blueprint for the collection, measurement, analysis and interpretation of data. The research design, depending upon the needs of the researcher may be a very detailed statement or only furnish the minimum information required for planning the research project. A research design should have a statement of objectives of the study or the research output, a statement of the data inputs required on the basis of which the research problem is to be solved and the methods of analysis which shall be used to treat and analyze the data inputs. The research designs are mainly classified in to four types: 1. Exploratory Designs 2. Descriptive Designs 3.Experimental Designs 4. Quasi-Experimental Designs 1. Exploratory Designs An exploratory design is conducted about a research problem when there are few or no earlier studies to refer to. The focus is on gaining insights and familiarity for later investigation or undertaken when problems are in a preliminary stage of investigation. It helps in providing a sharper focus of the situation and a clearer definition of the problem at hand. The exploratory research design, as the name suggests, involves getting a feel of the situation and emphasizes a discovery of ideas and possible insights that may help in identifying areas of further rigorous study.The main objective of the exploratory research is to fine tune the broad problem into specific problem statement and generate possible hypotheses. The exploratory studies are mainly used for: a. To generate formal hypotheses and develop more precise research problems b. Establishing research priorities. c. Giving the researcher a feel of the problem situation and familiarizing him with the problem. d. Provides an opportunity to define new terms and clarify existing concepts. e. Collecting information about possible problems in carrying out research, using specific collection tools and specific techniques for analysis The generally used methods in exploratory research are: Survey of existing literature: Published literatures are economical source of study for the purpose of hypothesis generation and problem definition. A large variety of published and unpublished data is available through books and journals, newspapers and periodicals, government publications and individual research projects as well as data collected by trade associations. Survey of experienced individuals: Talking to individuals who have expertise and ides about the research subject. The success of this type of experience survey depends upon the freedom of response given to the respondent as well as upon the expertise and communication ability of the people questioned Analysis of selected case situations: This method involves the selection of a few extreme examples reflecting the problem situation and a thorough analysis of the same, this sort of study may help in identifying the possible relationships that exist between the variables in a given marketing problem situation 2. Descriptive Designs

Descriptive research designs help provide answers to the questions of who, what, when, where, and how associated with a particular research problem; a descriptive study cannot conclusively ascertain answers to why. Descriptive research is used to obtain information concerning the current status of the phenomena and to describe "what exists" with respect to variables or conditions in a situation. The design could be used to study how customers behaved when a new sales promotion programme was introduced. Descriptive designs are the most commonly used category of research design. Descriptive design used : a. To describe the characteristics of certain groups of interest to the marketer e.g. users of the product, potential users, non users, possible receivers of promotional communication by the company and so on. b. To estimate the proportion of people in a given population who behave in a certain way for example the proportion of consumers who are prone to deals. c. To make specific predictions for specified future periods. d. To collect a large amount of data for detailed analysis e. To develop inferences whether certain variables are associated, for example income and shopping place preference. In comparison to an exploratory research study, the descriptive study is more formal and less flexible. As the descriptive design in directed at collecting qualitative and quantitative data to enable, description of variables, it involves formulation of more specific hypothesis and testing them through statistical inference of discipline designs may include case research designs, longitudinal and cross sectional designs as well as focus group studies. 3. Experimental Designs A blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to maintain control over all factors that may affect the result of an experiment. In doing this, the researcher attempts to determine or predict what may occur. Experimental Research is often used where there is time priority in a causal relationship (cause precedes effect), there is consistency in a causal relationship (a cause will always lead to the same effect), and the magnitude of the correlation is great. The classic experimental design specifies an experimental group and a control group. The independent variable is administered to the experimental group and not to the control group, and both groups are measured on the same dependent variable. Subsequent experimental designs have used more groups and more measurements over longer periods. True experiments must have control, randomization, and manipulation. Experimental designs used to: a) Permits the researcher to identify cause and effect relationships between variables and to distinguish placebo effects from treatment effects. b) Allows the researcher to control the situation. In so doing, it allows researchers to answer the question, what causes something to occur? c) Experimental research designs support the ability to limit alternative explanations and to infer direct causal relationships in the study. d) Approach provides the highest level of evidence for single studies Because of the requirement of random assignment, this design can be difficult to execute in the real world setting. 4. Quasi-Experimental Design This research design approximates the experimental design but does not have a control group. There is more error possible in the results. These designs the researcher has control over data collection

procedures but lacks control over the scheduling of the treatments and also lacks the ability to randomize test units exposure to treatments. There are various designs which fall under the category of quasi-experimental designs

Q.6.a) What are the assumptions of Case Study Method? The following are the assumptions of Case Study Method: a) Case study would depend upon wit, commonsense and imagination of the person doing the case study. The investigator makes up his procedure as he goes along. b) If the life history has been written in the first person, it must be as complete and coherent as possible. c) Life histories should have been written for knowledgeable persons. d) It is advisable to supplement case data by observational, statistical and historical data since these provide standards for assessing the reliability and consistency of the case material. e) Efforts should be made to ascertain the reliability of life history data through examining the internal consistency of the material. f) A judicious combination of techniques of data collection is a prerequisite for securing data that are culturally meaningful and scientifically significant.

Q.6.b. Explain the Sampling process.

Sample and Sampling: A Sampling is a part of the total population. It can be an individual element or a group of elements selected from the population. Although it is a subset, it is representative of the population and suitable for research in terms of cost, convenience, and time. The sample group can be selected based on a probability or a non probability approach. A sample usually consists of various units of the population. The size of the sample is represented by n .

Sampling is the act, process, or technique of selecting a representative part of a population for the purpose of determining the characteristics of the whole population. In other words, the process of selecting a sample from a population using special sampling techniques called sampling. It should be ensured in the sampling process itself that the sample selected is representative of the population. Steps in Sampling Process: An operational sampling process can be divided into seven steps as given below: 1. Defining the target population. 2. Specifying the sampling frame. 3. Specifying the sampling unit. 4. Selection of the sampling method. 5. Determination of sample size. 6. Specifying the sampling plan. 7. Selecting the sample. 1. Defining the Target Population: Defining the population of interest, for business research, is the first step in sampling process. In general, target population is defined in terms of element, sampling unit, extent, and time frame. The definition should be in line with the objectives of the research study. For ex, if a kitchen appliances firm wants to conduct a survey to ascertain the demand for its micro ovens, it may define the population as all women above the age of 20 who cook (assuming that very few men cook). However this definition is too broad and will include every household in the country, in the population that is to be covered by the survey. Therefore the definition can be further refined and defined at the sampling unit level, that, all women above the age 20, who cook and whose monthly household income exceeds Rs.20,000. This reduces the target population size and makes the research more focused. The population definition can be refined further by specifying the area from where the researcher has to draw his sample, that is, households located in Hyderabad. A well defined population reduces the probability of including the respondents who do not fit the research objective of the company. For ex, if the population is defined as all women above the age of 20, the researcher may end up taking the opinions of a large number of women who cannot afford to buy a micro oven. 2. Specifying the Sampling Frame: Once the definition of the population is clear a researcher should decide on the sampling frame. A sampling frame is the list of elements from which the sample may be drawn. Continuing with the micro oven ex, an ideal sampling frame would be a database that contains all the households that have a monthly income above Rs.20,000. However, in practice it is difficult to get an exhaustive sampling frame that exactly fits the requirements of a particular research. In general, researchers use easily available sampling frames like telephone directories and lists of credit card and mobile phone users. Various private players provide databases developed along various demographic and economic variables. Sometimes, maps and aerial pictures are also used as sampling frames. Whatever may be the case, an ideal sampling frame is one that entire population and lists the names of its elements only once. . 3. Specifying the Sampling Unit: A sampling unit is a basic unit that contains a single element or a group of elements of the population to be sampled. In this case, a household becomes a sampling unit and all women above the age of 20 years living in that particular house become the sampling elements. If it is possible to

identify the exact target audience of the business research, every individual element would be a sampling unit. This would present a case of primary sampling unit. However, a convenient and better means of sampling would be to select households as the sampling unit and interview all females above 20 years, who cook. This would present a case of secondary sampling unit. 4. Selection of the Sampling Method: The sampling method outlines the way in which the sample units are to be selected. The choice of the sampling method is influenced by the objectives of the business research, availability of financial resources, time constraints, and the nature of the problem to be investigated. All sampling methods can be grouped under two distinct heads, that is, probability and non-probability sampling. 5. Determination of Sample Size: The sample size plays a crucial role in the sampling process. There are various ways of classifying the techniques used in determining the sample size. A couple those hold primary importance and are worth mentioning are whether the technique deals with fixed or sequential sampling and whether its logic is based on traditional or Bayesian methods. In non-probability sampling procedures, the allocation of budget, thumb rules and number of sub groups to be analyzed, importance of the decision, number of variables, nature of analysis, incidence rates, and completion rates play a major role in sample size determination. In the case of probability sampling, however, formulas are used to calculate the sample size after the levels of acceptable error and level of confidence are specified. 6. Specifying the Sampling Plan: In this step, the specifications and decisions regarding the implementation of the research process are outlined. Suppose, blocks in a city are the sampling units and the households are the sampling elements. This step outlines the modus operandi of the sampling plan in identifying houses based on specified characteristics. It includes issues like how is the interviewer going to take a systematic sample of the houses. What should the interviewer do when a house is vacant? What is the recontact procedure for respondents who were unavailable. 7. Selecting the Sample: This is the final step in the sampling process, where the actual selection of the sample elements is carried out. At this stage, it is necessary that the interviewers stick to the rules outlined for the smooth implementation of the business research. This step involves implementing the sampling plan to select the sampling plan to select a sample required for the survey.