Chapter 2

From the previous chapter we know that the current owing through the resistors will result in p.d.s being developed across them. We also know that the sum of these p.d.s must equal the value of the applied emf. Thus V1 IR1 volt; V2 IR2 volt; and V3 IR3 volt

32

Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles

D.C. Circuits
E IR volt. Also, E V1 V2 V3 volt

However, the circuit current I depends ultimately on the applied emf E and the total resistance R offered by the circuit. Hence

Learning Outcomes
and substituting for E, V1, V2 and V3 in this last equation we have IR IR1 IR2 IR3 volt and dividing this last equation by the common factor I R R1 R2 R3 ohm (2.1) where R is the total circuit resistance. From this result it may be seen that when resistors are connected in series the total resistance is found simply by adding together the resistor values.

This chapter explains how to apply circuit theory to the solution of simple circuits and networks by the application of Ohms law and Kirchhoffs laws, and the concepts of potential and current dividers.

This means that on completion of this chapter you should be able to:

1 Calculate current ows, potential differences, power and energy dissipations for circuit components and simple circuits, by applying Ohms law. 2 Carry out the above calculations for more complex networks using Kirchhoffs Laws. 3 Calculate circuit p.d.s using the potential divider technique, and branch currents using the current divider technique. 4 Understand the principles and use of a Wheatstone Bridge. 5 Understand the principles and use of a slidewire potentiometer.

2.1

Resistors in Series

Worked Example 2.1 Q

For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.2 calculate (a) the circuit resistance, (b) the circuit current, (c) the p.d. developed across each resistor, and (d) the power dissipated by the complete circuit.

Resistors cascaded or connected in series

When resistors are connected end-to-end so that the same current ows through them all they are said to be cascaded or connected in series. Such a circuit is shown in Fig. 2.1. Note that, for the sake of simplicity, an ideal source of emf has been used (no internal resistance).
R3

A
E 24 V; R1 330 ; R2 1500 ; R3 470
R1 330 R2 1.5 k V1 I E V2 R3 470 V3

or

R1

R2

V1

V2

V3

24 V

Fig. 2.1

31

Fig. 2.2

D.C. Circuits

33

34

Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles

(a)

R R1 R2 R3 ohm

Worked Example 2.2 Q

Two resistors are connected in series across a battery of emf 12 V. If one of the resistors has a value of 16 and it dissipates a power of 4 W, then calculate (a) the circuit current, and (b) the value of the other resistor.

330 1500 470

R 2300

or 2.3 k Ans

(b)

E amp R

24 2300

I 10.43 mA Ans

(c) V1 IR1 volt

10.43 103 330

V1 3.44 V Ans
A

Since the only two pieces of data that are directly related to each other concern the 16 resistor and the power that it dissipates, then this information must form the starting point for the solution of the problem. Using these data we can determine either the current through or the p.d. across the 16 resistor (and it is not important which of these is calculated rst). To illustrate this point both methods will be demonstrated. The appropriate circuit diagram, which forms an integral part of the solution, is shown in Fig. 2.3.
B 16 C

V2 IR2 volt

10.43 103 1500

V2 15.65 volts Ans

VAB I E 12 V VBC

V3 IR3 volt

10.43 103 470

V3 4.90 V Ans

Note: The sum of the above p.d.s is 23.99 V instead of 24 V due to the rounding errors in the calculation. It should also be noted that the value quoted for the current was 10.43 mA whereas the calculator answer is 10.4347 mA. This latter value was then stored in the calculator memory and used in the calculations for part (c), thus reducing the rounding errors to an acceptable minimum.

Fig. 2.3 E 12 V; RBC 16 ; PBC 4 W (a) I2RBC PBC watt I2 PBC RBC 4 0.25 16 so I 0.5 A Ans (b) total resistance, R E ohm I 12 24 0.5 RAB R RBC 24 16 so RAB 8 Ans Alternatively, the problem can be solved thus: (a)

(d)

P EI watt

24 10.43 103

P 0.25 W or 250 mW Ans

It should be noted that the power is dissipated by the three resistors in the circuit. Hence, the circuit power could have been determined by calculating the power dissipated by each of these and adding these values to give the total. This is shown below, and serves, as a check for the last answer.

P1 I 2R1 watt

(10.43 103 )2 330

P1 35.93 mW

P2 (10.43 103 )2 1500 470

163.33 mW

P3

(10.43 103 )2

51.18 mW
2 VBC PBC watt RBC 2 VBC PBC RBC 4 16

total power: P P1 P2 P3 watt

so P 250.44 mw

(Note the worsening e ect of continuous rounding error)

64

D.C. Circuits

35

36

Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles

so VBC 8 V

V I BC amp RBC

8 16

Since all three resistors are connected directly across the battery terminals then they all have the same voltage developed across them. In other words the voltage is the common factor in this arrangement of resistors. Now, each resistor will allow a certain value of current to ow through it, depending upon its resistance value. Thus I1 E E E amp; I 2 amp; and I 3 amp R1 R2 R3

so I 0.5 A Ans

(b)

VAB E VBC volt

128

VAB 4 V

The total circuit current I is determined by the applied emf and the total circuit resistance R, so I E amp R

RAB

VAB I

4 0.5

so RAB 8

Ans

Also, since all three branch currents originate from the battery, then the total circuit current must be the sum of the three branch currents so I I1 I 2 I 3 and substituting the above expression for the currents: E E E E R R1 R2 R3 and dividing the above equation by the common factor E: 1 1 1 1 siemen R R1 R2 R3 (2.2)

2.2

Resistors in Parallel

When resistors are joined side-by-side so that their corresponding ends are connected together they are said to be connected in parallel. Using this form of connection means that there will be a number of paths through which the current can ow. Such a circuit consisting of three resistors is shown in Fig. 2.4, and the circuit may be analysed as follows:

Resistors in Parallel

or

or

or

Note: The above equation does NOT give the total resistance of the circuit, but does give the total circuit conductance (G) which is measured in Siemens (S). Thus, conductance is the reciprocal of resistance, so to obtain the circuit resistance you must then take the reciprocal of the answer obtained from an equation of the form of equation (2.2).

I1

R1

Conductance is a measure of the willingness of a material or circuit to allow current to ow through it

I2

R2

That is

1 1 G siemen; and R ohm R G

(2.3) However, when only two resistors are in parallel the combined resistance may be obtained directly by using the following equation:

I3

R3

I E

Fig. 2.4

R1 R2 ohm R1 R2

(2.4)

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Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles

In this context, the word identical means having the same value of resistance

If there are x identical resistors in parallel the total resistance is simply R/x ohms.
I3 I3 51.06 mA Ans (c) I I1 I2 I3 amp 72.73 16 51.06 mA so I 139.8 mA Ans 24 470 E amp R3

Worked Example 2.3

Considering the circuit of Fig. 2.5, calculated (a) the total resistance of the circuit, (b) the three branch current, and (c) the current drawn from the battery.

Alternatively, the circuit current could have been determined by using the values for E and R as follows I 24 171.68 E amp R

I1

R1

330

I2

R2

1.5 k

I 139.8 mA Ans

I3

R3

470 E

24 V

Fig. 2.5

Compare this example with worked example 2.1 (the same values for the resistors and the emf have been used). From this it should be obvious that when resistors are connected in parallel the total resistance of the circuit is reduced. This results in a corresponding increase of current drawn from the source. This is simply because the parallel arrangement provides more paths for current ow.

A Worked Example 2.4 Q

Two resistors, one of 6 and the other of 3 resistance, are connected in parallel across a source of emf of 12 V. Determine (a) the e ective resistance of the combination, (b) the current drawn from the source, and (c) the current through each resistor.

E 24 V; R1 330 ; R2 1500 ; R3 470

(a)

1 1 1 1 siemen R R1 R2 R3

1 1 1 330 1500 470

A
The corresponding circuit diagram, suitably labelled is shown in Fig. 2.6.
I I1 I2

0.00303 0.000667 0.00213

0.005825 S so R 171.68 Ans (reciprocal of 0.005825)

(b)

I1

E amp R1
E 12 V R1

24 330 I1 72.73 mA Ans

R2

I2

E amp R2 Fig. 2.6

24 1500

I2 16 mA Ans

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40

Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles

E 12 V; R1 6 ; R2 3 632 1 1 1 1 60 R 10 20 30 so, R Ans 11 S 60 60 5.46 11

Alternatively,

(a)

R1R2 ohm R1 R2

6 3 18 63 9

so R 2

Ans

(b)

E amp R 12 2 so I 6 A Ans

2.3 Potential Divider

(c)

I1

E amp R1

12 6 I1 2 A Ans

When resistors are connected in series the p.d. developed across each resistor will be in direct proportion to its resistance value. This is a useful fact to bear in mind, since it means it is possible to calculate the p.d.s without rst having to determine the circuit current. Consider two resistors connected across a 50 V supply as shown in Fig. 2.7. In order to demonstrate the potential divider effect we will in this case rstly calculate circuit current and hence the two p.d.s by applying Ohms law: R R1 R2 ohm R 75 25 100 I

I2

E R2

12 3

I2 4 A Ans

E amp R 50 0.5 A I 100 V1 IR1 volt 0.5 75 V1 37.5 V Ans V2 IR2 volt 0.5 25 V2 12. 5 V Ans

Worked Example 2.5

A 10 resistor, a 20 resistor and a 30 resistor are connected (a) in series, and then (b) in parallel with each other. Calculate the total resistance for each of the two connections.

R1 10 ; R2 20 ; R3 30
I

(a)

R R1 R2 R3 ohm

10 20 30
R1 E 50 V 75 V1

so, R 60

Ans

(b)

1 1 1 1 siemen R R1 R2 R3

1 1 1 0.1 0.05 0.033 10 20 30

R2

25

V2

so, R

1 5.46 0.183

Ans

Fig. 2.7

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Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles

I I1 I2

Applying the potential divider technique, the two p.d.s may be obtained by using the fact that the p.d. across a resistor is given by the ratio of its resistance value to the total resistance of the circuit, expressed as a proportion of the applied voltage. Although this sounds complicated it is very simple to put into practice. Expressed in the form of an equation it means
E 48 V 12 R1 R2 24

V1 (2.5)

R1 E volt R1 R2
Fig. 2.8

and (2.6)

V2

R2 E volt R1 R2

and using the above equations the p.d.s can more simply be calculated as follows:

75 50 37. 5 V Ans 100 25 and V2 50 12 .5 V Ans 100

V1

This technique is not restricted to only two resistors in series, but may be applied to any number. For example, if there were three resistors in series, then the p.d. across each may be found from

It is now worth noting the values of the resistors and the corresponding currents. It is clear that R1 is half the value of R2. So, from the calculation we obtain the quite logical result that I1 is twice the value of I2. That is, a ratio of 2:1 applies in each case. Thus, the smaller resistor carries the greater proportion of the total current. By stating the ratio as 2:1 we can say that the current is split into three equal parts. Two parts are owing through one resistor and the remaining part through the other resistor. 2 Thus I ows through R1 3 1 and I ows through R2 3 Since I 6 A then I1

V1

R1 E R1 R2 R3

V2

R2 E R1 R2 R3

2 6 4A 3 1 I2 6 2 A 3 In general we can say that I1 R2 I R1 R2 and I2 R1 I R1 R2 (2.8) (2.7)

and V3

R3 E volt R1 R2 R3

2.4 Current Divider

It has been shown that when resistors are connected in parallel the total circuit current divides between the alternative paths available. So far we have determined the branch currents by calculating the common p.d. across a parallel branch and dividing this by the respective resistance values. However, these currents can be found directly, without the need to calculate the branch p.d., by using the current divider theory. Consider two resistors connected in parallel across a source of emf 48 V as shown in Fig. 2.8. Using the p.d. method we can calculate the two currents as follows: I2 E amp R2

I1

E R1

and

Note: This is NOT the same ratio as for the potential divider. If you compare (2.5) with (2.7) you will nd that the numerator in (2.5) is R1 whereas in (2.7) the numerator is R2. There is a similar cross-over when (2.6) and (2.8) are compared. Again, the current divider theory is not limited to only two resistors in parallel. Any number can be accommodated. However, with three or

48 12 I1 4 A

and

48 24 I2 2 A

D.C. Circuits

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44

Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles

6 5.6 4

more parallel resistors the current division method can be cumbersome to use, and it is much easier for mistakes to be made. For this reason it is recommended that where more than two resistors exist in parallel the p.d. method is used. This will be illustrated in the next section, but for completeness the application to three resistors is shown below.
E 64 V

Consider the arrangement shown in Fig. 2.9:

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 432 3 4 6 12 R R1 R2 R3

Fig. 2.10

and examining the numerator, we have 4 3 2 9 parts.

R1 3
I1 6 R1 5.6 A B I2 I 4 R2 C

I1

Fig. 2.11. Also note that since there is no mention of internal resistance it may be assumed that the source of emf is ideal.

I2 4 R3 6

R2

I3

I 18 A
E 64 V

Fig. 2.9 Fig. 2.11

Thus, the current ratios will be 4/9, 3/9 and 2/9 respectively for the three resistors.

So, I1

4 3 2 18 8 A; I 2 18 6 A; I 3 18 4 A 9 9 9

(a) To determine the current I drawn from the battery we need to know the total resistance RAC of the circuit. RBC 64 product (using for two resistors in parallel) ) 64 sum 24 10 so RBC 2.4 The original circuit may now be redrawn as in Fig 2.12.

2.5

Series/Parallel Combinations

Most practical circuits consist of resistors which are interconnected in both series and parallel forms. The simplest method of solving such a circuit is to reduce the parallel branches to their equivalent resistance values and hence reduce the circuit to a simple series arrangement. This is best illustrated by means of a worked example.

5.6

2.4

Worked Example 2.6

VAB

VBC

For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.10, calculate (a) the current drawn from the supply, (b) the current through the 6 resistor, and (c) the power dissipated by the 5.6 resistor.
E 64 V

The rst step in the solution is to sketch and label the circuit diagram, clearly showing all currents owing and identifying each part of the circuit as shown in

Fig. 2.12

D.C. Circuits

45 46

Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles

RAC RAB RBC ohm (resistors in series)

Worked Example 2.7 Q

R4 R1 R3 4 R2 6 8 5 6 R6 3 R5

5.6 2.4

so RAC 8

For the circuit of Fig. 2.13 calculate (a) the current drawn from the source, (b) the p.d. across each resistor, (c) the current through each resistor, and (d) the power dissipated by the 5 resistor.

E 64 amp RAC 8

so I 8 A Ans

(b) To nd the current I1 through the 6 resistor we may use either of two methods. Both of these are now demonstrated. p.d. method:

VBC IRBC volt (Fig. 2.12) 8 2.4 so, VBC 19.2 V

I1

VBC amp (Fig. 2.11) R1

E 18 V

Fig. 2.13

19 .2 6

A
The rst step in the solution is to label the diagram clearly with letters at the junctions and identifying p.d.s and branch currents. This shown in Fig. 2.14.
I4 I1 R1 4 A I2 R2 6 I3 B R3 I5 5 C I6 3 R5 D 6 R6 8 VAB I E 18 V VBC VCD R4

so, I1 3.2 A Ans

This answer may be checked as follows:

I1

VBC amp R2

19.2 4.8 A 4

and since I I1 I2 3.2 4.8 8 A which agrees with the value found in (a).

current division method: Considering Fig. 2.11, the current I splits into the components I1 and I2 according to the ratio of the resistor values. However, you must bear in mind that the larger resistor carries the smaller proportion of the total current.

I1

R2 I amp R1 R2 (a) RAB

Fig. 2.14

4 8 64

R1R2 46 2.4 ohm R1 R2 46 RBC 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 RCD R4 R5 R6 3 6 8

so, I1 3.2 A Ans

(c)

PAB I2RAB watt

82 5.6

so, PAB 358.4 W Ans

Alternatively, PAB VAB I watt

where VAB E VBC volt 6419.2 44.8 V

8 4 3 15 S 24 24 24 RCD 1.6 15 R RAB RBC RCD ohm R 2.4 5 1.6 9 I E 18 amp R 9 I 2 A Ans

PAB 44.8 8

so, PAB 358.4 W Ans

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48

Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles

(b) The circuit has been reduced to its series equivalent as shown in Fig. 2.15. Using this equivalent circuit it is now a simple matter to calculate the p.d. across each section of the circuit. (d) or and using the rst of these alternative equation: P3 22 5 P3 20 W Ans
2 VBC watt R3 2 P3 I 3 R3 watt or VBCI3 watt

Notice that the p.d. method is an easier and less cumbersomeone than current division when more than two resistors are connected in parallel.

VAB IRAB volt 2 2.4

VAB 4.8 V Ans

(this p.d. is common to both R1 and R2)

VBC IRBC volt 2 5

VBC 10 V Ans

VCD IRCD volt 2 1.6 yield the same answer.

It is left to the reader to con rm that the other two power equations above

VCD = 3.2 V Ans

(this p.d. is common to R4, R5 and R6)

5 C D 1.6

2.4

2.6

Kirchho s Current Law

I E 18 V

VAB VBC VCD

Fig. 2.15

(c) I1

4.8 VAB or 4 R1

I1

R2 6 I 2 R1 R2 10

We have already put this law into practice, though without stating it explicitly. The law states that the algebraic sum of the currents at any junction of a circuit is zero. Another, and perhaps simpler, way of stating this is to say that the sum of the currents arriving at a junction is equal to the sum of the currents leaving that junction. Thus we have applied the law with parallel circuits, where the assumption has been made that the sum of the branch currents equals the current drawn from the source. Expressing the law in the form of an equation we have: I 0 where the symbol means the sum of . Figure 2.16 illustrates a junction within a circuit with a number of currents arriving and leaving the junction. Applying Kirchhoff s current law yields: I1 I 2 I 3 I 4 I 5 0 where signs have been used to denote currents arriving and signs for currents leaving the junction. This equation can be transposed to comply with the alternative statement for the law, thus: I1 I 3 I 4 I 2 I 5 (2.9)

I1 1.2 A Ans

I1 1.2 A Ans

I2

VAB 4 .8 or R2 6

I2

R1 4 I 2 10 R1 R2

I2 0.8 A Ans

I2 0.8 A Ans

I3 I 2 A Ans

I4

VCD 3 .2 or R4 3

1 1 1 1 RCD R4 R5 R6

I4 1.067 A Ans

1 1 1 3 6 8

I5

VCD 3.2 R5 6

8 4 3 15 24 24

I5 0.533 A Ans

8 2 so I4 15
I1 I2 I3 I5 I4

I6

VCD 3.2 R6 8

I4 1.067 A Ans

I6 0.4 A Ans

4 2 I5 15

I5 0.533 A Ans

I6

3 2 15

Fig. 2.16

I6 0.4 A Ans

D.C. Circuits

49 50

Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles

Worked Example 2.8

Q
I5 F 30 A

For the network shown in Fig. 2.17 calculate the values of the marked currents.

of emf, and could be solved using simple Ohms law techniques. When more than one source of emf is involved, or the network is more complex, then a network analysis method must be used. Kirchhoff s is one of these methods. Expressing the law in mathematical form: E IR (2.10)

40 A A

I2

10 A I4 I3 E 25 A

80 A D

I1

A generalised circuit requiring the application of Kirchhoff s laws is shown in Fig. 2.18. Note the following:

Fig. 2.17

Junction A: I2 40 10 50 A Ans

1 The circuit has been labelled with letters so that it is easy to refer to a particular loop and the direction around the loop that is being considered. Thus, if the left-hand loop is considered, and you wish to trace a path around it in a clockwise direction, this would be referred to as ABEFA. If a counterclockwise path was required, it would be referred to as FEBAF or AFEBA.
I1 A I2 B

Junction C: I1 I 2 80
C

I1 50 80

so I1 30 A Ans
R1 (I1 I2) R2 R3 E1 E2

Junction D: I3 80 30 110 A Ans

Junction E: I 4 25 I 3

I 4 110 25

so I 4 85 A Ans

Junction F: I 5 I 4 30

I 5 85 30
F E D

I 5 30 85

so I 5 55 A Ans

Note: The minus sign in the last answer tells us that the current I5 is actually

Fig. 2.18

owing away from the junction rather than towards it as shown.

2.7

Kirchho s Voltage Law

This law also has already been used in the explanation of p.d. and in the series and series/parallel circuits. This law states that in any closed network the algebraic sum of the emfs is equal to the algebraic sum of the p.d.s taken in order about the network. Once again, the law sounds very complicated, but it is really only common sense, and is simple to apply. So far, it has been applied only to very simple circuits, such as resistors connected in series across a source of emf. In this case we have said that the sum of the p.d.s is equal to the applied emf (e.g. V1 V2 E). However, these simple circuits have had only one source

2 Current directions have been assumed and marked on the diagram. As was found in the previous worked example (2.8), it may well turn out that one or more of these currents actually ows in the opposite direction to that marked. This result would be indicated by a negative value obtained from the calculation. However, to ensure consistency, make the initial assumption that all sources of emf are discharging current into the circuit; i.e. current leaves the positive terminal of each battery and enters at its negative terminal. The current law is also applied at this stage, which is why the current owing through R3 is marked as (I1 I2) and not as I3. This is an important point since the solution involves the use of simultaneous equations, and the fewer the number of unknowns the simpler the solution. Thus marking the third-branch current in this way means

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Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles

Worked Example 2.9

Q For the circuit of Fig. 2.19 determine the value and direction of the current in each branch, and the p.d. across the 10 resistor.

R1 3 E2 4V E1 10 V

R2

2 R3 10

that there are only two unknowns to nd, namely I1 and I2. The value for the third branch current, I3, is then simply found by using the values obtained for I1 and I2. 3 If a negative value is obtained for a current then the minus sign MUST be retained in any subsequent calculations. However, when you quote the answer for such a current, make a note to the effect that it is owing in the opposite direction to that marked, e.g. from C to D. 4 When tracing the path around a loop, concentrate solely on that loop and ignore the remainder of the circuit. Also note that if you are following the marked direction of current then the resulting p.d.(s) are assigned positive values. If the direction of travel is opposite to the current arrow then the p.d. is assigned a negative value.
Fig. 2.19

Let us now apply these techniques to the circuit of Fig. 2.18.

A The circuit is rst labelled and current ows identi ed and marked by applying the current law. This is shown in Fig. 2.20.

Consider rst the left-hand loop in a clockwise direction. Tracing around the loop it can be seen that there is only one source of emf within it (namely E1). Thus the sum of the emfs is simply E1 volt. Also, within the loop there are only two resistors (R1 and R2) which will result in two p.d.s, I1R1 and (I1 I2)R3 volt. The resulting loop equation will therefore be: [1]

ABEFA: E1 I1 R1 ( I1 I 2 ) R3

I1

(I1 I2) C

I2

Now taking the right-hand loop in a counterclockwise direction it can be seen that again there is only one source of emf and two resistors. This results in the following loop equation: [2]
10 V

2 10

CBEDC: E2 I 2 R2 ( I1 I 2 ) R3

4V

Finally, let us consider the loop around the edges of the diagram in a clockwise direction. This follows the normal direction for E1 but is opposite to that for E2, so the sum of the emfs is E1 E2 volt. The loop equation is therefore [3]
ABEFA:

Fig. 2.20

ABCDEFA: E1 E2 I1 R1 I 2 R2

10 4 3I1 2 I 2 so 6 3I1 2 I 2 [1] ABCDEFA: 10 3I 2 10( I1 I 2 ) 3I 2 10 I1 10 I 2 so 10 13I1 10 I 2 [2]

Since there are only two unknowns then only two simultaneous equations are required, and three have been written. However it is a useful practice to do this as the extra equation may contain more convenient numerical values for the coefcients of the unknown currents.

The complete technique for the applications of Kirchhoff s laws becomes clearer by the consideration of a worked example containing numerical values.

D.C. Circuits

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Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles

BCDEB:

A
Firstly the circuit is sketched and labelled and currents identi ed using Kirchho s current law. This is shown in Fig. 2.22.
I1 B R1 1.5 I2

4 2 I 2 10( I1 I 2 )

2 I 2 10 I1 10 I 2
A

so 4 10 I1 12 I 2 [3]
C R2 2

Inspection of equations [1] and [2] shows that if equation [1] is multiplied by 5 then the coe cient of I2 will be the same in both equations. Thus, if the two are now added then the term containing I2 will be eliminated, and hence a value can be obtained for I1.
(I1 I2) E1 6V R3 5

30 15I1 10 I 2 [1] 5

E2

4.5 V

10 13I1 10 I 2 [2]

40 28 I1
F E D

so I1

40 1.429 A Ans 28

Substituting this value for I1 into equation [3] yields;

Fig. 2.22

4 14.29 12 I 2 (a) We can now consider three loops in the circuit and write down the corresponding equations using Kirchho s voltage law: ABEFA: E1 I1R1 ( I1 I 2 )R3 volt 6 1.5I1 5( I1 I 2 ) 1.5I1 5I1 5I 2 so, 6 6.5I1 5I 2 [1] CBEDC: E2 I 2R2 ( I1 I 2 )R3 volt 4.5 2 I 2 5( I1 I 2 ) 2 I 2 5I1 5I 2 so, 4.5 5I1 7 I 2 [2] ABCDEFA: E1 E2 I1R1 I 2R2 volt 6 4.5 1.5I1 2 I 2 so, 1.5 1.5I1 2 I 2 [3]

12 I 2 4 14.29

10.29 0.857 A (charge) An so I 2 ns 12

( I1 I 2 ) 1.429 0.857 0.572 A Ans

VCD ( I 2 I 2 ) RCD volt

0.572 10

so VCD 5.72 V Ans

Worked Example 2.10

For the circuit shown in Fig 2.21, use Kirchho s Laws to calculate (a) the current owing in each branch of the circuit, and (b) the p.d. across the 5 resistor.

1.5

Now, any pair of these three equations may be used to solve the problem, using the technique of simultaneous equations. We shall use equations [1] and [3] to eliminate the unknown current I2, and hence obtain a value for current I1. To do this we can multiply [1] by 2 and [3] by 5, and then add the two modi ed equations together, thus: 12 13I1 10 I 2 . .[1] 2 7.5 7.5I1 10 I 2 [3] 5 19.5 20.5I1 hence, I1 19 .5 0.951 A Ans 20.5

6V 4.5 V

Fig. 2.21

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Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles

Substituting this value for I1 into equation [3] gives:

B (I1 I3) R1 I1 A R5 I2 I R2 R4 (I2 I3) D E1 I3 C R3

1.5 (1.5 0.951) 2 I 2

1.5 1.427 2 I 2

hence, 2 I 2 1.427 1.5 0.0732

and I 2 0.0366 A Ans

Note: The minus sign in the answer for I2 indicates that this current is actually owing in the opposite direction to that marked in Fig. 2.22. This means that battery E1 is both supplying current to the 5 resistor and charging battery E2.

Current through 5

resistor I1 I 2 amp 0.951 (0.0366 )

so current through 5

resistor 0.951 0.0366 0.914 A Ans

(b) To obtain the p.d. across the 5 resistor we can either subtract the p.d. (voltage drop) across R1 from the emf E1 or add the p.d. across R2 to emf E2, because E2 is being charged. A third alternative is to multiply R3 by the current owing through it. All three methods will be shown here, and, provided that the same answer is obtained each time, the correctness of the answers obtained in part (a) will be con rmed.

Fig. 2.23

VBE E1 I1R1 volt 6 (0.951 1.5)

6 1.4265

Notice that although there are ve resistors, the current law has been applied so as to minimise the number of unknown currents to three. Thus only three simultaneous equations will be required for the solution, though there are seven possible loops to choose from. These seven loops are: ABCDA; ADCA; ABDCA; ADBCA; ABDA; BCDB; and ABCDA

so, VBE 4.574 V Ans

OR:

VBE E2 I 2R2 volt 4.5 (0.0366 2)

4.5 0.0732

so, VBE 4.573 V Ans

OR:

If you trace around these loops you will nd that the last three do not include the source of emf, so for each of these loops the sum of the emfs will be ZERO! Up to a point it doesnt matter which three loops are chosen provided that at least one of them includes the source. If you chose to use only the last three zero emf loops you would succeed only in proving that zero equals zero!

VBE ( I1 I 2 )R3 volt 0.914 5 so, VBE 4.57 V Ans

The very small di erences between these three answers is due simply to rounding errors, and so the answers to part (a) are veri ed as correct.

The present level of study does not require you to solve simultaneous equations containing three unknowns. It is nevertheless good practice in the use of Kirchhoffs laws, and the seven equations for the above loops are listed below. In order for you to gain this practice it is suggested that you attempt this exercise before reading further, and compare your results with those shown below.

2.8 The Wheatstone Bridge Network

This is a network of interconnected resistors or other components, depending on the application. Although the circuit contains only one source of emf, it requires the application of a network theorem such as the Kirchhoff s method for its solution. A typical network, suitably labelled and with current ows identied is shown in Fig. 2.23.

ABCA: ADCA: ABDCA: ADBCA: ABDA: BCDB: ABCDA:

E1 I1R1 (I1 I3)R3 E1 I2R2 (I2 I3)R4 E1 I1R1 I3R5 (I2 I3)R4 E1 I2R2 I3R5 (I1 I3)R3 0 I1R1 I3R5 I2R2 0 (I1 I3)R3(I2 I3)R4 I3R5 0 I1R1 (I1 I3)R3 (I2 I3)R4 I2R2

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Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles

As a check that the current law has been correctly applied, consider junctions B and C:
10 3I 2 1(I 2 I 3 ) 3I 2 I 2 I 3 10 4 I 2 I 3 [3]

ADCA:

Multiplying equation [1] by 2, equation [2] by 3 and then adding them 0 12 I1 6 I 2 10 I 3 [1] 2 0 12 I1 3I 2 30 I 3 [2] 3 0 3I 2 40 I 3 [ 4 ]

current arriving at B I total current leaving I1 I 2 so I I1 I 2 current arriving at C ( I1 I 3 ) ( I 2 I 3 ) I1 I 3 I 2 I 3 I1 I 2 I

30 12 I 2 3I 3 [3] 3 12 I 2 160 I 3 [ 4 ] 4 0 30 I3

Multiplying equation [3] by 3, equation [4] by 4 and then adding them

Hence, current leaving battery current returning to battery.

Worked Example 2.11

For the bridge network shown in Fig. 2.24 calculate the current through each resistor, and the current drawn from the supply.

163I 3 30 0.184 A Ans 163

Substituting for I3 in equation [3]

(I1 I3) 4 I3 C 5

I1

10 4 I 2 0.184 4 I 2 9.816 9.816 I2 2.454 A Ans 4 Substituting for I3 and I2 in equation [2]

I2 1 (I2 I3)

0 4 I1 2.454 1.84 4 I1 4.294 4.294 1.074 A Ans I1 4

10 V

I I1 I 2 1.074 2.454 I 3.529 A Ans Since all of the answers obtained are positive values then the currents will ow in the directions marked on the circuit diagram.

Fig. 2.24

The circuit is rst labelled and the currents identi ed using the current law as shown in Fig. 2.24.

ABDA:

Worked Example 2.12 Q

If the circuit of Fig. 2.24 is now amended by simply changing the value of RDC from 1 the current owing through the 5 resistor in the central limb. to 2 , calculate

0 6 I1 5I 3 3I 2 0 6 I1 3I 2 5I 3 [1]

BDCB:

A
The amended circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 2.25. ABDA: 0 6 I1 5I 3 3I 2 0 6 I1 3I 2 5I 3 [1]

0 5I 3 1(I 2 I 3 ) 4(I1 I 3 ) 5I 3 I 2 I 3 4 I1 4 I 3 0 4 I1 I 2 10 I 3 [2]

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Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles

B B (I1 I3) I1 6 I1 C 5 I2 R2 3 I2 D 10 V 2 (I2 I3) R4 2 A R1 R3 C 4 4 I3

I1

I2

10 V

Fig. 2.25 Fig. 2.26

BDCB:

0 5I 3 2(I 2 I 3 ) 4(I1 I 3 ) 5I 3 2 I 2 2 I 3 4 I1 4 I 3 0 4 I1 2 I 2 11I 3 [2]

Multiplying equation [1] by 2, equation [2] by 3 and adding them

Similarly, RADC 3 2 5 10 I2 2A 5 and VAD 2 3 6 V

0 12 I1 6 I 2 10 I 3 [1] 2 0 12 I1 6 I 2 33I 3 [2] 3

Balance condition refers to that condition when zero current ows through the central arm of the bridge circuit, due to a particular combination of resistor values in the four outer arms of the bridge

0 so o I 3 0 A Ans

43I 3

Thus VAB VAD 6 V, so the potentials at B and D are equal. In this last example, the values of Rl, R2, R3 and R4 are such to produce what is known as the balance condition for the bridge. Being able to produce this condition is what makes the bridge circuit such a useful one for many applications in measurement systems. The value of resistance in the central limb has no effect on the balance conditions. This is because, at balance, zero current ows through it. In addition, the value of the emf also has no effect on the balance conditions, but will of course affect the values for I1 and I2. Consider the general case of a bridge circuit as shown in Fig. 2.27, where the values of resistors R1 to R4 are adjusted so that I3 is zero.
B (I1 I3) R1 I1 A I2 R2 R4 (I I3) D I3 C R5 R3

At rst sight this would seem to be a very odd result. Here we have a resistor in the middle of a circuit with current being drawn from the source, yet no current ows through this particular resistor! Now, in any circuit, current will ow between two points only if there is a difference of potential between the two points. So we must conclude that the potentials at junctions B and D must be the same. Since junction A is a common point for both the 6 and 3 resistors, then the p.d. across the 6 must be the same as that across the 3 resistor. Similarly, since point C is common to the 4 and 2 resistors, then the p.d. across each of these must also be equal. This may be veried as follows.

Since I3 is zero then the 5 resistor plays no part in the circuit. In this case we can ignore its presence and re-draw the circuit as in Fig. 2.26.

Thus the circuit is reduced to a simple series/parallel arrangement that can be analysed using simple Ohms law techniques.

RABC R1 R3 ohm 6 4 so RABC 10 E I1 amp RABC 10 so I1 1 A 10 VAB I1 R1 volt 1 6 6 V

Fig. 2.27

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Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles

VAB I1 R1 and VAD I 2 R2

Worked Example 2.13 Q

A Wheatstone Bridge type circuit is shown in Fig. 2.28. Determine (a) the p.d. between terminals B and D, and (b) the value to which R4 must be adjusted in order to reduce the current through R3 to zero (balance the bridge).
B R1 20 A R3 8 R2 10 D E 10 V R4 5 C

but under the balance condition VAB VAD

so I1R1 I2R2[1]

Similarly, VBC VDC

so (I1I3) R3 (I2 I3)R4

but, I3 0, so current through R3 I1

and current through R4 I2, therefore

I1R3 I2R4[2]

Dividing equation [1] by equation [2]:

R5 2

I1 R1 I R 2 2 I1 R3 I 2 R4

R R so 1 2 R3 R4

Fig. 2.28

This last equation may be veried by considering the values used in the previous example where R1 6 , R2 3 , R3 4 and R4 2 .

A
The circuit is sketched and currents marked, applying Kirchho s current law, as shown in Fig. 2.29. Kirchho s voltage law is now applied to any three loops. Note that as in this case there are three unknowns (I1, I2, and I3) then we must have at least three equations in order to solve the problem. ABDA: 0 20 I1 8 I 3 10 I 2 so, 0 20 I1 10 I 2 8 I 3 . . . . . . . . .[1] BDCB:

i.e.

6 4 3 2

So for balance, the ratio of the two resistors on the left-hand side of the bridge equals the ratio of the two on the right-hand side.

However, a better way to express the balance condition in terms of the resistor values is as follows. If the product of two diagonally opposite resistors equals the product of the other pair of diagonally opposite resistors, then the bridge is balanced, and zero current ows through the central limb (2.11)

i.e. R1 R4 R2 R3

0 8 I 3 2( I 2 I 3 ) 5( I1 I 3 ) 8 I 3 2 I 2 2 I 3 5I1 5I 3 so, 0 5I1 2 I 2 15I 3 . . . . . . . .[2] ADCA:

and transposing equation (2.11) to make R4 the subject we have

R R4 2 R3 R1 (2.12)

10 10 I 2 2( I 2 I 3 ) 10 I2 2I2 2I3 so, 10 12 I 2 2 I 3 . . . . . . .[3] Using equations [1] and [2] to eliminate I1 we have: 0 20 I1 10 I 2 8 I 3 [1] 0 20 I1 8 I 2 60 I 3 [2] 4 and adding, , 0 2 I 2 68 I 3 . . .[ 4 ]

Thus if resistors R1, R2 and R3 can be set to known values, and adjusted until a sensitive current measuring device inserted in the central limb indicates zero current, then we have the basis for a sensitive resistance measuring device.

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63

B (I1 I3) I3 5 C R5 2 (I2 I3) R3 8 R4

I1

R1 20

I2

R2

10

D 10 V

Fig. 2.29

and now using equations [3] and [4] we can eliminate I2 as follows:

10 12 I 2 2 I 3 [3] 0 12 I 2 408 I 3 [ 4 ] 6

10 410 I3

10 0.0244 A 410 VBD I 3R3 volt 0.0244 8 so, VBD 0.195 V Ans

and I 3

(b) For balance conditions

R2R4 R1R5

R4

R1R5 ohm R2

20 2 10 so, R4 4 Ans

2.9 The Wheatstone Bridge Instrument

This is an instrument used for the accurate measurement of resistance over a wide range of resistance values. It comprises three arms, the resistances of which can be adjusted to known values. A fourth arm contains the unknown resistance, and a central limb contains a sensitive microammeter (a galvanometer or galvo). The general arrangement is shown in Fig. 2.30. Comparing this circuit with that of Fig. 2.27 and using equation (2.12), the value of the resistance to be measured (Rx) is given by

Rx

Rm Rv ohm Rd