Climate change

Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years. It may be a change in average weather conditions, or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions (i.e., more or fewer extreme weather events). Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes (such as oceanic circulation), biotic processes, variations in solar radiation received by Earth, plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions, and human-induced alterations of the natural world; these latter effects are currently causing global warming, and "climate change" is often used to describe human-specific impacts. Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models. Borehole temperature profiles, ice cores, floral and faunal records, glacial and periglacial processes, stable isotope and other sediment analyses, and sea level records serve to provide a climate record that spans the geologic past. More recent data are provided by the instrumental record. Physically based general circulation models are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data, make future projections, and link causes and effects in climate change.

Causes
On the broadest scale, the rate at which energy is received from the sun and the rate at which it is lost to space determine the equilibrium temperature and climate of Earth. This energy is distributed around the globe by winds, ocean currents, and other mechanisms to affect the climates of different regions. Factors that can shape climate are called climate forcings or "forcing mechanisms".[4] These include processes such as variations in solar radiation, variations in the Earth's orbit, mountainbuilding and continental drift and changes in greenhouse gas concentrations. There are a variety of climate change feedbacks that can either amplify or diminish the initial forcing. Some parts of the climate system, such as the oceans and ice caps, respond slowly in reaction to climate forcings, while others respond more quickly. Forcing mechanisms can be either "internal" or "external". Internal forcing mechanisms are natural processes within the climate system itself (e.g., the thermohaline circulation). External forcing mechanisms can be either natural (e.g., changes in solar output) or anthropogenic (e.g., increased emissions of greenhouse gases). Whether the initial forcing mechanism is internal or external, the response of the climate system might be fast (e.g., a sudden cooling due to airborne volcanic ash reflecting sunlight), slow (e.g. thermal expansion of warming ocean water), or a combination (e.g., sudden loss of albedo in the arctic ocean as sea ice melts, followed by more gradual thermal expansion of the water). Therefore, the climate system can respond abruptly, but the full response to forcing mechanisms might not be fully developed for centuries or even longer.
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Internal forcing mechanisms

Natural changes in the components of Earth's climate system and their interactions are the cause of internal climate variability, or "internal forcings." Scientists generally define the five components of earth's climate system to include atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere (restricted to the surface soils, rocks, and sediments), and biosphere.[5][not in citation given] Ocean variability The ocean is a fundamental part of the climate system, some changes in it occurring at longer timescales than in the atmosphere, massing hundreds of times more and having very high thermal inertia (such as the ocean depths still lagging today in temperature adjustment from the Little Ice Age).[clarification needed][6] Short-term fluctuations (years to a few decades) such as the El Nio-Southern Oscillation, the Pacific decadal oscillation, the North Atlantic oscillation, and the Arctic oscillation, represent climate variability rather than climate change. On longer time scales, alterations to ocean processes such as thermohaline circulation play a key role in redistributing heat by carrying out a very slow and extremely deep movement of water, and the long-term redistribution of heat in the world's oceans.

A schematic of modern thermohaline circulation. Tens of millions of years ago, continental plate movement formed a land-free gap around Antarctica, allowing formation of the ACC which keeps warm waters away from Antarctica. Life Life affects climate through its role in the carbon and water cycles and such mechanisms as albedo, evapotranspiration, cloud formation, and weathering.[7][8][9] Examples of how life may have affected past climate include: glaciation 2.3 billion years ago triggered by the evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis,[10][11] glaciation 300 million years ago ushered in by long-term burial of decomposition-resistant detritus of vascular land plants (forming coal),[12][13] termination of the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum 55 million years ago by flourishing marine phytoplankton,[14][15] reversal of global warming 49 million years ago by 800,000 years of arctic azolla blooms,[16][17] and global cooling over the past 40 million years driven by the expansion of grass-grazer ecosystems.[18][19]

Global warming
Global warming is the rise in the average temperature of Earth's atmosphere and oceans since the late 19th century and its projected continuation. Since the early 20th century, Earth's mean surface temperature has increased by about 0.8 C (1.4 F), with about two-thirds of the increase occurring since 1980.[2] Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and scientists are more than 90% certain that it is primarily caused by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases produced by human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation.[3][4][5][6] These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all major industrialized nations.[7][A] Climate model projections were summarized in the 2007 Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). They indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 1.1 to 2.9 C (2 to 5.2 F) for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.4 to 6.4 C (4.3 to 11.5 F) for their highest.[8] The ranges of these estimates arise from the use of models with differing sensitivity to greenhouse gas concentrations.[9][10] Future warming and related changes will vary from region to region around the globe.[11] The effects of an increase in global temperature include a rise in sea levels and a change in the amount and pattern of precipitation, as well a probable expansion of subtropical deserts.[12] Warming is expected to be strongest in the Arctic and would be associated with the continuing retreat of glaciers, permafrost and sea ice. Other likely effects of the warming include a more frequent occurrence of extreme-weather events including heat waves, droughts and heavy rainfall, ocean acidification and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes. Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the loss of habitat from inundation.[13][14] Proposed policy responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction, adaptation to its effects, and possible future geoengineering. Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC),[15] whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic (i.e., human-induced) climate change.[16] Parties
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to the UNFCCC have adopted a range of policies designed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions[17]:10[18][19][20]:9 and to assist in adaptation to global warming.[17]:13[20]:10[21][22] Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required,[23] and that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 C (3.6 F) relative to the pre-industrial level.[23][B] Reports published in 2011 by the United Nations Environment Programme[24] and the International Energy Agency[25] suggest that efforts as of the early 21st century to reduce emissions may be inadequate to meet the UNFCCC's 2 C target.

Observed temperature changes

The Earth's average surface temperature rose by 0.740.18 C over the period 19062005. The rate of warming over the last half of that period was almost double that for the period as a whole (0.130.03 C per decade, versus 0.070.02 C per decade). The urban heat island effect is very small, estimated to account for less than 0.002 C of warming per decade since 1900.[27] Temperatures in the lower troposphere have increased between 0.13 and 0.22 C (0.22 and 0.4 F) per decade since 1979, according to satellite temperature measurements. Climate proxies show the temperature to have been relatively stable over the one or two thousand years before 1850, with regionally varying fluctuations such as the Medieval Warm Period and the Little Ice Age.[28] The warming that is evident in the instrumental temperature record is consistent with a wide range of observations, as documented by many independent scientific groups.[29] Examples include sea level rise (water expands as it warms),[30] widespread melting of snow and ice,[31] increased heat content of the oceans,[29] increased humidity,[29] and the earlier timing of spring events,[32] e.g., the flowering of plants.[33] The probability that these changes could have occurred by chance is virtually zero.[29] Recent estimates by NASA's Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS) and the National Climatic Data Center show that 2005 and 2010 tied for the planet's warmest year since reliable, widespread instrumental measurements became available in the late 19th century, exceeding 1998 by a few hundredths of a degree.[34][35][36] Estimates by the Climatic Research Unit (CRU) show 2005 as the second warmest year, behind 1998 with 2003 and 2010 tied for third warmest
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year, however, "the error estimate for individual years ... is at least ten times larger than the differences between these three years."[37] The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) statement on the status of the global climate in 2010 explains that, "The 2010 nominal value of +0.53 C ranks just ahead of those of 2005 (+0.52 C) and 1998 (+0.51 C), although the differences between the three years are not statistically significant..."[38] Temperatures in 1998 were unusually warm because global temperatures are affected by the El Nio-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), and the strongest El Nio in the past century occurred during that year.[39] Global temperature is subject to short-term fluctuations that overlay long term trends and can temporarily mask them. The relative stability in temperature from 2002 to 2009 is consistent with such an episode.[40][41] 2010 was also an El Nio year. On the low swing of the oscillation, 2011 as an La Nia year was cooler but it was still the 11th warmest year since records began in 1880. Of the 13 warmest years since 1880, 11 were the years from 2001 to 2011. Over the more recent record, 2011 was the warmest La Nia year in the period from 1950 to 2011, and was close to 1997 which was not at the lowest point of the cycle.[42] Temperature changes vary over the globe. Since 1979, land temperatures have increased about twice as fast as ocean temperatures (0.25 C per decade against 0.13 C per decade).[43] Ocean temperatures increase more slowly than land temperatures because of the larger effective heat capacity of the oceans and because the ocean loses more heat by evaporation.[44] The northern hemisphere warms faster than the southern hemisphere because it has more land and because it has extensive areas of seasonal snow and sea-ice cover subject to ice-albedo feedback. Although more greenhouse gases are emitted in the Northern than Southern Hemisphere this does not contribute to the difference in warming because the major greenhouse gases persist long enough to mix between hemispheres.[45] The thermal inertia of the oceans and slow responses of other indirect effects mean that climate can take centuries or longer to adjust to changes in forcing. Climate commitment studies indicate that even if greenhouse gases were stabilized at 2000 levels, a further warming of about 0.5 C (0.9 F) would still occur.[46]

Initial causes of temperature changes (external forcings)

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The climate system can respond to changes in external forcings.[47][48] External forcings can "push" the climate in the direction of warming or cooling.[49] Examples of external forcings include changes in atmospheric composition (e.g., increased concentrations of greenhouse gases), solar luminosity, volcanic eruptions, and variations in Earth's orbit around the Sun.[50] Orbital cycles vary slowly over tens of thousands of years and at present are in an overall cooling trend which would be expected to lead towards an ice age, but the 20th century instrumental temperature record shows a sudden rise in global temperatures.[51]

Acid Rain
The Causes, History, and Effects of Acid Rain
From Amanda Briney, Contributing Writer
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Acid rain is rain consisting of water droplets that are unusually acidic because of atmospheric pollution - most notably the excessive amounts of sulfur and nitrogen released by cars and industrial processes. Acid rain is also called acid deposition because this term includes other forms of acidic precipitation such as snow.

Acidic deposition occurs in two ways: wet and dry. Wet deposition is any form of precipitation that removes acids from the atmosphere and deposits them on the Earths surface. Dry deposition polluting particles and gases stick to the ground via dust and smoke in the absence of precipitation. This form of deposition is dangerous however because precipitation can eventually wash pollutants into streams, lakes, and rivers.

Acidity itself is determined based on the pH level of the water droplets. PH is the scale measuring the amount of acid in the water and liquid. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14 with lower pH being more acidic while a high pH is alkaline; seven is neutral. Normal rain water is slightly acidic and has a pH range of 5.3-6.0. Acid deposition is anything below that scale. It is also important to note that the pH scale is logarithmic and each whole number on the scale represents a 10-fold change. Today, acid deposition is present in the northeastern United States, southeastern Canada, and much of Europe including portions of Sweden, Norway, and Germany. In addition, parts of South Asia, South Africa, Sri Lanka, and Southern India are all in danger of being impacted by acid deposition in the future.

Causes and History of Acid Rain

Acid deposition can occur via natural sources like volcanoes but it is mainly caused by the release of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide during fossil fuel combustion. When these gases are discharged into the atmosphere they react with the water, oxygen, and other gases already present there to form sulfuric acid, ammonium nitrate, and nitric acid. These acids then disperse over large areas because of wind patterns and fall back to the ground as acid rain or other forms of precipitation.

The gases responsible for acid deposition are normally a byproduct of electric power generation and the burning of coal. As such, it began entering the atmosphere in large amounts during the Industrial Revolution and was first discovered by a Scottish chemist, Robert Angus Smith, in 1852. In that year, he discovered the relationship between acid rain and atmospheric pollution in Manchester, England. Although it was discovered in the 1800s, acid deposition did not gain significant public attention until the 1960s and the term acid rain was coined in 1972. Public attention further increased in the 1970s when the New York Times published reports about problems occurring in the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in New Hampshire.

Effects of Acid Rain

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After studying the Hubbard Brook Forest and other areas today, there are several important impacts of acid deposition on both natural and man-made environments. Aquatic settings are the most clearly impacted by acid deposition though because acidic precipitation falls directly into them. Both dry and wet deposition also runs off of forests, fields, and roads and flows into lakes, rivers, and streams.

As this acidic liquid flows into larger bodies of water, it is diluted but over time, acids can accrue and lower the overall pH of the body. Acid deposition also causes clay soils to release aluminum and magnesium further lowering the pH in some areas. If the pH of a lake drops below 4.8, its plants and animals risk death and it is estimated that around 50,000 lakes in the United States and Canada have a pH below normal (about 5.3 for water). Several hundred of these have a pH too low to support any aquatic life. Aside from aquatic bodies, acid deposition can significantly impact forests. As acid rain falls on trees, it can make them lose their leaves, damage their bark, and stunt their growth. By damaging these parts of the tree, it makes them vulnerable to disease, extreme weather, and insects. Acid falling on a forests soil is also harmful because it disrupts soil nutrients, kills microorganisms in the soil, and can sometimes cause a calcium deficiency. Trees at high altitudes are also susceptible to problems induced by acidic cloud cover as the moisture in the clouds blankets them. Damage to forests by acid rain is seen all over the world, but the most advanced cases are in Eastern Europe. Its estimated that in Germany and Poland, half of the forests are damaged, while 30% in Switzerland have been affected. Finally, acid deposition also has an impact on architecture and art because of its ability to corrode certain materials. As acid lands on buildings (especially those constructed with limestone) it reacts with minerals in the stones sometimes causing it to disintegrate and wash away. Acid deposition can also corrode modern buildings, cars, railroad tracks, airplanes, steel bridges, and pipes above and below ground.

What's Being Done?

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Because of these problems and the adverse effects air pollution has on human health, a number of steps are being taken to reduce sulfur and nitrogen emissions. Most notably, many governments are now requiring energy producers to clean smoke stacks by using scrubbers which trap pollutants before they are released into the atmosphere and catalytic converters in cars to reduce their emissions. Additionally, alternative energy sources are gaining more prominence today and funding is being given to the restoration of ecosystems damaged by acid rain worldwide.

Ozone layer
The ozone layer is a layer in Earth's atmosphere containing relatively high concentrations of ozone (O3). However, "relatively high," in the case of ozone, is still very small with regard to ordinary oxygen, and is less than ten parts per million, with the average ozone concentration in Earth's atmosphere being only about 0.6 parts per million. The ozone layer is mainly found in the lower portion of the stratosphere from approximately 20 to 30 kilometres (12 to 19 mi) above Earth, though the thickness varies seasonally and geographically.[1] The ozone layer was discovered in 1913 by the French physicists Charles Fabry and Henri Buisson. Its properties were explored in detail by the British meteorologist G. M. B. Dobson, who developed a simple spectrophotometer (the Dobsonmeter) that could be used to measure stratospheric ozone from the ground. Between 1928 and 1958 Dobson established a worldwide network of ozone monitoring stations, which continue to operate to this day. The "Dobson unit", a convenient measure of the columnar density of ozone overhead, is named in his honor. The ozone layer absorbs 9799% of the Sun's medium-frequency ultraviolet light (from about 200 nm to 315 nm wavelength), which potentially damages exposed life forms on Earth.[2]

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Ozone Layer Depletion

The distribution of ozone in the stratosphere is a function of altitude, latitude and season. It is determined by photochemical and transport processes. The ozone layer is located between 10 and 50 km above the Earth's surface and contains 90% of all stratospheric ozone. Under normal conditions, stratospheric ozone is formed by a photochemical reaction between oxygen molecules, oxygen atoms and solar radiation. The ozone layer is essential to life on earth, as it absorbs harmful ultraviolet-B radiation from the sun. In recent years the thickness of this layer has been decreasing, leading in extreme cases to holes in the layer. Measurements carried out in the Antarctic have shown that at certain times, more than 95% of the ozone concentrations found at altitudes of between 15 and 20 km and more than 50% of total ozone are destroyed, with reductions being most pronounced during winter and
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in early spring. Natural phenomena, such as sun-spots and stratospheric winds, also decrease stratospheric ozone levels, but typically not by more than 1-2%. The main cause of ozone layer depletion is the increased stratospheric concentration of chlorine from industrially produced CFCs , halons and selected solvents. Once in the stratosphere, every chlorine atom can destroy up to 100 000 ozone molecules. The amount of damage that an agent can do to the ozone layer is expressed relative to that of CFC-11 and is called the Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP), where the ODP of CFC-11 is 1. The lifetime of some of these ozone depleting substances is very long, and they may continue to deplete the ozone layer long after their use has been phased out. In this publication the ODP values for 100-year timespan are used. Nevertheless some shorter-lived substances may have a very high chlorine loading potential and thus their effect in the short term is much larger than reflected by their ODP value. Aircraft emissions of nitrogen oxides and water vapour add to this depletion effect by creating ice crystals that serve as a base for ozone destroying reactions. The main potential consequences of this ozone depletion are:

increase in UV-B radiation at ground level: a one percent loss of ozone leads to a two percent increase in UV radiation. Continuous exposure to UV radiation affects humans, animals and plants, and can lead to skin problems (ageing, cancer), depression of the immune system, and corneal cataracts (an eye disease that often leads to blindness). Increased UV radiation may also lead to a massive die-off of photoplancton (a CO 2 "sink") and therefore to increased global warming.

disturbance of the thermal structure of the atmosphere, probably resulting in changes in atmospheric circulation;

reduction of the ozone greenhouse effect: ozone is considered to be a greenhouse gas. A depleted ozone layer may partially dampen the greenhouse effect. Therefore efforts to tackle ozone depletion may result in increased global warming.

changes in the tropospheric ozone and in the oxidising capacity of the troposphere.

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International targets for the reduction of ozone depleting substances have resulted in the almost complete phasing out of CFCs, halons and carbon tetrachloride in the EU. Methyl chloroform and methyl bromide will be phased out by 2005 and HCFC by 2040. The policy fields Ozone Layer Depletion and Climate Change are different, but closely related and indicators such as CFCs and NO x emissions appear in both chapters. However, only the potential effects on the ozone layer will be taken into account under Ozone Layer Depletion whereas Climate Change will focus on the effects on global warming.

Nuclear and radiation accidents

A nuclear and radiation accident is defined by the International Atomic Energy Agency as "an event that has led to significant consequences to people, the environment or the facility." Examples include lethal effects to individuals, large radioactivity release to the environment, or reactor core melt."[2] The prime example of a "major nuclear accident" is one in which a reactor core is damaged and significant amounts of radioactivity are released, such as in the Chernobyl Disaster in 1986. The impact of nuclear accidents has been a topic of debate practically since the first nuclear reactors were constructed. It has also been a key factor in public concern about nuclear facilities.
[3]

Some technical measures to reduce the risk of accidents or to minimize the amount of

radioactivity released to the environment have been adopted. Despite the use of such measures, "there have been many accidents with varying impacts as well near misses and incidents". Benjamin K. Sovacool has reported that worldwide there have been 99 accidents at nuclear power plants. Fifty-seven accidents have occurred since the Chernobyl disaster, and 57% (56 out of 99) of all nuclear-related accidents have occurred in the USA. Serious nuclear power plant accidents include the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster (2011), Chernobyl disaster (1986), Three Mile Island accident (1979), and the SL-1 accident (1961). Stuart Arm states, "apart from Chernobyl, no nuclear workers or members of the public have ever died as a result of exposure to radiation due to a commercial nuclear reactor incident."

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Nuclear-powered submarine mishaps include the K-19 reactor accident (1961), the K-27 reactor accident (1968), and the K-431 reactor accident (1985). Serious radiation accidents include the Kyshtym disaster, Windscale fire, radiotherapy accident in Costa Rica, radiotherapy accident in Zaragoza, radiation accident in Morocco, Goiania accident, radiation accident in Mexico City, radiotherapy unit accident in Thailand, and the Mayapuri radiological accident in India. Chernobyl, Ukraine, 1986 INES 7: major accident During the test of a safety system in Unit 4 of the Chernobyl nuclear power station, a series of mistakes by the reactor operators lead to a core meltdown. An explosion blasted off the 1,000tonne steel and concrete lid of the reactor, and started an ensuing fire in the reactor core. A radioactive cloud traveled over Europe. Twenty-four countries recorded elevated levels of radioactivity. It took eight days to contain the fire at Chernobyl, and twelve to extinguish it completely. Slow to admit to the accident, the Ukrainian government later sent military helicopters to dump huge amounts of lead, boron and other materials into the burning reactor core. Workers battling the flames had little to no protection from the radionuclides streaming from the ruins of the reactor. Over one hundred times more radiation was released in the Chernobyl accident than dropped over Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In Ukraine and Byelorussia, vast areas were contaminated. The long-term effects of the radiation, in particular on children, are only just beginning to show. Fukushima, Japan, 2011 INES 7: major accident The worlds worst nuclear disaster after Chernobyl, and the only other accident to be given the top INES rating. An offshore earthquake on 11th March, followed by a tsunami, damaged the cooling systems at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant. A series of partial core meltdowns followed, and a fire at a spent fuel storage pond released radioactivity directly into the atmosphere.

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Workers pumped both fresh and seawater into the plant in an effort to cool the systems, and were later forced to release 11,500 tonnes of low-radioactivity water back into the ocean. At the time of writing, the disaster was still unfolding. Radioactive material has been released into both terrestrial and marine environments, including through a crack in one of the reactors. Elevated levels of radioactivity have been found in fish, vegetables and tap water, including in the Tokyo, Japans capital city. Up-to-date information on the tragedy can be found here. Kyshtym, Russia, 1957 INES 6: serious accident Another failure-of-coolant accident, this time in the Mayak complex that formed the dark heart of the Soviet Unions nuclear programme during the cold war. A fire began in a liquid waste tank, causing an explosion that blasted the lid from the storage container and released radioactive material into the air - more than half the amount of radioactivity that was released from Chernobyl. A plume fifty kilometers wide and 1,000 kilometers long emerged. Two hundred and seventeen towns and at least 272,000 people were exposed to chronic levels of radiation, yet only a few villagers were evacuated. The disaster was kept secret for almost twenty years.Today, around 7,000 people still live in direct contact with the highly polluted Techa river, into which the plant would also freely dump waste, or on contaminated land. Sellafield, UK, 1957 INES 5: accident with wider consequences Britains most severe nuclear accident was at a nuclear reactor then known as Windscale, used for creating radioactive material for atomic weapons. The reactor core caught fire and blazed for many hours, pouring smoke and radionuclides into the air. This radioactive cloud spread across Europe to as far as Switzerland. There was no evacuation, though thousands of litres of milk in Britain were withdrawn and disposed of. Three Mile Island, US, 1979 INES 5: accident with wider consequences A stuck valve at a civilian nuclear power station in Pennsylvania lead to a loss of coolant and
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rising temperatures. The fuel rods melted into the core of the reactor and began leaking radioactivity into the environment. The amount of radioactivity released was thought to be relatively low, though an evacuation of pregnant women and young children was ordered. The accident had a calamitous effect on the public opinion of nuclear power in the US, and not a single new nuclear power plant has been commissioned there since. Goinia, Brazil, 1987 INES 5: accident with wider consequences A caesium-137 source, left in an abandoned hospital, was stolen for scrap and broken open. Parts were later sold and the contamination spread quickly in the community, depositing radioactive material up to 100 miles away. Four people died shortly afterwards, and sixty were killed by the disaster in total, including the police and firemen who helped in the clean-up. Six hundred and twenty-eight people were contaminated, and over 6000 exposed to radiation.

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