Radioactivity and Nuclear Energy I.

Introduction In 1896 Henri Becquerel accidently discovered in his Paris laboratory that the element uranium is able to expose covered photographic plates, to ionize gases, and to cause certain substances such as zinc sulfide to glow in the dark. Becquerel concluded that uranium gives off some kind of invisible but penetrating radiation, a property he called radioactivity. Soon afterward, Pierre and Marie Curie, in the course of extracting uranium from the ore pitchblende at the same laboratory, found two other elements that are also radioactive They named one polonium, after Marie Curie's native Poland. The other, which turned out to be thousands of times more radioactive than uranium, was called radium. II. Why are Substances Radioactive? A. Radioactivity = the spontaneous emission of radiation or particles from the nuclei of certain elements or compounds B. Some isotopes of atoms (nuclides) have unstable nuclei. Nuclei are often unstable if they are exceptionally large (large numbers of protons and neutrons or an incompatible proton to neutron ratio) or if the nucleus exists in an exited state. These nuclei will often split (or decay) forming new more stable nuclei or lower energy nuclei. When this stabilization occurs, radioactivity is often given off. Radioactivity Radioactivity

Unstable nucleus

Unstable nucleus

Stable nucleus

C. Of the approximately 2000 known nuclides, 279 are not radioactive. D. Except for hydrogen, every isotope of every element has a nucleus containing at least one neutron for every proton. Apparently, the tremendous repulsive forces between protons in the nucleus are moderated by the presence of neutrons. The more protons, the more additional neutrons beyond the exact number of protons are needed to serve as a buffer zone. E. Above bismuth, with 83 protons and 126 neutrons, all isotopes are radioactive. Beyond this point, there is apparently no nuclear super glue sufficient to hold all the positively charged protons in close proximity.

III.

Five Main Types of Radioactivity A. Alpha particles 1. Alpha particles consist of 2 protons and 2 neutrons. They are helium nuclei. Alpha particles have a +2 charge. 2. Symbols
4 2

He

3. Alpha particle production is a very common mode of decay for heavy radioactive nuclides. 4. Alpha particles are relatively large particles. Radioactivity consisting of alpha particles is not very penetrating. A sheet of paper will stop alpha particles. They cannot penetrate the dead layer of skin on the surface of your body. An intense external dose of alpha particles, however, will produce a burn on the skin. Alpha particles can do a great deal of damage if they are emitted inside the body, which might result from inhaling or swallowing an alpha emitter. B. Beta particles 1. Beta particles are electrons (-1 charge). These electrons in the nucleus arise in the transformation of a neutron into a proton and an electron by a complex series of steps. Once the electron is produced, it is ejected with a high velocity from the atom. The net effect of -particle production is to change a neutron to a proton. 2. Symbols
0 -1

3. Beta particles are smaller particles than alpha particles and are more penetrating than alpha particles. A piece of wood will stop beta particles. Beta particles can penetrate the dead outer layer of skin but will be stopped within the skin layer, causing damage to the skin tissue and making it appear burned. Beta particles will not penetrate to the inner organs of the body, but serious damage can occur if a beta emitter is taken internally. C. Gamma rays 1. Gamma rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation (high-energy photons of light). Gamma rays have no mass or charge. A nuclide in an excited nuclear energy state can release excess energy by producing a gamma ray. They are usually emitted in conjunction with alpha or beta particles. 2. Symbol

D. Positron Particles 1. A positron is a particle with the same mass as the electron but opposite charge. Production of a positron appears to change a proton to a neutron. 2. Symbol E.
0 1

Electron capture 1. Electron capture is a process where one of the inner-orbital electrons is captured by the nucleus. The net effect of electron capture is change of a proton into a neutron. Gamma rays are usually produced along with electron capture.

IV.

Radioactivity Decay Equations A. Both the atomic number and mass number must be conserved in nuclear reactions. B. Example Problems: *Complete the following radioactive decay equations and circle the radioactivity emitted. 1. 35 Br __________ + - 1 e 2. As __________ + - 1 e 3. __________ 4.
210 85 13 6 0 80 0

C + 1e

At

206 83

Bi + __________
238 93

5. __________

Np + 2 He +

**Write balanced nuclear equations for each of the following processes. 1. 226 Ra produces an particle: 88

2. 214 Pb produces a particle: 82

3.

11

6C

produces a positron

***Supply the missing particle in each of the following nuclear equations.

201 0 1. 201 80 Hg + ____ 79 Au + 0 38 2. 38 19 K 18 Ar + _____ 218 3. 222 86 Rn 84 Po + _____

V.

Half-lives of Radioisotopes A. Half-life - = the time required for the number of nuclides in a radioactive sample to reach half the original number of nuclides. B. The half-life is a characteristic constant for a particular radioactive material. C. Equations: N 1. ln N0 = k t where N is the number of atoms present at time t, N0 is the number of atoms present at t=0, and k is the rate constant for the disentegration of the atoms. 2. t 1/2 = 0.693 k where t1/2 is the half-life of the element.

D. Examples: Radioisotope Hydrogen-3 Carbon-14 Phosphorus-32 Potassium-40 Cobalt-60 Iodine-131 Cesium-137 Polonium-214 Radium-226 Uranium-235 Uranium-238 Plutonium-239 E. Example Problems: 1. Give the radioactivity decay equation for cesium-137. Starting with 10.0 g of cesium-137, how long would it take before you only had 2.50 g? Half-life 12 years 5730 years 14 days 1.28 X 109 years 5 years 8 days 30 years 1.6 X 10-4 seconds 1600 years 7.1 X 108 years 4.5 X 109 years 24,400 years Radioactivity Emitted Beta Beta Beta Beta and gamma Beta and gamma Beta and gamma Beta Alpha and gamma Alpha and gamma Alpha and gamma Alpha Alpha and gamma

2. Give the radioactivity decay equation for radium-226. How much of a 100. g sample of radium-226 would remain after 8000 years?

VI.

Carbon Dating A. Radiocarbon dating is based on the radioactivity of 14 6 C, which decays via -particles:
14 C 6 0 e + 14 N 1 7

B. Carbon-14 is not only continually breaking down into nitrogen-14, however; it also is continuously produced in the atmosphere when highe-energy neutrons from space collide with the nitrogen:
14 N 7 14 1 + 1 0n 6 C + 1 H

C. Therefore, the amount of carbon-14 in the atmosphere remains constant. As plants use carbon dioxide in photosynthesis (and we consume plants), living tissue maintains the same % of carbon-14. When a plant dies however, there is no longer a source of carbon-14 to replace that lost to radioactive decay, so the plants C-14 levels begin diminishing. If you know the half-life of carbon-14, you can then calculate when an organism died by how much below normal atmospheric concentration its C-14 levels are. Example: Assume the half-life of C-14 is 5730 years. How old is a childs wooden toy, if the C-14 levels in it are found to be 1/8 that of trees which are alive today.

VII.

Nuclear Transmutation Reactions A. Nuclear transmutation = reaction in which a high-speed particle collides with a nucleus to produce a different nucleus. Radioactivity is often emitted in this process. The high speeds of the bombarding particles are achieved with particle accelerators. B. Elements with atomic numbers 93 through 109 are synthesized using transmutation reactions of uranium. C. Complete the following transmutation equations:
239 94

1.

4 1 Pu + 2 He __________ + 0 n
12 1 251

2. __________ + 6 C 4 0 n + 98 Cf
249 Cf 98 1 + _____ 260 105 Unp + 4 0 n

3.

VIII.

Nuclear Energy A. Basic Concepts 1. Medium-sized nuclei are the most stable. Therefore, combining two small nuclei to get a medium-sized one (fusion) or breaking apart large nuclei to yield mediumsized ones (fission) both yield much energy. 2. In a nuclear reaction yielding energy, MASS IS LOST. The mass that is lost has been converted to energy. The amount of energy generated by a given loss in mass is provided by Einsteins equation: E = m c2 where E is the energy produced, m is the loss in mass, and c is the speed of light. Example: Consider the formation of deuterium from hydrogen and a neutron:
2 + 1 0n 1 H The actual masses are: 1H 1
24 = 1.6736 x10 24 g ; 1 g ; sum= 3.3486 x 1024 g 0 n = 1.6750 x 10 However, the mass of deuterium is 3.3446 x 10-24 g, representing a total loss of 4.03 x 10 -27 g. Therefore, how much energy is released by a single atom of deuterium?

1H 1

B. Nuclear fission = process in which a heavy element nucleus splits into two or more lighter nuclei (with release of enormous amounts of energy) as a result of nuclear bombardment. Example: An atom of fissionable (splittable) fuel such as 92 U is struck by a neutron and broken into 2 high speed fragments, 2 or 3 neutrons, and large amounts of energy.
1 0 235

n + 92 U

235

141 56

Ba + 36 Kr + 3 0 n

92

energy

In this process the 235U absorbs a neutron to become 236U. 236U is so unstable that it explodes to give the products above. These new nuclei are radioactive themselves and extremely dangerous. This process can be used in both atomic bombs and nuclear power plants. The primary difference in the two processes is that in an atomic bomb the majority of neutrons produced react farther with additional fuel in an uncontrolled chain reaction, and in a nuclear power plant only a few neutrons react further and the fission reaction self-propagates in a controlled manner. C. Nuclear fusion = the process of combining two light nuclei to form a heavy, more stable nucleus with a release of enormous amounts of energy 1. Occurs on the sun (2H e) 2. According to accepted theory (recently disputed) nuclear fusion requires high temperatures (about 40 million K) in order to produce nuclear speeds fast enough to overcome nuclear repulsions.

IX.

Effects of Radiation and Radioactivity on Cells A. Radiation damage to organisms can be classified as somatic or genetic damage. 1. Somatic damage = damage to the organism itself, resulting in sickness or death. The effects may appear almost immediately if a massive dose of radiation is received; for smaller doses, damage may appear years later, usually in the form of cancer. 2. Genetic damage = damage to the genetic machinery of reproductive cells, which can "surface" as problems afflicting the offspring of the organism B. The biological effects of a particular radiation depend on several factors: 1. Penetrating ability of radiation--The particles and electromagnetic rays produced in radioactive processes vary in their ability to penetrate human tissue. a. Gamma rays are highly penetrating. b. Beta particles can penetrate approximately 1 cm into the skin layer. c. Alpha particles are stopped by the skin. 2. Ionizing ability of the radiation--Because ions behave quite differently from neutral molecules, radiation that removes electrons from molecules in tissues seriously disturbs their functions. Alpha particles, beta particles, fast-moving neutrons, gamma rays, xrays, and cosmic rays possess a certain amount of energy as they hit tissue molecules which is transferred to the tissue. These forms of particles and radiation are all capable of producing ions within the tissue. An ion pair is the electron and positive ion that are produced during an ionization collision of an atom and radiation. Many ion pairs are produced by a single "particle" of radiation because such a particle must undergo many collisions before its energy is reduced to the level of the surrounding material. The electrons ejected from and atom frequently have enough energy to bombard neighboring molecules and cause further ionization. The ionizing effect is what makes radiation harmful to living materials. In living matter, the formation of ions and free radicals disrupts cellular function. The ionizing ability of radiation varies dramatically: a. Gamma rays penetrate very deeply but cause only occasional ionization. b. Alpha particles, although not very penetrating, are very effective at causing ionization and produce serious damage. Therefore, the ingestion of a producer of alpha particles, such as plutonium, is particularly damaging. c. Beta particles are intermediate between gamma rays and alpha particle in ionizing ability. 3. Chemical properties of radiation source--When a radioisotope is ingested, its capacity to cause damage depends on how long it remains in the body. Example: Krypton-85 and strontium-90 are both beta particle producers. Because krypton is a noble gas and is almost chemically inert, it passes through the body quickly and does not have much time to do damage. Strontium, on the other hand, is chemically similar to calcium. It can collect in the bones, where it may cause leukemia and bone cancer.

X.

Some Units to Measure Radiation Doses A. Becquerel (Bq) 1. 1 becquerel = 1 disintegration (nuclear transformation) per second 2. Does not describe the type of radiation or the effect of radiation on tissue or other matter B. Curie (Ci) 1. 1 curie = 3.7 X 10 10 disintegrations (nuclear transformations) per second 2. Does not describe the type of radiation or the effect of radiation on tissue or other matter C. Rad (rad)-- radiation absorbed dose--measures amount of energy absorbed by the tissue 1. Radiation absorbed dose is influenced by the radioactivity source, energy of the radiation, distance of radiation source form the tissue, the nature of the tissue, and length of exposure to radiation. 2. 1 rad = absorbed dose of radiation which results in the transfer of 100 ergs of energy to 1 g of irradiated tissue 3. Lethal dose--about 1000 rads (0.0024 calorie) to entire human body D. Rem--roentgen equivalent man--absorbed dose of radiation which will produce the same biological effect as 1 rad of therapeutic x-rays 1. The rem takes into account the fact that different radiation when absorbed by tissue in equal quantities produces different biological effects. 2. For example, to produce the effect of 1 rem takes about 1 rad of beta particles but only 0.1 rad of alpha particles. Alpha particles are much more damaging biologically even though they are less penetrating. Over the path that they penetrate they crash though tissues producing dense clusters of ionization along their short pathways. Beta particles are more penetrating but zip through tissues creating more scattered ionization. E. LET--linear energy transfer--average energy released per unit of path length of radiation 1. High LET--neutrons and alpha particles--do not travel far but where they travel they produce closely packed groups of ion pairs 2. Low LET--beta particles, x-rays, gamma rays, and cosmic rays--travel long distances. Leave behind sets of ion pairs which are spread out.

XI.

Detection of Radiation A. Geiger-Mller counter = detects radiation by amount of ionization of a gas (usually argon) in a tube Incoming Radiation gas -- -- --Will Click or Turn a Counter (detects beta particles best) (detects charges) B. Scintillation counter = detects radiation because radiation strikes a surface coated with a chemical which will produce flashes of light when struck by radiation (NaI). C. Film badges = degree of darkening of a negative indicates the radiation exposure

XII.

Protection against Radiation A. Shielding 1. Alpha particles--paper stops--not very penetrating 2. Beta particles--wood stops 3. Gamma rays and x-rays--thick concrete stops--very penetrating. Lead are often used. aprons

B. Distance--farther away from radiation source the lower the amount of exposure

XIII.

Typical Annual Radiation Exposure of an Average Person in the United States

A. Natural Sources 1. 2. 3. B. Cosmic radiation Rocks and soil Minerals in the body About 26% About 24% About 11%

Human Activities 1. 2. 3. 4. Medical x-rays Nuclear medicine Radioactive fallout Other About 26% About 7% About 2% About 4%

XIV.

Radioisotopes and Medicine A. Radiotracers = a radioactive nuclide, introduced into an organism for diagnostic purposes, whose pathway can be traced by monitoring its radioactivity. Radioactive and their nonradioactive counterparts differ in their nuclear properties, but not in their chemical properties. Thus, body chemistry is not upset by the presence of a small amount of radioactive substance whose nonradioactive form is already present in the body. Radiotracers provide sensitive and nonsurgical methods for learning about biological systems, for detecting disease, and for monitoring the action and effectiveness of drugs. B. Desirable properties of potential radioactive tracers: 1. At low concentrations, the radioisotope must be detectable by instrumentation placed outside the body. Almost all radiotracers are gamma emitters, because the penetrating power of alpha and beta particles is too low. 2. The radioactive tracer must have a short half-life (usually 3 hours to less than 10 days). 3. The radioactive tracer must be eliminated by the body not remain in the body indefinitely. 4. The chemical properties of the radioactive tracer must be compatible with normal body chemistry. C. Radioisotopes used in diagnosis 1. Technetium-99m (a) Source is not natural
99 42

Mo 43 Tc + - 1 e + m = metastable (in high energy state) (b) Decays as follows Tc 43 Tc + (c) Advantages: 1. 2. 3. 4. Gamma rays are easy to detect. Short half-life (6.02 hours) but long enough for it to localize in the body No worse than an x-ray biologically Used to detect cancer and heart disease and for tumor detection in the liver, spleen, and bone.
99m 43 99

99m

2. Iodine-131 (a) Not natural, produces beta and gamma radiation, t1/2 = 8.1 days (b) Used to detect thyroid disease. Patients drink a solution containing NaI that includes iodine-131, and the uptake of the iodine by the thyroid gland is monitored with a scanner. 3. Others and their application Nuclide Iron-59 Molybeum-99 Phosphorus-32 Chromium-51 Strontium-87 Xenon-133 Sodium-24 D. Radiation therapy 1. Cancer cells divide more rapidly than normal cells. Cells that reproduce at a rapid rate are more sensitive to radiation damage. Therefore, cancer cells are more sensitive to radiation than normal cells, and low doses of x-rays and gamma rays are often used to treat cancer. 2. Teletherapy = use of radiation to destroy cancerous tissue not removable by surgery. Often use x-rays or gamma rays (cobalt-60). 3. Brachytherapy = insert radioisotopes by needle or seed into the area to be treated. Often use gold-198 or iridium-192. Used often for skin cancers. Half-life 45.1 days 67 hours 14.3 days 27.8 days 2.8 hours 5.3 days Area of the Body Studied red blood cells metabolism eyes, liver, tumors red blood cells bones lungs Decay Mode beta beta beta electron capture gamma electron capture gamma beta beta

14.8 hours circulatory system