Dramaisthespecificmodeoffictionrepresentedinperformance.[1]ThetermcomesfromaGreek word"dran"meaning"action"(ClassicalGreek:,drama),whichisderivedfrom"todo"or "toact"(ClassicalGreek:,dra).Theenactmentofdramaintheatre,performedbyactorson astagebeforeanaudience,presupposescollaborativemodesofproductionandacollectiveformof reception.Thestructureofdramatictexts,unlikeotherformsofliterature,isdirectlyinfluencedby thiscollaborativeproductionandcollectivereception.[2]TheearlymoderntragedyHamlet(1601) byShakespeareandtheclassicalAtheniantragedyOedipustheKing(c.429BCE)bySophoclesare amongthemasterpiecesoftheartofdrama.[3]AmodernexampleisLongDay'sJourneyinto NightbyEugeneONeill(1956).[4] Thetwomasksassociatedwithdramarepresentthetraditionalgenericdivisionbetweencomedy andtragedy.TheyaresymbolsoftheancientGreekMuses,ThaliaandMelpomene.Thaliawasthe Museofcomedy(thelaughingface),whileMelpomenewastheMuseoftragedy(theweeping face).Consideredasagenreofpoetryingeneral,thedramaticmodehasbeencontrastedwiththe epicandthelyricalmodeseversinceAristotle'sPoetics(c.335BCE)theearliestworkofdramatic theory.

[5] Theuseof"drama"inthenarrowsensetodesignateaspecifictypeofplaydatesfromthe19th century.Dramainthissensereferstoaplaythatisneitheracomedynoratragedyforexample, Zola'sThrseRaquin(1873)orChekhov'sIvanov(1887).Itisthisnarrowsensethatthefilmand televisionindustryandfilmstudiesadoptedtodescribe"drama"asagenrewithintheirrespective media.[6]"Radiodrama"hasbeenusedinbothsensesoriginallytransmittedinalive performance,ithasalsobeenusedtodescribethemorehighbrowandseriousendofthedramatic outputofradio.[7] Dramaisoftencombinedwithmusicanddance:thedramainoperaisgenerallysungthroughout; musicalsgenerallyincludebothspokendialogueandsongs;andsomeformsofdramahave incidentalmusicormusicalaccompanimentunderscoringthedialogue(melodramaandJapanese N,forexample).[8]Incertainperiodsofhistory(theancientRomanandmodernRomantic)some dramashavebeenwrittentobereadratherthanperformed.[9]Inimprovisation,thedramadoesnot preexistthemomentofperformance;performersdeviseadramaticscriptspontaneouslybeforean audience.[10]

DifferentTypesofDrama
By:JenneyCheever You'lldiscovermanytypesofdramawhenstudyingdramaandtheater.Thesymbolofdrama,the laughingandweepingmasks,representthetwomaintypesofdrama,comedyandtragedy.Within thosecategoriesliethemanyformsofdramathatentertainpeopletoday. Comedy Whenwetalkaboutcomedy,weusuallyrefertoplaysthatarelightintone,andthattypicallyhave happyendings.Theintentofacomedicplayistomaketheaudiencelaugh.Inmoderntheater,there aremanydifferentstylesofcomedy,rangingfromrealisticstories,wherethehumorisderivedfrom reallifesituations,tooutrageousslapstickhumor.

Tragedy Tragedyisoneoftheoldestformsofdrama;however,itsmeaninghaschangedsincetheearliest daysofstagedplays.Inancienttimes,atragedywasoftenanhistoricaldramasfeaturingthe downfallofagreatman.Inmoderntheater,thedefinitionisabitlooser.Tragedyusuallyinvolves serioussubjectmatterandthedeathofoneormoremaincharacters.Theseplaysrarelyhavea happyending. Farce Farceisasubcategoryofcomedy,characterizedbygreatlyexaggeratedcharactersandsituations. Characterstendtobeonedimensionalandoftenfollowstereotypicalbehavior.Farcestypically involvemistakenidentities,lotsofphysicalcomedyandoutrageousplottwists. Melodrama Melodramaisanothertypeofexaggerateddrama.Asinfarce,thecharacterstendtobesimplified andonedimensional.Theformulaicstorylineoftheclassicmelodramatypicallyinvolvesavillaina heroine,andaherowhomustrescuetheheroinefromthevillain. Musical Inmusicaltheater,thestoryistoldnotonlythroughdialogueandactingbutthroughmusicand dance.Musicalsareoftencomedic,althoughmanydoinvolveserioussubjectmatter.Mostinvolvea largecastandlavishsetsandcostumes. Asastudentofdramaitisimportanttobeablerecognizethesedifferenttypesofdrama.Beaware thatinmoderntheater,thelinesbetweenthesetypesofdramaareoftenquiteblurred,withelements ofcomedy,dramaandtragedyresidinginthesameplay. dramaoriginatesinclassicalGreece.[11]ThetheatricalcultureofthecitystateofAthensproduced threegenresofdrama:tragedy,comedy,andthesatyrplay.Theiroriginsremainobscure,thoughby the5thcenturyBCEtheywereinstitutionalisedincompetitionsheldaspartoffestivitiescelebrating thegodDionysus.[12]HistoriansknowthenamesofmanyancientGreekdramatists,notleast Thespis,whoiscreditedwiththeinnovationofanactor("hypokrites")whospeaks(ratherthan sings)andimpersonatesacharacter(ratherthanspeakinginhisownperson),whileinteractingwith thechorusanditsleader("coryphaeus"),whowereatraditionalpartoftheperformanceofnon dramaticpoetry(dithyrambic,lyricandepic).[13]Onlyasmallfractionoftheworkoffive dramatists,however,hassurvivedtothisday:wehaveasmallnumberofcompletetextsbythe tragediansAeschylus,SophoclesandEuripides,andthecomicwritersAristophanesand,fromthe late4thcentury,Menander.[14]Aeschylus'historicaltragedyThePersiansistheoldestsurviving drama,althoughwhenitwonfirstprizeattheCityDionysiacompetitionin472BCE,hehadbeen writingplaysformorethan25years.[15]Thecompetition("agon")fortragediesmayhavebegunas earlyas534BCE;officialrecords("didaskaliai")beginfrom501BCE,whenthesatyrplaywas introduced.[16]Tragicdramatistswererequiredtopresentatetralogyofplays(thoughthe individualworkswerenotnecessarilyconnectedbystoryortheme),whichusuallyconsistedof threetragediesandonesatyrplay(thoughexceptionsweremade,aswithEuripides'Alcestisin438 BCE).Comedywasofficiallyrecognisedwithaprizeinthecompetitionfrom487to486BCE.Five comicdramatistscompetedattheCityDionysia(thoughduringthePeloponnesianWarthismay havebeenreducedtothree),eachofferingasinglecomedy.[17]AncientGreekcomedyis traditionallydividedbetween"oldcomedy"(5thcenturyBCE),"middlecomedy"(4thcentury BCE)and"newcomedy"(late4thcenturyto2ndBCE).[18]

[edit]Romandrama

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v t e

RomanandByzantinetheatre

Architecture Plautus Terence Seneca

FollowingtheexpansionoftheRomanRepublic(50927BCE)intoseveralGreekterritories between270240BCE,RomeencounteredGreekdrama.[19]Fromthelateryearsoftherepublic andbymeansoftheRomanEmpire(27BCE476CE),theatrespreadwestacrossEurope,around theMediterraneanandreachedEngland;Romantheatrewasmorevaried,extensiveand sophisticatedthanthatofanyculturebeforeit.[20]WhileGreekdramacontinuedtobeperformed throughouttheRomanperiod,theyear240BCEmarksthebeginningofregularRomandrama.[21] Fromthebeginningoftheempire,however,interestinfulllengthdramadeclinedinfavourofa broadervarietyoftheatricalentertainments.[22]ThefirstimportantworksofRomanliteraturewere thetragediesandcomediesthatLiviusAndronicuswrotefrom240BCE.[23]Fiveyearslater, GnaeusNaeviusalsobegantowritedrama.[23]Noplaysfromeitherwriterhavesurvived.While bothdramatistscomposedinbothgenres,Andronicuswasmostappreciatedforhistragediesand Naeviusforhiscomedies;theirsuccessorstendedtospecialiseinoneortheother,whichledtoa separationofthesubsequentdevelopmentofeachtypeofdrama.[23]Bythebeginningofthe2nd centuryBCE,dramawasfirmlyestablishedinRomeandaguildofwriters(collegiumpoetarum) hadbeenformed.[24]TheRomancomediesthathavesurvivedareallfabulapalliata(comedies basedonGreeksubjects)andcomefromtwodramatists:TitusMacciusPlautus(Plautus)and PubliusTerentiusAfer(Terence).[25]InreworkingtheGreekoriginals,theRomancomic dramatistsabolishedtheroleofthechorusindividingthedramaintoepisodesandintroduced musicalaccompanimenttoitsdialogue(betweenonethirdofthedialogueinthecomediesof PlautusandtwothirdsinthoseofTerence).[26]Theactionofallscenesissetintheexterior locationofastreetanditscomplicationsoftenfollowfromeavesdropping.[26]Plautus,themore popularofthetwo,wrotebetween205and184BCEandtwentyofhiscomediessurvive,ofwhich hisfarcesarebestknown;hewasadmiredforthewitofhisdialogueandhisuseofavarietyof poeticmeters.[27]AllofthesixcomediesthatTerencewrotebetween166and160BCEhave survived;thecomplexityofhisplots,inwhichheoftencombinedseveralGreekoriginals,was sometimesdenounced,buthisdoubleplotsenabledasophisticatedpresentationofcontrasting humanbehaviour.[27]NoearlyRomantragedysurvives,thoughitwashighlyregardedinitsday; historiansknowofthreeearlytragediansQuintusEnnius,MarcusPacuviusandLuciusAccius. [26]Fromthetimeoftheempire,theworkoftwotragedianssurvivesoneisanunknownauthor, whiletheotheristheStoicphilosopherSeneca.[28]NineofSeneca'stragediessurvive,allofwhich arefabulacrepidata(tragediesadaptedfromGreekoriginals);hisPhaedra,forexample,wasbased onEuripides'Hippolytus.[29]Historiansdonotknowwhowrotetheonlyextantexampleofthe fabulapraetexta(tragediesbasedonRomansubjects),Octavia,butinformertimesitwas mistakenlyattributedtoSenecaduetohisappearanceasacharacterinthetragedy.[28]

[edit]Medieval

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v t e

Medievaltheatre

Liturgicaldrama Mysteryplay Moralityplay Elegiaccomedy Farce Masque

IntheMiddleAges,dramainthevernacularlanguagesofEuropemayhaveemergedfromreligious enactmentsoftheliturgy.Mysteryplayswerepresentedontheporchofthecathedralsorby strollingplayersonfeastdays.Miracleandmysteryplays,alongwithmoralitiesandinterludes,later evolvedintomoreelaborateformsofdrama,suchaswasseenontheElizabethanstages.

[edit]ElizabethanandJacobean
Mainarticle:EnglishRenaissancetheatre OneofthegreatfloweringsofdramainEnglandoccurredinthe16thand17thcenturies.Manyof theseplayswerewritteninverse,particularlyiambicpentameter.InadditiontoShakespeare,such authorsasChristopherMarlowe,ThomasMiddleton,andBenJonsonwereprominentplaywrights duringthisperiod.Asinthemedievalperiod,historicalplayscelebratedthelivesofpastkings, enhancingtheimageoftheTudormonarchy.Authorsofthisperioddrewsomeoftheirstorylines fromGreekmythologyandRomanmythologyorfromtheplaysofeminentRomanplaywrights suchasPlautusandTerence.

[edit]Modernandpostmodern
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v t e

Moderndrama

Naturalism Realism Modernism Postmodern 19thcentury 20thcentury 20thcenturytheatretimeline

Historyoftheatre

Thepivotalandinnovativecontributionsofthe19thcenturyNorwegiandramatistHenrikIbsenand the20thcenturyGermantheatrepractitionerBertoltBrechtdominatemoderndrama;eachinspired atraditionofimitators,whichincludemanyofthegreatestplaywrightsofthemodernera.[30]The worksofbothplaywrightsare,intheirdifferentways,bothmodernistandrealist,incorporating formalexperimentation,metatheatricality,andsocialcritique.[31]Intermsofthetraditional theoreticaldiscourseofgenre,Ibsen'sworkhasbeendescribedastheculminationof"liberal tragedy",whileBrecht'shasbeenalignedwithanhistoricisedcomedy.[32] OtherimportantplaywrightsofthemoderneraincludeAntoninArtaud,AugustStrindberg,Anton Chekhov,FrankWedekind,MauriceMaeterlinck,FedericoGarcaLorca,EugeneO'Neill,Luigi Pirandello,GeorgeBernardShaw,ErnstToller,VladimirMayakovsky,ArthurMiller,Tennessee Williams,JeanGenet,EugneIonesco,SamuelBeckett,HaroldPinter,FriedrichDrrenmatt,Dario Fo,HeinerMller,andCarylChurchill.

[edit]Asiandrama
[edit]India
PerformerplayingSugrivaintheKoodiyattamformofSanskrittheatre. Mainarticle:TheatreinIndia TheearliestformofIndiandramawastheSanskritdrama.[33]Itbeganafterthedevelopmentof GreekandRomandramaandbeforethedevelopmentoftheatreinotherpartsofAsia.[33]It emergedsometimebetweenthe2ndcenturyBCEandthe1stcenturyCEandflourishedbetween the1stcenturyCEandthe10th,whichwasaperiodofrelativepeaceinthehistoryofIndiaduring whichhundredsofplayswerewritten.[34]WiththeIslamicconqueststhatbeganinthe10thand 11thcenturies,theatrewasdiscouragedorforbiddenentirely.[35]Later,inanattempttoreassert indigenousvaluesandideas,villagetheatrewasencouragedacrossthesubcontinent,developingina largenumberofregionallanguagesfromthe15thtothe19thcenturies.[36]ModernIndiantheatre developedduringtheperiodofcolonialruleundertheBritishEmpire,fromthemid19thcentury untilthemid20th.[37] [edit]Sanskrittheatre Mainarticle:Sanskritdrama TheearliestsurvivingfragmentsofSanskritdramadatefromthe1stcenturyCE.[38]Thewealthof archeologicalevidencefromearlierperiodsoffersnoindicationoftheexistenceofatraditionof theatre.[39]TheancientVedas(hymnsfrombetween1500to1000BCEthatareamongtheearliest examplesofliteratureintheworld)containnohintofit(althoughasmallnumberarecomposedin aformofdialogue)andtheritualsoftheVedicperioddonotappeartohavedevelopedintotheatre. [39]TheMahbhyabyPatajalicontainstheearliestreferencetowhatmayhavebeentheseeds ofSanskritdrama.[40]Thistreatiseongrammarfrom140BCEprovidesafeasibledateforthe beginningsoftheatreinIndia.[40] ThemajorsourceofevidenceforSanskrittheatreisATreatiseonTheatre(Ntyastra),a compendiumwhosedateofcompositionisuncertain(estimatesrangefrom200BCEto200CE) andwhoseauthorshipisattributedtoBharataMuni.TheTreatiseisthemostcompleteworkof

dramaturgyintheancientworld.Itaddressesacting,dance,music,dramaticconstruction, architecture,costuming,makeup,props,theorganisationofcompanies,theaudience,competitions, andoffersamythologicalaccountoftheoriginoftheatre.[40] ItsdramaisregardedasthehighestachievementofSanskritliterature.[41]Itutilisedstock characters,suchasthehero(nayaka),heroine(nayika),orclown(vidusaka).Actorsmayhave specialisedinaparticulartype.Itwaspatronizedbythekingsaswellasvillageassemblies.Famous earlyplaywrightsincludeBhasa,Kalidasa(famousforVikramaandUrvashi,Malavikaand Agnimitra,andTheRecognitionofShakuntala),udraka(famousforTheLittleClayCart), Asvaghosa,Dain,andEmperorHarsha(famousforNagananda,RatnavaliandPriyadarsika). akuntal(inEnglishtranslation)influencedGoethe'sFaust(18081832).[41] [edit]ModernIndiandrama RabindranathTagore,whowasawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1913,isprobablyIndia's bestknownmodernplaywright.[42]HisplaysarewritteninBengaliandincludeChitra (Chitrangada,1892),TheKingoftheDarkChamber(Raja,1910),ThePostOffice(Dakghar,1913), andRedOleander(Raktakarabi,1924).[42] [edit]ModernUrdudramaofIndiaandPakistan Thissectiondoesnotciteanyreferencesorsources.Pleasehelpimprovethissectionby addingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved. (December2011) Thissectionmaycontainoriginalresearch.Pleaseimproveitbyverifyingtheclaims madeandaddingreferences.Statementsconsistingonlyoforiginalresearchmaybe removed.(December2011) UrduDramaevolvedfromtheprevailingdramatictraditionsofNorthIndiashapingRahasorRaas aspracticedbyexponentslikeNawabWajidAliShahofAwadh.Hisdramaticexperimentsledto thefamousInderSabhaofAmanatandlaterthistraditiontooktheshapeofParsiTheatre.Agha HashrKashmiriistheculminationofthistradition. Insomewayorother,UrdutheatretraditionhasgreatlyinfluencedmodernIndiantheatre.Among allthelanguagesUrdu(whichwascalledHindibyearlywriters),alongwithGujrati,Marathiand Bengalitheatreshavekeptflourishinganddemandforitswritersandartistshasnotsubsidedbythe dramaaficionados.ForUrdudrama,noplaceisbetterthanBombayFilmindustryotherwiseknown asHindifilmindustry.AlltheearlygemsofUrduTheatre(performedbyParsiCompanies)were madeintofilms.UrduDramatictraditionhasbeenaspectatorsdelightsince100yearsand counting. Dramaasathemeismadeupofseveralelements.Itfocusesonlifeanddifferentaspectsofit.The thingtobenoticedhereisthatdramaonstageimitatesdramainlife.Ithasbeensaidthat,therehas alwaysbeenamutualrelationshipbetweentheatreandreallife.Greathistoricalpersonalitieslike ShakespearehaveinfluencedModernUrdutraditiontoalargeextentwhenIndian,Iranian,Turkish storiesandfolkwasadaptedforstagewithheavydosesofUrdupoetry.Inmoderntimeswriterslike ImtiazAliTaj,RafiPeer,KrishanChander,Manto,UpenderNathAshk,GhulamRabbani,Prof. Mujeebandmanyothersshapedthistradition. WhileProfHasan,GhulamJeelani,J.N,Kaushal,ShameemHanfi,JameelShaidayi,etc.belongto theoldgeneration,contemporarywriterslikeDanishIqbal,SayeedAlam,ShahidAnwar,Iqbal Niyazi,andAnwarareafewpostmodernplaywrightsactivelycontributinginthefieldofUrdu Drama.

SayeedAlamisknownforhiswitandhumourandmoreparticularlyforPlayslike'GhalibinNew Delhi''BigB'andmanyothergemswhichareregularlystagedformassiveturnoutoftheatrelovers. MaulanaAzadishismagnumopusbothforitscontentandstyle. DanishIqbal'splayabout'DaraShikoh'directedbyM.S.Sathyuisconsideredamodernclassicfor theuseofnewertheatretechniquesandcontemporaryperspective.Hisotherplaysare'Sahir'onthe famouslyricistandrevolutionarypoet.'KuchhIshqkiyaKuchhKaam'isanotherplaywrittenby DanishwhichisbasicallyaCelebrationoftheFaiz'spoetry,featuringeventsfromtheearlypartof hislife,particularlytheeventsandincidentsofprepartitiondayswhichshapedhislifeandideals. 'ChandRozAurMeriJaan'anotherplayinspiredfromFaiz'sletterswrittenfromvariousjails duringtheRawalpindiConspiracydays.Hehaswritten14otherplaysincluding'DilliJoEkShehr Thaa'and'MainGayaWaqtNahinhoon'.Shahid's'ThreeB'isalsoasignificantplay.Hehasbeen associatedwithmanygroupslike'Natwa'andothers.ZaheerAnwarhaskepttheflagofUrdu theatreflyinginKolkata.UnlikethewritersofpreviousgenerationSayeed,Shahid,DanishIqbal andZaheerdonotwritebookishplaysbuttheirworkisaproductofvigorousperformingtradition. IqbalNiyaziofMumbaihaswrittenseveralplaysinUrdu,hisplay"AURKITNEJALYANWALA BAUGH?"wonaNationalawardotherawards.HencethisistheonlygenerationafterAmanatand AghaHashrwhoactuallywriteforstageandnotforlibraries.

[edit]China

A1958U.S.S.R.postagestampcommemoratingGuanHanqing,oneofthegreatChinese dramatists,whoisrenownedforhis"zaju"plays. Chinesetheatrehasalongandcomplexhistory.TodayitisoftencalledChineseoperaalthoughthis normallyrefersspecificallytothepopularformknownasBeijingoperaandKunqu;therehavebeen manyotherformsoftheatreinChina,suchaszaju.

[edit]Japan
JapaneseNdramaisaseriousdramaticformthatcombinesdrama,music,anddanceintoa completeaestheticperformanceexperience.Itdevelopedinthe14thand15thcenturiesandhasits ownmusicalinstrumentsandperformancetechniques,whichwereoftenhandeddownfromfather toson.Theperformersweregenerallymale(forbothmaleandfemaleroles),althoughfemale amateursalsoperformNdramas.Ndramawassupportedbythegovernment,andparticularlythe military,withmanymilitarycommandershavingtheirowntroupesandsometimesperforming themselves.ItisstillperformedinJapantoday.[43] KygenisthecomiccounterparttoNdrama.Itconcentratesmoreondialogueandlessonmusic, althoughNinstrumentalistssometimesappearalsoinKygen.Kabukidrama,developedfromthe 17thcentury,isanothercomicform,whichincludesdance.

[edit]Formsofdrama
[edit]Opera
Westernoperaisadramaticartform,whicharoseduringtheRenaissanceinanattempttorevivethe classicalGreekdramatraditioninwhichbothmusicandtheatrewerecombined.Beingstrongly intertwinedwithwesternclassicalmusic,theoperahasundergoneenormouschangesinthepast fourcenturiesanditisanimportantformoftheatreuntilthisday.Noteworthyisthehugeinfluence oftheGerman19thcenturycomposerRichardWagnerontheoperatradition.Inhisview,therewas

noproperbalancebetweenmusicandtheatreintheoperasofhistime,becausethemusicseemedto bemoreimportantthanthedramaticaspectsintheseworks.Torestoretheconnectionwiththe traditionalGreekdrama,heentirelyrenewedtheoperaticformat,andtoemphasizetheequal importanceofmusicanddramainthesenewworks,hecalledthem"musicdramas". Chineseoperahasseenamoreconservativedevelopmentoverasomewhatlongerperiodoftime.

[edit]Pantomime
Mainarticle:Pantomime Thesestoriesfollowinthetraditionoffablesandfolktales.Usuallythereisalessonlearned,and withsomehelpfromtheaudience,thehero/heroinesavestheday.Thiskindofplayusesstock charactersseeninmasqueandagaincommediadell'arte,thesecharactersincludethevillain (doctore),theclown/servant(Arlechino/Harlequin/buttons),theloversetc.Theseplaysusuallyhave anemphasisonmoraldilemmas,andgoodalwaystriumphsoverevil,thiskindofplayisalsovery entertainingmakingitaveryeffectivewayofreachingmanypeople.

[edit]Creativedrama
Creativedramaincludesdramaticactivitiesandgamesusedprimarilyineducationalsettingswith children.ItsrootsintheUnitedStatesbeganintheearly1900s.WinifredWardisconsideredtobe thefounderofcreativedramaineducation,establishingthefirstacademicuseofdramain Evanston,Illinois[citationneeded].

[edit]Legalstatus
[edit]UK
TheCopyright,DesignsandPatentsAct1988doesnotdefineadramaticworkexcepttostatethatit includesaworkofdanceormime.However,itisclearthatdramaticworkincludesthescenarioor scriptforfilms,plays(writtenfortheatre,cinema,televisionorradio).[44]andchoreographic works.[45]

[edit]