INTRODUCTION Steam turbine, A mechanical device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam, and converts it into

rotary motion. Sir Charles Parsons invented it in 1884. It almost has completely replaced the reciprocating piston steam engine (invented by Thomas Newcomen and improved by James Watt) primarily because of its higher power-to-weight ratio and greater thermal efficiency .Because of the generation of the turbine rotary motion, it is particularly suited to be used to drive an electrical generator about 80% of all electricity generation is done by the use of steam turbines in the world. The steam turbine is a form of engine that derives much of its improvement in thermodynamic efficiency through the use of multiple stages in the steam expansion, which therefore results in a closer approach to the ideal process.

History The starting device that may be classified as a reaction steam turbine was little more than a toy, the classic Aeolipile, described in the first century by Hero of Alexandria in Roman Egypt. A 1000 years later, the 1st impact steam turbine with applications was invented in the year 1551 by Taqi-al-Din in Ottoman Egypt, which was described as a prime mover for rotating a spit. Similar smoke jacks were next described by John Wilkins in the year 1648 and by Samuel Pepys in 1660. Another steam turbine device was made by the Italian Giovanni Branca in year 1629. The modern steam turbine invented in year 1884 by the Englishman Sir Charles Parsons, whose first model was linked to a dynamo that was able to generate 7.5 kW of electricity. Parson's steam turbine, made cheap and plentiful electricity possible and naval warfare and revolutionized marine transport, the world would have never be the same again. His patent was licensed and the turbine scaled-up shortly after by an American, George Westinghouse. A number of different variations of turbines have been developed that are working effectively with steam. The de Laval turbine (invented by Gustaf de Laval ) paced up the steam to full speed before running it against a turbine blade. This was better, because the turbine is simple, less expensive and does not require being pressure-proof. It could operate with any pressure of steam. It is also, however, the efficiency is considerably less. The Parson's turbine also considered to be relatively easy to scale-up. Parsons had the satisfaction of watching his invention adopted by a good amount of world power stations. The capacity of his generators had increased from his first 7.5 kW capacity setup to units of 50,000 kW capacities setup. He knew that the complete output from the turbo-generators constructed through his firm C. A. by their licensees, for land purposes alone, had increased more than thirty million horse-power .Within Parson's lifetime the generation capacity of a single unit was increased by about thousand times.

TYPES Steam turbines are made in different sizes ranging from a small 1 HP (0.75 kW) units (rare) used as mechanical drives for pumps, compressors and other shaft driven equipment, to 2,000,000 HP (1,500,000 kW) turbines used to generate electricity. There are different classifications for modern steam turbines. Steam Supply and Exhaust Conditions There are different types include condensing, non-condensing, reheat, extraction and induction. Noncondensing or backpressure turbines are most extensively used for process steam applications. The exhaust pressure is managed by a regulating valve to suit the needs of the process steam pressure. These are generally found at refineries, district heating units, pulp and paper plants, and desalination facilities where huge amounts of low pressure process steam are usable. Condensing turbines are largely commonly found in electrical power plants. These turbines exhaust steam in a fraction condensed state, typically of a quality near 90 percent, at a pressure good below atmospheric to a condenser. Reheat turbines are also used almost wholly in electrical power plants. In reheat turbine, steam flow exits from a high pressure section of turbine and is returned back to the boiler where extra superheat is added. The steam then reverted into an intermediate pressure section of the turbine and expansion is continued. In all the application Extracting type turbines are common. In an extracting type turbine, steam exits from different stages of the turbine, and used for industrial processes need or reverted to the boiler feed water heaters to improve final cycle efficiency. Extraction flows may be controlled or left uncontrolled with a valve. An induction turbine induces low pressure steam at an intermediate stage to produce additional power.

Casing or Shaft Arrangements These arrangements include one casing, tandem compound and cross compound turbines. Single casing units are the most basic style where a single casing and shaft are joined to a generator. Tandem compound are used where 2 or plus casings are directly coupled together to drive a single generator. A cross compound turbine arrangement features 2 or plus shafts not in line driving two or more generators that often operate at various speeds. Large appliances typically use cross compound turbine.

Principle of Operation and Design An ideal steam turbine is designed to be an isentropic process, or constant entropy process, in which the entropy of the steam coming into the turbine is equal to the entropy of the steam exiting the turbine. No steam turbine is completely isentropic, however, with a typical isentropic efficiencies ranging from 20%-90% based on the application of the turbine. The interior of a turbine comprises many sets of blades, or buckets as they are more commonly names as. One set of stationary blades is linked to the casing and one set of rotating blades is linked to the shaft. The sets intermesh with a certain amount of minimum clearances, with the size and configuration of sets differing to efficiently exploit the expansion of steam at every stage.

Turbine Efficiency To maximize the turbine efficiency, the steam has to be expanded, generating the work, in a number of different stages. These stages are characterized by how the energy is taken from them and are known as the impulse or reaction turbines. Most of the modern steam turbines are a combination of the reaction as well as the impulse design. Typically, higher pressure sections are the impulse type and lower pressure stages are the reaction type. Impulse Turbines Impulse turbines have fixed nozzles that orient the steam flow into the high speed jets. These jets contain significant amount of kinetic energy, which the rotor blades which are shaped like buckets, convert it into shaft rotation as the steam jet changes the direction. A pressure drop occurs through only the stationary blades, with a net increase in the steam velocity across the stage. As the steam flows through the nozzle its pressure falls from the steam chest pressure to condenser pressure (or atmosphere pressure). Because of this relatively higher ratio of expansion of steam in the nozzle the steam leaves the nozzle with a very high velocity. The steam exiting the moving blades is a large portion of the maximum velocity of the steam when leaving the nozzle. The loss of energy is due to this higher exit velocity which is commonly called the "carry over velocity" or "leaving loss".

Reaction Turbines In the reaction turbine, the rotor blades are arranged themselves to form convergent nozzles. This type of turbine makes the use of the reaction force produced through the steam accelerates through the nozzles formed by the rotor. Steam is directed on the rotor by the fixed vanes of the stator. It leaves the stator as a jet that completely fills the entire circumference of the rotor. The steam then changes direction and increases its speed compared to the speed of the blades. A pressure drop is induced occurs across both the stator and the rotor, with the steam accelerating through the stator and decelerating through the rotor, with no net change in the steam velocity across the stages but with a

decrease in both the pressure and the temperature, showing the work performed in the driving of the rotor.

Operation and Maintenance When warming up the steam turbine for use, the main steam stop valves (after the boiler) have a bypass line to allow the superheated steam to slowly bypass the valve and proceed to heat up lines in the system along with the steam turbine. Also a turning gear has to be engaged when there is no steam to the turbine to slowly rotate the turbine to make sure even heating to prevent uneven expansion. ----- After first rotating the turbine by the turning gear, allowing time for the rotor to assume a straight plane (no bowing), then the turning gear is disengaged and steam is admitted to the turbine, first to the astern blades then to the ahead blades slowly rotating the turbine at 10 to 15 RPM to slowly warm the turbine. Problems with turbines are now rare and maintenance requirements are relatively small. Any imbalance of the rotor can lead to vibration, which in extreme cases can lead to a blade letting go and punching straight through the casing. It is, however, essential that the turbine be turned with dry steam. If water gets into the steam and is blasted onto the blades (moisture carryover) rapid impingement and erosion of the blades can occur, possibly leading to imbalance and catastrophic failure. Also, water entering the blades will likely result in the destruction of the thrust bearing for the turbine shaft. To prevent this, along with controls and baffles in the boilers to ensure high quality steam, condensate drains are installed in the steam piping leading to the turbine.

Speed regulation

the control of a turbine with a governor is essential, as turbines need to be run up slowly, to prevent damage while some applications (such as the generation of alternating current electricity) require precise speed control. Uncontrolled acceleration of the turbine rotor can lead to an over speed trip, which causes the nozzle valves that control the flow of steam to the turbine to close. If this fails then the turbine may continue accelerating until it breaks apart, often spectacularly. Turbines are expensive to make, requiring precision manufacture and special quality materials.

Direct drive

Electrical use large steam turbines driving electric generators to produce most (about 80%) of the world's electricity. Most of these centralized stations are of two types: fossil and nuclear. The turbines used for electric power generation are most often directly coupled to their generators. As the

generators must rotate at constant synchronous speeds according to the frequency of the electric power system, the most common speeds are3000 r/min for 50 Hz systems, and 3600 r/min for 60 Hz systems. In installations with high steam output, as may be found in nuclear power stations, the generator sets may be arranged to operate at half these speeds, but with four-pole generators.

Speed Reduction

Another use of steam turbines is in ships; their small size, low maintenance, light weight, and low vibration are compelling advantages. (Steam turbine locomotives were also tested, but with limited success.) A steam turbine is only efficient when operating in the thousands of RPM range while application of the power in propulsion applications maybe only in the hundreds of RPM and so requiring that expensive and precise reduction gears must be used, although several ships, such as Turbine, had direct drive from the steam turbine to the propeller shafts. This purchase cost is offset by much lower fuel and maintenance requirements and the small size of a turbine when compared to a reciprocating engine having an equivalent power, except for diesel engines which are capable of higher efficiencies. Steam turbine efficiencies have yet to break 50% yet diesel engines routinely exceed 50%, especially in marine applications.

Working

Introduction A steam turbine is a mechanical device that converts thermal energy in pressurized steam into useful mechanical work. The original steam engine which largely powered the industrial revolution in the UK was based on reciprocating pistons. This has now been almost totally replaced by the steam turbine because the steam turbine has a higher Thermodynamic efficiency and a lower power-to-weight ratio and the steam turbine are ideal for the very large power configurations used in power stations. The steam turbine derives much of its better thermodynamic efficiency because of the use of multiple stages in the expansion of the steam. This results in a closer approach to the ideal reversible process. Steam turbines are made in a variety of sizes

ranging from small 0.75 kW units used as mechanical drives for pumps, compressors and other shaft driven equipment, to1, 500,000kW turbines used to generate electricity. Steam turbines are widely used for marine applications for vessel propulsion systems. In recent times gas turbines, as developed for aerospace applications, are being used more and more in the field of power generation once dominated by steam turbines.

Steam Turbine Principle

The steam energy is converted mechanical work by expansion through the turbine. The expansion takes place through a series of fixed blades (nozzles) and moving blades each row of fixed blades and moving blades is called a stage. The moving blades rotate on the central turbine rotor and the fixed blades are concentrically arranged within the circular turbine casing which is substantially designed to withstand the steam pressure. On large output turbines the duty too large for one turbine and a number of turbine casing/rotor units are combined to achieve the duty. These are generally arranged on a common Centre line (tandem mounted) but parallel systems can be used called cross compound systems. There are two principles used for design of turbine blades: The Impulse Blading and The Reaction Blading.

Impulse Blading

The impulse blading principle is that the steam is directed at the blades and the impact of the steam on the blades drives them round. The day to day example of this principle is the pelton wheel. In this type of turbine the whole of the stage pressure drop takes place in the fixed blade (nozzle) and the steam jet acts on the moving blade by impinging on the blades.

Z represents the blade speed, Vr represents the relative velocity, Vwa& Vwb- represents the tangential component of the absolute steam in and steam out velocities

The power developed per stage = Tangential force on blade x blade speed. Power /stage= (Vw a- Vwb).z/1000 kW per kg/s of steam

Reaction Blading

The reaction blading principle depends on the blade diverting the steam flow and gaining kinetic energy by the reaction. The Catherine wheel (firework) is an example of this principle. For this turbine principle the steam pressure drop is divide between the fixed and moving blades. z represents the blade speed , Vr represents the relative velocity, Vwa& Vwb- represents the tangential component of the absolute steam in and steam out velocities

The power developed per stage = Tangential force on blade x blade speed. Power /stage= (Vwa- Vwb).z/1000 kW per kg/s of steam The blade speed z is limited by the mechanical design and material constraints of the blades.

Rankine Cycle The Rankine cycle is a steam cycle for a steam plant operating under the best theoretical conditions for most efficient operation. This is an ideal imaginary cycle against which all other real steam working cycles can be compared. The theoretic cycle can be considered with reference to the figure below. There will no losses of energy by radiation, leakage of steam, or frictional losses in the mechanical components. The condenser cooling will condense the steam to water with only sensible heat (saturated water). The feed pump will add no energy to the water. The chimney gases would be at the same pressure as the atmosphere. Within the turbine the work done would be equal to the energy entering the turbine as steam (h1) minus the energy leaving the turbine as steam after perfect expansion (h2)this being isentropic (reversible adiabatic) i.e. (h1- h2). The energy supplied by the steam by heat transfer from the combustion and flue gases in the furnace to the water and steam in the boiler will be the difference in the enthalpy of the steam leaving the boiler and the water entering the boiler = (h1 - h3).

The various energy streams flowing in a simple steam turbine system are as indicated in the diagram below. It is clear that the working fluid is in a closed circuit apart from the free surface of the hot well. Every time the working fluid flows at a uniform rate around the circuit it experiences a series of processes making up a thermodynamic cycle. The complete plant is enclosed in an outer boundary and the working fluid crosses inner boundaries (control surfaces). The inner boundaries defines a flow process.

The various identifiers represent the various energy flows per unit mass flowing along the steady-flow streams and crossing the boundaries. This allows energy equations to be developed for the individual units and the whole plant. When the turbine system is operating under steady state conditions the law of conservation of energy dictates that the energy per unit mass of working agent ** entering any system boundary must be equal to the rate of energy leaving the system boundary. **It is acceptable to consider rates per unit mass or unit time whichever is most convenient

Boiler

The energy streams entering and leaving the boiler unit areas follows: F + A + hd = h1 + G + hlb hence F + A = G + h1- hd+hlb

Turbine The energy streams entering and leaving the turbine are as follows: h1= T + h2+ hlt hence 0 = T - h1+ h2+ hlt

Condenser Unit The energy streams entering and leaving the condenser unit are as follows: Wi+ h2= Wo+ hw+ hlc hence Wi= Wo+ hw- h2+hlc

Feed Water System The energy streams entering and leaving the Feed Water System are as follows: hw+ de+ df= hd+ hlf hence de+ df= - hw+ hd+ hl

The four equations on the right can be arranged to give the energy equation for the whole turbine system enclosed by the outer boundary. That is the energy of the fuel (F) per unit mass of the working agent (water) is equal to the sum of - the mechanical energy available from the turbine less that used to drive the pumps (T - (de+ df) - the energy leaving the exhaust [G - A] using the air temperature as the datum.- the energy gained by the water circulating through the condenser [Wo- Wi] - the energy gained by the atmosphere surrounding the plant hl The overall thermal efficiency of a steam turbine plant canbe represented by the ratio of the net mechanical energyavailable to the energy within the fuel supplied as indicatedin the expressions below-