UNIT I INTRODUCTION Business Research Definition and Significance the research process Types of Research Exploratory and causal

sal Research Theoretical and empirical Research Cross Sectional and time series Research Research questions / Problems Research objectives Research hypotheses characteristics Research in an evolutionary perspective the role of theory in research.

What is a Research? Systematic investigative process employed to increase or revise current knowledge by discovering new facts. It is divided into two general categories: (1) Basic research is inquiry aimed at increasing scientific knowledge, and (2) Applied research is effort aimed at using basic research for solving problems or developing new processes, products, or techniques. What is the meaning of business research? Business Research is a systematic and objective process of gathering, recording and analyzing data for aid in making business decisions... In general, business research refers to any type of researching done when starting or running any kind of business. For example, starting any type of business requires research into the target customer and the competition to create a business plan. Business Research is the application of the scientific method in searching for the truth about business phenomena. These activities include defining business opportunities and problems, generating and evaluating ideas, monitoring performance, and understanding the business process. This process includes idea and theory development, problem definition, searching for and collecting information, analyzing data, and communicating the findings and their implications. What is the Importance or Significance of Research?(May 11) To Gather Necessary Information Research provides you with all necessary information in field of your work, study or operation before you begin working on it. For example, most companies do research before beginning a project in order to get a basic idea about the things they will need to do for the project. Research also helps them get acquainted with the processes and resources involved and reception from the market. This information helps in the successful outcome of the project. To Make Changes Sometimes, there are in-built problems in a process or a project that is hard to discover. Research helps us find the root cause and associated elements of a process. The end result of such a research invokes a demand for change and sometimes is successful in producing changes as well. For example, many U.N researches have paved way for changes in environmental policies. Improving Standard Of Living Only through research a new inventions and discoveries come into life. It was C.V Ramans research that prompted invention of radio communication. Imagine how you would have communicated had Graham Bell not come out with the first ever practical telephone! Forget telephones, what would have happened if Martin Cooper did not present the world the

concept of mobile phones! We need to understand that all the luxuries and the amenities that are now available to us are the result of research done by someone. And with the world facing more and crisis each day, we need researchers to find new solutions to tackle them. For A Safer Life Research has made ground breaking discoveries and development in the field of health, nutrition, food technology and medicine. These things have improved the life expectancy and health conditions of human race in all parts of the world and helped eradicate diseases like polio, smallpox completely. Diseases that were untreatable are now history, as new and new inventions and research in the field of medicine have led to the advent of drugs that not only treat the once-incurable diseases, but also prevent them from recurring. To Know the Truth It has been proved time and again that many of established facts and known truths are just cover ups or blatant lies or rumors. Research is needed to investigate and expose these and bring out the truth. Explore Our History Research about our planets history and human history has enabled us to learn and understand more about our forefathers and helped us learn from their mistakes and absorb good things from their life. Research about the planets history and existence has told us a lot about how things will shape up in years to come and how we need to respect our planet and work closely together to stop global warming and other scenarios of destruction. Understanding Arts This helps us in understanding the work of artists in literature, paintings, sculptures and everything that can be attributed with artistic touch. If no research is conducted into any of these, we will never be able to understand any of these as per the artists imagination. Also, a lot of great artistic work is hidden in the shadows of history, which needs to be drawn out.

Qualities of a Scientific Research:

Good scientific research follows the time tested scientific method to come to the best conclusions. The scientific method is a way to gather observable and measurable evidence; it roughly consists of observation, measurement, experiments, and the formulation of a testable hypothesis. It is used to produce hypotheses and is used to test them by peers and experts in every field of science. The birth of the scientific method dates back over one thousand years and has been used to better life for mankind for centuries. A hypothesis is formed as an explanation to a phenomenon. Experiments are then designed to test the hypothesis and these tests must be able to be repeated to better predict future results. The goal in the scientific method is to come up with a scientific theory that can explain the phenomenon that will stand up to the study of experts in whatever field of science the theory addresses. Another goal and reason for using the scientific method is to be as objective as possible and reduce any bias that may exist in experiments and in interpreting results. In the process of

using the scientific method, all activities should be documented, archived, and be made available to be shared with other scientists so all results can be verified and all experiments involved can be duplicated to ensure reliability. The scientific method has led to the discovery of some of the most important concepts in science today such as evolution, gravitational theory, relativity, and too much more to list. It helps to catch frauds and bring the truth to light. It continues to be the standard for which all scientific discoveries are measured and verified and it has stood the test of time to be used in all fields in science and it has applications in many other industries. By using the word "MOVIE" you can describe the characteristics of Scientific Research. Detail is Following: M=Mathematical Procedure O=Objectivity V=Verifiability I=Impartial E=Expertness Tuckman stated in 1978 The Five characteristics of Scientific Research, that are as following: 1-Systematic 2-Logical 3-Emperical 4-Redective 5-Replicable/Transmitable Qualities of a Scientific Research: I. Stability. An academic team, echelon or persons who really strive to the research must insist on the long-term work and study attentively in a certain field, direction or subject. But at the same time, we should follow the teaching principle to pay attention to consider things professionally and extensively. We must know about the knowledge of the relative subjects or the adjoin fields. For example, the achievements of the physics can be introduced to the computer field, which is like the introduction of science of heredity at last caused the production of the hereditary algorithm. We can't ignore the benefits which are bought from the extensive accumulation of knowledge in the relevant field. II. Innovative. The innovative of the scientific research covers five levels which is sorted by the creativity extent: innovation with a new field, innovation with a new branch of a certain field (new direction), innovation with a certain subject in a branch, innovation with the reinforcement and development of the original skills in a certain subject, innovation with the integration of original theories and techniques. III. Progress. It means the researcher should stand by the front of science and follow it all the time, and compare the research results with the original achievements in order

to see whether his research can surmount the original achievement and reach the advanced level in the world. A researcher who wants to make his research results achieve the advanced level in the world must look into the counterpart experts' latest research results in the world constantly; by constantly downloading materials from the website, consulting the academic periodicals, and striving to participate in the international academic meeting on this field in succession in order to be familiar with the academic trends, one could stand in the international academic front all the time. IV. Parallelism. The theory should be combined together with application to speed up the process of productivity transforming. When the theoretical research reaches to a certain extent, we should strive to develop the prototype system, application system, and the software tool in the common use V. Series. In the relatively stable condition, the study work needs the characteristic of series, and the research results need to be developed from a rudimentary level to an advanced level. If the research result is expected to be series of theory, we must gradually build up the research system: the basic theory----the engineering application----the development of the technology. VI. Continuation. Since a new research direction (branch) is formed, there must be psychological need of sustainable development and research route of sustainable development. The source of every special topic is the inevitability that the theory itself will develop and the objective stimulus from reality. On the basis of our research results now, the following topic of research could be listed here: webstructure mining, image mining, audio mining, video mining, cause and effect automaton, etc. VII. Systematicness. The research we engaged in such as structuring data mining, complicated type data mining and knowledge database-based data mining is all organized according to the six layers structure below. Thus, our research work can show some relatively completely systemic characteristics.

Explain in detail the different types of Research.

Inductive Deductive Reasoning

Reasoning

Applied Research: Applied research refers to scientific study and research that seeks to solve practical problems. Applied research is used to find solutions to every day

problems, cure illness, and develop innovative technologies, rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge's sake. For example, applied researchers may investigate ways to: Improve agricultural crop production Treat or cure a specific disease Improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or modes of transportation Basic (Aka Fundamental Or Pure) Research: Basic (aka fundamental or pure) research is driven by a scientist's curiosity or interest in a scientific question. The main motivation is to expand man's knowledge, not to create or invent something. There is no obvious commercial value to the discoveries that result from basic research. For example, basic science investigations probe for answers to questions such as: How did the universe begin? What are protons, neutrons, and electrons composed of? How do slime molds reproduce? What is the specific genetic code of the fruitfully? Descriptive Research (Statistical Research): Descriptive research refers to research that provides an accurate portrayal of characteristics of a particular individual, situation, or group. Descriptive research is also known as statistical research. These studies are a means of discovering new meaning, describing what exists, determining the frequency with which something occurs, and categorizing information. In short descriptive research deals with very thing that can be counted and studied, which has an impact to the lives of the people it deals with. For example, finding the most frequent disease that affects the children of a town. The reader of the research will know what to do to prevent that disease thus, more people will live a healthy life. Advantages: The people individual studied are unaware so they act naturally or as they usually do in every day situation; It is less expensive and time consuming than quantitative experiments; Collects a large amount of notes for detailed studying; As it is used to describe and not make any conclusions it is to start the research with it; Disadvantages: Descriptive research requires more skills. Does not identify cause behind a phenomenon Response rate is low in this research. Results of this research can change over the period of time.

Ethno Graphic Research:

Ethno graphic research refers to the investigation of a culture through an in-depth study of the members of the culture; it involves the systematic collection, description, and analysis of data for development of theories of cultural behavior. It studies people, ethnic groups and other ethnic formations, their ethno genesis, composition, resettlement, social welfare characteristics, as well as their material and spiritual culture. Data collection is often done through participant observation, interviews, questionnaires, etc. The purpose of ethnographic research is to attempt to understand what is happening naturally in the setting and to interpret the data gathered to see what implications could be formed from the data. Exploratory Research: Exploratory research is a type of research conducted for a problem that has not been clearly defined. Exploratory research helps determine the best research design, data collection method and selection of subjects. The results of exploratory research are not usually useful for decision making by themselves, but they can provide significant insight into a given situation Exploratory research is not typically generalizable to the population at large. Exploratory research can be quite informal, relying on secondary research such as reviewing available literature and / or data, or qualitative approaches such as informal discussions with consumers, employees, management or competitors, and more formal approaches through in-depth interviews, focus groups, projective methods, case studies or pilot studies. Causal Research: Causal Research is to determine which variable might be causing a certain behavior, i.e. whether there is a cause and effect relationship between variables, causal research must be undertaken. In order to determine causality, it is important to hold the variable that is assumed to cause the change in the other variable(s) constant and then measure the changes in the other variable(s). This type of research is very complex and the researcher can never be completely certain that there are not other factors influencing the causal relationship, especially when dealing with peoples attitudes and motivations. There is often much deeper psychological consideration that even the respondent may not be aware of. There are two research methods for exploring the cause and effect relationship between variables: Experimentation: Experiments are studies involving intervention by the researcher beyond that required for measurement. the usual intervention is to manipulate some variable in a setting and observe how it effects the subject being studied. Simulation: The use of a mathematical model to recreate a situation, often repeated, so that the likelihood of various outcomes can be more accurately estimated.

Experimental Research: Experimental research is an objective, systematic, controlled investigation for the purpose of predicting and controlling phenomena and examining probability and causality among selected variables. Advantages Best establishes cause and effect relationships Disadvantages Artificiality Feasibility Unethical The simplest experimental design includes two variables and two groups of participants. The two variables (Independent versus Dependent variables). The IV is the predictor variable where as the DV is the outcome variable. Researchers manipulate and control the IV to study it's effect on the DV. The two groups of participants (Control versus Experimental group). Before beginning the experiment, the researcher (randomly) assigns his /her sample to two different groups : the control group and the experimental (treatment group or clinical group). The control group receives no manipulation of the IV (no treatment), where as the experimental group receives the manipulation of the IV Co relational Research: Co relational research refers to the systematic investigation or statistical study of relationships among two or more variables, without necessarily determining cause and effect. It Seeks to establish a relation / association / correlation between two or more variables that do not readily lend themselves to experimental manipulation. For example, to test the hypothesis Listening to music lowers blood pressure levels there are two ways of conducting research Experimentalgroup samples and makes one group listen to music and then compare the blood pressure levels Survey asks people how they feel. How often they listen? And then compare Advantages: 1) Can collect much information from many subjects at one time. 2) Can study a wide range of variables and their inter relations. 3) Study variables that are not easily produced in the laboratory. Disadvantages: 1) Correlation does not indicate causation (cause and effect). 2) Problems with self report method. Grounded Theory Research:

Grounded theory research is a research approach designed to discover what problems exist in a given social environment and how the persons involved handle them; it involves formulation, testing, and reformulation of propositions until a theory is developed. Grounded theory is a research method that operates almost in a reverse fashion from traditional research and at first may appear to be in contradiction to the scientific method. Four stages: 1. Codes Identifying anchors that allow the key points of the data to be gathered 2. Concepts Collections of codes of similar content that allows the data to be grouped 3. Categories Broad groups of similar concepts that are used to generate a theory 4. Theory A collection of explanations that explain the subject of the research (hypotheses) Historical Research: Historical research is research involving analysis of events that occurred in the remote or recent past Application: Historical research can show patterns that occurred in the past and over time which can help us to see where we came from and what kinds of solutions we have used in the past. Understanding this can add perspective on how we examine current events and educational practices. The steps involved in the conduct of historical research here are the five steps: 1. Identification of the research topic and formulation of the research problem or question. 2. Data collection nor literature review 3. Evaluation of materials 4. Data synthesis 5. Report preparation or preparation of the narrative exposition. Historical research gives a social scientist a better context for making realistic decisions. Strengths: Provides a comprehensive picture of historical trends Uses existing information Provides evidence of on-going trends and problems Limitations: Time consuming Resources may be hard to locate Resources may be conflicting May not identify cause of a problem Information may be incomplete, obsolete, inconclusive, or in accurate Data restricted to what already exists Phenomenological Research: Phenomenological research an inductive, descriptive research approach developed from phenomenological philosophy; its aim is to describe an experience as it is actually lived by the person Phenomenology is concerned with the study of experience from the perspective of the individual, bracketing taken for - granted assumptions and usual ways of perceiving.

 They are based in a paradigm of personal knowledge and subjectivity, and emphasize the importance of personal perspective and interpretation. As such they are powerful for understanding subjective experience, gaining in sights into peoples motivations and actions, and cutting through the clutter of taken for granted assumptions and conventional wisdom. On a broader perspective, all researches can be classified into two groups: Qualitative Research Quantitative Research. Qualitative Research: Qualitative research is by definition exploratory, and it is used when we dont know what to expect, to define the problem or develop an approach to the problem. Its also used to go deeper into issues of interest and explore nuances related to the problem at hand. Common data collection methods used in qualitative research are focus groups, triads, dyads, in-depth interviews, uninterrupted observation, bulletin boards, and ethnographic participation / observation. Quantitative Research : Quantitative research is conclusive in its purpose as it tries to quantify the problem and understand how prevalent it is by looking for projectable results to a larger population. Here we collect data through surveys (online, phone, paper), audits, points of purchase (purchase transactions), and click-streams. The main emphasis of quantitative research is on deductive reasoning which tends to move from the general to the specific. This is sometimes referred to as a top down approach. The validity of conclusions is shown to be dependent on one or more premises (prior statements, findings or conditions) being valid. Aristotles famous example of deductive reasoning was: All men are mortal Socrates is a man Socrates is mortal. If the premises of an argument are inaccurate, then the argument is inaccurate. This type of reasoning is often also associated with the fictitious character Sherlock Holmes. Here are some guidelines to use both types of research:

Types of Research: Exploratory versus Conclusive Research The right tool for the right job! A Exploratory research seeks to develop initial hunches or insights and to provide direction for any further research needed. a Initial research is often needed to properly identify the problem to be researched. b Exploratory research is used for preliminary investigation. c The primary purpose is to identify objectives and needs. B Conclusive research aims to verify insights and to aid decision makers in selecting a specific course of action. a Conclusive research is sometimes called confirmatory research, as it is used to "confirm" a hypothesis. b This research focuses on obtaining and analyzing specific data to address specific questions. c Conclusive research is often used to reach final decisions. d The primary purpose of conclusive research is to help decision makers choose the best course of action. e This research tends to be more formal and rigorous. Differences between Exploratory and Conclusive - A Comparison!

Research Project Component Research Purpose Data Needs Data Sources Data Collection Form Sample Data Collection Data Analysis Inferences/ Recommendations

Exploratory Research General: generate insight Vague Ill-defined Open-ended, rough Small, subjective Flexible Informal, typically qualitative More tentative

Conclusive Research Specific: verify insight Clear Well-defined Usually structured Large, objective Rigid Formal, typically quantitative More final

Conducting Exploratory Research:

1 a b c 2 a b c 3 a b c 4 a b c Key-Informant Technique Involves interviewing knowledgeable individuals This approach is also called the expert opinion survey or lead-user survey. This technique requires identifying key informants. Focus Group Interviews An objective discussion leader (or moderator) introduces a topic to a group of respondents and directs their discussion in a non structured and natural fashion. The group size is typically 8 to 12 for consumer topics. Less than 8 often results in domination. With professionals as group members, groups should be smaller, about 6 to 7. The moderator ensures that key aspects are addressed and records observations about participant reactions. Secondary Data Examining secondary data is an economical and efficient way to engage in exploratory research. High quality secondary data can, in some cases, eliminate the need for conducting additional research. There are many techniques for evaluating secondary data. Case Study Method An in-depth examination of a unit of interest. A unit can be a person, a store, a salesperson, a website, etc. Unit is examined in depth

5 a b

Observational Method Involves human or mechanical observation of what people actually do or what events take place during a buying or consumption situation. Events are recorded as they are observed

Conclusive Research: Descriptive versus Experimental

Conclusive research is designed to provide information for the evaluation of alternative courses of action.

A Descriptive research aims to describe something. a The vast majority of research studies involves descriptive research. b The purpose of descriptive research is "to provide an accurate snapshot of some aspect of the environment." c Data is used to describe components or characteristics. d In descriptive research hypotheses are typically speculative. e There is no explicit cause and effect relationship - all that is shown is that two variables are related. B Experimental research allows one to make causal inferences about relationships among variables. a Experimental research is also referred to as causal research. b The purpose of experimental research is to "show that one variable causes or determines the values of other variables." c Experimental research is conducted under controlled conditions so as to rule out alternative reasons for observed relationships. "The researcher introduces a change into an environment and then measures the resulting effect." d In experimental research, controls and variable manipulation are used to ascertain causal relationships. e Research questions and hypotheses are very specific.

Conducting Descriptive Research: Descriptive research typically makes use of a cross-sectional research design...taking a sample of population elements at one point in time. 1 Cross sectional studies are one-time studies involving data collection at a single point in time. a Uses a cross-sectional sample at a single point in time. b This is the most commonly used descriptive research method which provides a snapshot in time. c Sometimes respondents are asked to remember or predict over time. This is less accurate than a longitudinal approach. 2 Longitudinal studies are repeated-measurement studies that collect data over several periods in time. A Typically uses a panel of respondents evaluated over a period of time. a When the same group is used over time it is called a true panel. While the data are more robust, maintaining a panel over time is problematic in panel creation, attrition and panel conditioning - a change in behavior associated with being on the panel. b Sometimes, measures are repeated with different samples from the same population over time rather than a panel of respondents retained over time. B This is a more expensive and time-consuming method, but it yields a motion picture. C Because the primary purpose of longitudinal studies is to provide monitored change over time, the data yield a more accurate picture of that change. Conducting Experimental Research Experimental Research "requires a planned and structured design that will not only minimize systematic error and maximize reliability, but will also permit reasonably unambiguous conclusions regarding causality. 1 In causal research other variables which might influence outcome are held constant. "To make causal inferences with confidence...we must manipulate the causal variable and effectively control the other variables." 2 3 Laboratory Experiments - variables are manipulated in an artificial setting Field Experiments- variables are manipulated in an natural setting

Differences between Descriptive and Experimental Descriptive and Experimental research can be viewed as on a continuum of a degree of variable manipulation - from no control to strict control. Research Project Descriptive Research Component Research Purpose Explore associations between variables Hypotheses Data Collection Speculative and typically non-directional Experimental Research Establish causation Specific and directional

Structured data collected from samples of Experimental variable respondents and sometimes secondary data manipulation and variable controls Field and Laboratory Experiments Causal Relationship

Data Collection Surveys, including mail, telephone and Method personal interviews, and secondary data Inferences Variable Associations

Determining Which Type of Research to Conduct: Selection is subjective! 1 2 3 4 Nature of the situation and perceptions of the situation will in part drive how researchers will approach a given research opportunity. The stage in the decision making process when the data are going to be used will direct the type of research question and in part the research type. Availability of resources, including trained personnel, time and money will impact the practicality of one type of research compared with another. Most effect research agendas will look at a problem from multiple angles and will include a combination of approaches.

CROSS-SECTIONAL DATA: Cross-sectional research is a research method often used in developmental psychology, but also utilized in many other areas including social science and education. This type of study utilizes different groups of people who differ in the variable of interest, but share other characteristics such as socioeconomic status, educational background, and ethnicity. For example, researchers studying developmental psychology might select groups of people who are remarkably similar in most areas, but differ only in age. By doing this, any differences between groups can presumably be attributed to age differences rather than to other variables. Cross-sectional studies are observational in nature and are known as descriptive research, not causal or relational. Researchers record the information that is present in a

population, but they do not manipulate variables. This type of research can be used to describe characteristics that exist in a population, but not to determine cause-and-effect relationships between different variables. These methods are often used to make inferences about possible relationships or to gather preliminary data to support further research and experimentation. Defining Characteristics 1. 2. 3. 4. Takes place at a single point in time Does not involve manipulating variables Allows researchers to look at numerous things at once (age, income, gender) Often used to look at the prevalence of something in a given population

Cross-Sectional Vs. Longitudinal Studies

This type of research differs from longitudinal research in that cross-sectional studies are designed to look at a variable at a particular point in time. Longitudinal studies involve taking multiple measures over an extended period of time, while cross-sectional research is focused on looking at variables at a specific point in time.

Longitudinal Research
Definition: Longitudinal research is a type of research method used to discover relationships between variables that are not related to various background variables. This observational research technique involves studying the same group of individuals over an extended period of time. Data is first collected at the outset of the study, and may then be gathered repeatedly throughout the length of the study. In some cases, longitudinal studies can last several decades. Benefits of Longitudinal Research The benefit of this type of research is that it allows researchers to look at changes over time. Because of this, longitudinal methods are particularly useful when studying development and lifespan issues. Drawbacks of Longitudinal Research Longitudinal studies require enormous amounts of time and are often quite expensive. Because of this, these studies often have only a small group of subjects, which makes it difficult to apply the results to a larger population. Another problem is that participants sometimes drop out of the study, shrinking the sample size and decreasing the amount of data collected. Types of Longitudinal Research There are three major types of longitudinal studies: 1. Panel Study: Involves sampling a cross-section of individuals. 2. Cohort Study: Involves selecting a group based on a specific event such as birth, geographic location or historical experience.

3. Retrospective Study: Involves looking to the past by looking at historical information such as medical records. Cross-sectional data are data that are collected from participants at one point in time. Time is not considered one of the study variables in a cross-sectional research design. However, it is worth noting that in a cross-sectional study, all participants do not provide data at one exact moment. Cross-sectional data are usually collected from respondents making up the sample within a relatively short time frame (field period). In a cross-sectional study, time is assumed to have random effect that produces only variance, not bias. In contrast, time series data or longitudinal data refers to data collected by following an individual respondent over a course of time. The terms cross-sectional design and crosssectional survey often are used interchangeably.

RESEARCH PROBLEM

What Is A Research Problem? (Dec 07)

A research problem is the situation that causes the researcher to feel apprehensive, confused and ill at ease. It is the demarcation of a problem area within a certain context involving the WHO or WHAT, the WHERE, the WHEN and the WHY of the problem situation. There are many problem situations that may give rise to reseach. Three sources usually contribute to problem identification. Own experience or the experience of others may be a source of problem supply. A second source could be scientific literature. You may read about certain findings and notice that a certain field was not covered. This could lead to a research problem. Theories could be a third source. Shortcomings in theories could be researched. Research can thus be aimed at clarifying or substantiating an existing theory, at clarifying contradictory findings, at correcting a faulty methodology, at correcting the inadequate or unsuitable use of statistical techniques, at reconciling conflicting opinions, or at solving existing practical problems. 2 Identification of the Problem

The prospective researcher should think on what caused the need to do the research (problem identification). The question that he/she should ask is: Are there questions about this problem to which answers have not been found up to the present? Research originates from a need that arises. A clear distinction between the PROBLEM and the PURPOSE should be made. The problem is the aspect the researcher worries about, think about, wants to find a solution for. The purpose is to solve the problem, ie find answers to the question(s). If there is no clear problem formulation, the purpose and methods are meaningless. Note: Outline the general context of the problem area. Highlight key theories, concepts and ideas current in this area. What appear to be some of the underlying assumptions of this area? Why are these issues identified important? What needs to be solved? Read round the area (subject) to get to know the background and to identify unanswered questions or controversies, and/or to identify the most significant issues for further exploration. The research problem should be stated in such a way that it would lead to analytical thinking on the part of the researcher with the aim of possible concluding solutions to the stated problem. Research problems can be stated in the form of either questions or statements. The research problem should always be formulated grammatically correct and as completely as possible. You should bear in mind the wording (expressions) you use. Avoid 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

meaningless words. There should be no doubt in the mind of the reader what your intentions are. Demarcating the research field into manageable parts by dividing the main problem into sub problems is of the utmost importance. 3 SUBPROBLEM(S)

Sub problems are problems related to the main problem identified. Sub problems flow from the main problem and make up the main problem. It is the means to reach the set goal in a manageable way and contribute to solving the problem. 4 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The statement of the problem involves the demarcation and formulation of the problem, ie the WHO/WHAT, WHERE, WHEN, WHY. It usually includes the statement of the hypothesis. Sources of Problems Casual observation Relationship between cognition and affect Relative effectiveness of positive or negative reinforcement Deductions from theory Effectiveness of using math manipulatives Relationship between instructional style and learning style Related literature Study of dropouts in your locale Use of math manipulatives in secondary schools Current social and political issues Gender and race equity Inclusion Practical situations Evaluations of specific programs Effectiveness of local initiatives Personal experience and insight Teaching statistical courses from an applied perspective Effectiveness of non-threatening classroom assessments RESEARCH QUESTION

A research question is the methodological point of departure of scholarly research in both the natural and social sciences. The research will answer any question posed. At an undergraduate level, the answer to the research question is the thesis statement. Second step, after determining the topic is research question. Research question is the most critical part of your research -- it defines the whole process, it guides your arguments and inquiry, and it provokes the interests of the reviewer. If the question does not work well, no matter how strong the rest of the research, the endeavor is unlikely to be successful. The research question is one of the first methodological steps the investigator has to take when undertaking research. The research question must be accurately and clearly defined. The Research Question serves two purposes: (1) It determines where and what kind of research the writer will be looking for and (2) It identifies the specific objectives the study or paper will address. Therefore, the writer must first identify the type of study (Qualitative, Quantitative, or Mixed) before the Research Question is developed. Qualitative Study: A Qualitative study seeks to learn why or how, so the writers research must be directed at determining the why and how of the research topic. Therefore, when crafting a Research Question for a Qualitative study, the writer will need to ask a why or how question about the topic. For example: How did the company successfully market its new product? Quantitative Study: A Quantitative study seeks to learn what, where, or when, so the writers research must be directed at determining the what, where, or when of the research topic. Therefore, when

crafting a Research Question for a Quantitative study, the writer will need to ask a what, where, or when question about the topic. For example: Where should the company market its new product? Unlike a Qualitative study, a Quantitative study is mathematical analysis of the research topic, so the writers research will consist of numbers and statistics. Quantitative Studies also fall into two categories: (a) Correlational Studies and (b) Experimental Studies: A Quantitative-Correlational study is non-experimental, requiring the writer to research relationships without manipulating or randomly selecting the subjects of the research. The Research Question for a Quantitative-Correlational study may look like this: What is the relationship between long distance commuters and eating disorders? A Quantitative-Experimental study is experimental in that it requires the writer to manipulate and randomly select the subjects of the research. The Research Question for a Quantitative-Experimental study may look like this: Does the consumption of fast food lead to eating disorders? Mixed Study: A Mixed study integrates both Qualitative and Quantitative studies, so the writers research must be directed at determining the why or how and the what, where, or when of the research topic. Therefore, the writer will need to craft a Research Question for each study required for the assignment. Note: A typical study may be expected to have between 1 to 6 Research Questions. A strong research question should be problematic/evocative, relevant, clear, and researchable. 1- The research question should be problematic and evocative. Evocative questions are ones that catch the interest of the reviewer and draw her/him into the proposal. Equally important, they easily adhere in the reviewers' memory after reading the proposal. Questions tend to be evocative because of the ways they engage with challenging topics: they pose innovative approaches to the exploration of problems, and because of this the answers found are far from obvious. There is no single way to form a conceptually innovative question. 2- The research question should be relevant. Questions that clearly demonstrate their relevance to society, a social group, or scholarly literature and debates are likely to be given more weight by reviewers. Of course the relevance of a research question, not to mention the question of who finds it relevant, will vary widely according to the funding source. As a general rule, research is more likely to be interesting if it is seen as part of a larger intellectual project or line of inquiry, not just a way

for the researcher to get a degree. Below are two common ways to demonstrate this in your proposal. Make connections. Even if you are working on a narrow topic or in a specific place, ask questions that help relate the research to broader trends, patterns, and contexts. Doing this will help show how funding a seemingly distinct research project helps fuel larger debates. 3- The research question should be clear. Clear questions tend to be short, conceptually straightforward, and jargon-free. This does not mean they have to be overly simplistic Work to keep your questions as lucid and simple as possible. This may be easier in some cases than in others, but some of the strongest and most theoretically sophisticated proposals we reviewed were framed by some of the simplest, most straightforward research questions. In contrast, the most complicated questions tended to appear in proposals where the researcher seemed more interested in demonstrating his/her theoretical knowledge than in engaging the research itself. Below are simple ways to keep your question clear. 4- The research question should be researchable. Research questions need to be clearly "doable." One of the most common rationales for rejecting proposals is that the question is simply too expansive (or expensive) to be carried out by the applicant. There are many questions that you will need to ask yourself to avoid this pitfall. Above all else, consider your limitations. Many very practical questions need to be considered when choosing your research question. First among them is: 1. How long will the research take to carry out? 2. Do we have the appropriate background to carry out the research? Are there ethical constraints? 3. Is the project likely to be approved by our advisor and your university's committee for the protection of human subjects? 4. Can we obtain the cooperation from all the necessary individuals, communities and institutions we need to answer the question we have asked? 5. Are the costs of conducting the research more than we will be likely to rise? 6. If I can't complete this project well, can I break it down and address the most important component?

Research Hypotheses:

A hypothesis is a prediction about the relationship between two or more variables A hypothesis translates a quantitative research question into a precise prediction of expected outcomes In qualitative studies, researchers do not begin with a hypothesis, in part because there is too little known about the topic to justify a hypothesis and in part because qualitative researchers want the inquiry to be guided by participants viewpoints rather than by their own

Function of hypotheses in quantative research

Research questions, are usually queries (are the primary mechanism for retrieving information from a database) about relationships between variables

Hypotheses are proposed solution or answers to these queries For instance, the research question might ask: does history of sexual abuse in childhood affect the development of irritable bowel syndrome in women? The researcher might predict the following: women who were sexually abused in childhood have a higher incidence of irritable bowel syndrome than women who were not The formulation of hypothesis provides a study with focus. It tells you what specific aspects of a research problem to investigate. A hypothesis tells you what data to collect and what not to collect, thereby providing focus to the study. As it provides a focus, the construction of a hypothesis enhances objectivity in a study. A hypothesis may enable you to add to the formulation of a theory. It enables you to specifically conclude what is true or what is false. Hypothesis sometimes follow directly from a theoretical framework. Scientist reason from theories to hypotheses and test those hypotheses in the real world The validity of theory is never examined directly. It is through hypothesis testing that the worth of a theory can be evaluated

Characteristics of testable hypotheses

Expected relationship between the independent variable the presumed cause and the dependent variable the presumed effect or outcome within a population. When the prediction does not express an anticipated relationship, it cannot be tested If hypothesis lack a phrase such as more than, less than, greater than , different than, related to, associated with , it is not amenable (willing to comply) to testing in a quantitative study The most defensible hypothesis follow from previous research findings or are deduced from the theory

The derivation of hypotheses

An inductive hypothesis is a generalized based on observed relationships. A researcher observes certain patterns/trends or associations among phenomena and then use the observations as a basis for prediction Related literature should be examined to learn what is already known on a topic, but an important source for inductive hypothesis is personal experience combined with intuition and critical analysis Another mechanism for deriving hypothesis is through deduction Deuctive hypothesis have as a starting point theories that are applied to particular situations all human begin have red and white blood cells Ali is human being therefore , Ali has red and white blood cells

Wording of hypothesis
Simple versus complex hypotheses

Simple: expresses an expeted relationship between one independent and one dependent variable A complex a prediction of a relationship between two or more independent variables and or two or more dependent variable Multivariate hypotheses involve multiple variables Hypothesis should be worded in the present tense Researcher make predictions about the relationship that exist in the population and not just about the relationship that will be revealed in a particular sample Directionl versus nondirectional hypotheses Directional, is one that specifies not only the existence but the expected direction of the relationship between variables Older patient are at greater risk of falling than younger ones A nondirectional hypothesis these hypothesis state the prediction that apatients age and the risk of falling are related, they do not stipulate (specify as a condition) whether the researcher think that older or youger patients are at great risk

Research versus null hypothesis

Research hypothesis,also refered to as (substantive, declarative and scientific hypotheses) are statements of expected relationships between variables Null hypothesis, there is no relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

Research Process:

Steps in Research Process:

1. Formulating the Research Problem 2. Extensive Literature Review 3. Developing the objectives 4. Preparing the Research Design including Sample Design 5. Collecting the Data 6. Analysis of Data, Generalization and Interpretation 7. Preparation of the Report or Presentation of Results-Formal write ups of conclusions reached. Step1. Formulating the research problem: It is the first and most crucial step in the research process - Main function is to decide what you want to find out about. - The way you formulate a problem determines almost every step that follows. Sources of research problems: Research in social sciences revolves around four Ps: People-a group of individuals Problems- examine the existence of certain issues or problems relating to their lives; to ascertain attitude of a group of people towards an issue Programs- to evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention Phenomena- to establish the existence of a regularity. In practice most research studies are based upon at least a combination of two Ps. Step 2. Reviewing the literature: -Essential preliminary task in order to acquaint yourself with the available body of knowledge in your area of interest. -Literature review is integral part of entire research process and makes valuable contribution to every operational step. -Reviewing literature can be time-consuming, daunting and frustrating, but is also rewarding. Its functions are: a. Bring clarity and focus to your research problem; b. Improve your methodology; c. Broaden your knowledge; d. Contextualise your findings. Step 3 The formulation of objectives:

Objectives are the goals that are set out to attain in your study. -They inform a reader what we want to attain through the study. -It is extremely important to word them clearly and specifically. Objectives should be listed under two headings: a) main objectives ( aims); b) sub-objectives. The main objective is an overall statement of the thrust of your study.It is also a statement of the main associations and relationships that you seek to discover or establish. The sub-objectives are the specific aspects of the topic that you want to investigate within the main framework of your study. 1. They should be numerically listed. 2. Wording should clearly, completely and specifically communicate to your readers your intention. 3. Each objective should contain only one aspect of the Study. 4. Use action oriented words or verbs when writing objectives.

Step 4. Preparing the research design Research design is the conceptual structure within which research would be conducted. The function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. The preparation of research design, appropriate for a particular research problem, involves the consideration of the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Objectives of the research study. Method of Data Collection to be adopted Source of informationSample Design Tool for Data collection Data Analysis-- qualitative and quantitative

Step 5: Collecting Data: Having formulated the research problem,, developed a study design, constructed a research instrument and selected a sample, you then collect the data from which you will draw inferences and conclusions for your study. Depending upon your plans, you might commence interviews, mail out a questionnaire, conduct experiments and/or make observations. Step 6: Processing And Analysing Data

Processing and analysing data involves a number of closely related operations which are performed with the purpose of summarizing the collected data and organizing these in a manner that they answer the research questions (objectives). The Data Processing operations are: 1. Editing- a process of examining the collected raw data to detect errors and omissions and to correct these when possible. 2. Classification- a process of arranging data in groups or classes on the basis of common characteristics. Depending on the nature of phenomenon involved. Data Analysis Methods: a. Qualitative Data Analysis: b. Content Analysis. c. Quantitative Data Analysis: Step7: Reporting The Findings: Writing the report is the last, and for many, the most difficult step of the research process. The report informs the world what you have done, what you have discovered and what conclusions you have drawn from your findings. The report should be written in an academic style. Language should be formal and not journalistic.

The Elements of a Research Proposal

1. Location or identification of a problem -- What is the basic issue or question that is the focus of your research? This helps set the proposal in context that frames your proposed research. 2. Restriction in scope of the problem -- What limitations do you need to put on the question? Should you limit your study to only certain age groups? Certain types of schools? Certain geographical locations? Certain applications (i.e. research on computer assisted instruction might deal only with mathematics intruction). These limitations are also listed in any writeup of the results. 3. Review of relevant literature -- Here you want to avoid reinventing the wheel. Unless your aim is specifically to replicate a previous piece of research, you should aim to extend the knowledge boundaries by changing contexts, populations, while at the same time taking advantage of the insights of previous research, getting ideas about appropriate designs, possible complications, extraneous variables, etc. that other researchers have encountered. 4. Statement of a hypothesis or research questions -- Can you state your research question in the form of a prediction (hypothesis)? If not, can you list the research questions that would form the focus of your proposed study? In quantitative research,

these are usually fairly specific while in qualitative research they may be more general and are subject to modification during the course of the study. Hypotheses are inappropriate for qualitative studies because they are usually thought of as predetermined biases. Even in qualitative studies, however, it is still necessary to begin with some general research questions. 5. Description of the target population and selection of a sample-- Who will be in your study? To whom would you seek to apply your findings? How will you select a sample and how large will that sample be? In quantitative studies we typically aim at larger samples (the size depends on several factors) while in qualitative studies we usually focus on much smaller samples but study the subjects much more in depth and more over time. We collect a relatively limited amount of information about the subjects in quantitative studies whereas in qualitative we may focus on many fewer subjects but interact with them through interviews and observations over a period of time, thus limiting the number of subjects Another question relating to samples is what kind of sample we will select. In quantitative studies we often try to select a random sample which is thought to give us a stronger basis for generalizing to a larger population. We have other types of sampling techniques as well. The goal is to produce a representative sample, i.e. a sample which is a micro version of the larger population we want to study. In qualitative studies, we are usually more concerned with choosing a cross section of subjects and then studying processes much more closely and in more detail. It is out of these microfocus studies that the quantitative models used in quantitative studies may arise. 6. Constitutive and Operational Definitions of all Variables -- what is the nature of each variable we seek to measure in our study? How will we measure it in an observable and replicable fashion? If a variable cannot be measured in such a way, it is useless for research. What are the independent and dependent variables in our study? Do we have an idea (theory) how they might be related? Sometimes qualitative research helps us to define both the essence of a variable or concept, guides us in its measurement, and most importantly helps us develop a theory of how they might be interrelated. 7. Selection or development of all instruments -- if we choose to measure our variables using an instrument which has already been developed, we need to defend that choice. (Never choose an instrument that you have not personally seen.) That is, we need to show evidence that the instruments are valid and reliable with the population we propose to study. Alternatively, if we plan to develop our own instrument (a formidable task if done well), we need to lay out the plan for doing so. How will we construct the questions and how will we validate them? How will we check them for bias or clarity? Will we field test the instrument? If so, with whom and how many subjects?

8. Description of a treatment if an experiment-- if we are planning an experiment, what is the exact nature of the intervention, how will it be applied and by whom, how long will it occur? Does it require special expertise? If so, what is it? Have we described the treatment in sufficient detail that other researchers could replicate our study fairly accurately. Have we relied on implied terms assuming everyone has the same concept of them (For example, we will use the constructivist approach to teach science to the experimental group) 9. Description of proposed data collection procedures -- exactly how and when will we collect the data from or about the subjects? What will we do about absent subjects? How will we secure permission from the subjects? How will we safeguard their privacy? All research done by Auburn University faculty and students that deals with human subjects must be approved by the Human Subjects Review Board prior to collection of any data. If some of the data is from school records, who will collect and assemble it into a single data set for analysis? In qualitative research, you need to describe how you plan to establish rapport with the subjects. Will you use focus groups, observations, one on one interviews, documentary analyses? Do you have forms developed for recording this information? 10. Type of analysis planned -- once the data is collected, coded, and assembled, how do you propose to analyze it in order to address your research questions and hypotheses? Will you compare average scores of different groups? Will you try to predict ependent variables from your independent variables? Your hypotheses and theory should provide the strongest guide for your analysis although sometimes a researcher will initiate followup questions for analysis as well. 11. Significance or importance of the proposed research -- what do you expect the contribution of your research to be? Will it help to improve existing practice? Will it contribute to the literature? Here we are not asking you to assume the findings of the research. For example, a planned research project should have benefits regardless of its outcome. 12. Time schedule (budget may be ignored for our purposes)-- In order to make use of resources and minimize disruption to cooperating agencies, it is advisable to plan out a project on a time line in order to schedule the various stages and components of the project (the training of assistants, the pretesting or pilot testing, the time to get clearances and permissions, etc.). In a real project you would also have to provide a budget, but for our purposes, that is not necessary.