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Overview of lecture
Photovoltaics: fundamental attractions and drawbacks How does a photovoltaic cell work?
Review of semiconductors, electrons and holes Absorption of light in semiconductors The p-n junction
PV cell
Photovoltaics: drawbacks
Sunlight is very spread out (<1 kW/m2) It is irregular and somewhat unpredictable Electricity is difficult to store So far PV cells are expensive compared to other means of power generation
Growth in PV market
Installed Capacity Cumulative installed capacity / MW 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
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Price /W
6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Timeline of PV applications
1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s First modern PV cells Satellites Remote industrial applications Rural electrification, water pumping. First grid-connected systems. Building integrated systems Market continues to grow
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nucleus
Atomic separation
Forbidden zone
Energy level
Bandgap 1.1 eV
Conduction band
Photogeneration
Energy level
Bandgap 1.1 eV
Conduction band
electron photon
Fermi level
Pauli exclusion principle: no more than two electrons in a system can occupy exactly the same energy level This means that, even at zero K, electrons will have energy levels above zero Energy levels are filled up to a maximum, called the Fermi level
Energy level
@zero Kelvin
Fermi level
Fermi-Dirac distribution
Energy level E
As temperature T increases, some electrons start to occupy states above the Fermi level. This is represented by the Fermi-Dirac distribution function:
f (E) =
1 1+ e
( E E f ) / kT
Probability distribution function f(E)
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k is Boltzmanns constant
+ + + + +
Position in crystal
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Holes
Grid lock
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Doping: n-type
Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si P Si Si
-
Si Si Si
Energy level -
Fermi level
Si
Position in crystal
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Doping: p-type
Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si B Si Si
+
Si Si Si Si
Fermi level
Conduction processes
+
Drift
Electric field
Diffusion
- - - - - - -
Field strength
p-n junction
- n-type - + + - + + + - + - + - + + + + + - + + + + + - - Electron drift Hole drift Electron diffusion Hole diffusion
p-type
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p-n junction
- n-type - - - + + + + + + + + + + +
p-type
Depletion region
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p-n junction
- n-type - Charge density Electric field Poisson - - + + + + + + + + + + +
p-type
+ = ( / )dx
22
n-type
p-type
Electric field
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n-type
p-type
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I-V curve
800 600 400 200 0
-0.5
PV cell I = I l I 0 [exp(qV / kT ) 1]
Current I /mA
0.5
1.5
diode load
Voltage V
Current I /mA
-100
Voltage V
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Limitations to efficiency
Sunlight contains a spectrum of photons of varying energy E
If E<bandgap then the photon is useless If E>bandgap, then the excess energy becomes heat
Efficiencies achieved
30% 20% 10% 0 Commercial Si modules Multi-bandgap cells (not Si) Best lab cells of Si (concentrated sunlight) Best laboratory cells of Si (normal sunlight)
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Structure of PV Cell
Textured surface n-type (emitter) p-type (base) Bottom contact
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Burried contact
PV module
Glass cover Silicon PV cell Plastic support
seal frame
Individual cell
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Conclusions
Photovoltaic (PV) cells convert sunlight directly into electricity They are made of doped semiconductor arranged to give a p-n junction The junction creates an electric field Light generates electrons and holes in the semiconductor These are separated by the field A current is thereby induced when the PV cell is connected in a circuit.
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