Introduction

Mehta Engineers Limited is family managed, professionally run company, which started its operations in 1979 with vision of becoming a supplier of quality auto parts for the Original Equipment Manufacturers. Mehta Engineers Limited is public limited company. Most of its shares are closely held with 95% of the shareholding with the family. In 1984, with the coming of major Japanese motorcycle companies in India, there was a strong need of good quality parts suppliers. The company became an automatic choice for these companies due to its commitment to quality and on time delivery. Since then the company is supplying to these two wheeler majors. Our Commitment towards quality, timely delivery and competitive pricing makes us the first choice of our customers. Our Strength lies in highly skilled and motivated manpower, which is the backbone of the company. Our manpower is a combination of experienced managers, young and dedicated engineers and skilled blue collared employees, who work as team to pursue company's vision and goals. We have a record of excellent coordinal industrial relation in our company since inception. The company started exports in 2002 after passing stringent quality standards of it's esteemed customers. Today, we export to leading automotive companies in Europe

Mission and Vision

>> Focus on stated and implied customer needs. >> Become partners and not suppliers. >> Keep abreast with new technology. >> Continual human skill up gradation through regular trainings. >> Improvement in quality and productivity through Kaizen. >> Enhance company value through profitable growth.

Product Category
Machined Forgings Sheet Metal Fabricated Components Sheet Metal Stampings

Categories
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Sheet Metal Fabricated Components

Sheet Metal Fabricated Components

Machined Forgings

Quality System
We are an ISO/TS 16949 certified company. We have been regularly getting orders from our customer on the strength of it's quality products. Consistent quality and continual improvements help us in customer satisfaction. We believe that only way to grow and succeed is to make and supply consistently good quality products.
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During Component Development

Quality of component is ensured right from the development stage. We follow all the guidelines of PPAP, FMEA, MSA and customer specified requirements during the development of components and their tools. Regular record of quality are maintained which form basis for further improvement and trainings to be given by Quality Assurance Team Operators and inspectors are regularly trained on the importance of quality and on How to ensure consistent quality at all times. All the production tooling and checking fixtures are fully checked before actual use. The tools and gauges are regularly calibrated to ensure consistency.

During Process
The company has been following TQM techniques to ensure 100% defect free material at customer end.

Quality Control is done at three stages:

>> Receiving Quality Control >> In-Process Quality Control >> Pre-delivery Quality Control The finished products then pass through Pre-Delivery inspection department, which ensure that no non-conforming components is passed on the customer. We have latest equipment to check the quality of the products and for calibration of measuring and test equipment. The facilities include a Profile Projectors, Vickers Hardness Testers, Rockwell Hardness Testers, Cupping test machine, Coating thickness checking machine, salt spray chambers and other regular calibration lab equipment. The company has also access to facilities like metallurgical tests, crack tests etc

Quality Policy
Mehta Engineers Limited is an ISO 9001 certified company certified by TUV, Suddeutschland of Germany. We at Mehta Engineers Limited are commited to manufacture and supply automative components to achieve customer satisfaction. We strive to continually improve the quality of our products, processes and quality management system.

This can be achieved through

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>> Introducing new technology / equipment >> Improving / enhancing knowledge of our employees >> Reducing customer complaints >> Reducing internal rejections & rework >> Improving operational performance Today the company is actively working towards achieving ISO/TS 16949:2002 certification. Quality objective have been established at different levels and functions and these are monitored regularly to ensure continual improvements.

Research and Development

In today's world, every customer demands faster product development. It means that the transition time from drawing to actual sample has to be reduced. New product development is a very strong area of the company. The company has got highly skilled manpower in new component development department. This coupled with the state of art machines in development area reduces the lead time for development of new components

Design Department
The company has complete facilities of CAD CAM. The design facilities include 2D and 3D modeling with facilities of solid modeling, reverse engineering and machining programming. The machines in

development area are CNC Machining Centers, CNC Wire Cut, Milling, Plano Miller, Shapers, Lathes, and grinders among other tool room machines. We can make drawings from the models given by the customers and can develop accurate tooling for production at very fast pace. In todays every customer demands faster product development. It means that the transition time from drawing to actual sample has to be reduced. We at Mehta Engineers follow a policy of "Do it right the first time, every time" . This is achieved by continuous research and development activities to reduce the product development time and ensuring that the product is developed correctly in the very first attempt. Our strength in tool designing help us in making correct sample and tools in the very fast time and thus reducing the time for redesigning and development. All the tools, jig, fixtures, checking gauges are designed and made in-house which ensure timely development and best quality. VA & VE Activities Our Development team works along with teams of our customers helping in Value Addition and Value Engineering activities. We also focus on cost cutting exercise through continuous research and development activities on existing and new components.

Infrastructure
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The three unit of Mehta Engineers Limited are built in an area of 22,500 sq. meters. One of the biggest advantages that the company enjoys is the wide variety of products from company. Apart from production, the company has latest infrastructure for development, inspection and testing, surface coating and other related infrastructure.

Metal fabrication
Metal fabrication is a value added process that involves the construction of machines and structures from various raw materials. A fab shop will bid on a job, usually based on the engineering drawings, and if awarded the contract will build the product. Fabrication shops are employed by contractors, OEMs and VARs. Typical projects include; loose parts, structural frames for buildings and heavy equipment, and hand railings and stairs for buildings. Metal fabrication is the fabrication of metal by cutting, bending, and assembling processes: Cutting is done by sawing, shearing, or chiseling (all with manual and powered variants); torching with handheld torches (such as oxyfuel torches or plasma torches); and via CNC cutters (using a laser, torch, or water jet).

Cutting process.
Cutting is a collection of processes wherein material is brought to a specified geometry by removing excess material using various kinds of tooling to leave a finished part that meets specifications. The net result of cutting is two products, the waste or excess material, and the finished part. If this were a discussion of woodworking, the waste would be sawdust and excess wood. In cutting metals the waste is chips or swarf and excess metal. These processes can be divided into chip producing cutting, generally known as machining. Burning or cutting with an oxyfuel torch is a welding process not machining.

There are also miscellaneous specialty processes such as chemical milling. Cutting is nearly fully represented by:

Chip producing processes most commonly known as machining Burning, a set of processes which cut by oxidizing a kerf to separate pieces of metal Specialty processes

Drilling a hole in a metal part is the most common example of a chip producing process. Using an oxy-fuel cutting torch to separate a plate of steel into smaller pieces is an example of burning. Chemical milling is an example of a specialty process that removes excess material by the use of etching chemicals and masking chemicals. There are many technologies available to cut metal, including:

Manual technologies: saw, chisel, shear or snips Machine technologies: turning, milling, drilling, grinding, sawing Welding/burning technologies: burning by laser, oxy-fuel burning, and plasma Erosion technologies: by water jet or electric discharge.

Cutting fluid or coolant is used where there is significant friction and heat at the cutting interface between a cutter such as a drill or an end mill and the work piece. Coolant is generally introduced by a spray across the face of the tool and work piece to decrease friction and temperature at the cutting tool/work piece interface to prevent excessive tool wear. In practice there are many methods of delivering coolant. Grinding uses an abrasive process to remove material from the workpiece. A grinding machine is a machine tool used for producing very fine finishes, making very light cuts, or high precision forms using an abrasive wheel as the cutting device. This wheel can be made up of various sizes and types of stones, diamonds or inorganic materials. The simplest grinder is a bench grinder or a hand-held angle grinder, for deburring parts or cutting metal with a zip-disc.
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Grinders have increased in size and complexity with advances in time and technology. From the old days of a manual tool room grinder sharpening end mills for a production shop, to today's 30000 RPM CNC auto-loading manufacturing cell producing jet turbines, grinding processes vary greatly. Grinders need to be very rigid machines to produce the required finish. Some grinders are even used to produce glass scales for positioning CNC machine axis. The common rule is the machines used to produce scales be 10 times more accurate than the machines the parts are produced for. In the past grinders were used for finishing operations only because of limitations of tooling. Modern grinding wheel materials and the use of industrial diamonds or other man-made coatings (cubic boron nitride) on wheel forms have allowed grinders to achieve excellent results in production environments instead of being relegated to the back of the shop. Modern technology has advanced grinding operations to include CNC controls, high material removal rates with high precision, lending itself well to aerospace applications and high volume production runs of precision components. A file is an abrasive surface like this one that allows machinists to remove small, imprecise amounts of metal. Filing Filing is combination of grinding and saw tooth cutting using a file. Prior to the development of modern machining equipment it provided a relatively accurate means for the production of small parts, especially those with flat surfaces. The skilled use of a file allowed a machinist to work to fine tolerances and was the hallmark of the craft. Today filing is rarely used as a production technique in industry, though it remains as a common method of deburring. Broaching is a machining operation used to cut keyways into shafts. Electron beam machining (EBM) is a machining process where highvelocity electrons are directed toward a work piece, creating heat and vaporizing the material. Ultrasonic machining uses ultrasonic vibrations to machine very hard or brittle materials.
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Bending is done hammering (manual or powered) or via press brakes and similar tools. Assembling (joining of the pieces) is done by welding, binding with adhesives, riveting, threaded fasteners, or even yet more bending in the form of a crimped seam. Structural steel and sheet metal are the usual starting materials for fabrication, along with the welding wire, flux, and fasteners that will join the cut pieces. As with other manufacturing processes, both human labor and automation are commonly used. The product resulting from fabrication may be called a fabrication. Shops that specialize in this type of metal work are called fab shops. The end products of other common types of metalworking, such as machining, metal stamping, forging, and casting, may be similar in shape and function, but those processes are not classified as fabrication.

Fabrication comprises or overlaps with various metalworking specialties:

Fabrication shops and machine shops have overlapping capabilities, but fabrication shops generally concentrate on metal preparation and assembly as described above. By comparison, machine shops also cut metal, but they are more concerned with the machining of parts on machine tools. Firms that encompass both fab work and machining are also common. Blacksmithing has always involved fabrication, although it was not always called by that name. The products produced by welders, which are often referred to as weldments, are an example of fabrication. Boilermakers originally specialized in boilers, leading to their trade's name, but the term as used today has a broader meaning. Similarly, millwrights originally specialized in setting up grain mills and saw mills, but today they may be called upon for a broad range of fabrication work. Ironworkers, also known as steel erectors, also engage in fabrication. Often the fabrications for structural work begin as prefabricated segments in a fab shop, then are moved to the site by truck, rail, or barge, and finally are installed by erectors.
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Raw Materials A raw material or feedstock is the basic material from which a product is manufactured or made, frequently used with an extended meaning. Cutting and burning The raw material has to be cut to size. This is done with a variety of tools. The most common way to cut material is by Shearing (metalworking); Special band saws designed for cutting metal have hardened blades and a feed mechanism for even cutting. Abrasive cut-off saws, also known as chop saws, are similar to miter saws but with a steel cutting abrasive disk. Cutting torches can cut very large sections of steel with little effort. Burn tables are CNC cutting torches, usually natural gas powered. Plasma and laser cutting tables, and Water jet cutters, are also common. Plate steel is loaded on a table and the parts are cut out as programmed. The support table is made of a grid of bars that can be replaced. Some very expensive burn tables also include CNC punch capability, with a carousel of different punches and taps. Fabrication of structural steel by plasma and laser cutting introduces robots to move the cutting head in three dimensions around the material to be cut. Forming Hydraulic brake presses with v-dies are the most common method of forming metal. The cut plate is placed in the press and a v-shaped die is pressed a predetermined distance to bend the plate to the desired angle. Wing brakes and hand powered brakes are sometimes used. Tube bending machines have specially shaped dies and mandrels to bend tubular sections without kinking them. Rolling machines are used to form plate steel into a round section.

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English Wheel or Wheeling Machines are used to form complex double curvature shapes using sheet metal. Machining Fab shops will generally have a limited machining capability including; metal lathes, mills, magnetic based drills along with other portable metal working tools. Welding Welding is the main focus of steel fabrication. The formed and machined parts will be assembled and tack welded into place then rechecked for accuracy. A fixture may be used to locate parts for welding if multiple weldments have been ordered. The welder then completes welding per the engineering drawings, if welding is detailed, or per his own judgment if no welding details are provided. Special precautions may be needed to prevent warping of the weldment due to heat. These may include re-designing the weldment to use less weld, welding in a staggered fashion, using a stout fixture, covering the weldment in sand during cooling, and straightening operations after welding. Straightening of warped steel weldments is done with an Oxyacetylene torch and is somewhat of an art. Heat is selectively applied to the steel in a slow, linear sweep. The steel will have a net contraction, upon cooling, in the direction of the sweep. A highly skilled welder can remove significant warp age using this technique. Steel weldments are occasionally annealed in a low temperature oven to relieve residual stresses. Final assembly After the weldment has cooled it is generally sand blasted, primed and painted. Any additional manufacturing specified by the customer is then completed. The finished product is then inspected and shipped.
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Press Shop
Press Shops having a variety of Hydraulic, Pneumatic and Mechanical presses with a capacity ranging from 20 Tons to 400 Tons. The operations in the press shop include shearing, blanking, stamping, piercing, bending, forming, drawing, deep drawing, coining, flaring, embossing and many other related operations.

Types of Press Hydraulic press

A hydraulic press is a machine using a hydraulic cylinder to generate a compressive force. It uses the hydraulic equivalent of a mechanical lever, and was also known as a Bramah press after the inventor, Joseph Bramah, of England. He invented and was issued a patent on this press in 1795. As Bramah he studied the existing literature on the motion of fluids and put this knowledge into the development of the press. Principle The hydraulic press depends on Pascal's principle:

the pressure throughout a closed system is constant. One part of the system is a piston acting as a pump, with a modest mechanical force acting on a small cross-sectional area; the other part is a piston with a larger area which generates a correspondingly large mechanical

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force.

Only

small-diameter tubing (which

more

easily

resists

pressure) is needed if the pump is separated from the press cylinder. Pascal's law: Pressure on a confined fluid is transmitted undiminished and acts with equal force on equal areas and at 90 degrees to the container wall. A fluid, such as oil, is displaced when either piston is pushed inward. The small piston, for a given distance of movement, displaces a smaller amount of volume than the large piston, which is proportional to the ratio of areas of the heads of the pistons. Therefore, the small piston must be moved a large distance to get the large piston to move significantly. The distance the large piston will move is the distance that the small piston is moved divided by the ratio of the areas of the heads of the pistons. This is how energy, in the form of work in this case, is conserved and the Law of Conservation of Energy is satisfied. Work is force times distance, and since the force is increased on the larger piston, the distance the force is applied over must be decreased. The pressurized fluid used, if not generated locally by a hand or mechanically-powered pump, can be obtained by opening a valve which is connected to a hydraulic accumulator or a continuouslyrunning pump whose pressure is regulated by a relief valve. When it is desired to generate more force than the available pressure would allow, or use smaller, higher-pressure cylinders to save size and weight, a hydraulic intensifier can be used to increase the pressure acting on the press cylinder. When the pressure on the press cylinder is released (the fluid returning to a reservoir), the force created in the press is reduced to a
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low value (which depends on the friction of the cylinder's seals. The main piston does not retract to its original position unless an additional mechanism is employed. Servomechanism Press A servomechanism press, also known as a servo press or a 'electro press, is a press driven by an AC servo motor. The torque produced is converted to a linear force via a ball screw. Pressure and position are controlled though a load cell and an encoder. The main advantage of a servo press is its low energy consumption; its only 1020% of other press machines. Another advantage is a quiet and clean work environment. Mechanical Presses: Mechanical presses has a mechanical flywheel to store the energy, transfer it to the punch and to the work piece. They range in size from 20 tons up to 6000 tons. Strokes range from 5 to 500 mm (0.2 to 20 in) and speeds from 20 to 1500 strokes per minute. Mechanical presses are well suited for high-speed blanking, shallow drawing and for making precision parts.

Processes in Press Shop Blanking and piercing

Blanking and piercing are shearing processes

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in which a punch and die are used to modify webs. The tooling and processes are the same between the two, only the terminology is different: in blanking the punched out piece is used and called a blank; in piercing the punched out piece is scrap. Blanking Blanking is cutting up a large sheet of stock into smaller pieces suitable for the next operation in stamping, such as drawing and forming. Often this is combined with piercing. Blanking can be as simple as a cookie cutter type die to produce prototype parts, or high speed dies that run at 1000+ strokes per minute, running coil stock which has been slit to a specified width. For production parts, the final configuration of the drawn or formed shape needs to be established before the blank die can be built-since the blank size and the slit width size needs to be established precisely.

Piercing Piercing is the operation of cutting internal features (holes or slots) in stock. Piercing can also be combined with other operations such as lance and form (to make a small feature such as tab), pierce and

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extrude (to make an extruded hole). All these operations can be combined with blanking. Piercing of all the holes is best done together to ensure good hole-tohole tolerance and part repeatability. However if the material distorts, the method described below can be done. When there are large numbers of holes, in a tight pitch, there could be distortions, due to the high amount of tension on the upper surface due to stretching and compression on the bottom surface. This causes the material not to lay flat. This can be avoided/lessened by staggering the piercing of the holes. Holes are punched in a staggered pattern; then the other holes are punched in the alternate staggered pattern.

Stamping Stamping, is a forming process that utilizes a series of stamping stations to perform simultaneous

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operations on sheet metal. The final metal work piece is developed as the strip of metal is processed through the stamping die. The progressive die stamping process characteristics include:

The utilization of multiple cutting and/or forming operations simultaneously, Excellent suitability to produce small work pieces at a rapid rate, The necessity to invest in expensive die sets, The ability to save time and money by combining forming operations, The capability to maintain close tolerances, depending on the tools.

The illustration that follows provides a two-dimensional look at a typical progressive die metal drawing process in two steps one open die and one closed die. As the metal strip is moved through the drawing process, it is exposed to a series of progressive die stations, each one changing the metal configuration left on the metal by the previous station. Therefore, the metal workpiece is created in a series of stamping stages. Notching Notching is a piercing operation that removes material from the edge of the workpiece. Nibbling The nibbling process cuts a contour by producing a series of overlapping slits or notches. This allows for complex shapes to be formed in sheet metal up to 6 mm (0.25 in) thick using simple tools. The nibbler is essentially a small punch and die that reciprocates

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quickly; around 300900 times per minute. Punches are available in various shape and sizes; oblong and rectangular punches are common because they minimize waste and allow for greater distances between strokes, as compared to a round punch. Nibbling can occur on the exterior or interior of the material, however interior cuts require a hole to insert the tool. The process is often used on parts that do not have quantities that can justify a dedicated blanking die. The edge smoothness is determined by the shape of the cutting die and the amount the cuts overlap; naturally the more the cuts overlap the cleaner the edge. For added accuracy and smoothness most shapes created by nibbling undergo filing or grinding processes after completion. Shaving The shaving process is a finishing operation where a small amount of metal is sheared away from an already blanked part. Its main purpose is to obtain better dimensional accuracy, but secondary purposes include squaring the edge and smoothing the edge. Blanked parts can be shaved to an accuracy of up to 0.025 mm (0.001 in). Trimming The trimming operation is the last operation performed because it cuts away excess or unwanted irregular features from the workpiece. Cutoff The cutoff process is used to separate a stamping or other product from a strip or stock. This operation is very common with progressive die sequences. The cutoff operation often produces the periphery counter to the workpiece

Bending Bending is a process by which metal can be deformed by plastically deforming the material and changing its shape. The material is

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stressed beyond the yield strength but below the ultimate tensile strength. The surface area of the material does not change much. Bending usually refers to deformation about one axis. Bending is a flexible process by which many different shapes can be produced. Standard die sets are used to produce a wide variety of shapes. The material is placed on the die, and positioned in place with stops and/or gages. It is held in place with hold-downs. The upper part of the press, the ram with the appropriately shaped punch descends and forms the v-shaped bend. Bending is done using Press Brakes. Press Brakes normally have a capacity of 20 to 200 tons to accommodate stock from 1m to 4.5m (3 feet to 15 feet). Larger and smaller presses are used for specialized applications. Programmable back gages, and multiple die sets available currently can make for a very economical process. Types There are three basic types of bending on a press brake, each is defined by the relationship of the end tool position to the thickness of the material. These three are Air Bending, Bottoming and Coining. The configuration of the tools for these three types of bending is nearly identical. A die with a long rail form toolwith a radiused tip that locates the inside profile of the bend is called a punch. Punches are usually attached to the ram of the machine by clamps and move to produce the bending force. A die with a long rail form tool that has concave or V shaped lengthwise channel that locate the outside profile of the form is called a die. Dies are usually stationary and located under the material on the bed of the machine. Note that some locations do not differentiate between the two different kinds of dies (punches and dies.) The other types of bending listed use specially designed tools or machines to perform the work.

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Air bending This bending method forms material by pressing a punch (also called the upper or top die) into the material, forcing it into a bottom V-die, which is mounted on the press. The punch forms the bend so that the distance between the punch and the side wall of the V is greater than the material thickness (T). Either a V-shaped or square opening may be used in the bottom die (dies are frequently referred to as tools or tooling). A set of top and bottom dies are made for each product or part produced on the press. Because it requires less bend force, air bending tends to use smaller tools than other methods. Some of the newer bottom tools are adjustable, so, by using a single set of top and bottom tools and varying press-stroke depth, different profiles and products can be produced. Different materials and thicknesses can be bent in varying bend angles, adding the advantage of flexibility to air bending. There are also fewer tool changes, thus, higher productivity. A disadvantage of air bending is that, because the sheet does not stay in full contact with the dies, it is not as precise as some other methods, and stroke depth must be kept very accurate. Variations in the thickness of the material and wear on the tools can result in defects in parts produced. Depending on material properties, the sheet may be overbended to compensate for springback. Air bending does not require the bottom tool to have the same radius as the punch. Bend radius is determined by material elasticity rather than tool shape. The flexibility and relatively low tonnage required by air bending are helping to make it a popular choice. Quality problems associated with this method are countered by angle-measuring systems, clamps and crowning systems adjustable along the x and y axes, and wearresistant tools.

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The K-Factor approximations given below are more likely to be accurate for air bending than the other types of bending due to the lower forces involved in the forming process. Bottoming In bottoming, the sheet is forced against the V opening in the bottom tool. U-shaped openings cannot be used. Space is left between the sheet and the bottom of the V opening. The optimum width of the V opening is 6 T (T stands for material thickness) for sheets about 3 mm thick, up to about 12 T for 12 mm thick sheets. The bending radius must be at least 0.8 T to 2 T for sheet steel. Larger bend radius require about the same force as larger radii in air bending, however, smaller radii require greater forceup to five times as much than air bending. Advantages of bottoming include greater accuracy and less springback. A disadvantage is that a different tool set is needed for each bend angle, sheet thickness, and material. In general, air bending is the preferred technique Coining In coining, the top tool forces the material into the bottom die with five to 30 times the force of air bending, causing permanent deformation through the sheet. There is little, if any, spring back. Coining can produce an inside radius is as low as 0.4 T, with a 5 T width of the V opening. While coining can attain high precision, higher costs mean that it is not often used. Three-point bending Three-point bending is a newer process that uses a die with an adjustable-height bottom tool, moved by a servo motor. The height can be set within 0.01 mm. Adjustments between the ram and the upper tool are made using a hydraulic cushion, which accommodates deviations in sheet thickness. Three-point bending can achieve bend angles with 0.25 deg. precision. While three-point bending permits high flexibility and precision, it also entails high costs and there are fewer tools readily available. It is being used mostly in high-value niche markets.

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Bottoming or Coining is the bending process where the punch and the work piece bottom on the die. This makes for a controlled angle with very little spring back. The tonnage required on this type of press is more than in air bending. The inner radius of the work piece should be a minimum of 1 material thickness in the case of bottoming; and upto 0.75 material thickness, in the case of coining.

Draw

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Drawing is a metalworking process which uses tensile forces to stretch metal. It is broken up into two types: sheet metal drawing and wire, bar, and tube drawing. The specific definition for sheet metal drawing is that it involves plastic deformation over a curved axis. For wire, bar, and tube drawing the starting stock is drawn through a die to reduce its diameter and increase its length. Drawing is usually done at room temperature, thus classified a cold working process, however it may be performed at elevated temperatures to hot work large wires, rods or hollow sections in order to reduce forces. Sheet metal The success of forming is in relation to two things, the flow and stretch of material. As a die forms a shape from a flat sheet of metal, there is a need for the material to move into the shape of the die. The flow of material is controlled through pressure applied to the blank and lubrication applied to the die or the blank. If the form moves too easily, wrinkles will occur in the part. To correct this, more pressure or less lubrication is applied to the blank to limit the flow of material and cause the material to stretch or thin. If too much pressure is applied, the part will become too thin and break. Drawing metal is the science of finding the correct balance between wrinkles and breaking to achieve a successful part. Deep draw Sheet metal drawing becomes deep drawing when the workpiece is drawing longer than its diameter. It is common that the workpiece is also processed using other forming processes, such as piercing, ironing, necking, rolling, and beading. Bar, tube & wire Bar, tube, and wire drawing all work upon the same principle: the starting stock drawn through a die to reduce the diameter and increase the length. Usually the die is mounted on a draw bench. The end of the work piece is reduced or pointed to get the end through the die. The end is then placed in grips and the rest of the workpiece is pulled through the die. Steels, copper alloys, and aluminum alloys are common materials that are drawn.

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Drawing can also be used to produce a cold formed shaped crosssection. Cold drawn cross-sections are more precise and have a better surface finish than hot extruded parts. Inexpensive materials can be used instead of expensive alloys for strength requirements, due to work hardening. Bar drawing Bars or rods that are drawn cannot be coiled therefore straight-pull draw benches are used. Chain drives are used to draw work pieces up to 30 m (98 ft). Hydraulic cylinders are used for shorter length work pieces. The reduction in area is usually restricted to 20 to 50%, because greater reductions would exceed the tensile strength of the material, depending on its ductility. To achieve a certain size or shape multiple passes through progressively smaller dies or intermediate anneals may be required. Tube drawing Tube drawing is very similar to bar drawing, except the beginning stock is a tube. It is used to decrease the diameter, improve surface finish and improve dimensional accuracy. A mandrel may or may not be used depending on the specific process used. Wire drawing This technique has long been used to produce flexible metal wire by drawing the material through a series of dies of decreasing size. These dies are manufactured from a number of materials, the most common being tungsten carbide and diamond Notching Notching is a metal-cutting process used on sheet metal or thin bar stock, sometimes on angle sections or tube. A shearing or punching process is used in a press, so as to cut vertically down and perpendicular to the surface, working from the edge of a workpiece. Sometimes the goal is merely the notch itself, but usually this is a precursor to some other process: such as bending a corner in sheet
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or joining two tubes at a tee joint, notching one to fit closely to the other. Notching is a low-cost process, particularly for its low tooling costs with a small range of standard punches. The capital cost of the punch press can be expensive though, so small fabrication shops often outsource their notching work to a press shop or notching specialist. Notching of large or heavy sections, particularly for large tube fabrication or HVAC, is increasingly carried out by plasma cutting rather than punch tools. The accuracy of punch notching is good, depending on the care with which it's carried out. For manual folding work, prior notching can often improve resultant accuracy of the folding itself. The speed of notching is usually limited by manual handling when loading the work pieces into the press. Pieces some feet long may be manually loaded into a single-stroke press. Smaller pieces are still generally hand-fed, limiting speeds to perhaps 100 strokes / minute. Almost any workable metal can be notched. It's particularly suitable where the metal is otherwise awkward to drill, such as stainless steels, titanium or previously heat-treated aluminum alloys. Tube notching Tube notching is commonly performed before joining light-gauge tubes to make a tee or similar joint, as by welding. Either one or both tubes may be notched before assembly. A familiar example of tube notching is in the manufacture of bicycle frames. End notching works the end of the tube, such as a semicircular concavity to make the base of a tee, or a convex vee to fit into a mitre.

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Side notching (also called offset notching) works the side of a tube with a vee notch for bending, semicircular or vee notches for tee joint. Tube being hollow, it's not practical to use a simple punch operation to notch it, as it would be squashed. Although punching is possible, it requires support mandrels and awkward handling. Where tube is worked with a punch press other than for side notching, this is generally described as slotting. Tube notching for fabrication of circular tube is thus most commonly done with a rotary hole saw in which a hole saw of the diameter of the tube being attached to is fed into the stock to be notched at a semiperpendicular angle. This produces a semi-circular notch. Rather than using large presses, such saw notching may simple jig, also making it suitable for on-site working. A much more accurate way of notching the end of tube stock is to use a specially made milling cutter called an end mill. The stock to be notched is clamped into a vise and can then be fed slowly and accurately into a rotating, hardened metal, end mill. The equipment required for this method is considerably more expensive than the hole saw method and does not lend well to the same portability of the hole saw method as the machine is usually bolted to the floor for stability and safety reasons. This method of end notching is much faster and thus greatly minimizes the chance of damaging the stock either by warping due to heat build up or by squashing as can still happen with a hole saw. Notching in thin-wall tube may also be carried out by abrasive tools, reducing some of the risk of damage from a hole saw snatching. This also allows more complex shapes to be performed, such as vee notches. In some cases, a helical end mill cutter may be used. Computer numerical control (CNC) notching is enabling designers to work with more complex geometries

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Notch and bend Vee notches in tube, particularly square tube, may be cut so deep as to cut almost through the tube: three sides of a square tube. This then allows the tube to be bent into a mitred corner, usually finished by welding. On a smaller scale for jewellery making, this operation is performed by hand-filing precious-metal strip before bending and soldering to make box frames or stone mounts. Embossing Sheet metal embossing is a process for producing raised or sunken designs or relief in sheet metal. This process can be made by means of matched male and female roller dies, or by passing sheet or a strip of metal between rolls of the desired pattern. The metal sheet embossing operation is commonly accomplished with a combination of heat and pressure on the sheet metal depending on what type of embossing is required. Theoretically, with any of these procedures, the metal thickness has changed in its composition. Metal sheet is drawn through the male and female roller dies producing a pattern or design on the metal sheet. Depending on the roller dies used, different patterns can be produced on the metal sheet. This pressure and a combination of heat actually "irons" while raising the level of the image higher than the substrate to make it smooth. The term "impressing" enables one to distinguish an image lowered into the surface of a material, in distinction to an image raised out of the surface of a material In most of the pressure embossing operation machines, the upper roll blocks are stationary, while the bottom roll blocks are movable. The pressure with which the bottom roll is raised is referred to as the tonnage capacity. Embossing machines are generally sized to give 2" of strip clearance on each side of an engraved embossing roll. Many embossing machines are custom-manufactured, so there are no industrystandard widths. It is not uncommon to find embossing machines in
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operation producing patterns less than 6" wide all the way up to machines producing patterns 70"+ wide. Characteristics The ability to form ductile metals Use in medium to high production runs The ability to maintain the same metal thickness before and after embossing The ability to produce unlimited patterns, depending on the roll dies The ability to reproduce product with no variation Welding Shop Welding Projection Shop infrastructure and brazing includes MIG Welding, Spot Welding, Welding machines. Apart from highly skilled manpower, the company has got a Special Purpose Machine and Welding ROBOT leading to automation in Welding. Welding has now become a specialization at the company with high quality Welding and Welded components. Welding shop infrastructure includes MIG Welding, Spot Welding, Projection Welding and brazing machines. Apart from highly skilled manpower, the company has got a host of Special Purpose Machines and Welding Robot leading to automation in Welding. Welding has now become a specialization at the company with high quality Welding and Welded components. Welding is the process of permanently joining two or more metal parts, by melting both materials. The molten materials quickly cool,

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and the two metals are permanently bonded. Spot welding and seam welding are two very popular methods used for sheet metal parts. Spot welding is primarily used for joining parts that normally upto 3 mm (0.125 in) thickness. Spot-weld diameters range from 3 mm to 12.5 mm (0.125 to 0.5 in) in diameter Types of Welding Welding permanently joins materials together without using fittings. There are three basic types of welding methods: TIG welding, MIG welding and stick welding. Most methods of welding employ shielding gases to improve weld quality and smoothness of the weld. They also prevent weld point contamination as well as stabilize the arc of electricity between the welding electrode and the workload. Each method offers advantages and disadvantages. Arc Welding Stick welding, also known as shielded metal arc welding, was one of the earliest methods of welding. frequently affect weld Stick used welding is outdoors Stick

because rain and wind will not quality. welding is used on piping and bridges as well as to fix tractors and create art. A workload does not even need to be clean for using this method of welding. However, many stick welding electrodes don't penetrate the material very deeply. Also, only a few inches of welds can be made before an electrode needs
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replacing. Stick welding requires a very high level of skill to produce quality welds. MIG Welding MIG welding (gas metal arc welding) is most often used with steel. MIG welders do not have to start and stop too often while welding, which allows for long, uninterrupted welds. This method of welding is relatively clean, creating only a little spatter while welds are made. Drawbacks linked with MIG welding include the possibility of excessive melt-through and incomplete joint penetration or fusion. Sometimes, it can be difficult to create a starting arc in MIG welding. MIG welds are known to leave deposits that are heavily oxidized. TIG Welding TIG welding (gas tungsten arc welding) is often employed to make welds on nickel alloys, magnesium, aluminum, titanium and copper alloys. TIG welds can be made with or without metal fillers, unlike MIG welding, which exclusively employs filler metals to create welds. TIG welding pinpoints heat better than MIG welding, allowing for smaller,

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more precise welding. However, TIG welds can take longer to complete than MIG welds. In addition, TIG welding is a very clean process, creating no spatter whatsoever while a weld is being made. Despite the many benefits of TIG welding, there are a number of drawbacks similar to the drawbacks linked with MIG welding. They include excessive melt-through, incomplete fusion or joint penetration, and difficulty in producing a starting arc. Gas welding Definition Metal joining process in which the ends of pieces to be joined are heated at their interface by producing coalescenc e with one or more gas flames (such as oxygen and acetylene), with or without the use of a filler metal. In gas welding, the heat to produce fusion of the parent metal and filler rod is provided by burning a suitable gas in oxygen or air. A number of gases can be used but Oxygen and acetylene acetylene is the most popular, since it burns in oxygen and gives a high flame temperature of 3100 o - 3200o. C. . stored in cylinders under pressure are passed through flexible tubes to the torch, which is either hand-operated or mechanically manipulated. properties. By adjusting the proportions of oxygen or acetylene For most materials a neutral flame is used but, for the flame can be neutral, or have either reducing or oxidizing welding high carbon steel, or aluminum and its alloys an oxidizing
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flame is used as, by these means, the volatilization of the zinc is suppressed. The capital cost of oxyacetylene equipment is low compare with that for arc welding. The equipment is also easily portable and the process is very versatile. considerable amount However, its comparative slowness of welding to be done. means that it is more expensive than arc welding if there is a

Oxyacetylene welding requires the following equipment. 1) A cylinder of oxygen (full pressure about 15MPa) 2) a cylinder of acetylene (full pressure about 1,7 3) Pressure regulator valves for each cylinder 4) Hoses to transfer gas flow to torch. 5) Welding torch with various sizes of torch tips The gas pressures at the torch are each regulated to be about 7 to 70 kPa.

Spot welding
Spot welding is a process in which contacting metal surfaces are joined by the heat obtained from resistance to electric current flow. Work-pieces are held together under pressure exerted by electrodes. Typically the sheets are in the 0.5 to 3 mm (0.020 to 0.12 in) thickness range. The process uses two

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shaped copper alloy electrodes to concentrate welding current into a small "spot" and to simultaneously clamp the sheets together. Forcing a large current through the spot will melt the metal and form the weld. The attractive feature of spot welding is a lot of energy can be delivered to the spot in a very short time (approximately ten milliseconds). That permits the welding to occur without excessive heating to the rest of the sheet. The amount of heat (energy) delivered to the spot is determined by the resistance between the electrodes and the amperage and duration of the current. The amount of energy is chosen to match the sheet's material properties, its thickness, and type of electrodes. Applying too little energy won't melt the metal or will make a poor weld. Applying too much energy will melt too much metal, eject molten material, and make a hole rather than a weld. [4] Another attractive feature of spot welding is the energy delivered to the spot can be controlled to produce reliable welds. Projection welding Projection welding is a modification of spot welding. In this process the weld is localized by means of raised sections, or projections, on one or both of the work pieces to be joined. Heat is concentrated at the projections, which permits the welding of heavier sections or the closer spacing of welds. The projections can also serve as a means of positioning the work pieces. Projection welding is often used to weld studs, nuts, and other screw machine parts to metal plate. It's also frequently used to join crossed wires and bars. This is another high-production process, and multiple projection welds can be arranged by suitable designing and jigging
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Machine Shop
The Machining Shops at the company have a host of precision machines required for the high quality components produced. The machines include CNC, automatic, semi automatic and manual machine. The machining facilities include Gear Hobbing, Milling, Broaching, Rolling, Tapping, Turning, Centreless Grinding, Cylindrical Grinding and other regular machines Gear Hobbing Hobbing is for a machining process making gears, splines, a hobbing

and sprockets on

machine, which is a special type of milling machine. The teeth or splines are progressively cut into the workpiece by a series of cuts made by a cutting tool called a hob. Compared to other gear forming processes it is relatively inexpensive but still quite accurate, thus it is used for a broad range of parts and quantities. It is the most widely used gear cutting process for creating spur and helical gears and more gears are cut by hobbing than any other process since it is relatively quick and inexpensive

Milling

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Milling is the most common form of machining, a material removal process, which can create a variety of features on a part by cutting away the unwanted material. The milling process requires a milling machine, work piece, fixture, and cutter. The work piece is a piece of preshaped material that is secured to the fixture, which itself is attached to a platform inside the milling machine. The cutter is a cutting tool with sharp teeth that is also secured in the milling machine and rotates at high speeds. By feeding the work piece into the rotating cutter, material is cut away from this work piece in the form of small chips to create the desired shape.

Milling is typically used to produce parts that are not axially symmetric and have many features, such as holes, slots, pockets, and even three dimensional surface contours. Parts that are fabricated completely through milling often include components that are used in limited quantities, perhaps for prototypes, such as custom designed fasteners or brackets. Another application of milling is the fabrication of tooling for other processes. For example, three-dimensional molds are typically milled. Milling is also commonly used as a secondary process to add or refine features on parts that were manufactured using a different process. Due to the high tolerances and surface finishes that milling can offer, it is ideal for adding precision features to a part whose basic shape has already been formed.

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Broaching Broaching is a machining process that uses a toothed tool, called a broach, to remove material. There are two main types of broaching: linear and rotary. In linear broaching, which is the more common process, the broach is run linearly against a surface of the work piece to effect the cut. Linear broaches are used in a broaching machine, which is also sometimes shortened to broach. In rotary broaching, the broach is rotated and pressed into the work piece to cut an axis symmetric shape. A rotary broach is used in a lathe or screw machine. In both processes the cut is performed in one pass of the broach, which makes it very efficient. Broaching is used when precision machining is required, especially for odd shapes. Commonly machined surfaces include circular and non-circular holes, splines, keyways, and flat surfaces. Typical work pieces include small to medium sized castings, forgings, screw machine parts, and stampings. Even though broaches can be expensive, broaching is usually favored over other processes when used for high-quantity production runs.[1] Broaches are shaped similar to a saw, except the teeth height increases over the length of the tool. Moreover, the broach contains three distinct sections: one for roughing, another for semi-finishing, and the final one for finishing. Broaching is an unusual machining process because it has the feed built into the tool. The profile of the machined surface is always the inverse of the profile of the broach. The rise per tooth (RPT), also known as the step or feed per tooth,
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determines the amount of material removed and the size of the chip. The broach can be moved relative to the workpiece or vice-versa. Because all of the features are built into the broach no complex motion or skilled labor is required to use it. [2] A broach is effectively a collection of single-point cutting tools arrayed in sequence, cutting one after the other; its cut is analogous to multiple passes of a shaper.

Rolling
In metalworking, rolling is a metal forming process in which metal stock is passed through a pair of rolls. Rolling is classified according to the temperature of the metal rolled. If the temperature of the metal is above its recrystallization temperature, then the process is termed as hot rolling. If the temperature of the metal is below its recrystallization temperature, the process is termed as cold rolling. In terms of usage, hot rolling processes more tonnage than any other manufacturing process and cold rolling processes the most tonnage out of all cold working processes.[1][2] There are many types of, ring rolling, roll bending, roll forming, profile rolling, and controlled rolling.

Tapping & Threading

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Taps A tap cuts a thread on the inside surface of a hole, creating a female surface which functions like a nut. There are three basic types of tap commonly used in the shop:

Bottoming Tap: has a continuous cutting edge with no taper. This feature enables a bottoming tap to cut threads to the bottom of a blind hole. A bottoming tap is never used to cut threads in an unthreaded hole, as the cutting edges lack the taper required to successfully start into such a hole. Plug Tap: Also known as an intermediate tap, it has tapered cutting edges, which assist in aligning and starting the tap into an untapped hole. Plug taps are the most commonly used type of tap in the shop and can be found out on the shop floor in various sizes at all times. Taper Tap: very similar to a plug tap but has a more pronounced taper to the cutting edges. This feature gives the taper tap a very gradual cutting action that is less aggressive than that of the plug tap. A taper tap is most often used when the material to be tapped is difficult to work (e.g., alloy steel) or the tap is of a very small diameter and thus prone to breakage.

The taps used in the shop are all hand taps, since they are, by design, intended to be manually operated. During operation, it is necessary with a hand tap to periodically reverse rotation to break the chip formed during the cutting process, thus preventing an effect called "crowding" that may cause tap breakage.

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Threads can be either cut with a tap and/or die (see above) or chased manually. In order to cut your own threads, internal or external, it's important to know both the major and minor diameter of the threads you want to cut. Turning Turning is a form of machining, a material removal process, which is used to create rotational parts by cutting away unwanted material. The turning process requires a turning machine or lathe, workpiece, fixture, and cutting tool. The workpiece is a piece of pre-shaped material that is secured to the fixture, which itself is attached to the turning machine, and allowed to rotate at high speeds. The cutter is typically a single-point cutting tool that is also secured in the machine, although some operations make use of multipoint tools. The cutting tool feeds into the rotating workpiece and cuts away material in the form of small chips to create the desired shape. Turning is used to produce rotational, typically axi-symmetric, parts that have many features, such as holes, grooves, threads, tapers, various diameter steps, and even contoured surfaces. Parts that are fabricated completely through turning often include components that are used in limited quantities, perhaps for prototypes, such as custom designed shafts and fasteners. Turning is also commonly used as a
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secondary process to add or refine features on parts that were manufactured using a different process. Due to the high tolerances and surface finishes that turning can offer, it is ideal for adding precision rotational features to a part whose basic shape has already been formed. Grinding process For material removal, the method used in grinding is called abrasion. In other words, in grinding, an abrasive material rubs against the metal part and clears or removes tiny pieces of material. The process implies that instead of cutting like a lathe bit, the material is slowly and steadily worn away. This is because compared to the material being ground, the abrasive is harder. The grinding wheel actually acts like many hundreds of very small lathe bit, each cutting off some metal. The abrasive must be strong enough to bear any kind of forces acting upon it while grinding. Usually some sort of impact shock occurs when the abrasive comes in contact with the material. Grinding abrades material in a way similar to sanding. The grinding operation is performed on a several machines like the lathe and the mill, with the appropriate add-on accessories, the most important of which is the spindle. Why grinding is necessary? Grinding is necessary for the following reasons:

The material is too hard to be machined economically. If the surface is adequately supported, grinding can produce flatness tolerances of less than 0.0001 in. (0.0025 mm) on a 5 x 5 in. (127 x 127 mm) steel surface.
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Machining removes excessive material. Grinding should be used when size tolerance specifications are Beyond the capability of turning. It is also applied if the requirements of surface finish are too Tight for hard turning.

Types of grinding Grinding can be of various types, like as follows:

Surface grinding Centered grinding Centerless grinding Contour grinding

Surface grinding This is perhaps the most fundamental of operations. Surface grinding is the process of providing precision ground surfaces either to a critical size or for the surface finish. In other words, it accurately processes or grounds a surface. Parts require surface grinding for various reasons like:

Produce a flat surface. For specifying accurate tolerance thickness. A very smooth surface roughness is required. For sharpening of cutting tool.

Centered grinding

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In this type of grinding, the grinding is performed at the center. There are two types of centered grinding-OD grinding and ID grinding. In Outside Diameter (OD) grinding , the work piece has center drilled ends, accommodating center points and surface is removed by rotating the grinder's face plate. With OD grinding the work piece and the grinding wheel moves or rotates in clockwise directions. Inside Diameter (ID) grinding is performed on tubular parts that are generally held in a chuck or collet. The grinding wheel turns at very high speed to maintain the proper surface speed but it moves anticlockwise.

Centerless grinding
Centerless grinding is a method of material removal through grinding, similar to centered grinding except for the absence of the spindle. It has high throughput, i.e., a large number of parts can be manufactured in a short time. The work piece is set up between the regulating wheel (or back up wheel) and the grinding wheel, and is supported by the work blade or work rest. The work rest is located between the wheels. The work is placed on the work rest, and the latter together with the regulating wheel is fed forward forcing the work against the grinding wheel. Axial movement of the work past the grinding wheel is accomplished by tilting the regulating wheel at a slight angle from horizontal. An angular adjustment of 0 to 8 or 10 degrees is provided in the machine for this purpose. Centerless grinding is classified into two types:

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Through feed grinding - the work piece is fed into the machine along the work blade Plunge grinding - the work piece is placed between the wheels on a work blade and the grinding wheel is plunged into the work piece.

Some ability

of to

the grind

benefits parts

of with

centerless grinding include the geometries that do not allow them to be OD ground, the ability to remove three, five and other odd numbered lobbing on the shaft of a part, and to maintain size beyond what is typically capable of an OD grinder due to the low overall pressures spaced out along the work piece.

Standard Room
Coordinate Measuring Machine A coordinate measuring machine is a 3D device for measuring the physical geometrical characteristics of an object. This machine may be manually controlled by an operator or it may be computer controlled. Measurements are defined by a probe attached to the third moving axis of this machine. Probes may be mechanical, optical, laser, or white light, amongst others. or a machine which takes reading in six degree of freedom and give reading in mathamatical form is known as cmm.

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Description The typical 3 "bridge" CMM is composed of three axes, an X, Y and Z. These axes are orthogonal to each other in a typical three dimensional coordinate system. Each axis has a scale system that indicates the location of that axis. The machine will read the input from the touch probe, as directed by the operator or programmer. The machine then uses the X,Y,Z coordinates of each of these points to determine size and position with micrometre precision typically. A coordinate measuring machine (CMM) is also a device used in manufacturing and assembly processes to test a part or assembly against the design intent. By precisely recording the X, Y, and Z coordinates of the target, points are generated which can then be analyzed via regression algorithms for the construction of features. These points are collected by using a probe that is positioned manually by an operator or automatically via Direct Computer Control (DCC). DCC CMMs can be programmed to repeatedly measure identical parts, thus a CMM is a specialized form of industrial robot. Parts Coordinate-measuring machines include three main components:

The main structure which include three axes of motion Probing system Data collection and reduction system - typically includes a machine controller, desktop computer and application software.

Uses They are often used for:

Dimensional measurement Pr DMIS standard

The machines are available in a wide range of sizes and designs with a variety of different probe technologies. They can be operated manually or automatically through Direct Computer Control (DCC). They are offered in various configurations such as benchtop, freestanding, handheld and portable.
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Specific parts Machine body The first CMM was developed by the Ferranti Company of Scotland in the 1950s as the result of a direct need to measure precision components in their military products, although this machine only had 2 axes. The first 3-axis models began appearing in the 1960s (DEA of Italy) and computer control debuted in the early 1970s (Sheffield of the USA). Leitz Germany subsequently produced a fixed machine structure with moving table. In modern machines, the gantry type superstructure has two legs and is often called a bridge. This moves freely along the granite table with one leg (often referred to as the inside leg) following a guide rail attached to one side of the granite table. The opposite leg (often outside leg) simply rests on the granite table following the vertical surface contour. Air bearings are the chosen method for ensuring friction free travel. In these, compressed air is forced through a series of very small holes in a flat bearing surface to provide a smooth but controlled air cushion on which the CMM can move in a frictionless manner. The movement of the bridge or gantry along the granite table forms one axis of the XY plane. The bridge of the gantry contains a carriage which traverses between the inside and outside legs and forms the other X or Y horizontal axis. The third axis of movement (Z axis) is provided by the addition of a vertical quill or spindle which moves up and down through the center of the carriage. The touch probe forms the sensing device on the end of the quill. The movement of the X, Y and Z axes fully describes the measuring envelope. Optional rotary tables can be used to enhance the approachability of the measuring probe to complicated workpieces. The rotary table as a fourth drive axis does not enhance the measuring dimensions, which remain 3D, but it does provide a degree of flexibility. Some touch probes are themselves powered rotary devices with the probe tip able to swivel vertically through 90 degrees and through a full 360 degree rotation. As well as the traditional three axis machines (as pictured above), CMMs are now also available in a variety of other forms. These include CMM arms that use angular measurements taken at the joints

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of the arm to calculate the position of the stylus tip. Such arm CMMs are often used where their portability is an advantage over traditional fixed bed CMMs. Because CMM arms imitate the flexibility of a human arm they are also often able to reach the insides of complex parts that could not be probed using a standard three axis machine. Mechanical probe In the early days of coordinate measurement mechanical probes were fitted into a special holder on the end of the quill. A very common probe was made by soldering a hard ball to the end of a shaft. This was ideal for measuring a whole range of flat, cylindrical or spherical surfaces. Other probes were ground to specific shapes, for example a quadrant, to enable measurement of special features. These probes were physically held against the workpiece with the position in space being read from a 3-Axis digital readout (DRO) or, in more advanced systems, being logged into a computer by means of a footswitch or similar device. Measurements taken by this contact method were often unreliable as machines were moved by hand and each machine operator applied different amounts of pressure on the probe or adopted differing techniques for the measurement A further development was the addition of motors for driving each axis. Operators no longer had to physically touch the machine but could drive each axis using a handbox with joysticks in much the same way as with modern remote controlled cars. Measurement accuracy and precision improved dramatically with the invention of the electronic touch trigger probe. The pioneer of this new probe device was David McMurtry who subsequently formed what is now Renishaw plc. Although still a contact device, the probe had a spring-loaded steel ball (later ruby ball) stylus. As the probe touched the surface of the component the stylus deflected and simultaneously sent the X.Y,Z coordinate information to the computer. Measurement errors caused by individual operators became fewer and the stage was set for the introduction of CNC operations and the coming of age of CMMs.
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Motorised automated probe head with electronic touch trigger probe Optical probes are lens-CCD-systems, which are moved like the mechanical ones, and are aimed at the point of interest, instead of touching the material. The captured image of the surface will be enclosed in the borders of a measuring window, until the residue is adequate to contrast between black and white zones. The dividing curve can be calculated to a point, which is the wanted measuring point in space. The horizontal information on the CCD is 2D (XY) and the vertical position is the position of the complete probing system on the stand Z-drive (or other device component). This allows entire 3Dprobing. New Probing Systems There are newer models that have probes that drag along the surface of the part taking points at specified intervals, known as scanning probes. This method of CMM inspection is often more accurate than the conventional touch-probe method and most times faster as well. The next generation of scanning, known as non-contact scanning includes high speed laser single point triangulation, laser line scanning, and white light scanning, is advancing very quickly. This method uses either laser beams or white light that are projected against the surface of the part. Many thousands of points can then be taken and used to not only check size and position, but to create a 3D image of the part as well. This "point-cloud data" can then be transferred to CAD software to create a working 3D model of the part. These optical scanners often used on soft or delicate parts or to facilitate reverse engineering. Micro metrology Probes: Probing systems for micro scale metrology applications are another emerging area There are several commercially available coordinate measuring machines (CMM) that have a microprobe integrated into the system, several specialty systems at government laboratories, and any number of university built metrology platforms for microscale metrology. Although these machines are good and in many cases excellent metrology platforms with nanometric scales their primary limitation is a reliable, robust, capable micro/nano probe. Challenges
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for microscale probing technologies include the need for a high aspect ratio probe giving the ability to access deep, narrow features with low contact forces so as to not damage the surface and high precision (nanometer level).Additionally microscale probes are susceptible to environmental conditions such as humidity and surface interactions such as stiction (caused by adhesion, meniscus, and/or Van der Waals forces among others). Technologies to achieve microscale probing include scaled down version of classical CMM probes, optical probes, and a standing wave probe among others. However, current optical technologies cannot be scaled small enough to measure deep, narrow feature, and optical resolution is limited by the wavelength of light. X-ray imaging provides a picture of the feature but no traceable metrology information. Physical Principles: Optical probes and/or laser probes can be used (if possible in combination), which change CMMs to measuring microscopes or multi-sensor measuring machines. Fringe projection systems, theodolite triangulation systems or laser distant and triangulation systems are not called measuring machines, but the measuring result is the same: a space point. Laser probes are used to detect the distance between the surface and the reference point on the end of the kinematic chain (i.e.: end of the Z-drive component). This can use an interferometrical function, focus variation, light deflection or a half beam shadowing principle. Portable Coordinate Measuring Machines Portable CMMs are different from "traditional CMMs" in that they most commonly take the form of an articulated arm. These arms have six or seven rotary axes with rotary encoders, instead of linear axes. Portable arms are lightweight (typically less than 20 pounds) and can be carried and used nearly anywhere. The inherent trade-offs of a portable CMM are manual operation (always requires a human to use it), and overall accuracy is somewhat to much less accurate than a bridge type CMM. Certain non-repetitive applications such as reverse

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engineering, rapid prototyping, and large-scale inspection of lowvolume parts are ideally suited for portable CMMs. Multi-Sensor Measuring Machines Traditional CMM technology using touch probes is today often combined with other measurement technology. This includes laser, video or white light sensors to provide what is known as multi-sensor measurement. Radius Gauge A radius gauge, also known as a fillet gauge, is a tool used to measure the radius of an object. Radius gauges require a bright light behind the object to be measured. The gauge is placed against the edge to be checked and any light leakage between the blade and edge indicates a mismatch that requires correction. A good set of gauges will offer both convex and concave sections, and allow for their application in awkward locations.

Calliper

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A caliper (British spelling also calliper, in technical and formal use a pair of callipers) is a device used to measure the distance between two opposing sides of an object. A caliper can be as simple as a compass with inward or outward-facing points. The tips of the caliper are adjusted to fit across the points to be measured, the caliper is then removed and the distance read by measuring between the tips with a measuring tool, such as a ruler. It is used in many fields such as mechanical engineering, metalworking, woodworking, science and medicine. Types Inside caliper The inside calipers are used to measure the internal size of an object.

The upper caliper in the image (at the right) requires manual adjustment prior to fitting, fine setting of this caliper type is performed by tapping the caliper legs lightly on a handy surface until they will almost pass over the object. A light push against the resistance of the central pivot screw then spreads the legs to the correct dimension and provides the required, consistent feel that ensures a repeatable measurement. The lower caliper in the image has an adjusting screw that permits it to be carefully adjusted without removal of the tool from the workpiece.

Outside caliper Outside calipers are used to measure the external size of an object. The same observations and technique apply to this type of caliper, as for the above inside caliper. With some understanding of their limitations and usage these instruments can
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provide a high degree of accuracy and repeatability. They are especially useful when measuring over very large distances, consider if the calipers are used to measure a large diameter pipe. A vernier caliper does not have the depth capacity to straddle this large diameter while at the same time reach the outermost points of the pipe's diameter. Divider caliper In the metalworking field divider calipers are used in the process of marking out suitable workpieces. The points are sharpened so that they act as scribers, one leg can then be placed in the dimple created by a center or prick punch and the other leg pivoted so that it scribes a line on the workpiece's surface, thus forming an arc or circle. A divider caliper is also used to measure a distance between two points on a map. The two caliper's ends are brought to the two points whose distance is being measured. The caliper's opening is then either measured on a separate ruler and then converted to the actual distance, or it is measured directly on a scale drawn on the map. On a nautical chart the distance is often measured on the latitude scale appearing on the sides of the map: one minute of arc of latitude is approximately one nautical mile or 1852 metres. Dividers are also used in the medical profession. An ECG (also EKG) caliper transfers distance on an electrocardiogram; in conjunction with the appropriate scale, the heart rate can be determined. A pocket caliper versions was invented by cardiologist Robert A. Mackin. Oddleg caliper Oddleg calipers, Hermaphrodite calipers, or Oddleg jennys, as pictured on the left, are generally used to scribe a line a set distance from the edge of a workpiece. The bent leg is used to run along the workpiece edge while the scriber makes

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its mark at a predetermined distance, this ensures a line parallel to the edge. In the diagram at left, the uppermost caliper has a slight shoulder in the bent leg allowing it to sit on the edge more securely, the lower caliper lacks this feature but has a renewable scriber that can be adjusted for wear, as well as being replaced when excessively worn. Vernier caliper

1. Outside jaws: used to measure external diameter or width of an object 2. Inside jaws: used to measure internal diameter of an object 3. Depth probe: used to measure depths of an object or a hole 4. Main scale: scale marked every mm 5. Main scale: scale marked in inches and fractions 6. Vernier scale gives interpolated measurements to 0.1 mm or better 7. Vernier scale gives interpolated measurements in fractions of an inch 8. Retainer: used to block movable part to allow the easy transferring of a measurement The vernier, dial, and digital calipers give a direct reading of the distance measured to high accuracy. They are functionally identical, with different ways of reading the result. These calipers comprise a calibrated scale with a fixed jaw, and another jaw, with a pointer, that slides along the scale. The distance between the jaws is then read in different ways for the three types. The simplest method is to read the position of the pointer directly on the scale. When the pointer is between two markings, the user can mentally interpolate to improve the precision of the reading. This

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would be a simple calibrated caliper; but the addition of a vernier scale allows more accurate interpolation, and is the universal practice; this is the vernier caliper. Vernier, dial, and digital calipers can measure internal dimensions (using the uppermost jaws in the picture at right), external dimensions using the pictured lower jaws, and in many cases depth by the use of a probe that is attached to the movable head and slides along the centre of the body. This probe is slender and can get into deep grooves that may prove difficult for other measuring tools. The vernier scales may include metric measurements on the lower part of the scale and inch measurements on the upper, or vice versa, in countries that use inches. Vernier calipers commonly used in industry provide a precision to 0.01 mm (10 micrometres), or one thousandth of an inch. They are available in sizes that can measure up to 1,829 mm (72 in). Dial caliper Instead of using a vernier mechanism, which requires some practice to use, the dial caliper reads the final fraction of a millimeter or inch on a simple dial. In this instrument, a small, precise gear rack drives a pointer on a circular dial, allowing direct reading without the need to read a vernier scale. Typically, the pointer rotates once every inch, tenth of an inch, or 1 millimeter. This measurement must be added to the coarse whole inches or centimeters read from the slide. The dial is usually arranged to be rotatable beneath the pointer, allowing for "differential" measurements (the measuring of the difference in size between two objects, or the setting of the dial using a master object and subsequently being able to read directly the plus-or-minus variance in size of subsequent objects relative to the master object). The slide of a dial caliper can usually be locked at a setting using a small lever or screw; this allows simple go/no-go checks of part sizes.

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Digital caliper A refinement now popular is the replacement of the analog dial with an electronic digital display on which the reading is displayed as a single value. Some digital calipers can be switched between centimeters or millimeters, and inches. All provide for zeroing the display at any point along the slide, allowing the same sort of differential measurements as with the dial caliper. Digital calipers may contain some sort of "reading hold" feature, allowing the reading of dimensions even in awkward locations where the display cannot be seen. Ordinary 6-in/150-mm digital calipers are made of stainless steel, have a rated accuracy of 0.001 in (0.02mm) and resolution of 0.0005 in (0.01 mm).The same technology is used to make longer 8-in and 12-in calipers; the accuracy for bigger measurements declines to 0.001 in (0.03 mm) for 100200 mm and 0.0015 in (0.04 mm) for 200300 mm. Many Chinese-made digital calipers are inexpensive and perform reasonably well. One point worth noting is battery current when they are turned off. Many calipers do not stop drawing power when the switch is in the off position; they shut down the display but continue drawing nearly as much current. The current may be as much as 20 microamperes which is much higher than many established brands. Sometimes calipers may not work properly when the battery voltage has dropped relatively little; silver cells, preferably selected from a datasheet to have a constant voltage for most of their life, may give a much longer usable life than alkaline button cells (e.g., SR44 instead of LR44). Increasingly, digital calipers offer a serial data output to allow them to be interfaced with a dedicated recorder or a personal computer. The digital interface significantly decreases the time to make and record a series of measurements, and it also improves the reliability of the records. A suitable device to convert the serial data output to common computer interfaces such as RS-232, Universal Serial Bus, or wireless can be built or purchased. With such a converter, measurements can be directly entered into a spreadsheet, a statistical process control program, or similar software.
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The serial digital output varies among manufacturers. Common options are

Mitutoyo's Digimatic interface. This is the dominant name brand interface. Format is 52-bits arranged as 13 nibbles. Sylvac interface. This is the common protocol for inexpensive, non-name brand, calipers. Format is 24 bit 90 kHz synchronous. Starrett Brown & Sharpe Federal Mahr (appears to offer Digimatic, RS232, and USB) Tesa Aldi. Format is 7 BCD digits.

Like dial calipers, the slide of a digital caliper can usually be locked using a lever or thumb-screw. Some digital calipers contain a capacitive linear encoder. A pattern of bars is etched directly on the printed circuit board in the slider. Under the scale of the caliper another printed circuit board also contains an etched pattern of lines. The combination of these printed circuit boards forms two variable capacitors. The two capacitances are out of phase. As the slider moves the capacitance changes in a linear fashion and in a repeating pattern. The circuitry built into the slider counts the bars as the slider moves and does a linear interpolation based on the magnitudes of the capacitors to find the precise position of the slider. Other digital calipers contain an inductive linear encoder, which allows robust performance in the presence of contamination such as coolants . Magnetic linear encoders are used in yet other digital calipers. Micrometer caliper A caliper using a calibrated screw for measurement, rather than a slide, is called a micrometer caliper or, more often, simply a micrometer. (Sometimes the term caliper, referring to any other type in this article, is held in contradistinction to micrometer.)

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Comparison Each of the above types of calipers have their relative merits and faults. Vernier calipers are rugged and have long lasting accuracy, are coolant proof, are not affected by magnetic fields, and are largely shock proof. They may have both centimeter and inch scales. However, vernier calipers require good eyesight or a magnifying glass to read and can be difficult to read from a distance or from awkward angles. It is relatively easy to misread the last digit. In production environments, reading vernier calipers all day long is error-prone and is annoying to the workers. Dial calipers are comparatively easy to read, especially when seeking exact center by rocking and observing the needle movement. They can be set to 0 at any point for comparisons. They are usually fairly susceptible to shock damage. They are also very prone to getting dirt in the gears, which can cause accuracy problems. Digital calipers switch easily between centimeter and inch systems.They can be set to 0 easily at any point with full count in either direction, and can take measurements even if the display is completely hidden, either by using a "hold" key, or by zeroing the display and closing the jaws, showing the correct measurement, but negative. They can be mechanically and electronically fragile. Most also require batteries, and do not resist coolant well. They are also only moderately shockproof, and can be vulnerable to dirt. Calipers may read to a resolution of 0.01 mm or 0.0005 in, but accuracy may not be better than about 0.02 mm or 0.001 in for 150 mm (6 in) calipers, and worse for longer ones.

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Use

A caliper must be properly applied against the part in order to take the desired measurement. For example, when measuring the thickness of a plate a vernier caliper must be held at right angles to the piece. Some practice may be needed to measure round or irregular objects correctly. Accuracy of measurement when using a caliper is highly dependent on the skill of the operator. Regardless of type, a caliper's jaws must be forced into contact with the part being measured. As both part and caliper are always to some extent elastic, the amount of force used affects the indication. A consistent, firm touch is correct. Too much force results in an underindication as part and tool distort; too little force gives insufficient contact and an overindication. This is a greater problem with a caliper incorporating a wheel, which lends mechanical advantage. This is especially the case with digital calipers, calipers out of adjustment, or calipers with a poor quality beam. Simple calipers are uncalibrated; the measurement taken must be compared against a scale. Whether the scale is part of the caliper or not, all analog calipersverniers and dialsrequire good eyesight in order to achieve the highest precision. Digital calipers have the advantage in this area. Calibrated calipers may be mishandled, leading to loss of zero. When a calipers' jaws are fully closed, it should of course indicate zero. If it does not, it must be recalibrated or repaired. It might seem that a vernier caliper cannot get out of calibration but a drop or knock can be enough. Digital calipers have zero set buttons.

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Vernier, dial and digital calipers can be used with accessories that extend their usefulness. Examples are a base that extends their usefulness as a depth gauge and a jaw attachment that allows measuring the center distance between holes. Since the 1970s a clever modification of the moveable jaw on the back side of any caliper allows for step or depth measurements in addition to external caliper measurements, in similar fashion to a universal micrometer (e.g., Starrett Mul-T-Anvil or Mitutoyo Uni-Mike). Zero error The method to use a vernier scale or caliper with zero error is to use the formula 'actual reading = main scale + vernier scale - (zero error)'. Zero error may arise due to knocks that cause the calibration at the 0.00 mm when the jaws are perfectly closed or just touching each other.

when the jaws are closed and if the reading is 0.10mm, the zero error is referred to as +0.10mm.The method to use a vernier scale or caliper with zero error is to use the formula 'actual reading = main scale + vernier scale - (zero error)' thus the actual reading is 19.00 + 0.54 - (0.10) = 19.44 mm Positive zero error refers to the fact that when the jaws of the vernier caliper are just closed, the reading is a positive reading away from the actual reading of 0.00mm. If the reading is 0.10mm, the zero error is referred to as +0.10mm.

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when the jaws are closed and if the reading is -0.08mm, the zero error is referred to as -0.08mm..The method to use a vernier scale or caliper with zero error is to use the formula 'actual reading = main scale + vernier scale - (zero error)' thus the actual reading is 19.00 + 0.36 - (-0.08) = 19.44 mm Negative zero error refers to the fact that when the jaws of the vernier caliper are just closed, the reading is a negative reading away from the actual reading of 0.00mm. If the reading is -0.08mm, the zero error is referred to as -0.08mm. Height gauge

. A height gauge is a measuring device used either for determining the height of something, or for repetitious marking of items to be worked on. The former type of height gauge is often used in doctor's surgeries to find the height of people. These measuring tools are used in metalworking or metrology to either set or measure vertical distances; the pointer is sharpened to allow it to act as a scriber and assist in marking out work pieces. They may also be used to measure the height of an object by using the underside of the scriber as the datum. The datum may be permanently fixed or the height gauge may have provision to adjust the scale, this is done by sliding the scale vertically along the body of the height gauge by turning a fine feed screw at the top of the gauge; then with the scriber set to the same level as the base, the scale can be matched to it. This adjustment allows different scribers or probes

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to be used, as well as adjusting for any errors in a damaged or resharpened probe. Types There are two types of height gauges: Vernier height gauges and electronic height gauges. The vernier height gauge has the additional refinement of a vernier scale for greater accuracy in reading or setting the tool. The electronic height gauge has a digital readout that gives the height.

Vernier height gauge adjusters, close up view

Vernier height gauge, close up view

Electronic height gauge

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