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PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Consider, P Material P

What maximum force P can the material sustain without failure? Pmax (or material strength) can be determined through experiments. THE TENSION AND COMPRESSION TEST This experiment is used primarily to determine the relationship between the average normal and the average normal strain in many engineering materials. Other important material properties can be obtained from this test. Test Procedures: 1. A specimen of the material is made into a standard shape and size. 2. Before testing, two small punch marks are identified along the specimen's length. 3. Measurements are taken of both the specimen's initial cross-sectional area, Ao, and the gauge length distance Lo between the punch marks.
do = 0.5 in

Lo = 2 in

4. A testing machine is then used to stretch the specimen at a very slow, constant rate until it reaches the breaking point. 5. At frequent intervals during the test, data is recorded of the applied load P, as read on the dial machine. Also, the elongation = L L 0 between the punch marks on the specimen may be measured using either a caliper or a mechanical or optical device called an extensometer.

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load dial

moveable upper crosshead

motor and load controls

tension specimen

TESTING MACHINE

SAMPLE RESULTS OF THREE TEST SPECIMENS

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THE STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM Computing for the various values of the stress and corresponding strain in the specimen and plotting the results, the resulting curve is called the stress-strain diagram.

TWO-WAYS: 1. CONVENTIONAL STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM Normal or Engineering Stress: =

P A0
L0

where Ao - original cross area of the specimen Normal or Engineering Strain:

where Lo - specimen's original gauge length If the corresponding values of and are plotted as a graph, for which the ordinate is the stress and the abscissa is the strain, the resulting curve is called a conventional stress-strain diagram.

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2. TRUE STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM - uses the actual cross-sectional area and specimen length at the instant the load is measured. The values of stress and strain computed from these measurements are called true stress and true strain, and a plot of their values is called the true stress-strain diagram.

Consider the stress-strain diagram of steel,

FOUR DIFFERENT WAYS IN WHICH STEEL BEHAVES: - depends on the amount of strain induced in the material 1. Elastic Behavior Upon removal of the load, the material returns to its original shape or length (material said to be elastic) Curve - straight line throughout most of the region (stress is proportional to strain)

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The upper stress limit to this linear relationship is called the proportional limit, pl . If the stress slightly exceeds the proportional limit, the material may still respond elastically until it reaches the elastic limit.

2. Yielding It is a behavior in which a slight increase in stress above the elastic limit will result in a breakdown of the material and cause it to deform permanently. The stress that causes yielding is called the yield stress or yield point, Y , and the deformation that occurs is called plastic deformation. The specimen continues to elongate without any increase in load.

3. Strain Hardening When yielding has ended, a further load can be applied to the specimen, resulting in a curve that rises continuously but becomes flatter until it reaches the maximum stress referred to as the ultimate stress, u . The rise in the curve in this manner is called strain hardening.

4. Necking At the ultimate stress, the cross-sectional area begins to decrease in a localized region of the specimen. Reduction in area - decrease in load-carrying capacity. Hence the stress-strain diagram tends to curve downward until the specimen breaks at the fracture stress, f .

Necking

Failure of a Ductile Material (Separation)

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MATERIALS
1. Ductile Materials - material that can be subjected to large strains before it ruptures - exhibit large deformations before failing. - e.g. mild steel, brass, molybdenum, zinc 2. Brittle Materials - materials that exhibit little or no yielding before failure - e. g. gray cast iron, chalk

HOOKE'S LAW
Within the elastic region, stress is proportional to strain and this linear relationship can be expressed as,

= E
where E represents the constant of proportionality, which is called the modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus

MODULUS OF RESILIENCE, ur
- a measure of the strain energy density in a material - it is the area under the stress-strain diagram where stress is proportional to strain.

1 1 2 pl u r = pl pl = 2 2 E
MODULUS OF TOUGHNESS, ut
- indicates the strain-energy density of the material just before it fractures - represents the entire area under the stress-strain diagram.
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POISSON'S RATIO
When a deformable body is subjected to an axial tensile force, not only does it elongate but also it contracts laterally.

When the load P is applied to the bar, it changes the bar's length by an amount and its radius by an amount '. Thus,

long

= L

lat

, = r

The ratio of the lateral strain to the longitudinal strain is a dimensionless quantity called the Poisson's ratio, and is given by,

v=

lat long

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THE SHEAR STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

- It is a graph showing the relationship between shear stress and shear strain. - At the elastic region, shear stress is proportional to strain. - For most engineering materials, the elastic behavior is linear, and so Hooke's law for shear can be written as,

= G
where G is called the shear modulus of elasticity or the modulus of rigidity. Note: The three material constants E, G and are actually related by the equation

G=

E 2(1 + )