4.4.

3 Gas Detection in Deeply Invaded Shaly Sands and Volcanic Reser voirs
V i c e - c h i e f E n g i n e e r, S e n i o r P e t r o p h y s i c i s t , F u Y o u s h e n g
Well Logging Company of Daqing Petroleum Administrative Bureau, Daqing

L o g A n a l y s t s , W a n g D e f u a n d Z h u Yo u q i n g
Interpretation and Computing Center, Well Logging Company of Daqing Petroleum Administrative Bureau, Daqing

Introduction
The appraisal well discussed in this paper is located in the eastern fault block of the Wangjiatun structure which is within the Xujiaweizi graben, in the south-east part of Songliao Basin. The main target for this well is the Denglongku Formation, a unit which includes laminated sandstones and sandstone lenses. The porosity of reservoirs in the area ranges from 6 to 11% and permeability from 1 to 5 md. All of the hydrocarbon-bearing reservoirs in this group are dominated by gas. Accurate evaluation of the Denglongku gas-bearing sands is challenging. The sands are shaly, which masks the gas effect seen on resistivity and neutron logs. Furthermore, invasion by drilling fluids is usually very deep, which complicates the evaluation even further. The Daqing Well Logging Company has found that conventional logging technology cannot provide accurate or reliable saturation information under these conditions. As a result, all potential reservoir intervals need to be tested. This is an expensive and time-consuming process: the reservoir bodies are lenses, so continuity of petrophysical characteristics cannot be inferred within the field. A fractured, gas-bearing, volcanic reservoir has also been encountered below the Denglongku sands.

Logging program
The logging program for this delineation well was designed to produce a data set which was highly sensitive to gas, even in the presence of shale beds and deep invasion. The Array Induction Imager Tool (AIT*) provides a deep resistivity investigation to a depth of 90 inches (2.3 m), which is 50% deeper than conventional induction techniques. The five resistivity curves from the AIT, all plotted with the same vertical resolution (30 cm), have between four and six times better resolution than conventional induction results, and with well-controlled depth of investigation (10, 20, 30, 60 and 90 inches), allow a more accurate determination of the undisturbed formation resistivity R t . This is very important for improving the accuracy of gas saturation assessment. Apart from conventional electron density and caliper information, the Integrated Porosity Lithology (IPL*) tool provides: a neutron porosity that is less affected by shales than conventional neutron porosities a capture cross-section of the formation natural gamma-ray spectroscopy curves such as uranium-free gamma-ray activity and natural activities due to thorium, uranium and potassium compounds.

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Table 1 Endpoint values assigned to each input log for materials included in the model

Undisturbed gas UGAS

Invaded Undisturbed Invaded zone gas water zone water XGAS UWAT XWAT

Igneous fragments

Tuff

Lava

Clay

Feldspar

Quartz

NRHB APLC Rxo Rt

0.15 0.21

0.15 0.21

1.004 1

0.992 1

2.626 0.01

2.6 0

2.68 0.01

2.68 0.25 3 3

2.59 0.01

2.65 0.015

GR (upper zone)

35

160

60

150

80

GR (lower zone) SIGF

0 4

0 22.2

58 11.1

160 16

60 14

150 31

111 15.7

5 8

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Using a neutron porosity with a reduced shale effect while retaining the full effects of formation porosity and gas saturation provides an added sensitivity to gas saturation. Moreover, the formation capture cross-section is highly sensitive to shale volume and gas saturation and so provides an additional evaluation input directly related to gas. The combination of gamma-ray spectroscopy data with formation capture cross-section is a major improvement over conventional total gamma-ray measurements and helps to improve shale volume evaluation. This has important repercussions for the evaluation of effective porosity, hydrocarbon saturation, permeability and irreducible water volume, all of which are important factors for predicting production performance. The Fullbore Formation MicroImager (FMI*) tool was also used in this logging program. Aside from its normal geological and stratigraphic value, use of the tools high vertical resolution average resistivity curve helped to assess true bed thickness and enhanced the vertical resolution of other logs. These features are described in more detail in Section 4.4.2.

bound water, tuff and lava for the rock matrix, and (for the pore space) gas and water. The Indonesia saturation equation, which usually provides good results in the shaly sand condition encountered in Chinas oil fields, was chosen to derive saturation from the resistivity data.
4.4.3 Gas Detection in Deeply Invaded Shaly Sands and Volcanic Reservoirs

Input log data

The input log data consisted of invasion-corrected deep and shallow induction readings (AORT and AORX) from the AIT tool for evaluating S w and Sxo. The IPL tool was used for lithology evaluation, and the data it provided included epithermal neutron porosity (limestone corrected APLC), enhanced vertical resolution formation electron density (NRHB), uranium-free natural gamma-ray activity (HCGR) and the formation thermal neutron capture crosssection (SIGF).

Main evaluation parameters

Saturation evaluation (Indonesia saturation equation model)
The saturation exponent and cementation factors were assigned their default value of m=n=2. The formation factor multiplier A was also set at its default value of 1. Mud filtrate salinity was set at 3.3 parts per thousand (ppk) on the basis of the wellsite mud filtrate measurement. Formation water salinity was set at 3.5 ppk, a typical value for this area. The use of the Indonesia saturation equation and default values of 2 for the saturation exponent and cementation factors are well-suited to the shaly sand model. In the fractured volcanic lithology, a variable m model would perhaps be more appropriate for saturation estimation as m is likely to fall below 2 in fractured intervals. This modification was not attempted because there were other, even more important, problems to be considered, such as shale content evaluation and effective porosity determination. Unfortunately, no core data were available to attempt a fine-tuning calibration of the volcanic rock model.

ELANPlus processing
The Elemental Log Analysis (ELANPlus*) processor is a nonlinear, least squares minimization routine that attempts to minimize the error between observed logs and reconstructed logs by following a specific formation model. The quality of the final interpreted results depends on both the quality and choice of the input log data and the quality of the evaluation model input to the processor.

Formation model
The formation model is usually defined by a log analyst after studying raw log response, external information such as expected lithology and drilling returns analysis and description. This is a mathematical process, so the complexity of the model (e.g. the number of unknowns) is linked to the number of independent input logs and constraints available. Two separate models were used to describe the formation in this well. The main model was a shaly sand model including parameters for the rock matrix, clay and claybound water, quartz, feldspars, igneous fragments, and (for the pore space) gas and water. The second model (an igneous rock model) was developed for the lower section of the well. This included parameters for clay and clay-

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Figure 1 A short section of the final well evaluation plot for the appraisal well. Note the relatively high permeability in the cleanest reservoir zone and large invasion-related displacement of gas

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Lithology and porosity evaluation

Endpoint values are assigned to each input log for each material volume included in the model. These are summarized in Table 1. The clay-bound water volume was set at 15.6% of the dry clay volume.

Postprocessing
Once the lithology, porosity and hydrocarbon saturation are well defined, a postprocessing module uses these results to compute other parameters linked to the producibility of the reservoirs under evaluation. Effective porosity and lithology are used to derive an estimate of reservoir permeability to brine (K int , or Intrinsic Permeability). A volume of irreducible, capillary-bound, water (Vwi), and an irreducible water saturation (Swi), are further derived from knowledge of the porosity, permeability and hydrocarbon saturation of the formation, using the well-established Timur relationship.

The permeability factors associated with shaly sand minerals are well defined. Providing that the IPL tool is used to obtain an accurate estimate of sand, feldspars and shale, a reasonable estimate of permeability can be made. However, with volcanic fragments in shaly sands, as well as for the igneous rock model, permeability factors are less well defined. As a result, and particularly for the igneous rock model, the permeability and irreducible water saturation estimates may be erroneous, especially since they are made without the benefit of core calibration points. The Combinable Magnetic Resonance (CMR*) tool provides a quasi-direct measurement of permeability and a direct measurement of irreducible water volume, and its use is strongly recommended for future operations. In the following list of permeability factors attributed to the different minerals, a factor greater than zero indicates a material whose presence enhances reservoir permeability, and a value lower than zero indicates a material whose presence decreases permeability.

4.4.3 Gas Detection in Deeply Invaded Shaly Sands and Volcanic Reservoirs

Figure 2a Typical Group A gas-bearing reservoir

Figure 2b Group A gasbearing reservoir with low natural permeability

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Figure 3a Typical upper Group B reservoir

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Clay Igneous fragments Tuff Lava Feldspar Quartz

6.0 3.5 1.0 0.5 1.0 0.1

On the right side of track III, log analyst reservoir interpretation flags are displayed. These flags are a log analysts interpretation of the raw log measurements, the ELANPlus evaluation and any external data available. It is a prediction of the fluids that would be produced if the reservoir analysed was open to production. The flag coding for all of the logs in this paper are as follows: Red with g Dry-gas production Tight sand, dry gas production (little) Gas reservoir with water production Water reservoir containing some gas Dry zone, no production expected.

4.4.3 Gas Detection in Deeply Invaded Shaly Sands and Volcanic Reservoirs

Well evaluation plot description

Figure 1 shows a short section of the final well evaluation plot, including the scaling insert. The presentation is divided into four log tracks and a depth track at the extreme left. From right to left, track IV displays formation volume analysis, including assessments of both rock- and fluid-filled volumes. Analysis of the fluid-filled volumes is described below in the discussion of track III. Rock volumes include dry clay, and the clay-bound water. Siliciclastic reservoir rocks contain quartz, feldspar and igneous fragments. Volcanic rocks including tuff and lava are also represented. The effective formation porosity parameter PIGE separates rock volumes from fluid volumes. Track III features a detailed analysis of the fluid volumes. This is repeated from track IV, but provides a more sensitive (and therefore easier to read) effective porosity scale, from 50 to 0%. Water-filled volumes are shown in blue and gas volumes in red. The ELANPlus formation water saturation computed from the AIT-derived R t parameter splits the effective porosity volume into those two components. The gas saturation of the invaded zone is computed using the Rxo reading derived from the AIT device. This parameter allows the separation of total gas into nonmoved gas, present very close to the borehole wall (X_Zone Gas), shown in red, and deeper gas that has been flushed away by invasion (Moved_Gas), shown in orange. The reservoir displayed in Figure 1 shows massive gas displacement by invasion; in other words, gas mobility in this reservoir is excellent. The formation water volume is also split into two separate volumes, using the irreducible water volume parameter computed by the ELANPlus postprocessing module. These are the capillary-bound irreducible water volume (light blue) and the producible water volume (dark blue). Where significant volumes of producible water are shown, water production (in addition to any gas) is expected. Where only capillary-bound water is present, no water should be produced.

Pink with tg Pink with gcw White with wcg Brown with d

Whenever possible, actual test results are compared to the predictions made on the basis of the log data. The predictions were made before test results became available. Track II contains the water saturation results on a scale (left to right) of 1 to 0. The area between the pure water line (Sw=1) and actual formation saturation is pink and represents zones where gas is present. Track I displays the intrinsic or brine permeability of the formation. Its scaling is logarithmic and covers a range of values from 10 darcies to 0.1 md. Permeable reservoir intervals are highlighted in yellow.

Well evaluation
After integrating the ELANPlus results, all logs and other available information, it is possible to divide the entire survey interval into five separate formation groups. The classification is based on lithological and geological parameters rather than reservoir saturation characteristics, although in most cases, water saturation characteristics are closely linked to the lithological groups. These groups will be discussed in order from top to bottom of the sequence.

Group A (23422620m)
The reservoirs in this group are gas-bearing. There is very little free water in this section, with all free pore space being gas-saturated. Reservoirs where porosity and permeability are high enough should produce gas with little or no water. Figures 1, 2a and 2b show reservoirs typical to this group. The reservoirs in Figures 2a and 2b have been tested and the results confirm the log analysts producibility estimates derived from log data and ELANPlus evaluation.

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Figure 3b Group B transition zone reservoir

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A comparison of reservoir characteristics in Figures 1 and 2b provides some interesting information. Both reservoirs contain large volumes of gas. The reservoir in Figure 1 shows a relatively high permeability (about 10 md) in the cleanest reservoir section, and a large invasion-related displacement of gas. In contrast, the reservoir in Figure 2b shows a much reduced permeability (averaging only 0.5 md) and virtually no gas displacement. The low permeability characteristics of reservoir 2b were confirmed by test results. Gas production in this reservoir increased by a factor of 10 between tests performed before and after fracing. The reservoir in Figure 1 is likely to produce much more gas without stimulation than the reservoir of Figure 2b was producing before its flow characteristics were modified by the fracing program.

low water saturation in the most permeable interval. It is, therefore, expected to produce gas, even though it is below a water-producing interval. Although the reservoirs are not particularly thinly bedded, their permeability and saturation characteristics are thinly heterogeneous and this is where the enhanced vertical resolution and careful depth matching afforded by the FMI-derived resistivity become important for proper reservoir evaluation. The transition from gas to water is complete at 2770 m, and only water is present below this level. This water-bearing zone (down to 2811 m) is assigned to Group B because the general electrofacies of the raw logs is typical of the group.

4.4.3 Gas Detection in Deeply Invaded Shaly Sands and Volcanic Reservoirs

Group C (28112933 m)
All of the potential reservoirs in this zone are water-bearing. Few of them have sufficiently high porosity and permeability values for water production. Most are dry in the sense that all of the water contained in the pore space is capillary-bound. In Figure 4, only the lower section of the upper reservoir contains free water. All of the other reservoir intervals contain only capillary-bound or irreducible water, indicating that there will be no fluid production.

Group B (26202811 m)
Reservoirs in this group appear to be part of a transition zone, from gas to water. Two typical reservoirs sections are shown in Figures 3a and 3b, clearly illustrating how the amount of free water increases with depth into the transition zone. Test results confirm the transition zone hypothesis. A mixture of gas and water is produced at the top of the transition zone but only water is produced lower down. Although the general saturation trend in this group can be characterized as a transition zone, careful analysis should be made of saturation versus permeability. For example, the reservoir between 2689 and 2694 m has low water saturation in low permeability streaks and high water saturation in high permeability streaks, and so would be expected to produce water: this was confirmed by testing. In contrast, the reservoir between 2695 and 2698 m shows

Group D (29333074 m)
Reservoirs in this group are all composed of fractured, porous, volcanic rocks. In unconventional reservoirs such as these, the response of logging devices is not as accurately defined as it would be in siliciclastic and carbonate reservoirs. Without core calibration of log response to the particular volcanic rock mixture in the area, it is very difficult to evaluate the shale volume and the effective porosity of the formation accurately. In

Figure 4 Typical water-bearing reservoirs (Group C)

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Figure 5 Typical gas-bearing fractured volcanic reservoirs (Group D)

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addition, the exponent m of the saturation equation should probably be set to a value lower than 2 due to the fractured nature of the reservoirs. An additional problem is that the permeability factors for the volcanic constituents of the reservoir are not well known either. As a result of these uncertainties, the permeability derivation can only be an approximation, so evaluation of the irreducible water volume is also approximate. The accuracy of the ELANPlus evaluation can be adversely affected by all of these potential sources of error. Figure 5 shows that the match between predicted results and actual test results in the igneous section of the well is less accurate than in the siliciclastic reservoir section. The ELANPlus evaluation predicts that gas will be produced with some water, but test results indicate dry gas production. This discrepancy could be due, in part, to the potential sources of evaluation errors discussed above and/or to the fact that short-duration well tests are not always fully representative of long-term production. In this case, when the reservoir was put into long-term production, some water was produced.

the formations invasion profile and, therefore, a robust, reliable and small invasion correction, producing an excellent estimate of virgin zone resistivity. This is an essential element for accurate evaluation of the reservoirs hydrocarbon saturation. The IPL tools combination of formation density, neutron porosity unaffected by shale density nor thermal neutron capture characteristics, and elemental natural gamma-ray spectroscopy, provides a very accurate lithology description in a complex formation. This accurate description delivers three parameters essential to a reservoir production forecast: effective porosity, permeability and irreducible saturation or capillary-bound water volume. The FMI tool provides fine vertical resolution and true bed thicknesses. In addition to its usual geological uses, the FMI also provides the means to improve vertical resolution of other logs and detailed depth correlation. Both of these are essential functions and contribute to a better understanding of reservoirs with thinly-bedded permeability and saturation heterogeneities.

4.4.3 Gas Detection in Deeply Invaded Shaly Sands and Volcanic Reservoirs

Group E (3074 m to TD)

Below 3074 m the log response defines an electrofacies closely related to the electrofacies of the shales above the igneous reservoir section. It appears that the bottom of the volcanic sequence has been reached at 3074 m and that the shale unit below has no hydrocarbon reservoirs. The upper 6 m of this shale are altered by deposition of the overlying igneous section. Alteration is possibly due to temperature-induced effects and to the explosive inclusion of volcanic debris.

Conclusion
An imaging technology logging program carefully adapted to specific formation evaluation needs has successfully predicted production characteristics in all of the reservoirs. Evaluation forecasts have been verified by extensive testing and by production results. The key elements for this successful evaluation were contributed by a relatively restricted logging program using AIT, IPL and FMI tools. The AIT tool combination of a deep resistivity reading with four shallower resistivities provides a good description of

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